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Engineering Geologic Factors Influencing The Stability of Slopes
Engineering Geologic Factors Influencing The Stability of Slopes
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University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
1994
Recommended Citation
Ghobadi, Mohammad Hossein, Engineering geologic factors influencing the stability of slopes in the northern Illawarra region, Doctor
of Philosophy thesis, Department of Civil and Mining Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1994. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/
1244
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
from
by
M O H A M M A D HOSSEIN GHOBADI
M o h a m m a d Hossein Ghobadi
ABSTRACT
This thesis is concerned with understanding the engineering geologic factors influencing
the stability of slopes along a coastal escarpment in the northern Illawarra region. The
particular area covered by this study lies between Coalcliff and Clifton where a number
of known or visible areas of slope instability are present. Slope instability in the study
In the northern Illawarra region the essentially flat-lying lower Narrabeen Group
conformably overlies the upper Illawarra Coal Measures and the strata consist of
repeated beds of sandstone, shale, claystone and coal seams. The lower Narrabeen
Group consists of thick sequences of weak fine-grained rocks which are rather more
easily eroded than the associated sandstone strata and hence relatively rapid rates of
recession occur. Undermining along this the contacts between claystone and sandstone
reduces the support for the overlying vertically-jointed sandstone and eventually leads
to stabs falling off along the vertical joint faces. Thin marker beds (coal seams) in the
Illawarra Coal Measures and sandstone beds in the Narrabeen Group commonly act as
aquifers, with claystone beds acting as aquitards. -Slope instability is usually related to
the presence of the aquifers which are the source of high pore water pressures:- Perched
water tables have been found to be quite common in the study area.
-The topography along the escarpment is mainly steep and highly irregular because of
past and present marine and fluvial erosion:- Large colluvial deposits have accumulated
at the base of the steeper slopes. Generally, colluvial deposits are clay-rich containing
-Based on the petrological study, the Narrabeen group was derived from the New
England Fold Belt to the north and consists predominantly of volcanic detritus. The
volcanic detritus is present in both the sandstone and shale units either in form of
grains has devitrified to produce smectite clays. These clays not only cause swelling
and shrinkage near the surface as a response to wetting and drying, but also reduce the
permeability of the near the surface rock mass. This latter factor increases the aqueous
pore pressures and hence increases the likelihood of surficial mass movement of both
Based on X-ray diffraction, carbonates are mostly rare in the talus deposits. The natural
reduction in carbonate cement due to weathering is one a cause for talus slope
The high horizontal stress environment known to exist in the Illawarra area is an
important factor which also influences slope failure. The resulting joint strike maxima
for the lower Narrabeen Group show that the most prominent joint set exposed at the
surface, with a direction between 005 and 025, has a significant effect on slope
Fracture permeability is also the most important feature of groundwater movements with
it most of the fractures occurring in areas of stress relief near the face of the
escarpment. It is quite obvious from studying the rainfall figures and periods of
prevalence of landslides that the most unstable periods are those when the rainfall is
weathered claystone and shale in the Narrabeen Group rocks have low to very low
durability; it is dependent on their mineralogy, and especially on the type and quantity
of clay minerals present. Claystone samples interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone also
Sandstone shows a medium durability whereas claystone in the Coal Cliff Sandstone has
a high durability. The differences in the behaviour of samples is that slake durability
Claystone both have very low durability. This has a significant effect on slope stability
in the Bulgo Sandstone especially where the Stanwell Park Claystone acts as the
bedrock for the talus mantle between Clifton and Stanwell Park.
The Wombarra Shale and Stanwell Park Claystone, two units of the Narrabeen Group,
appear to dominate the study area as being the units most prone to instability problems.
Failure surfaces of landslides are located at or near the base of highly weathered shale
or claystone sequences.
weathering from fresh to weathered rocks. The geotechnical properties of the talus
most related to its stability, are clay content, plasticity index and residual friction angl
These parameters and the angle of natural slopes show the talus is unstable in the long-
Man's construction activities have also caused some landslides in the northern Illawarra,
especially along the excavations for the railway and road. Two main transport routes,
the Illawarra Railway and Lawrence Hargrave Drive, pass through the study area.
Along Lawrence Hargrave Drive major movement in gently sloping land has been
a talus mantle. Increased urban development has and will continue to complicate the
issue in the future. Seven landslides have been detailed in this thesis. The majority
of these have or are presently undergoing block type movements at creep rate. Detailed
failures.
The area has also been extensively mined for coal, resulting in minor subsidence. This
has usually caused fracturing of the rock strata and opening of the joint system which
have increased water ingress, resulting in higher subsurface flows and altered
The work represented in this thesis was carried out under the supervision of Associate
Professors B.G. Jones and R.N. Chowdhury. I am indebted for their constant
Facilities for carrying out the investigations were provided by the Departments of
My sincere thanks are due to Dr D. Titheridge and Mr P. Lamb (Kembla Coal & Coke
Pty Ltd) for their help in preparation of rock samples in the field and access to
photographs and comparative data. Special thanks are due to Messrs J. Peterson from
the Department of Main Roads (Wollongong office) and H.D. Christie from State Rail
valuable suggestions and advice. I am also grateful to the staff of the Departments of
Geology and Civil and Mining Engineering, and my friends for their support and co-
operation.
Financial assistance was received for this study from a Postgraduate Scholarship
with me and the inconvenience due to my constant occupation with this work in the
final stages.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 AIMS 3
CHAPTER 2
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
OF THE ILLAWARRA REGION
2.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY 23
2.2 STRUCTURAL GEOLO< 24
2.3.1 GEOMORPHOLOGY 26
2.3.2 CLIMATE 28
2.3.3 GEOLOGY 29
2.3.4 STRATIGRAPHY 30
2.3.4.1 Shoalhaven Group 30
2.3.4.2 Illawarra Coal Measures 30
2.3.4.3 Narrabeen Group 31
2.3.4.4 Coal Cliff Sandstone 32
2.3.4.5 W o m b a r r a Shale 32
2.3.4.6 Scarborough Sandstone 33
2.3.6 STRUCTURAL G E O L O G Y 37
2.3.6.1 Folds 37
2.3.6.2 Faults 38
2.3.6.3 Joints 39
2.7 S T R E S S FIELDS 40
CHAPTER 3
GEOLOGY OF THE UPPER COAL MEASURES AND LOWER NARRABEEN GROUP
IN THE SCARBOROUGH-STANWELL PARK AREA
3.1 INTRODUCTION 41
3.2 ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES 42
3.2.1 UPPER ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES 43
(SYDNEY SUB-GROUP)
3.2.2 WILTON FORMATION 43
3.2.3 TONGARRA COAL 44
3.2.4 BARGO CLAYSTONE 44
3.2.5 DARKES FOREST SANDSTONE 44
3.2.6 ALLANS CREEK FORMATION 45
3.2.7 KEMBLA SANDSTONE A*
3.2.8 WONGAWILLI COAL 46
3.2.9 ECKERSLEY FORMATION 46
3.2.10 BULLI COAL 47
3.3 NARRABEEN GROUP 47
3.3.1 LOWER NARRABEEN GROUP 48
3.3.1.1 Coalcliff Sandstone (CSs) 48
3.3.1.2 Wombarra Shale (WSh) 49
3.3.1.3 Scarborough Sandstone (SSs) 50
3.3.1.4 Stanwell Park Claystone (SPC) 50
3.3.1.5 Bulgo Sandstone (BSs) 51
3.4 IGNEOUS ROCKS 52
3.5 TALUS 53
3.6 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES 54
3.6.1 SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS 54
3.7 SUBSURFACE GEOLOGICAL SEQUENCES AND 55
STRUCTURES RECOGNISED IN DRILL HOLES
3.8 GEOLOGY AND SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE 55
3.8.1 UPPER ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES 55
3.8.2 COAL CLIFF SANDSTONE 56
3.8.3 WOMBARRA SHALE 56
3.8.4 SCARBOROUGH SANDSTONE 57
3.8.5 STANWELL PARK CLAYSTONE 58
3.8.6 BULGO SANDSTONE 58
3.9 DISCUSSION 59
CHAPTER 4
PETROLOGY OF NARRABEEN GROUP SANDSTONE
4.1 INTRODUCTION 63
4.2 STUDY METHODS 63
3 MINERAL COMPOSITION 64
4.3.1 QUARTZ 64
4.3.2 FELDSPAR 65
4.3.4 CHERT 66
4.3.5 MICA 66
4.3.8 CARBONATE 67
4.3.9 KAOLINITE 68
4.3.11 CEMENT 69
4.3.12 POROSITY 69
CHAPTER 5
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY IN THE SLIP AREA
5.1 INTRODUCTION 91
5.2 STRUCTURAL FACTORS WHICH ARE IMPORTANT 91
IN SLOPE STABILITY
5.3 FAULTS IN THE SLIP AREA 94
5.3.1 HARBOUR FAULT 95
5.3.2 JETTY FAULT 95
5.3.3 CLIFTON FAULT 96
5.3.4 SCARBOROUGH FAULT 96
5.4 JOINTS IN THE SLIP AREA 96
5.4.1 JOINTS IN COAL 97
5.4.2 JOINTS IN THE NARRABEEN GROUP AND 98
HAWKESBURY SANDSTONE
5.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF FAULTS AND OTHER 101
THROUGH-GOING GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
5.6 JOINTING AND TECTONIC FRACTURING OF ROCK 102
5.6.1 BEDDING 103
5.7 THE RELATIONSHD? BETWEEN JOINTS AND THE 104
ORIENTATION OF CLIFF FACE
5.7.1 STRESS RELIEF 104
5.8 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOINTS AND 106
RATES OF EROSION OF STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXPOSURES
5.8.1 DIFFERENTIAL EROSION 107
5.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 110
CHAPTER 6
REVIEW OF THE ROLE OF GROUNDWATER, RAINFALL,
HYDROGEOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKES
6.1 GROUNDWATER 115
6.2 INTRINSIC PROPERTIES 115
6.2.1 POROSITY 116
6.2.2 PERMEABILITY 116
6.2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POROSITY AND 117
PERMEABILITY
6.2.4 FRACTURE (SECONDARY) PERMEABILITY 117
6.3 POREWATER PRESSURE 118
6.4 CHANGES IN WATER CONTENT 119
6.5 EFFECTS OF SOLUTION 120
6.6 GROUNDWATER FLOW IN SLOPE STABILITY 120
PROBLEMS
6.7 SLOPES COVERED WITH LANDSLIDE DEBRIS 121
6.8 HIGH WATER PRESSURES IN THE ESCARPMENT 122
6.9 SPECIAL EFFECTS OF FAULTS ON THE 123
HYDROGEOLOGY OF SLOPES
6.10 HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE 124
ESCARPMENT IN THE STUDY AREA
6.11 RAINFALL AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO 127
HYDROGEOLOGY
6.12 RAINFALL AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO LAND 128
MOVEMENTS
6.12.1 THE CONCEPT OF THRESHOLDS 130
6.13 GROUNDWATER AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO 131
LAND MOVEMENTS
6.14 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 132
6.15 EARTHQUAKES 135
6.15.1 EARTHQUAKES IN THE STUDY AREA 136
6.15.2 SECONDARY EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES 137
6.15.3 INTERPRETATION AND EFFECTS OF 137
EARTHQUAKES AND STRESS ENVIRONMENT
CHAPTER 7
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
7.1 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS IN THE 139
LOWER NARRABEEN GROUP
7.2 WEATHERING 140
7.2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTROLLING 140
ROCK WEATHERING
7.2.2 MINERAL HYDRATION 141
7.2.3 MINERAL SOLUTION 142
7.2.4 PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS OF WEATHERING 143
IN THE STUDY AREA
7.2.5 WEATHERING, STRENGTH AND LANDSLIDES 148
7.3 SLAKE DURABILITY TEST 149
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION 149
7.3.2 SLAKE DURABILITY 151
7.3.3 AIM OF STUDY 152
7.3.4 METHOD OF STUDY 152
7.3.4.1 Sample Collection 152
7.3.4.2 Sample Preparation 153
7.3.4.3 Procedure 153
7.3.4.4 Calculations 154
7.3.5 RESULTS 154
7.3.6 SLAKE DURABILITY CLASSIFICATION 156
7.3.7 STATIC (LONG-TERM) DURABILITY TESTING 156
7.3.8 CONCLUSIONS 157
7.4 POINT LOAD STRENGTH TEST 160
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION 160
7.4.2 THE AIM OF STUDY 161
7.4.3 METHOD OF STUDY 161
7.4.3.1 Sample Collection and Preparation 161
7.4.5 DIAMETRAL TESTS 162
7.4.6 AXIAL TESTS 162
7.4.7 IRREGULAR LUMP TESTS 162
7.4.8 CALCULATIONS 163
7.4.9 RESULTS 164
7.4.10 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POINT LOAD 165
STRENGTH INDEX AND UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
7.4.11 CONCLUSIONS 166
7.4.12 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNIAXIAL 167
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) AND SLAKE
DURABILITY INDEX (SDI)
7.5 ROCK COMPOSITION IN RELATION TO 168
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
7.5.1 ROCK COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH 168
7.5.2 ROCK COMPOSITION AND SLAKE DURABILITY 169
7.5.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SLAKE DURABILITY, 172
ROCK STRENGTH AND WEATHERING IN
RELATION TO ROCK SLOPE AND TALUS FAILURE
ALONG THE NORTHERN ILLAWARRA COASTLINE
CHAPTER 8
SLOPE STABILITY IN THE NORTHERN ILLAWARRA
8.1 INTRODUCTION 177
CHAPTER 9
S U M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS
9.1 INTRODUCTION 231
WATER 234
9.6 GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK AND 234
TALUS
9.7 SLOPE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 235
9.8 REMEDIAL WORKS 237
9.9 CONCLUSIONS 238
REFERENCES 241
FIGURES
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 1 FIGURE 1.1 - FIGURE 1.12
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 2 FIGURE 2.1 - FIGURE 2.12
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 3 FIGURE 3.1 - FIGURE 3.23
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 4 FIGURE 4.1 - FIGURE 4.16
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 5 FIGURE 5.1 - FIGURE 5.25
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 6 FIGURE 6.1 - FIGURE 6.15
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 7 FIGURE 7.1 - FIGURE 7.33
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 8 FIGURE 8.1 - FIGURE 8.55
TABLES
TABLES TO CHAPTERS 1-3 TABLE 1.1 - TABLE 3.1
TABLES TO CHAPTER 4 TABLE 4.1 - TABLE 4.25
TABLES TO CHAPTERS 5-6 TABLE 5.1 - TABLE 6.1
APPENDICES
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 7 TABLE 1 - TABLE 16
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 8 EXAMPLES OF SHEAR TEST
APPENDIX - SAMPLE LOCATIONS
GLOSSARY
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is commonly accepted that geological understanding can provide the basis for
predicting slope stability in any area, and considerable research effort has been directed
al, 1994).
Many types of slope movement and landslides occur in residual soils, talus and
of geological processes, local geological details and the role of geological discontinuities.
Of all the geologic factors influencing the stability of rock slopes, there is little doubt
that joints, bedding planes, faults and shear zones, and intersections of such structures,
are the most significant. Chemical alteration of the surrounding rock and presence of
clay gouge are also commonly associated with fault and shear zones. The presence of
clay gouge adjacent to the polished or smooth rock surfaces of faults is often associated
Stratigraphy is the basis for most rock slope design procedures (Philbrick, 1960).
Therefore, one of the first steps in the investigation of a slope should be the
siltstone and shale) that are very important in slope development, and have a notoriously
high landslide potential (Kelley, 1971; Winters, 1972). They may have also contributed
to deep-seated ancient landsliding. Thin marker beds, such as fossiliferous and non-
fossiliferous limestone, coal and clay seams, and carbonaceous shale are extremely
i
important in determining the extent of previous landsliding. Coal seams commonly act
2
development in colluvial slopes. For example, coal beds in both the Newcastle and
Illawarra Coal Measures commonly act as aquifers, with claystone beds acting as
aquitards. Landsliding is usually related to the presence of the aquifers which are a
source of high pore water pressures. The shear strength along any potential surface of
region range from fluvial to deltaic, intertidal facies, marginal marine and marine. Each
particularly of siltstone and shale, and is an indicator of their strength and abrasiveness
The total clay content, and at least the approximate percentage of clay mineral types,
are useful indicators of the potentially plastic and swelling behaviour of shale (Franklin
and Dusseault, 1989). The engineering behaviour and especially the residual strength
of colluvium derived from argillaceous rocks also depends on its (original and
Weathering, both mechanical and chemical, gradually disturbs the cohesion of rocks.
In many landslide events, chemical alterations, such as hydration and ion exchange in
clays, are thought to have contributed to the triggering of landslides (Zaruba and
Mencel, 1969).
Geomorphology is concerned with the nature and origin of landforms and the study of
understanding the complex phenomena and many interacting factors which control
Regional and local groundwater conditions are often very critical to slope stability.
Slope failures are often associated with high groundwater levels following prolonged or
intense rainfall. The influence of groundwater on stability can operate in two ways:
If the rock mass is very tight, or if the soil mass is impermeable, water pressure can
and the rock mass is open or the soil mass is permeable, then substantial seepage of
The manner in which water pressure enters into the consideration of stability is made
clear by an understanding of the concept of effective stress. Water pressure reduces the
normal effective stress resulting in shear strength decrease; consequently draining a rock
or soil mass will reduce the water pressure and increase the shear strength.
literature, has caused at least some landslide and/or rock fall. Unless these slides or
falls damage structures or seriously block transportation, they often go unreported. For
thousands of slides, most of them less than 10 cubic metres in volume, but some big
1.2 AIMS
between Coalcliff and Clifton (Fig. 1.4) is the primary and main objective of the
programme, about 90 percent of the total research effort has been devoted to the
4
first two of the following four aims. T h e remaining 10 percent of total research
effort has been devoted to the third and fourth aims in the list.
The four aims, with relative weighting shown in parentheses at the end of each aim, are
as follows.
Maior A i m s
failure and rock failure (toppling and rockfall), is to be investigated. (20 percent
of work)
(2) T o test and develop an understanding of the effects of weathering and slaking on
Narrabeen Group between Coalcliff and Clifton, and to discuss the implications
Minor A i m s
(3) T o determine the role of geotechnical properties of talus which control the stability
of slopes at shallow depths within talus. The third aim includes an integration of
currently available and n e w data from talus deposits in the Northern Illawarra with
the previously defined geological constrains provided in the second aim. It should
be noted that facilities and funds were not available to carry out appropriate
properties of talus was a relatively minor aim of the thesis. (8 percent of work)
(4) T o briefly review remedial measures that could alleviate the problem of land
instability in the Illawarra region, and to identify the relevance of the obtained
Geotechnical stability analyses were outside the scope of the thesis due to the lack of
funding to carry out a significant amount of expensive drilling in very steep and
5
engineering geological maps or stability maps was also outside the scope of this thesis.
Such maps are being developed for associated doctoral programme at the University of
respectively) and Lismore (Fig. 1.1). The Illawarra is located in the Greater
Wollongong area, as shown in (Figs 1.2 and 1.3). The specific area chosen for study
is between Coledale and Coalcliff as illustrated in (Fig. 1.4). The Greater Wollongong
area has long been recognised as a region of major landslide activity (e.g Hanlon, 1952,
1953, 1958; Walker, 1960; Bowman, 1972; Chowdhury, 1976; Young, 1977, 1978).
This activity is directly related to the geology, geological history and geomorphology
of the area.
measures plus fluviatile sequences capped by a well cemented quartz sandstone (Fig.
1.5). Flat-lying interbedded strong and weak sedimentary rocks in the Illawarra region
have been acted upon by erosion, stress relief, weathering, creeping and sliding
processes to produce masses of marginally stable colluvial soil and zones of potentially
unstable rock masses on many of the steep hillsides that are common to the area.
The traditional modes of failure, namely plane failure, wedge failure and rotational
failure often occur, and the type of failure is related to the rock structure and
weathering which play an important role (Fig. 1.6). Toppling failures, rockfalls and
failures of talus or colluvium have occurred in the past and continue to occur now on
moderate to steep slopes in the Illawarra area. Many of the rock slopes are relatively
6
simple in their form and shape. In the vast majority of places the bedding is nearly
endeavours requiring concepts from engineering geology, soil mechanics and rock
Reliable evaluations of slope stability must begin with an understanding of regional and
site geology and the geologic processes which formed the site and continue to act upon
it. Once this level of geologic understanding is reached, slope behaviour can often be
assessed on the basis of judgement aided by simple analyses, experience and precedence.
Many instability problems in this area relate to failures of talus or colluvium, which is
derived from older failures on the escarpment. Studies concerned with this type of
slope stability, also need to deal with failure of the escarpment and characteristics of
materials which affect these failures. These materials range from fresh to completely
This thesis has focused on the talus and rock slopes, and an understanding of the
engineering geological features of the area. However, considerably more attention must
drainage, storms and rainfall intensity) because these aspect need comprehensive
understanding for improved assessment of the problems associated with various types
of mass movement.
Experience in the Illawarra area has shown that slope instability is an old problem that
can be worsened by disturbance and development (Fig. 1.1). Moreover, slope instability
has had disastrous effects on urban area as well as road and rail routes. As long ago
7
as 1890, W . Shellshear published a paper entitled "on treatment of slip on the Illawarra
railway at Stanwell Park ". This was at the time when the railway line occupied the
Hanlon (1952, 1953, 1958) discussed in some detail the causes of rock failures in the
Wollongong area and suggested various remedial measures. Hanlon's studies focussed
on the role of lithology and structure in determining the stability of escarpment slopes.
zone right along the escarpment from Wollongong to Nowra. Since then, m a n y authors
investigation of the natural slope stability in the Greater Wollongong area and although
he was mainly concerned with slope stability in relation to the residential subdivisions,
he highlighted the importance of water and jointing in relation to the stability of the
'taluvium'. She also mentioned the escarpment evolution and assessed the influence of
local climatic variation on slope stability near Wollongong (1977, 1978). Chowdhury
(1976) highlighted the importance of the mechanism of progressive slope failures based
on the decrease in shear strength due to weathering and stress release. Evans (1978)
studied "time dependent factors influencing the rock slope stability of the Illawarra
escarpment". His work was concerned with weathering and creep, but he also described
a differential settlement mechanism which involves stress relaxation in the basal softer
escarpment (Evans 1981). Chestnut (1981) mapped the Wollongong-Port Hacking area
et al. (1987) presented some of the results of a geotechnical study of the Coledale area
M o r e recently Hutton et al. (1990) studied the landslide activity after the heavy rains
of April 1988 in the Coalcliff area of the northern Illawarra. They briefly described
8
landslides that have been prominent during the last few years along Lawrence Hargrave
Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff (Fig. 1.4). This section of Lawrence Hargrave
Drive has a history of slippage, rock falls and mud-slips. The area is geologically
During 1988 the road was closed between Clifton and Coalcliff on 30 April following
major rock falls, mud-slides and subsidence. The restoration work was carried out by
the Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) at a cost of $4.8 M and the road re-opened on
15 November. The majority of restoration work was in the Coalcliff area but some
repairs were also carried out on the "Clifton Fault" where further problems have now
been encountered.
literature review of general problems of, and strategies for, assessing slope stability.
Field work has concentrated on the mapping and investigation of landslides and rock
failures with the particular aim of gaining an understanding of the engineering geologica
features of the area between Clifton and Coalcliff. This study consists of an assessment
(1) Previous studies of slope stability and engineering properties of rock sequences in
(2) Geology of the upper Illawarra Coal Measures and lower Narrabeen Group in the
(3) Structural geology in the slip area including the nature, size and orientation of
faults and faults planes; and the relationship between fault planes, weathering and
geomorphology; the nature, spacing type, regularity and orientation of joints in the
9
sandstone and shale units. The relationship between joints and orientations of cliff
also considered.
(4) Permeability of the various rock units for predicting groundwater movement based
(5) Petrology of coarse- and fine-grained sandstone and the intervening shales in fresh
drill hole samples. Petrology of the same units in outcrop samples to determine
of clays and cements occurring in joints and on slip planes have been carried
out.
(6) Detection of slip surfaces, water table level and lithological boundaries for
(7) R o c k strength and durability - comparison of fresh, weathered and talus material.
of each unit.
(9) Rock instability in the Narrabeen Group, including case example of rockfall and
(12) Preventative measures that can be used to minimise rockfalls, toppling and slips
(13) preventive measures that can be used to minimise slippage of talus deposits in the
area.
10
1.6 MASS MOVEMENT
The study of mass movement, especially landslides, encompasses over one hundred years
of specialist work. During that time understanding the form and processes governing
knowledge are filled, so the variety and complexity of moving soils and rocks becomes
more obvious.
The term mass movement is used here as a general term to include falls, topples, slides,
flows and or slumps along distinct slide planes or zones of sliding. Gravity is the
principal driving force; the movement is directed down and out, and the displaced
material may include soil (regolith), bedrock and or artificial fills. The term, as used
here, includes rockfalls, topples and debris flows which involve little or no true slidi
Consideration of soil creep, which occurs without a well defined failure surface, is
excluded from this thesis. Creep is taken to refer to mass movements at rate of less
than about 0.06 m/y (Varnes, 1978). Many landslides creep before readily observed
movement occurs.
reported in the literature, e.g. Sharp (1938), Terzaghi (1950), Skempton (1953, 1964),
Varnes (1958, 1978), Selby (1967), Hutchinson (1968, 1988), Skempton and Hutchinson
(1969), Zaruba and Mencel (1969), Blong (1973), East (1978), Chowdhury (1980),
based study of landslide morphology, Blong (1973) concluded with a very simple and
useful classification whereby the primary divisions recognised were slide, rotational slide,
The simplest morphometric classification of slope failure is based on the D/L ratio
defined by Skempton (1953) where D is the maximum thickness of the landslide and
L is the m a x i m u m length in the direction of maximum slope (Fig. 1.7). Values of the
ratio increase from flows, through slides to slumps as shown in Table 1.1. The ratio
is useful, but it is difficult to use with accuracy where the failed mass has been
Table 1.1 Typical D / L % Ratios for various landslide types based on data in
Flows 0.5-3.0
Slides 5-10
Slumps 15-30
3 0009 03155309 7
12
(1) landslides arising from exceptional causes such as earthquakes, exceptionally high
liquefaction;
(2) ordinary landslides, or landslides resulting from known or usual causes which can
(3) landslides which occur without any apparent cause. Although all of the above
classification schemes are simple and useful they are not widely used, and it is
classification.
Varnes' classification (1978) is very useful for many research relationships on slope
stability. The basic types of slope movement in the classification are summarised in
Figure 1.9. An important reason for the acceptability of Varnes' classification was the
(1) Falls
Falls are slope movements on steep slopes where a discrete mass of material, regardless
of size, is detached and moves downslope by travelling through the air, bouncing, or
rolling. More detailed classifications of falls are based on the type of material. Rock
falls involve bedrock, while debris falls involve coarse-grained fragments, and earth
(2) Topples
Topples occur when a tensile failure in the rock mass causes it to rotate about a point
below its centre of gravity. These types of movement usually occur on steep slopes and
may terminate as a fall or slide, depending on the geometry of the slope below the
point of rotation. Topples can occur in any cohesive material and may range in size
13
from very small to extremely large. The size of the mass that topples is controlled by
(3) Slides
materials w h e n the strength of the slide material is nearly equal to the strength along
discontinuities in the rock or soil mass. Rotational slides commonly appear as slumps
of material along slopes, road cuts and fills. Translational slides occur along planar or
gently undulating failure surfaces. These types of slides usually occur in earth materials
where the strength of the slide material is greater than the shear strength along
(4) Spreads
In spreads the sense of movement is nearly horizontal, and the earth material fails both
by shear along a failure surface, and by tension or extension along one or more nearly
vertical surfaces. This type of movement requires that some underlying geologic unit
fails and moves outward, carrying the overlying materials. The stability of the slope
is controlled by the geologic units at the site and by the loading conditions.
(5) Flows
Flows are slope movements in which the mechanical properties of the slope material
behave as a plastic body, viscous fluid or true fluid. In bedrock, these include spatially
continuous deformations, and deep creep involving extremely slow and generally non-
occurs within a displaced mass, whereby the form or apparent distribution of velocities
(6) C o m p l e x slides
m o v e m e n t listed above.
14
Varnes (1978) also defined another useful term: multiple movements are those in which
repeated failure of the same style occur one after the other (Fig. l.lOe).
the factors that trigger the movement. An early recognition of some of the
environmental influences on slope stability was made by Terzaghi (1950) who listed
external changes which increased shearing stress, and internal changes which decreased
Zaruba and Mencel (1969) elaborated upon this as follows: "preventive treatment of a
the petrographical and physical properties of rocks, and the hydrogeological conditions.
As the form of a slope is the end product of geological processes of the past, the
morphological history of the slope must also be understood". These statements certainly
apply to the Illawarra area where, as indicated previously, marginally stable or unstable
General procedures for engineering geological investigations of slopes have been outlined
Dearman and Fookes (1974), Deere and Patton (1971), Patton and Hendron (1974) and
Bhandari and Thayalan (1994) are particularly applicable to the Illawarra area. This
Rainfall is generally accepted as one of the chief factors controlling the frequency of
landslides. The magnitude of its influence depends on climatic conditions (such as the
15
geological structure of slopes, and the permeability and other properties of rocks and
soils.
(2) Slope
Usually, landsliding will occur more readily on steep slopes. While reality is more
complicated than this, it is often possible to determine lower limits (thresholds) of slope
below which landslides are unlikely to occur. But care must be taken in transfering
information about threshold slopes even to an adjacent area. For example, Dunkerley's
(1976) work at Razorback, south of Sydney, indicates that for this area of Wianamatta
Shale with numerous landslides, the threshold angle for earthflows is 11 degrees. While
at West Pennant Hills where the parent materials are also Wianamatta Shales, landslides
Slope shape both across the slope and down the slope m a y affect landslide location.
that examined landslide-slope shape relationships (Waltz, 1971) indicated for the San
Fransisco B a y area that landslides were commonly located on sites that are relatively
(4) Stratigraphy
The stratigraphy at a particular site has a major influence on the slope stability.
Therefore, one of the first steps in the investigation of a slope should be the
description of thick sequences of weak rocks such as claystones, thin marker beds such
as coal and clay seams, carbonaceous shales and old failure surfaces or shear zones.
16
Coal seams require special emphasis. They commonly act as aquifers and their
Two main groups of geologic factors distinguish slope stability problems in soil from
those of rock. One group of geologic factors is related to the structural defects found
in rock masses and the special strength problems that result, whereas the other group
is related to special groundwater conditions which are more commonly associated with
rock masses than with soil. The critical groundwater conditions are often a direct
consequence of the presence of structural defects. In general, rock masses are best
The presence, continuity, spacing, orientation and nature of joints and bedding in the
weathered rock beneath the soil will in many cases be the dominant control over
landsliding. Shear zones and faults can also have a major effect on hydrological
A search for faults or shear zones having low shear strengths due to previous
displacements is very important. The search is aided by the knowledge that faults or
These consist of: (a) joints and faults subparallel to, or in secondary or conjugate
alignment to, regional faults; and (b) bedding plane faults and joints in shales where
they are interbedded with other rock types. Item (b) above is particularly common in
folded or inclined sediments adjacent to thick layers of a relatively less deformable rock
such as sandstone.
Water pressure within a rock mass acts perpendicular to the surfaces of the
discontinuities. When there are many joint sets with different orientations and when the
joint spacing is small, the water pressure within the rock mass can be treated in a
17
similar model to that used for soil slopes. However, when the distribution of joint
unusual distributions of water pressure can result. In rock masses it is possible to have
the water pressure, and hence the corresponding disturbing force, change appreciably
from one joint to the next. A s shown in (Fig. 1.11) the water level is m u c h lower in
joint a-a than in joint b-b. A s a result, the magnitude of the force P b due to the
hydrostatic pressure along joint b-b is several times the force P a acting normal to joint
a-a. Groundwater fluctuations affect slope stability in both rock and soil slopes.
Groundwater levels are likely to fluctuate much more in rock slopes than in m a n y soil
slopes due to the smaller percentage of void space in rocks and the more open joint
systems. The effects on the groundwater table of a 2.5 c m rainfall which entirely
infiltrates into a porous soil slope and a low porosity rock slope is shown in Figure
1.12. In porous soils (Fig. 1.12a) 2.5 c m of rainfall can produce an 8 c m to 25 c m rise
rainfall on a rock slope could produce increases in groundwater levels of the order of
Fortunately, the rock mass adjacent to many rock slopes becomes more permeable
because the joints open due to stress relief. This zone of more open jointing serves to
retard the development of high water pressures near the slope surface.
(7) Earthquakes
Earthquakes affect slope stability as follows, (a) Earthquakes produce horizontal and
manner equivalent to a temporary steepening of the slope, (b) Earthquakes can change
the magnitude and distribution of the pore water pressure and increased pore water
pressure reduces soil shear strength. Rapid increase of pore water pressure in some
18
coarse-grained soils occurs by repeated shear stress fluctuations. In loose sandy soils
this cyclic shear loading may lead to liquefaction, i.e. total loss of shear strength.
Keefer (1984) suggested that rockfalls, rockslides, soil-falls and soil slides can be
triggered by the weakest seismic activity while deep seated slumps and earthflows are
many slides are associated with the Illawarra Coal Measures and Narrabeen Group.
Different thicknesses of talus cover the slopes over a large area. Depending on their
topographical position, these talus deposits may be derived from the Hawkesbury
strata.
The talus usually consists of sandstone boulders in an iron-stained clayey matrix. With
any heavy rain, pore water pressure rises, decreasing the shear strength of the talus. As
the shear strength reduces to the level of the applied shear stress, the talus matrix is
mobilised, resulting in mass movement. Where natural drainage occurs, the talus has
become consolidated and, with compaction and deposition of cementing materials from
The properties of the underlying rocks have important effects on the nature and stability
of talus. Sandstone cliffs along the sea are vertically jointed and blocks of rock will
break off leaving vertical faces. Rockfalls occur in these places because the toe of the
19
slope is eroded by the sea; relaxation of the material above produces toppling along
joint faces.
Soft rocks and weathered volcanic sandstone (Illawarra Coal Measures) are exposed at
sea level and at the base of some landslides; slips occur from fretting and weathering
with shale and coal. Coal beds commonly act as aquifers, with shale acting as
The volcanic detritus is present in both the sandstone and shale units either in form of
alteration and diagenesis the original volcanic glass in the ash and matrix of larger
grains has devitrified to produce smectite clays. These clays not only cause swelling
and shrinkage near the surface as a response to wetting and drying, but also reduce the
permeability of the near the surface rock mass. This latter factor increase the aqueous
pore pressures and hence increase the likelihood of surficial mass movement of both the
High proportions of expansive clay minerals were detected in volcanic rock fragments
(cherts) which suggest that clay softening in the presence of water is important in
controlling moisture related reduction in strength of sandstone in the Illawarra area. The
nature of the cement (kaolinite) and the rate of weathering also influences slake
durability. Weathered shale and Claystone in the Narrabeen Group have low to very
strong whereas measured values from weathered shale and claystone are moderately
important. Local structural features such as fractures and faults influence the
underground water circulation. They cause an increase in local water flow and appear
causes joint blocks initially tilt landwards. The intersect of joints and bedding planes
M a n y rock falls and topples occur along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton
and Coalcliff where the bedding is nearly horizontal and jointing is approximately
vertical. Most effects of weathering are concentrated along the cliffs and in the soft
interbedded shale units. Fretting and weathering of shales have undermined sandstone
layers. This causes large blocks of the overlying sandstone to break off and
the road.
Increase in the pore water pressure within a talus slope affects its stability. Lack of
adequate drainage can cause a rapid increase in the pore water pressure after heavy
i
rainfall; this leads a decrease in the shearing resistance of the talus material, and causes
mass movement.
Water flow within the rock mass is concentrated along discontinuities at the base of
sandstone units, i.e. between claystone and sandstone beds. This increases the rate of
weathering of the claystone and causes fretting and weathering of the sandstone as well
T o understanding and quantify the causes of failure and to provide the basic data
necessary for later study, it was first necessary to study of regional geology and carry
out laboratory testing of rock and soil material involved. Fresh and weathered
sandstone, shale, claystone and talus with varying moisture content were sampled over
the area under investigation and tested for a range of laboratory properties. Particular
emphasis was placed on understanding the change of the petrological and mechanical
CHAPTER 2
ILLAWARRA REGION
in eastern Australia. It extends from the highly deformed middle Palaeozoic Lachlan
Fold in the west to the continental margin in the east. Its eastern extent was
terminated at the outer edge of the present continental shelf by the opening of the
Tasman Sea (Veevers et al, 1991) and the basin is bordered by the New England
The rocks of the Sydney region are dominantly of sedimentary origin and have been
deposited within a broad zone of subsidence known as the Sydney Basin (Fig. 2.1).
-Deposition took place from carboniferous to the latter part of the Triassic upon a
1985). For the most part, the strata are conformable and close to horizontal.
sediments (Mayne et al., 1974). The thickest part of the succession is adjacent to
the New England Orogen in the Newcastle area but the sequence is also thought to
thicken eastwards towards the continental shelf. The succession gradually thins to
the south and west. In the southern Sydney Basin, where the present study was
conducted, the maximum thickness is more than 2.5 km. The depositional and
tectonic history of the basin has been well described in the literature (Conolly and
Ferm, 1971; Mayne et al, 197'4; Herbert, 1980a; and Branagan 1985). A marine
transgression during the Early Permian allowed the deposition of thick sequences of
24
marine sediments (Shoalhaven Group) and a major regression in the Late Permian
resulted in the deposition of the Illawarra Coal Measures about 250-260 million years
ago.
Deposition in the Late Permian and Early Triassic took place essentially in marginal
to have extended into Jurassic times with an hiatus in the Late Triassic (Herbert,
1980a).
Permian deformation mainly produced broad folding and some faulting in the
northern part of the basin near the thrust margin with the N e w England Fold Belt.
Occasional volcanic activity in the form of dykes and other intrusive bodies persisted
England Orogeny (Herbert, 1980a). Subsidence of the basin started with initial
sedimentation in the Newcastle area to the north of the present study area, and
comprised molasse sediments derived from the N e w England Fold Belt (Herbert,
1980a; Roberts and Engle, 1987). Subsidence continued throughout the Early
Permian and transgressive shallow marine and paralic sediments were deposited
(Herbert, 1980a; Roberts and Engle, 1987). Subsequently, during the Late Permian,
intense crustal movement occurred and N e w England Orogen was uplifted to the
north of Hunter Thrust System during the Hunter Orogeny (Scheibner, 1976).
The Hunter Orogeny was immediately followed by molasse sedimentation and marine
regression. Most of major coal deposition in the Sydney Basin was in alluvial and
deltaic environments during this Late Permian regressive phase (Bamberry, 1992).
25
Towards the end of the Late Permian, coal measure sedimentation terminated and
The time at which sedimentation ceased in the Sydney Basin is not known.
that they are of Early Jurassic age (Crawford et al, 1980). Therefore, it has been
postulated that deposition in the basin continued at least up to Early Jurassic with a
hiatus in the Late Triassic (Herbert, 1980a). Recent investigation by Jenkins et al.
(1993) on the continental slope off the southeastern coast of Australia suggest that
-Studies have indicated that the present continental margin along the southeastern
Cretaceous. Palaeomagnetic, radiometric and fission track data indicate that rifting
approximately 85 Ma (Weissel and Hayes, 1977; Shaw, 1978; Jones and Veevers,
1983; Moore et al, 1986; Dumitru et al, 1991; Veevers et al, 1991). The major
uplift and erosion of Sydney Basin sequence is believed to have been initiated in
relation to this spreading event in the Late Cretaceous-(Mayne et al, 1974; Oilier,
The Sydney region does not show evidence of strong deformation but detailed
investigations of the rocks shows that gentle deformation occurred both during and
features consist of broad depressions and gently inclined plateaux, folds, warps (Fig.
2.2), fault zones, faults and joints. Folds are gentle with north-northeast to northeast
axial trends in the central and northern parts of the basin (Branagan et al, 1988).
Fault zones have a patchy distribution. Where faulting occurs it is common to find
a variety of faults (normal, reverse, low angle thrusts and strike slip) within the area.
26
northeast and northeast appear to be the most common (Norman and Branagan, 1984
Branagan, 1985). Thrust faults in the Sydney region have orientations ranging fr
thrusts. Most are low angle or bedding-parallel structures (Branagan et al, 1988)
zones which parallel an important joint direction (Norman and Branagan, 1984). T
Jointing is widespread and at least four main trends have been recorded in the
(Fig. 2.3). These joints show a wide variety in their shape, continuity, inclina
and openness. Vertical north-northeast planar joints are continuous for many met
throughout the sandstone units and control the orientation of many cliff-lines
stream courses. Many joints are the passageways for groundwater and this results
a variety of rock conditions. Some joints and adjacent rock masses are strongly
leached and usually weakened while elsewhere significant deposition of iron oxi
Jointing in the shale is tighter than in the sandstone when first exposed. Thes
joints maybe coated by calcium carbonate, clay or pyrite. Open joints in sandsto
maybe coated with these substances and with quartz or iron oxides. Joint faces i
sandstone retain their character, whereas joints faces in shale become rapidly
2.3.1 GEOMORPHOLOGY
The niawarra area is located in the southern part of Sydney Basin and comprises
tableland, the coastal plain, and the escarpment and slopes (Figs 1.4 and 1.5).
27
tableland was named the Woronora Plateau by Branagan and Packham (1967). It
south. Hawkesbury Sandstone crops out over m u c h of the plateau, ranging in height
The niawarra coastal plain stretches southward from Coledale where softer rocks,
particularly of the Illawarra Coal Measures, are exposed at or above sea level. It is
widest in the south due to the presence of large streams and more rapid erosion of
the weathered marine rocks. The Illawarra coastal plain has been formed by
westward recession of the plateau giving a faceted slope or scarp (Fig. 1.5). The
produced structural benches on the escarpment, with steep sandstone rises and
relatively flat claystone slopes. Debris or talus partly covers the structural benches
and bluffs and results from erosion of the interbedded sandstone and claystone of the
area. The Illawarra Coal Measures do not form major benches because the sandstone
The escarpment bounds the area along the western edge; and hence the coastal
exposures along the cliffs are generally good, as a result of wave abrasion, whereas
little exposure is found on the cliff tops which have been covered by surficial
Rock platforms with cliff notches are extensively developed in the softer Permian
sequences. Harder Triassic rocks north of Clifton form narrower platforms. The
platforms are composed of sandstone, which is more resistant to erosion by the sea
28
than the interbedded shale. On these rock platforms, systems of joints are
2.3.2 CLIMATE
characteristically moist climate with no major dry season. The rainfall is fairly
evenly distributed throughout the year although slightly more rain falls in late
summer and early winter. Factors such as topography, structure of the region and
the nature of prevailing air masses all affect the rate of rainfall in the area.
Higher rainfalls are recorded on the plateau than on the coastal plain. About 1600
m m per year falls on the high ground west of the escarpment. Approximately 1500
m m per year falls along most of the escarpment while around 1200 m m per year
falls on the coastal plain. The average annual rainfall contours for the study area are
evaporation are lower. In the Wollongong area precipitation exceeds evaporation for
three months per year. Near the crest of the escarpment, precipitation is more than
evaporation for all months. The annual average excess is about 700 m m and results
in an increase of soil moisture, which leads to mass movement along the niawarra
The important point is that intense storms accompanied by a high rainfall occur
within a short period of time in this area. Often slips were caused by these rainfalls
hottest month, February, of 26.9C and an average m i n i m u m for coldest month, July,
of 8.4C with an average daily temperature over the whole year of 17.5C. Winter
29
winds are from the west and southwest while summer winds are commonly from the
south or northeast.
2.3.3 GEOLOGY
The study area is located in the southeastern portion of the Sydney Basin (Fig. 2.1).
It comprises a sedimentary sequence with several volcanic units. The rocks range in
age from Permian to Triassic. This part of the Sydney Basin has received
considerable attention from geologists because of its long history of coal mining.
Harper (1915) produced the first comprehensive description of the geology of the
Illawarra area. H e described the general stratigraphy and structure and recorded
many observations about the various coal seams. The work of Hanlon (1952, 1953,
1958) greatly expanded the knowledge of the area. H e revised and modernised the
area between Coledale and Stanwell Park. M u c h of detail available about the
added some detail not previously recorded. Chestnut (1981) mapped the
report on the geology of Wollongong and Port-Hacking (Sherwin and Holmes, 1986).
Although the geology of the niawarra has been studied for a century or more, few
Slope instability in the northern niawarra almost totally occurs within the upper
Illawarra Coal Measures and Narrabeen Group. Therefore this study is concerned
with upper Illawarra Coal Measures, Narrabeen Group and associated talus. Other
2.3.4 STRATIGRAPHY
sandstone and siltstone sequence (Jones, 1990). The Broughton Formation at the top
of Shoalhaven Group is the oldest rock exposed in the study area (Carr, 1983). It
crops out along the coastal plain in the Wollongong area. The sandstone is a red to
green-grey lithic sandstone with thin interbeds of siltstone and conglomerate. Five
tabular latite bodies are interbedded in the Broughton Formation in the Kiama area to
form the Gerringong Volcanic facies. One of them is the Dapto Latite Member
which occurs around Lake Illawarra. This volcanic unit is responsible for the higher
topographic area between Wollongong and Lake Illawarra. Its presence has
significantly influenced the evolution of the coastal plain in this region. The
(Bowman, 1980).
The Illawarra Coal Measures are generally located at the base of the escarpment in
the northern Illawarra. The coastal plain is formed partly on this formation, although
Quaternary alluvium frequently overlies the coal measures. The idealised stratigraphy
of Illawarra Coal Measures is presented in Figure 2.5. This formation had been
studied by numerous authors, e.g. Harper (1915), Hanlon (1952, 1953, 1958),
In general the coal measures are subdivided into the Cumberland Subgroup and the
overlying Sydney Subgroup. The Pheasants Nest Formation is the basal formation
within the Cumberland Subgroup and hence the niawarra Coal Measures. It
siltstone and conglomerate interbeds. Two small lenticular coal seams are located
within the Pheasants Nest Formation. The overlying marginate marine Erins Vale
conglomerate lenses.
and nine coal units. The uppermost formation is the Bulli Coal which is the main
commercial coal seam in the niawarra area. It varies in thickness from 4 m in the
north to 1.5 m near Port Kembla and contains few claystone bands. Large areas of
Sandstone units within the coal measures are commonly moderately to well sorted,
The Narrabeen Group is known to occur throughout the Sydney Basin. It extends
along the Illawarra coastal escarpment and also crops out to the west of the
escarpment. This group includes the main sequence of rocks along the coastal cliffs
The lowest units of the Narrabeen Group are Late Permian and the upper unit is
Middle to Late Triassic in age. The thickness of the Narrabeen Group decreases to
the south. For example it has a thickness of 330 m north of Otford (Loughnan,
The Narrabeen Group includes the Coal Cliff Sandstone, Wombarra Shale, Otford
Sandstone, Bald Hill Claystone, Garie Formation and Newport Formation. The
Illawarra Coal Measures. The thickness of the unit ranges between 6 and 20 m ,
being approximately 9 m thick in the type section at Clifton (Hanlon, 1953). The
sandstone with a number of pebble and shale bands. It crops out in the coastal
section near Clifton and passes below sea level north of Coalcliff. Angular siderite
This unit forms the roof of some colliery workings and is exposed underground for
several kilometres to the west of the Illawarra escarpment. In the some places
colliery roofs are less stable because the fine sandstone near the base of the Coal
sandstone interbeds. It is well exposed in road cuttings and cliffs south of Coalcliff.
A measured section of the Wombarra Shale (Fig. 2.6) illustrates the frequency of the
interbedded sandstone. The sandstone interbeds are generally quite thin, lenticular,
Towards the top of the formation a thicker sandstone unit is called the Otford
A clear facies change occurs in the Wombarra Shale between Clifton and
4 0 % at Helensburgh. The lateral facies changes essentially affect its stability. If the
arenite content increases a little, weathering will decrease within the unit and stability
will be maintained.
basal half. It consists of beds up to several metres in thickness which become finer
upwards. This unit comprises lithic to quartz-lithic sandstone with pebbles and
minor amounts of grey shale. The coarse nature of the sandstone has resulted in the
Stanwell Park Claystone is about 37 m thick at the type section between Clifton and
The lower section of the unit consists of greenish-grey claystone and sandstone
which slowly changes upward into red-brown claystone and clay. The sandstone
beds are composed of weathered lithic fragments and are usually light greenish-grey
in colour. The relative proportion of claystone and sandstone varies but overall they
The Bulgo Sandstone, which rests on the Stanwell Park Claystone is the thickest unit
of the Narrabeen Group on the Illawarra coast. It forms prominent outcrops in the
area and between Coalcliff and Clifton. The Bulgo Sandstone is 120 m thick at
Clifton forming over half the total Narrabeen Group (Ward, 1980). It consists of
A complete section of the Bulgo Sandstone is exposed in the cliffs south of Otford,
but it has not been studied due to the difficulty of access. Ward (1971a) subdivided
the formation into three facies: the basal "pebbly facies", the middle "volcanic facies"
The "pebbly facies" consists of pebbly sandstone like the Scarborough Sandstone.
This sandstone is mostly lithic. The "volcanic facies" consists of green sandstone
rock fragments which are altered to chlorite and iron oxides. The "shaley facies" has
a high proportion of siltstone. The shale is often red owing to hematite staining.
The Bulgo Sandstone has a higher proportion of quartz than of rock fragments.
Sandstone beds rarely exceed 4 m in thickness while the siltstone and shale interbeds
are usually less than 1 m thick. The red shale beds of the upper "shaley facies" are
up to 2 m in thickness.
The Bald Hill claystone, which overlies the Bulgo Sandstone, crops out in the hills
near Otford and on the Mt Ousley road to the south. This formation is about 15 m
thick at its type locality in the Bald Hill area (Hanlon, 1953). It consists almost
entirely of claystone, but lithic sandstone interbeds are found towards the base of the
unit. Mottled chocolate and green claystone zones are common. The mineralogy of
35
the Bald Hill Claystone is quite simple. Kaolinite, hematite and/or siderite being
become more common. This upper zone passes into a mid-grey slightly
(Fig. 2.7). The Garie Formation is usually less than 3 m thick but it is a very good
overlies the Garie Formation (Fig. 2.7). The formation is 18.5 m thick in its type
section on the coast 3 km north of Garie Beach (Hanlon, 1953), but is reduced to
11 m near Clifton.
Mud-rocks of this formation are thinly bedded. The dark-grey mud-rocks contain
with a large original porosity, are common in the Newport Formation (Bowman,
1974).
about 20,000 km2 and a maximum thickness of 250 m (Standard, 1969; Conaghan,
1980). The Hawkesbury Sandstone crops out at the top of most the niawarra
escarpment. It forms a resistant plateau to the west of the escarpment, which gently
dips to the northwest. The formation has a thickness of about 180 m at Stanwell
36
Park. It contains a minor amount of mudstone, interbedded with fine sandstone, but
and it was discussed by Bowman (1974), Conaghan and Jones (1975), Conaghan
(1980) in some detail. The interbedded mudstone is very prone to weathering upon
escarpment,
shale, lithic and quartzose sandstone, and has a maximum thickness in the study area
of nearly 15 m. Helby (1973) has suggested a Middle Triassic age for the
Wianamatta Group.
extrusive unit. The flow is called the Robertson Basalt. It covers the Robertson
plateau and is an alkaline basalt with a maximum thickness of 100 m (Sherwin and
Holmes, 1986).
A few small dykes and sills crop out, but they are usually weathered to clay.
Bowman (1974) indicated that most of the dykes have intruded along tension joints,
These igneous bodies locally affect the slope profile. They may typically weather to
2.3.5.4 T E R T I A R Y A N D Q U A T E R N A R Y DEPOSITS
Significant areas of the coastal plain and escarpment slope are covered by talus
escarpment. Generally the talus consists of large sandstone blocks, derived either
from the Hawkesbury Sandstone or from sandstone units in the Narrabeen Group, set
This process is directly related to slope stability and is discussed more fully later.
The niawarra area lies near the southern edge of the Sydney Basin. The structural
geology of the area has been discussed by David (1896), Harper (1915), Wilson et
al (1958), Bowman (1974) and Mauger et al. (1983). In general, the strata in the
area have a regional dip of a few degrees to the north-northwest towards the centre
of the basin. The escarpment has a trend toward north-northeast. Anticlinal and
synclinal crenulations are developed on the eastern limb of the Camden Syncline
(Fig. 2.8).
2.3.6.1 FOLDS
A series of gentle folds occur along the southeastern edge of the Sydney Basin (Fig.
2.8). The axes trend about 155 and gently plunge towards the centre of basin.
Bowman (1974) suggested that the folding may have resulted from crustal
foreshorting during the deformation of the basin. Wilson et al, (1958) noted the
thickening of units in the synclines and thinning of units on the crest of anticlines
Jakeman (1980) also discussed about the relationship between the formation structure
According to Branagan and Pedram (1990) the monoclinal folding is associated with
faulting and may be associated with stress relief along a 105 -striking regional ac
Several domes are developed in the area. Only the two largest, Mount Lindsay
2.3.6.2 FAULTS
Most faulting in the area is normal faulting, although strike-slip and high-angle
reverse faults are known to exist. Wilson et al. (1958) recorded fault directions
consistent with the 110 and 155 folded directions. As well they reported another
set of faults striking approximately 050 with throws of less than 3 m. These faults
are generally difficult to recognise on the surface but are commonly encountered in
Generally they are downthrown to the north in the northern part of the niawarra area
(e.g Clifton Fault). Most of the major faults are clean breaks without a crush zone.
They usually form a series of small en echelon faults or fault zones (Fig. 2.9) and
Bowman (1974) stated that three groups of faults occur (110, 155 and 005 in the
area (Fig. 2.10). The first two group correspond with those of Wilson et al (1958).
The lack of the 050 set in Bowman's data probably results from the difference
faults directions, faults striking 110 are the most numerous. These directions
correspond to the tensional directions associated with the two directions of synclinal-
anticlinal folding. The displacement on the faults striking 005 is generally less than
5 m. Faults striking 110 and 155 can have much greater displacements. Minor
faults are normal faults with steep dips toward north. Most of the minor faults are
fracture zones several hundred metres across (Sherwin and Holmes, 1986). Evidence
39
exists that some faults m a y have been active during deposition, with a greater
throw up the section. For example, Figure 2.11 shows that the throw of the Jetty
has taken place along the major joint direction and appears to be a tension feature.
2.3.6.3 JOINTS
Generally joints are the most significant structural feature in the area. Folding of the
sediments is commonly negligible and the strata are very close to horizontal.
usually play a similar role to jointing in assessing slope stability in this area.
Many workers have studied the distribution of joints in the Illawarra region,
including Dickson and Weber (1966), Connelly (1970), B o w m a n (1974) and Mauger
et al (1983). They found that there are four sets of prominent joint directions, at
005, 055, 105, 155. These directions are similar to the regional pattern (Fig. 2.3)
and are parallel the be (parallel to fold axis) and ac (perpendicular to folded axis)
directions of the two main fold orientations (Fig. 2.12). Therefore the joint sets are
probably tensional features resulting from stress relief after folding. But C o o k and
Johnson (1970) studied joint patterns in ironstone intraclasts and in the ironstone
layers from which they were derived on the coastal platform north of Wollongong.
They concluded that the jointing pattern present in the sediment, a set striking 078
and 105, was developed at the time of sedimentation. These suggests that the
thickness trends for the Bulli Coal (Jakeman, 1980). Memarian (1993) also studied
the fracture history of the Coal Cliff Sandstone at Coalcliff. H e stated that these
joints are extensional in origin and formed from tectonic stresses during burial.
40
including Scheibner (1976), Dolye et al. (1968), Denham (1980), Herbert (1980a),
Denham et al. (1981), Gray (1982), Everingham et al. (1987), Scheibner (1987),
(1990). Most of them agree that the Sydney Basin was subjected to east-west
the Mesozoic. This east-west compression was probably related to subduction to the
In the Illawarra region the principal feature associated with this east-west stress fiel
is the Camden Syncline. In addition to this stress field, evidence exists that the
period. This stress field caused the anticlinal-synclinal crenulations on the eastern
Since the Cainozoic the basin has been subjected to north-south compression (Gray,
1976), features such as the monoclines and recent earthquakes are associated with
Scheibner (1976) considered that this stress field was associated with movement of
CHAPTER 3
GEOLOGY OF THE UPPER COAL MEASURES AND LOWER NARRABEEN
GROUP IN THE SCARBOROUGH-STANWELL PARK AREA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The lower Narrabeen Group and upper Illawarra Coal Measures in the Scarborough-
Stanwell Park area are essentially flat-lying strata consisting of repeated beds of
sandstone, shale, claystone and coal seams. The coal measure rocks consist of
tuffaceous sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone, claystone and coal seams. The lower
The niawarra Coal Measures crop out south of Clifton and generally form much of the
coastal plains in the Illawarra region, although they are frequently covered by
Quaternary alluvium.
The coal measures sequence is approximately 250 m thick extending downwards from
the base of the Coal Cliff Sandstone. The upper most layer is the Bulli Coal, which
consists of black bituminous coal of coking grade in a seam between 1.5 and 2 m thick.
Below the Bulli seam the sequence consists of carbonaceous shale and lithic sandstone
with interbeds coal sandstone and conglomerate lenses. Only the Bulli Coal has been
The Narrabeen Group extends for the full length of the escarpment in the study area and
also crops out to the west of the escarpment. It is the principal group of rocks making
up the coastal cliffs between Scarborough and Stanwell Park where it is particularly well
exposed.
The lower Narrabeen Group contains the following units from top to base. The Bulgo
and some thin conglomerate bands. The Stanwell Park Claystone consists of red-brown
and greenish claystone containing two prominent quartz sandstone beds. The
beds and rare shale. It outcrops boldly and forms the major part of the coastal cliffs.
The Wombarra Shale consists of grey shale, but it contains one thick sandstone layer
known as the Otford Sandstone Member. The Coal Cliff Sandstone is a massive grey
lithic sandstone which forms the coastal cliffs in the southern part of the study area.
in turn overlain by alluvial sediments of the Narrabeen Group in the Wollongong area.
Rocks of the Narrabeen Group crop out in the lower coastal cliffs and shore platforms,
extending as a narrow zone northeastwards from the base of the cliff north of Clifton.
South of Clifton the coastline is composed of Illawarra Coal Measures but the main
outcrop zone of the coal measures south of Wombarra is mainly located on the steep
slope at the base of the Illawarra escarpment. Here these strata are overlain by
The stratigraphy, depositional settings and petrography of the Late Permian Illawarra
Coal Measures have reported by Bamberry (1992). The Illawarra Coal Measures has
been divided into two subgroups. These are the Sydney and underlying Cumberland
Subgroups.
The Sydney Subgroup is some 90-130 m thick in the northern niawarra region and
consists of lithic sandstone, siltstone, claystone and coal with a minor amount of tuff.
Commonly along the outcrop of this unit the coal seams have been observed by the
as being about 110 m thick beneath the northern Illawarra region where it consists of
sandstone with some interbedded claystone. The Shoalhaven Group underlies the
43
Illawarra Coal Measures and consists of sandstone and siltstone below the northern
Illawarra area, but includes latite members to the south which represent the Gerringong
Volcanic Facies.
(Bamberry, 1992). The Sydney Subgroup in the Illawarra area contains the following
units.
sequence. Typical examples of the sandstone sequence in the basal Wilton Formation
occur in the railway cutting at Thirroul (Fig. 1.3). It comprises very coarse-grained to
Woonona Coal Member overlies the coarse basal sandstone and varies in thickness from
Higher sandstone beds within this formation are fine- to medium-grained and well
sorted. They exhibit a general increase in quartz content up through the formation and
microcrystalline quartz. Commonly, the cement is calcite with lesser siderite. Siltstone
and shale in the Wilton Formation were examined using XRD analysis of whole rock
and clay fractions. The major components are quartz, illite, smectite and kaolinite
This formation is overlain by the Tongarra Coal (Bowman, 1974) which, in turn, is
interbanded dull and bright coal with interbeds of carbonaceous shale and tuffaceous
claystone. The Tongarra Coal has a regular thickness (Bamberry, 1992) of between 2.8
and 3 m in the coastal exposures. A tectonic control, namely the stable tectonic sett
containing minor sandstone (Austinmer Sandstone Member) and tuff (Huntley Tuffaceous
Claystone Member). This unit is commonly a soft, parallel laminated, pale claystone
which, in some cases, exhibits normal grading (Bamberry, 1992). The unit immediately
overlies the Tongarra Coal and is overlain by the Darkes Forest Sandstone.
The Bargo Claystone is about 15 m thick in the Illawarra region (Bowman, 1974), but
coalfield (Hutton et al, 1990). The Austinmer Sandstone Member is very fine- to fine-
grained sandstone and is moderately to well sorted. It is present near the base of th
The Darkes Forest Sandstone is 10 m thick (Bowman, 1974), overlies the Bargo
Claystone and is immediately overlain by the Allans Creek Formation. The sequence
records the deposition of fine- to medium-grained sand, silt and clay in a delta fron
45
The unit is cemented by coarse-grained calcite, with lesser siderite. Porosity within the
unit is very low due to this widespread cementation (Odins et al, 1990).
overlain by the Kembla Sandstone. Its thickness is usually between 4 and 16 m (Hutton
Typically, sandstone within the formation consists of moderately to well sorted, fine-
fragments (Odins et al, 1990). Typical matrix materials include microcrystalline quartz
and clay minerals. The American Creek Coal Member in the upper part of the Allans
Coal. The contact between the Kembla Sandstone and Allans Creek Formation is a
sharp erosional surface that is marked by abundant chert pebbles, intraclasts and
preserved fossil wood (Bamberry, 1992). The Kembla Sandstone is between 4 and 8 m
Matrix material mainly consists of clay minerals. Porosity within this unit is low,
although where pores occur they are commonly very open in nature (Odins et al, 1990).
Two major lithofacies associations are recognised within the Kembla Sandstone. The
fining upwards sequence of the lower coarse member of the Kembla Sandstone, together
with the terrestrial aspect of surrounding strata attests to a fluvial origin for this
succession. The well ordered internal lamination within the overlying fine member
46
indicates a floodplain environment and suggests that the sequence was deposited in
coal, carbonaceous shale and tuffaceous claystone (Table 3.1). Coaly beds in the upper
and lower parts of the Wongawilli Coal are separated by tuffaceous claystone. The
upper coaly beds consists of carbonaceous claystone with coaly laminae whereas well-
developed coal, comprising interbanded bright and dull coal with bands of carbonaceous
The tuffaceous character of the claystone bed within the Wongawilli Coal indicates that
it represents an airfall ash deposit (Bamberry, 1992). In coastal outcrops, the basal
claystone and siltstone (2 to 4 m). At Scarborough (Fig. 1.3) the basal section overlies
important component of the clastic beds. Several units of member status, mostly coal
seams, are defined within the Eckersley Formation (Fig. 3.12). This formation generally
interbedded coal, carbonaceous siltstone and claystone of the Woronora Coal Member.
In cliffs near Scarborough and Clifton, Hanlon (1953) formally named the Hargrave,
Cape Horn and Balgownie Coal Members and the Lawrence Sandstone Member. The
47
respective outcrop type-section thickness of the Hargrave, Cape Horn and Balgownie
Coal Members are 0.46 m, 1.32 m and 1.30 m. The Lawrence Sandstone Member has
a maximum thickness of 18 m. The interval between the Balgownie Coal Member and
Bulli Coal normally comprises an upward fining coarse- to fine-grained fluvial sandstone
sequence capped by siltstone and shale (Loddon Sandstone Member; Bamberry, 1992).
This forms the uppermost clastic unit in the niawarra Coal Measures. It typically
and less common illite and smectite. This sandstone has a carbonate cement and is
relatively non-porous.
2 to 3 m thick in the area of the detailed study. The unit can be seen to outcrop along
the waters edge from the Jetty Fault to Clifton Fault where it forms the weakest layer
in the lower cliff (Fig. 3.2). The original entrance to Coalcliff Colliery can still be see
on the rock platform just to the south of the Jetty Fault. North of the Jetty Fault, the
coal seam is believed to outcrop below sea level at the base of the Coal Cliff Sandstone
rock platform.
stability within the niawarra region. When unweathered rocks are tested, the massive
sandstone and dense thinly bedded siltstone and shale members show high values for
most engineering parameters such as strength and durability (see chapter 7). However
weathered rocks show low values for most engineering parameters. Outcrop of
48
Narrabeen Group rocks tend to be deeply and intensely weathered, whilst even fresh
Constraints on the simple acceptance of engineering test data arise from the specific
lithologies in the Narrabeen Group. These include the common lithic nature of sand
grains in the sandstone units and the presence throughout the sequence of interbedded
claystone units which are prone to rapid weathering (Fig. 3.3). The presence of unstable
cements and swelling clays contribute to this rapid weathering and disintegration. In
addition, well-developed joints further reduce the overall rock mass quality.
A combination of these factors results in Narrabeen Group rocks commonly giving rise
to fall and slip-prone scree slopes and talus soils where the unit crops out on hillsides.
In sea cliffs, the Narrabeen Group strata are rather more easily eroded than the
Hawkesbury Sandstone strata, and hence relatively rapid rates of cliff-line recession
occur leaving the escarpment protected by the erosion resistant Hawkesbury Sandstone.
Differential weathering of the interbedded Narrabeen Group sequence, coupled with cliff-
line collapse and retreat has generated a benched topography on the Illawarra escarpment
(Fig. 1.4). As a consequence of their poor weathering characteristics, the rocks of the
and lithic moderately sorted sandstone. The unit forms a protective rock platform
extending from south of Coalcliff beach to the Clifton Fault at Moronga Park (Figs 3.7,
5.1). The unit is typically 10-12 m thick in the Coalcliff area near the Jetty Fault (Fig.
3.3). It consists of silt and clay laminae, normally exhibiting small-scale cross-
lamination parallel to irregular bedding (Fig. 3.3). Repeated 'fining upwards' sequences
are present within Coal Cliff Sandstone (Ward, 1972). Rockfalls are common in the
49
Coal Cliff Sandstone, especially between Clifton and Coalcliff, where undermining along
the shale bands reduces the support for the overlying vertically-jointed sandstone and
eventually leads to stabs falling off along the vertical joint faces (Fig. 3.3). The retreat
of the coastline is also brought about by rockfalls associated with the marine
undercutting of the Coal Cliff Sandstone (Fig. 3.2). The presence of the Bulli Coal
beneath this sandstone also enhances rockfalls since its permeability and aquifer
properties cause seepage concentrations and the rapid weathering of the underlying
siltstone, which breaks down to form clay typically possessing low shear strength
properties.
Wombarra Shale is typically 30 to 35 m thick in the area of the study and is composed
of greenish grey shale with fine-grained lithic sandstone interbeds and a thicker coarse
sandstone unit (Otford Sandstone Member). The Otford Sandstone Member has a
maximum thickness of 7 m with cross-bedding and a thin conglomerate bed (Fig. 3.5).
Undercutting occurs at the contact between Conglomerate sandstone and the cross-
bedded finer grained upper portion of the Otford Sandstone Member between Clifton
and Coalcliff along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive. The rapid weathering of the
interbedded siltstone along this contact produces a low shear strength clay while
indicates small rockfalls (Fig. 3.5). In the detailed study area, the formation is subject
to rapid weathering and erosion, with active marine erosion occurring along the coastal
cliff-line (Fig. 3.4). Weathering of the Wombarra Shale, which breaks down to form
low strength clay, and the existence of seepage concentrations within the fractured and
exposed surface layer cause instability along the coastal cliffs. Thus the Wombarra
Shale acts as a bedrock for many landslides along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive (Fig.
1.4). From the north headland at Coalcliff to the Clifton Fault the road is founded on
50
a small bench within this unit. This has led to numerous stability problems along the
road.
north of Stanwell Park Beach to the north end of Coalcliff beach (Fig. 1.4). It also
crop out in the steep cuttings immediately above Lawrence Hargrave Drive from south
of Coalcliff to the Clifton Fault. The unit is typically 25 to 30 m thick and consists
sequences are repeated within unit (Ward, 1972). This unit includes a few thin shale
beds and fairly common fine pebble to granular conglomerate beds. The presence of
interbedded claystone within the Scarborough Sandstone, which weathers to form low
strength clay, and the presence of vertical joints causes many rockfalls (Fig. 3.6). Sout
from the Coalcliff tunnel to the Clifton Fault it forms the foundation for the railway li
in a very unstable area (Rube Hargrave Park; Fig. 3.7). Below the railway line and
above Stony Creek the outcrop of the Scarborough Sandstone is completely obscured
by steeply sloping talus detritus down to the level of the Wombarra Shale (cf. Fig. 1.5).
It would underlie the road at Stony Creek crossing if it had not been eroded away.
quartz lithic sandstone. Hanlon (1953), in his section of the Stanwell Park Claystone,
between Stanwell Creek and Coalcliff Railway Station were associated with this
formation. The author has observed several landslides within the Stanwell Park
51
Claystone in the State Rail Authority area. It forms the foundation for the railway line
between Coalcliff Station and the Coalcliff tunnel (Fig. 3.8). The rapid weathering of
the StanweU Park Claystone unit, which breaks down to form clay typically possessing
low shear strength properties and the existence of seepage concentrations within the
fractured surface layers of the Stanwell Park Claystone cause instability in the study
area. Many of the slides associated with the Stanwell Park Claystone have other
Fractured zones within this unit also appear to act as outlet points for subsurface water
which is believed to percolate down through joints and fractures in the overlying strata.
This unit is quite prone to rapid weathering and is responsible for the creation of the
The Bulgo Sandstone is the thickest of formation in the Narrabeen Group in the
Illawarra area. It is 120 m thick at Clifton, forming over half the total Narrabeen
succession (Ward, 1980). The unit crops out at the top of the escarpment cliffs between
Clifton and Coalcliff and at sea level in the coastal headlands to the north of Stanwell
Park.
The Bulgo Sandstone in coastal districts can be divided into three distinct facies (Ward,
1980). The lower part is very similar to the underlying Scarborough Sandstone and it
was called "pebbly facies" by Ward (1980). Overlying the pebbly facies is a succession
of sandstone, shale, and granule conglomerate which has a very characteristic green
colour in the field. Because this green sediment consists of altered intermediate to basic
volcanic material it is referred to as the "volcanic facies". The sequence between the
top of the volcanic facies and the base of the Bald Hill Claystone has a considerably
higher proportion of shale than the remainder of the Bulgo Sandstone. This part of unit
The sediments of the Bulgo Sandstone are fluvial deposits (Ward, 1972). The varying
grain size and the proportion of shale reflect the relative intensity of river action
involved.
This unit is typically quartz lithic sandstone with mainly a medium to coarse grain size,
even conglomeratic in part. Smaller scale 'fining upwards' sequences are repeated
within Bulgo Sandstone (Ward, 1980). Interbedded bands of claystone are present at
the bottom and top of the unit. The presence of interbedded claystone within the Bulgo
Sandstone, which weathers to form low strength clay and undercuts the contact between
sandstone and claystone, causes many small rockfalls along the Lawrence Hargrave
In the study area, the Bulgo Sandstone was found to be approximately 120-125 m thick.
It is well jointed and forms the steep slopes below the Hawkesbury Sandstone cliff-
line. High plasticity clay bands exist within the unit which have been found to
operations in the area have provided valuable information on dykes and sills. The rocks
forming the dykes and sills are basalt or lamprophyre. Colliery investigation boreholes
in the Stanwell Park valley, to the east of the Illawarra Railway, are reported to have
detected intrusive sills in the Bulli Coal. It is reported that this has resulted in the coal
deposit becoming cindered and thus undesirable for extraction. These data are supported
by the exposure of a fresh basaltic sill which intrudes the Scarborough Sandstone about
The plans of the mine workings clearly display the multitude of dykes in the area, the
directions of which are highly dependant upon the jointing and faulting. A s a result,
53
the majority of the intrusions run in a north-south direction, with the remainder typically
F e w dykes are visible on the ground surface in the study area. O n e is visible in the
believed that this dyke extends in a southwest direction influencing the shape of the
upper headland. The second exposure, which is actually a dyke zone can be seen some
150 m upstream from the Stanwell Creek railway viaduct. This zone is about 15 m
wide and contains three separate dykes up to 1 metre wide (Adamson, 1974). A third
Coalcliff and Clifton. The presence of dykes is a contributing factor for slope
instability, but their effect needs to be determine with more exploratory work. The
dykes can affect the underground water flow and m a y increase seepage. The properties
seem to vary depending upon the contact strata. Observations by Harper (1915) and
A d a m s o n (1974) suggested that strong alteration of the intrusions occurs when they are
in contact with coal. This is confirmed by many of the dykes reported in the mine
workings consisting of green clay. If not in contact with coal, the dyke material m a y
3.5 TALUS
M u c h of the bedrock exposures are blanketed with a talus mantle of variable thickness
and nature. Talus thickness along the escarpment ranges from zero to 20 m . Drilling
and excavations conducted by the State Rail Authority in the course of the major slip
remedial works from 1988-1992 revealed typical thicknesses of 5-10 m in the detail
study area.
Multiple massive talus deposits were observed which appear to have resulted from
ancient landslides. The properties of the talus are highly dependent upon its source.
Coarse talus is derived from sandstone strata and commonly consists of very large
54
boulders within a sand clay matrix (Fig. 3.10). Talus derived from claystone is often
finer grained having a larger clay fraction and higher plasticity index. This often occurs
at the base of the talus deposits which commonly mantle the coastal terraces developed
on the shale units. As a result, in a landslide situation, residual shear strengths often
reflect the properties of the clays which are derived from the basal claystone strata.
sequences. Brief mention is made of them here because of their influence on the
escarpment stability. Some units within the niawarra Coal Measures are characterised
The Narrabeen Group sandstone is characterised by ripple marks and planar high-angle
and trough cross-beds. Shale is characterised by laminated. The claystone units trend
to be structureless other than for some graded bedding. The Wombarra Shale and
Stanwell Park Claystone usually lacks structures apart from bedding. The larger
structures are always cemented, thereby reducing their effect on the variation in
fluvial system (Bamberry, 1992). The sedimentary environment of the Narrabeen Group
in the southern part of the Sydney Basin indicates several different type of fluvial
deposits, with an upward succession from piedmont conditions with braided streams to
a swampy deltaic plain (Ward, 1972). This sequence is interpreted as the onshore
Kembla Coal and Coke (KCC) have carried out a drilling program associa
planned development in the West Cliff and North Cliff Collieries. Bore
drilled to some 500 m depth, with the lower 30 to 40 m being fully cor
Some of the boreholes have been fully cored through the Narrabeen Grou
This part of the chapter presents the lithology of the upper coal meas
Narrabeen Group in the fully cored boreholes IL55, IL57, IL60 and IL64
Sandstone, Balgownie Coal and Loddon Sandstone Members) and Bulli Coal
IL57 (Fig. 3.12b). Only the upper part of this sequence above the Balg
intersected in boreholes IL60 (Fig. 3.12a) and IL64 (Fig. 3.12c). The
borehole IL57, 7 m at borehole IL60 (Fig. 3.12a) and 6.4 m at borehole IL64
(Fig. 3.12c). The Bulli Coal at the top of the niawarra Coal Measures is 2.8 m thick
at borehole IL60, 2.3 m thick at borehole IL57 and 1.90 m thick at borehole IL64.
dominant in the four boreholes (Fig. 3.13). In borehole IL57 (Fig. 3.13b) this unit
the formation. In boreholes IL60 (Fig. 3.13a), IL64 (Fig. 3.13c) and IL55 (Fig. 3.13d)
The basal part of this unit consists of dark grey to black claystone or carbonaceous
claystone (boreholes IL55, IL60 and IL64). The dark colour results from the preserved
organic matter in these claystone units. Lower part of the unit contains several fractures
at intermediate angles to the core which have well developed slickensides. The
gradational arrangement of the coarse and fine members suggest that the sandstones
mostly shale and claystone with interbedded sandstone and conglomerate occurring
locally (Otford Sandstone Member; Fig. 3.14). The ratio of sandstone to shale/claystone
varies from one borehole to another. In boreholes IL55 (Fig. 3.16d), IL57 (Fig. 3.16b)
shale/claystone dominates whereas in borehole IL64 (Fig. 3.16c) this unit consists of
shows an upward decrease in grain size. The basal part of this unit consists of dark
grey shales and interbedded very fine- to fine-grained sandstone. The dark colour
resulted from the preserved organic matter in some shale/claystone beds. The interbedded
very fine- to fine-grained sandstone shows ripple bedding IL60 (Fig. 3.16a). The green
to grey colour through most of the shale/claystone was related to the paucity of
preserved organic matter in it. Fissility in Wombarra Shale is very clear (Fig. 3.15).
The coarse members represent channel-fill or crevasse splay deposits and the fine
sandstone and conglomerate with interbedded claystone and shale. Sandstone is the
dominant lithology in the four boreholes. In boreholes IL60 (Fig. 3.17a), IL57 (Fig.
3.17b) and IL64 (Fig. 3.17c) this formation consists largely of sandstone, especially in
borehole IL64. The sandstone in this formation is dominantly fine- to very coarse-
grained. Most of the sandstone is massive but some shows cross-bedding, a prominent
vertical joint with a length about 1 m is present in the sandstone at borehole IL55 (Fig.
3.18). The grey claystone/shale interbeds are usually thin (about 0.5-0.7 m ) . The grey
them. The basal part of formation consists of conglomerate (boreholes IL55, IL57) or
fine- to medium-grained sandstone (boreholes IL60, 1164) which overlies the Wombarra
Shale. The fining upwards sequences in the Scarborough Sandstone suggest a fluvial
of claystone and siltstone, with sandstone and conglomerate occurring locally (Fig.
3.19a). The ratio of claystone to sandstone varies from one borehole to another. In
boreholes IL55 (Fig. 3.19d), IL57 (Fig. 3.19b) and IL64 (Fig. 3.19c) claystone is
dominant whereas in borehole H64 this formation consists largely of sandstone with
minor claystone mainly at the base. The sandstone in this formation ranges from fine-
to coarse-grained and commonly shows an upward decrease in grain size. The basal
part of this unit consists of dark greenish-grey and reddish-brown to purplish claystone.
The dark colour results from the preserved organic matter in greenish-grey claystone
beds. The coarse members are probable channel (IL60) or crevasse splay deposits
boreholes studied. In boreholes IL57 and IL64 sandstone accounts for about 85% of
the unit. The majority of the sandstone shows cross-bedding and ripple bedding.
Sandstone beds in the upper of the formation are generally finer than those in the lower
part of the formation and claystone is slightly more abundant. The basal part of
formation consists of fine- to coarse-grained sandstone in the four boreholes (Fig. 3.20).
containing abundant lithic grains has a sharp erosional contact with the underlying
Stanwell Park Claystone. This lower part is very similar to the underlying Scarborough
interbedded with dark grey shale, grey claystone and very coarse granule conglomerate.
The thickness of interbeds ranges between 0.5-0.8 m for shale, between 0.02-1.7 m for
59
claystone, between 0.04-1.0 m for fine siltstone and between 0.07-0.75 m for
The fine- to medium-grained sandstone contains prominent vertical joints with a length
of between 0.7-1.5 m and subvertical joints with a maximum length of 1.5 m (e.g. Fig.
3.21). The upper part of the unit contains more greyish-grey claystone (Fig. 3.20a) and
represents the "shaly facies") of Ward (1980). It was overlain by the Bald Hill
Claystone. The fining upwards sequences in the Bulgo Sandstone suggest a fluvial
3.9 DISCUSSION
investigations. All stratigraphic work and sample logging should be oriented toward
description of (a) thick sequences of weak rocks (claystone and shale) and the nature
of interbedded sequences, (b) thin marker beds, and (c) old failure surfaces.
In the Narrabeen Group, thick sequences of weak rocks (Stanwell Park Claystone and
Wombarra Shale) are rather more easily eroded than sandstone strata and hence
relatively rapid rates of recession occur. Undermining along these thick sequences of
weak rocks, at the contacts between the claystone and sandstone, reduces the support
for the overlying vertically-jointed sandstone and eventually leads to stabs falling off
along the vertical joint faces. Thin marker beds (coal seams) in the niawarra Coal
Measures commonly act as aquifers, with claystone beds acting as aquitards. Slope
instability is usually related to the presence of the aquifers which are the source of high
The lithic nature of sand grains in the sandstone units, the presence throughout the
sequence of interbedded claystone units which are prone to rapid weathering, and the
weU developed joints all tend to reduce the overall rock mass quality.
Landslides that occur within in soft rock masses (Stanwell Park Claystone and
Wombarra Shale) typically involve bedding as the basal shear surface, and joints or
other defect controls for lateral and headscarp release (Brown, 1974; Hancox, 1974).
According to Bell and Pettinga (1988) two types of bedding control can be identified:
(a) the presence of clay-rich interbeds, such as claystone within the Bulgo Sandstone,
and (b) the presence of organic-rich sediments, such as carbonaceous claystone in the
firstly by providing a layer of lower permeability above which positive pore water
pressures can increase; and secondly the presence of relatively low shear strength
materials within which or upon which sliding may occur (Bell and Pettinga, 1988).
(a) changes in lithology causing a permeability contrast allowing localised high pore
pressures; (b) increased clay content - this was suggested by Simpson and Walton
(1970) as the initial cause of most continuous bands of clay mylonite observed in the
English coal measures; (c) changes in clay mineralogy - this has been suggested by
Fookes (1967) for shear surfaces in the Siwalik Clay; and (d) dissolution of soluble
In the Coal Cliff Sandstone along the coast-line between Clifton and Coalcliff the fine-
grained sandstone near the base of the formation sometimes grades into claystone (Fig.
3.22a). Weathering and erosion of this claystone reduces the slope stability on the Coal
Cliff Sandstone. In some places, near the top and middle of this formation, claystone
interbeds occur within the dominantly sandstone units, and result in the stability of the
sandstone unit being decreased by the water flow and weathering of the claystone
(Fig. 3.22b).
61
Fractured zones within Narrabeen Group rocks appear to act as outlet points for water
and shows moderately porosity and permeability especially in the basal half. This has
produced a perched water table in this formation, with water flow concentration along
the junction with the underlying Wombarra Shale. Weathering and erosion of the
Wombarra Shale causes many rockfalls (Fig. 3.23). Between Clifton and Coalcliff along
the Lawrence Hargrave Drive some sandstone beds are present within the Wombarra
Shale. The sandstone beds are more prominent and have the effect of reducing the
amount of weathering of the shale that is exposed and eroded away. It has been
observed at this locality, and at other localities throughout the study area, that often
when interbeds of a more competent rock type occur within a claystone unit, they have
the effect of stabilising the claystone unit. In contrast, whenever claystone interbeds
occur within dominantly sandstone units, the stability of the sandstone unit is decreased.
In considering the Narrabeen Group rocks, the Wombarra Shale and the Stanwell Park
Claystone are generally least influenced by the stability afforded by sandstone interbeds.
The greatest stability for sandstone unit occurs when there is a low thickness of
claystone interbeds. Amongst the Narrabeen Group sandstones, the Bulgo Sandstone is
likely to be the most unstable because this formation consist of thickly bedded sandstone
interbedded claystone has most effect on the stability of formation. Weathering and
erosion of claystone causes many rockfalls in the study area especially between Clifton
and Coalcliff along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive (Fig. 3.9b). In contrast the most
stable unit is the Scarborough Sandstone which overlying a few lenses of claystone.
62
63
CHAPTER 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
McElroy (1954) studied the composition and texture of the Narrabeen Group sediments
Sydney Basin. Bai (1991) studied the petrology, diagenesis and reservoir potential of
the Narrabeen Group sandstone in the Sydney Basin. All these studies show that the
content of detrital quartz grains generally increases towards the top of the group and
The aims of this petrological study are to determine variations in the detrital
composition of the sandstone units, and to assess the effects of these compositions on
weathering, engineering properties and slope stability in the northern niawarra. The
logged borehole DL55 in the North Cliff area and outcrops between Scarborough and
Stanwell Park Station. They were impregnated with blue dye to facilitate observation
of porosity in thin sections. All thin sections were examined under a petrological
sorting and roundness. Some samples are altered to such an extent that the detrital
lithic fragments could not be distinguished from the clay matrix and such samples are
64
36 thin sections were selected for point counting. Photomicrographs were taken of
selected thin sections using an Olympus (Model BHSP) Camera with 100 ASA film.
Except in a few cases, at least 250 counts were made for each slide to ensure a
reasonably high accuracy in the result. The results of point counting are presented in
Sorting and rounding were estimated from thin section examinations. The degree of
sorting ranges from very poorly, through poorly to well sorted and the degree of
rounding ranges from angular, through subangular and subrounded to well rounded.
Even though porosity characteristics were examined under the petrological microscope,
the study of porosity characteristics is not an easy task since the blue dye penetration
In addition, a trace amount of chalcedony was also recognised in a few thin sections.
Usually fresh samples have the highest quartz content, whereas weathered samples have
It seems that at least some of the quartz grains were derived from granite (Blatt et al,
1980). Some of the detrital monocrystalline quartz grains contain many fluid inclusions
and have a very cloudy appearance under plane polarised light. They are most likely
(1) composite grains consisting of uniformly sized crystals, which have mostly straight
or sutured contacts;
(3) composite grains with preferred orientation of elongate crystals, some of which
The detrital polycrystalline quartz grains (Fig. 4.1) are considered to be largely derived
from metamorphic rocks, including quartzite, as most of them contain more than 5
individual crystals, sutured contacts and or preferred orientation (Blatt et al, 1980). In
addition, a small number of the polycrystalline quartz grains show a cloudy appearance
under plane polarised light, which is caused by abundant fluid inclusions. Quartz
overgrowths were recognised in a number of thin sections (e.g. Fig. 4.5), particularly
those rich in quartz, and in some thin sections it is not easy or possible to distinguish
the quartz overgrowth from the detrital quartz grain due to lack of a clear boundary.
For this case cathodoluminescence is used to determinate the quartz overgrowth from
4.3.2 FELDSPAR
The majority of the sandstones, especially those rich in detrital quartz grains, have less
than 2% detrital feldspar. Detrital feldspar grains are generally altered. In fact, some
of them have altered to such an extent that it is impossible to identify the feldspar. In
addition detrital feldspar grains are easy targets for carbonate replacement (Fig. 4.2).
Some have been partly or completely replaced by carbonate and some of the secondary
pore spaces in thin sections were probably created by the dissolution of detrital feldspar
grains.
Patchy kaolinite flakes, filling the outline of detrital feldspar grains; are considered to
Volcanic rock fragments mostly comprise chert grains that may have been derived from
silicic volcanic rocks or from silicified flows and tuff. Sedimentary clasts consist
mudstone, shale and siltstone fragments. Metamorphic rock fragments consist mainly
of slate and schist and were recognised by the preferred orientation of elongate min
in the fragment. Rock fragments make up more than 50% in some of the lithic
4.3.4 CHERT
size, and from volcanic rock fragments by its relatively clean surface under the
petrological microscope and its quartz composition. The distinction between silicifi
volcanic chert and detrital chert grains is not possible in some thin sections. In t
study, the uncertain detrital clasts were counted as chert. In some chert grains,
radiolarian remains, which occur as nearly perfect spheres filled with quartz, were
recognised. Their presence provides strong evidence for the identification of the gr
as detrital chert.
4.3.5 MICA
Mica includes muscovite and biotite with muscovite being more abundant. Due to
mechanical compaction, elongated muscovite plates are usually deformed around the
adjacent hard detrital grains. Mica content ranges from 0.2% to 3.6% of the total
sandstone.
67
4.3.6 ACCESSORY MINERALS
In the majority of samples, no accessory minerals were identified. Where present they
include tourmaline, zircon and opaque grains. In the samples with accessory minerals,
Iron oxides are present in the all of the samples. They range from 0.6% to 14.5% of
the total sandstone. They are determined by the brownish colour, irregular shape,
opaqueness and aphanitic texture. They occur both as detrital grains and as secondary
cement.
4.3.8 CARBONATE
Carbonate occurs in two types of texture: microcrystalline and macrocrystalline, with the
latter as the dominate one. The former usually occurs as irregular patches filling inter-
grain pore spaces. The macrocrystalline carbonate crystals generally show two clear
cleavage directions and have clean surfaces under plane polarised light. The Carbonate
not only fills inter-granular pore spaces but also partly or completely replaces/corrodes
detrital grains, as well as forming a coat on detrital grains. Carbonate cement coating
detrital grains is much less common than cement filling inter-granular pore spaces and
The majority of the sandstone samples contain carbonate cement. The highest content
the total sandstone in a fresh core sample from the Coal Cliff Sandstone (Fig. 4.2). In
some thin sections, partially dissolved carbonate cements were recognised. The
dissolution has created secondary pore spaces. In the point counting no attempt was
made to record the components replaced by carbonate (mainly feldspars and volcanic
The carbonate cements include calcite, siderite and perhaps ferroan calcite, dolomite and
ankerite. However, the differentiation of them is not easy under the petrological
microscope.
4.3.9 KAOLINITE
Kaolinite occurs in the all of the samples, ranging from 0.6% to 31.3% of the total
sandstone. Kaolinite flakes filling inter-granular pore spaces can often be identified
positively under the petrologic microscope (Fig. 4.3) and by scanning electron
feldspar or clayey rocks in warm and humid climates; kaolinite is often difficult to
distinguish from chert and finely crystalline volcanic rock fragments. X-ray diffraction
4.3.10 MATRIX
The definition of matrix used here follows that of Morris et al. (1979). It generally
refers to all particles which are too fine to be identified with the petrological
microscope. Thus it includes all clay minerals, which may be detrital or diagenetic, clay
(< 4 microns) and silt-sized (4-62.5 microns) mica, quartz and feldspar, and the products
The definition of clay fraction in soil mechanics is different. In the latter definition c
fraction is that percentage of soil which has a particle size below 0.002 mm (2 microns)
and which consists of clay minerals. The fraction below 0.002 mm which does not
consists of clay minerals is called "clay-size" fraction and not clay fraction. Silt sized
The matrix commonly occurs as patches filling inter-granular pore spaces. The most
common matrix observed in the thin sections consists of detrital clay minerals and silt-
sized quartz grains. Most of the sandstones studied have a matrix content forming more
69
than 10% of the total sandstone. The highest matrix content of 28.6% was recorded in
a slightly weathered Bulgo Sandstone (Table 4.3b, sample SWBSs6). The point count
data show that the amount of matrix is generally inversely related to the grain size.
The coarse-grained sandstones tend to have less matrix than the fine-grained sandstones.
In addition, the amount of matrix generally increases at the same time as the volcanic
The quantities of matrix and carbonate cement are also inversely related. The higher
the carbonate cement, the lower the clay matrix. This is illustrated in Table 4.4b where
the Otford Sandstone Member conglomerate sample (SWCONG5) has a much higher
4.3.11 CEMENT
The majority of the sandstone samples contain calcite, kaolinite and iron oxide cement,
but minor chlorite and quartz cement is present in some samples (e.g. Fig. 4.4b).
Calcite and kaolinite are the most common cementing agents in the Coal Cliff
Sandstone. Calcite, siderite and kaolinite cements occur in the sandstones of Wombarra
Shale (Otford Sandstone Member). Kaolinite and calcite are common cementing agents
for the Scarborough and Bulgo Sandstones (Figs 4.5, 4.6), but minor quartz cement is
In some thin sections, authigenic chlorite coating detrital grains can be identified
4.3.12 POROSITY
Since all thin sections were impregnated with blue dye, the pore space were identified
by the blue colour under plane polarised light. Porosity includes pores of both primary
and secondary origin. Visual porosity varies from 0.2% to 4% of the total sandstone.
70
Illawarra between Scarborough and Stanwell Park consists principally of detrital quartz
The rock fragments range in roundness from angular to well rounded with the majority
of them being subangular to subrounded. The well rounded quartz grains probably
represent second cycle sediment and were derived from earlier deposited sandstone
sequences. The poorly rounded angular quartz clasts were derived from volcanic
sources.
The sandstone of the Narrabeen Group in this area ranges in sorting from very poorly
to well sorted. Coarser sandstones tend to be poorly to very poorly sorted whereas finer
4.7) used in this thesis is modified from the one proposed by Folk (1980). A 50%
quartz line is added to Folk's classification to emphasise those sandstones with more
than 50% but less than 75% detrital quartz grains. The adjectival modifier "quartzose"
calculations for the classification of Narrabeen Group sandstones are shown in Tables
4.5 to 4.8. Based on this classification fresh Coal Cliff Sandstone is quartzose
in the litharenite field (Fig. 4.7a). All of the samples are moderately sorted. Fresh and
slightly weathered samples from the Otford Sandstone Member are litharenite and
quartzose litharenite (Fig. 4.7b). Fresh, slightly and moderately weathered Scarborough
Sandstone samples are all quartzose litharenite (Fig. 4.7c). They are moderately sorted
71
weathered and moderately weathered samples are quartzose litharenite (Fig. 4.7d). These
Group so that the effects of alteration with an increase in weathering could observed.
Forty thin sections were examined, however, only those thin section which show specific
relevant features are described. The rocks have been sampled from a variety of
locations. Fresh samples came from borehole IL55 at different depths. This borehole
was drilled by Kembla Coal & Coke Pty Ltd ( K C C ) in the North Cliff Collieries.
Table 4.1 shows the analyses of fresh, slightly weathered and moderately weathered
samples from the Coal Cliff Sandstone. Weathered samples were selected between
Clifton and Coalcliff and fresh samples came from borehole IL55 at depths of 435.75 m
to 442.3 m .
Table 4.4 shows analyses of fresh and slightly weathered samples from the Otford
Sandstone Member. Fresh samples came from borehole IL55 at depths of 411.5 m to
414.7 m. Slightly weathered samples were selected from the side of the road just south
Table 4.2 shows analyses of fresh, slightly weathered and moderately weathered samples
from the Scarborough Sandstone. Weathered samples were collected between Clifton
and Coalcliff. Fresh samples came from the borehole IL55 at depths of 394.7 m to
402.1 m.
Table 4.3 shows analyses of fresh, slightly weathered and moderately weathered
samples from the Bulgo Sandstone. Fresh samples came from the IL55 borehole at
depth of 289.6 m to 316 m. Slightly weathered samples were selected between Clifton,
and Coalcliff, while moderately weathered samples came from Stanwell Park Station.
72
It was not necessary to make thin sections of all the highly weathered specimens; X-
ray diffraction was a valuable tool in determining the mineralogy of these specimens.
These specimens have been weathered at the surface. Specimens have a distinct milky
appearance indicating that the fresh constituents of the rock show some degree of
alteration, especially the feldspar and rock fragments. The progressive increase in iron
oxide content and related decrease in siderite content is a result of the soluble ferrou
ion being unstable in an oxidising environment. With a fluctuating water table the
ferrous ion from the siderite is converted into the insoluble ferric ion to form iron
oxides, usually limonite. It appears that the formation of the iron oxides is accompanied
by a wedging action which prises some grains apart and thus reduces the perfect
4.8 to 4.10).
Some samples have been weathered in a non-oxidising environment because they were
in a location where alteration was due to the effect of groundwater flow. This
The coarse-grained nature of the sandstone would have undoubtedly aided the passage
most of the matrix and cement has been replaced by iron oxides, and rock fragments
From all the thin sections examined, some general conclusions have been drawn
(1) Decrease in siderite and calcite content with an increase in weathering (Fig. 4.11).
This is caused by dissolution of the carbonate cement once it comes into contact
(2) Increase in the angularity of the edges of the feldspars and rock fragment grains
(3) Quartz and rock fragments become progressively more fractured, probably as a
(4) Increase in overall iron staining and increase in thickness of iron oxides around
the edges of the quartz grains and rock fragments with increase in weathering (Fig.
4.12).
(5) Increase in chlorite content and diagenetic alteration of chlorite enhances the
(7) Slight decrease in grain to grain contact and perfection of packing compaction
(8) Increase in the amount of matrix with increase in weathering (Fig. 4.13).
(9) Decrease in the amount of chert with increase in matrix (Fig. 4.14), due to break-
These changes are a combination of physical and chemical weathering processes. The
main chemical changes are the transformation of the cement and matrix, primarily
siderite to chlorite and matrix clay to sericite, and the overall increase in the iron oxide
content. M a n y of the rock fragments are already quite milky in thin section in the fresh
rock and their subsequent alteration is only slight. O n the other hand the physical
changes are more widespread and cover the fracturing of the grains and the overall
decrease in grain to grain contacts. It is considered that, resulting from grain and
matrix dissolution, both the physical and chemical weathering processes play a very
significant effect on the mechanical properties of rock. The clear exception is that of
the increase in iron oxide cement, however, this feature only affects the surface rocks
and the vast majority are unaffected by significant iron staining. It has been observed
in the field between Clifton and Coalcliff that there are two distinct types of shale in
the W o m b a r r a Shale. Both have an overall greenish grey colour and appear in hand
fracture and is interbedded with sandstone units. The hackly fracture only occurs on
exposed and weathered surfaces. The other type of shale shows strong bedding and is
characteristically laminated and fissile. Slightly weathered specimens crumble easily and
flakes readily fall off. This distinction in shale types is most important because it has
a marked effect on the stability of coastal cliffs. The different textures could be due
randomly orientated flocculated clays and fine-grained quartz. The fissile shale consists
of dispersed clay, which have ideal parallel orientation, but the parallel orientation has
been disrupted in places by coarse quartz grains and rock fragments. These coarse
grains would have the effect of increasing the fracture permeability of the shale and so
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
This is especially important for claystone, shale and weathered rocks where petrographic
The basic concept in X-ray diffraction is that a beam of X-rays is diffracted from the
lattice planes of any crystalline substance. This phenomenon is similar to the reflection
of white light from a plane mirror. It should be noted that non-crystalline (amorphous)
are common in soil, claystone, shale, sandstone and limestone. One member of this
because it expands w h e n saturated with moisture, and can cause serious problems such
as:
(1) swelling clays can contribute to instability of cliffs and rock slopes especially in
the region above the groundwater table where the rocks are subjected to alternating
(2) swelling clays can cause mass movement because expansion of clays occurs during
or after periods of heavy rainfall in hillslope materials (e.g. the talus deposits);
(3) expanding clays can cause failure of open mine faces or failure of parts of
(4) swelling clays can cause uplift of foundations, and damage to tunnels, railway lines
and roads.
The aim of this study is to identify the clay species present in the soils and weathered
materials and to compare them with clay minerals from weathered and fresh rocks and
slope stability.
rocks, and surface soils were collected from the northern Illawarra district between
Coledale and Stanwell Park Station. The samples included weathered sandstone
interbedded with coal in the upper Illawarra Coal Measures, weathered shale interbedded
with the Coal Cliff Sandstone, fresh and moderately weathered Wombarra Shale, highly
Sandstone, fresh and moderately weathered Stanwell Park Claystone, highly weathered
76
Bulgo Sandstone and weathered shale interbedded with the Bulgo Sandstone. These
samples were studied using X-ray diffraction to determine the variability in clay
changes of mechanical properties of the rocks. For comparison, fresh samples were
selected from borehole IL55 between the depths of 431.20 m in the Wombarra Shale
interbedded shale were collected from Stanwell Park Station. Weathered Stanwell Park
Claystone was selected from north of Coalcliff Station and beside the Harbour Fault
between Coalcliff and Clifton. Weathered Wombarra Shale was sampled from beside
the Jetty Fault, north of the Jetty Fault, the road down to the old Coalcliff tunnel po
and between Wombarra Station and Coledale Station. Weathered shale interbedded with
Coal Cliff Sandstone was collected from the road down to the old Coalcliff tunnel
portal. Weathered sandstone interbedded with coal in the upper niawarra Coal Measures
was selected from the base of the Moronga Park slump at Clifton. Talus samples were
collected from all the studied landslide areas (head, crown and toe).
analysis of whole rock samples. For good results, grain size must be reduced to a
diameter of 5-10 microns. Care must be taken in particle size reduction because
For sample preparation, first the sample must be ground to a fine powder. This can be
done quite simply with a mortar and pestle or mechanical grinder. In this study both
techniques were used. First, the rock samples were reduced to fragments less than
reduced fraction was crushed in a mortar and pestle over a period 30-45 minutes. The
mechanical crusher took between 5 and 15 seconds depending upon the hardness of the
77
sample, usually harder and fresher samples taking 15 seconds, while the weathered and
The crushed sample was mounted in an aluminium holder and X-rayed. A simple
qualitative analysis is required for the interpretation of the chart record (e.g. Fig. 4.15).
The 20 angle increases from left to right on the horizontal, and the intensity of the
diffracted peak is given by the vertical scale. The peaks are identified in terms of 20
which is converted to lattice spacing. For experimental purposes the position of the
As all minerals and all crystalline materials possess a unique X-ray diffraction pattern,
standard patterns wUl lead to their identification. This method is very similar to human
These standard patterns have been compiled by an international organisation called the
Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS), which collects and updates
diffraction index for minerals, it is possible to identify almost any mineral that may be
present, provided that sufficient peaks are present for that mineral (usually a minimum
of three). This operation can be carried out by computer using the JCPDS file and a
Problem may arise with complex mineral mixtures since numerous peaks will be
X-ray diffraction is the most efficient method for determining the presence of clay
minerals in claystone, shale (Surendra and Lovell, 1984), sandstone and limestone.
Although some clay minerals are evident in whole rock diffractograms, the most
satisfactory method is to extract and separately analyse the clay fraction (usually defined
78
as less than 4 microns). It is particularly important to do this in the case of very fine
grained and poorly crystalline clays, which are unlikely to give a recognised diffraction
In general, for identification of clay minerals by X-ray diffraction a sample must be run
on the diffractometer three times. On the first run an untreated oriented sample,
prepared by suction onto a ceramic disc, is used. On the second run the sample is
glycolated to expand any expandable clays. For the third run a sample that has been
heated to 600C for 1 h to 2 h is used (on the ceramic disc). This heating causes some
Such samples were run after they had come to equilibrium with the atmosphere in a
silica gel desiccator. They were run at 2 20 per minute, initially between 4 and 70
20, at scan speed of 2 per minute. For Cu radiation all (001) basal reflections for
kaolinite, chlorite, illite, montmorillonite (smectite) and mixed layer clays lie between
4.5 and 14 20. The (002) and (004) reflections of kaolinite and chlorite occur at
4.5.3.6 GLYCOLATION
After the samples had been run in their untreated state, they were glycolated and run
again between 4 and 16 20. The object of the glycolation was to expand the
The process of glycolation is as follows: clay samples were prepared by suction system
on the ceramic discs and were placed in a vacuum desiccator, one or two drops of
ethanediol (ethylene glycol - CH2OH.CH2OH) was gently placed in the centre of each
disc. Samples were ready for X-ray analysis between 1 and 2 hours later.
79
One episode of heating was carried out on each sample. Samples were heated to 600C
in a muffle furnace for one hour. After the sample was removed from the muffle
furnace it was allowed to cool, placed in a silica gel desiccator and then rerun between
4 and 16 20. This was to measure the true area of the 8.85 2 (10A) 001 illite peak
(Gillott, 1989). X-ray analysis was carried out on batches of 7 to 10 samples, with
The results of the relative abundance of minerals for whole rock samples are tabulated
in Tables 4.9 to 4.21 and for fill and talus materials the data are provided in Tables
4.22 to 4.25.
Sixty four whole rock samples were used for determining the bulk mineral composition
(claystone, shale and highly weathered rocks), 26 samples were used for determining the
composition of the talus (Table 4.23 to 4.25), and 10 samples were used for determining
the composition of the fill (Table 4.22). One hundred clay samples were used to
determine the type of clay minerals in the clay-rich samples (ceramic discs).
The raw intensity of the main clay minerals kaolinite, illite and smectite
other samples.
Kaolinite content is generally moderate. Illite is usually present in rare to trace amoun
but is moderate in sample H4 (Table 4.22) from the Harbour slip and common in
Feldspar has not been detected in many samples. Some samples have a little orthoclase
(rare to trace) but it is common in sample C3 (Table 4.25). Micaceous minerals are
80
generally few to rare except in samples Jl, J9 and sample VSS4 (Table 4.9; highly
weathered sandstone belonging to the Illawarra Coal Measures) where they are commo
Carbonate minerals (Ca, Mg, Ba) are usually rare to trace in the whole rock sample
Goethite is mostly rare, but it is generally moderate in fill derived from weather
interbedded lower strength rocks (Harbour slip). This mineral has not been detecte
the volcanic sandstone samples (VSS1-VSS5) from the Illawarra Coal Measures.
For this study the result of glycolation and heating of one sample is shown graphi
4.6.1 KAOLINITE
All (001) basal reflections for kaolinite lie at 12.28 20 (7.15A) and the (002) r
lies at 24.94 20 (3.57A). Usually higher-order reflections are too weak for recog
After glycolation there is no change for this mineral but after heating to 600C,
kaolinite structure collapses (peaks disappear). Kaolinite and chlorite both have
reflections in untreated samples. After heating, the kaolinite loses its crystalli
7A peak collapses, but its 14A peak is enhanced after heating, thus confirming the
presence of chlorite.
4.6.2 ILLITE
Illite generally has a broad (001) reflection at approximately 8.8 20 (10A) with
integral series of basal reflections including 17.7 20 (5A) and 26.75 20 (3.3A).
glycolation there is no change for this mineral but after heating the (001) reflec
4.6.3 S M E C T I T E ( M O N T M O R I L L O N I T E )
series of basal reflections including 10.4 20 (8.5A) and 15.5 20 (5.7A). Afte
the (001) reflection collapses to between 9.83 and 8.84 20 (between 9 and 1
(Lindholm, 1987).
the dominant clay mineral present in a sample, there is sometimes a marked "tai
present on the low-angle side of the 10A peak. This is taken to indicate the p
illite peak broadens towards the high angle side. This may be interpreted as an
peak at 8.84 20 (10A), a broad peak between 7.8 and 9 20, and illite is iden
At the base of Moronga Park slump, highly weathered sandstone consists of main
quartz, mica and kaolinite; feldspar and carbonate are rare (Table 4.9). Weathe
shale interbedded with the Coal Cliff Sandstone (Table 4.10) consists of mainl
but mica, kaolinite and smectite are in rare to trace amounts and carbonate co
minor to rare.
82
Moderately weathered Wombarra Shale (between Coalcliff and Clifton, and beside the
Jetty Fault) consists of quartz, kaolinite, mica and smectite (Table 4.11). There is no
significant difference in composition between the fresh (Table 4.12) and moderately
weathered Wombarra Shale. Tables 4.13 and 4.14 show the results of X-ray diffraction
for moderately weathered Wombarra Shale between Coalcliff and Clifton north of Jetty
Fault and between Wombarra and Coledale. The latter consists of mainly quartz but
mica, smectite and illite are rare to trace and kaolinite is fair to trace. The former
comprises mainly quartz but kaolinite and carbonate are rare and smectite is fair to ra
Highly weathered Scarborough Sandstone (Table 4.15) comprises mainly quartz, mica,
kaolinite and smectite. Feldspars and carbonate are rare. Weathered grey shale
interbedded with the Scarborough Sandstone (Table 4.16) consists of quartz, mica,
Fresh Stanwell Park Claystone in the West Cliff (Table 4.17) consists of abundant
quartz, a moderate amount of kaolinite and mica, and a fair smectite but no feldspar or
carbonate. Fresh Stanwell Park Claystone in the north of Coalcliff Station (Table 4.18)
consists of common quartz, a moderate amount of kaolinite and illite, a fair smectite a
(Table 4.19) comprises fair to moderate quartz, kaolinite, carbonate, smectite, moderate
Highly weathered Bulgo Sandstone (Table 4.20) consists mainly of quartz, mica,
kaolinite and smectite. Weathered grey shale interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone (Table
The fresh and moderately weathered Wombarra Shale samples have a similar
composition. Both of them contain significant amounts of all three clay mineral types
and no significant change in the relative proportions of these minerals takes place wit
weathering appear to be dominant. On the other hand, the Wombarra Shale has a
83
different composition to the Stanwell Park Claystone and hence, it has different
mechanical properties to the Stanwell Park Claystone (to be discussed in chapter 7).
Fresh Stanwell Park Claystone compared to weathered Stanwell Park Claystone has more
quartz and less clay minerals. The samples appear to show a change in the clay
mineralogy with an increase in chemical weathering. Grey shale interbedded with the
Bulgo Sandstone a moderate content of mixed-layer clays and smectite which generally
4.8 TALUS
Group sandstone in a clayey matrix which may be iron stained or leached. The relative
proportion and size of the sandstone blocks vary considerably from area to area.
4.8.1 COMPOSITION
As mentioned earlier the talus consists of blocks of sandstone in a sandy, clayey matrix.
Forty one soil samples were collected from the landslide area (head, crown and toe).
Ten samples were selected from the Harbour slump beside the Harbour Fault in
Coalcliff Harbour. Nine samples were collected from the Jetty rock slump beside the
Jetty Fault between Clifton and Coalcliff. Ten samples were selected from the Moronga
Park slump and seven samples were collected from the Clifton Hotel slump beside the
Clifton Hotel.
Generally talus consists of quartz, mica, kaolinite, smectite, illite and goethite (Tables
4.22 to 4.25). Kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral in all the talus. Mixed-layer
clays are important in the talus material in whole rock samples. Commonly the more
unstable talus samples have a higher proportion of mixed-layer clays and smectite than
84
the more stable ones. This results from the lower shearing strength of smectite, mixed-
either a result of direct derivation from the Narrabeen Group (Wombarra Shale, Stanwell
Park Claystone) or be the result of weathering of talus during past periods of higher
rainfall. The present average yearly rainfall is about 1700 mm and the mean daily
temperature is 17.5C; even these condition would produce complete weathering of the
clay fraction to produce kaolinite over a period of a few thousand years. Also, several
talus samples showed that they have a large amount of kaolinite and less illite and
smectite which may indicate that they represent more mature (weathered) talus.
structure of the clay minerals, which influences the behaviour of any soil containing
these clays. In particular the shear strength and deformation of soils depends on the
octahedral layers. Kaolinite has a stacking of one tetrahedral sheet to one octahedral
sheet and has no ionic charge deficiency. Formula units of kaolinite have relatively
strong hydrogen bonding, unlike other clay layers which have weaker oxygen bonds.
As a result, kaolinite would be expected to have the strongest cohesiveness and greatest
stability of all clay minerals. Another result of the strong hydrogen bonding is that
water molecules have difficulty penetrating between the layers. In haUoysite, a mineral
of similar structure to kaolinite, water can penetrate between the tetrahedral and the
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octahedral layers and, as a result, this mineral has a m u c h lower cohesiveness (Grim,
1968; Gillott, 1989). However halloysite has not been detected during the present study.
Illite consists of two tetrahedral sheets, with some aluminium substitution for silicon,
sandwiching an octahedral sheet stacked so that oxygen layers of each unit are adjacent
bond between sheets. This gives a good basal cleavage and hence a weaker shear
aluminium occurs in the tetrahedral sheet. If all the octahedral positions in smectite are
occupied the mineral is termed trioctahedral, and if only two-third of the sites are
occupied the mineral is dioctahedral. The second type is most c o m m o n in soil, and
water can enter between the layers and cause lattice expansion.
The ability to absorb water is influenced by the exchangeable cations. Thus sodium
montmorillonite (smectite) can absorb more water than calcium montmorillonite (Franklin
& Dusseault, 1989), and is more sensitive to water with a resulting greater loss in
cohesiveness.
The whole rock sodium to calcium and magnesium ratio m a y be relatively moderate for
sandstone in the Narrabeen Group and Hawkesbury Sandstone (Bowman, 1972). Thus
the area.
4.11 DISCUSSION
Petrology and weathering of rocks are two very important aspects from an engineering
petrology and weathering, evaluation of both petrology and degree of weathering of the
rocks is important for different study purposes, such as the estimation of long-term
86
stability of the slopes. The relationship between mineralogical and mechanical properties
of rocks and their degree of weathering has been studied by many research workers.
For example Ramana and Gogte (1982) proposed the percentage of decomposition as
an index of the weatherability of rocks, and Gunsalus and Kulhawy (1984) obtained a
Petrological studies reported in this chapter indicate that the Narrabeen Group sandston
in the northern Illawarra between Scarborough and Stanwell Park consists principally of
detrital quartz grains, lithic fragments (including chert) with detrital feldspar grains.
The well-rounded quartz grains probably represent second cycle sediments and were
derived from earlier deposited sandstones. The poorly rounded to angular quartz clasts
were derived from volcanic sources. Volcanic rock fragments mostly comprise chert
grains, probably derived from silicified silicic volcanic rocks and tuff.
All these studies show that the content of detrital quartz grains generally increases
towards the top of the group and that the detrital lithic fragment content generally
decreases. Some fresh samples of Bulgo Sandstone (lower part) and Scarborough
Sandstone contains more than 50% quartz, while some samples of Coal Cliff Sandstone
only contain about 30% quartz. Therefore, the Bulgo Sandstone and Scarborough
The percentage of rock fragments in the Coal Cliff Sandstone is more than the
Consequently the sandstones in the Coal Cliff Sandstone are easier targets than the
Bulgo Sandstone and Scarborough Sandstone for long-term weathering. This is most
important when it is considered that rock fragments are mostly chert and volcanic
The middle of the Bulgo Sandstone consists of green sandstone and shale. The
chlorite and iron oxides. These sandstones have a higher proportion of rock fragments
87
than quartz and, therefore, they are easy targets for long-term weathering and
decomposition.
The majority of the sandstone samples contain carbonate cement. The carbonate
cements include calcite, siderite, and perhaps ferroan calcite, dolomite and ankerite. In
some thin sections, partially dissolved carbonate cements were recognised. The
dissolution has created secondary pore spaces. For short-term weathering, the quantity
of carbonate cement is a useful parameter for determining the stability of the rock.
During long-term weathering, dissolved carbonate cement causes more pore space in the
rock, and consequently secondary porosity and permeability increases. The resultant
increase in water flow into the rock mass can affect its weathering. Most of the effects
of weathering are concentrated along cliffs and in the soft underlying shale beds. For
example, fretting and weathering of the Wombarra Shale have undermined the
Scarborough Sandstone. Also fretting and weathering of the Stanwell Park Claystone
have undermined the Bulgo Sandstone. This causes large blocks of the overlying
Results of X-ray diffraction analyses indicate that the rocks and talus materials typically
contain quartz, iron oxides, kaolinite, illite, smectite and expanded-lattice mixed-layer
clay minerals. Quartz and kaolinite are abundant in most rocks and talus materials in
Clay minerals consists of kaolinite with less illite and smectite (montmorillonite). Most
clay samples mainly contain kaolinite which is poorly crystalline. On the other hand,
some of the clay samples mainly consist of mixed-layer clays (illite and smectite).
These clays cause swelling and shrinkage near the surface. They lead to decrease in
the shearing resistance of the talus and surface rock materials. Decreased shear strength
X-ray analyses proved that in the transition from fresh rock samples to weathered rock
samples the amount of primary minerals such as feldspars decrease while that of
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minerals such as clay minerals and iron oxides increases, the strength of the rock
The results revealed that the petrology and weathering phenomenon affect both physical
and mechanical behaviours of the rocks. The physical and mechanical properties of
fragments released into the transport mill. The tectonic setting, which ultimately
Dickinson and Suczek (1979) and Dickinson (1985) suggested in their provenance
diagrams that rock fragments are more abundant in sediments derived from magmatic
The Narrabeen Group was derived from the New England Fold Belt to the north and
consists predominantly volcanic detritus. The volcanic detritus is present in both the
sandstone and shale units either in form of detrital grains of volcanic rock or as fine
volcanic ash. During post-depositional alteration and diagenesis the original volcanic
glass in the ash and matrix of larger grains has devitrified to produce smectite clays.
These clays not only cause swelling and shrinkage near the surface as a response to
wetting and drying, but also reduce the permeability of the near surface rock mass.
This latter factor increases the aqueous pore pressures and hence increases the likeliho
of surficial mass movement of both the rock mass and the adjacent talus deposits.
Based on the X-ray diffraction analysis, carbonates are mostly rare in the talus deposit
(Tables 4.23 to 4.25). The natural reduction in the carbonate due to dissolution on
weathering is a factor in the talus slope instability in the Illawarra area. Hawkins et
89
al (1988) have discussed the similar importance of calcite content in the stability of
Fuller's Earth in the UK. Hawkins and McDonald (1992) pointed out the importance
of the decalcification which effects the instability in both natural and engineered slopes.
calcareous mudrock of marine origin in the North Island, New Zealand. He showed that
CHAPTER 5
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY IN THE SLIP AREA
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is well known that the properties of intact rock units are often relatively unimportant
as controls for slope stability in rock, and that failures are governed by structural
discontinuities such as bedding planes, joints and faults in the rock mass (Hoek, 1971).
strength characteristics, are important factors to be considered in any rock slope analysis.
They also control the flow of groundwater which has a very important influence on
slope stability. Hence, the need to locate and establish the orientation and strength
(1) The dip of joints, faults and bedding planes. This inclination plays a major role
(2) The strike of structural features. Obviously the relationship between the strike
directions of important structural features and the orientation of a slope face will
a strike parallel to the slope face such that the entire face is free to slide.
(3) The number of structural features or sets of such features. The behaviour of a
slope containing a single set of bedding planes is likely to differ from that of a
92
slope containing additional sets of intersecting joints. Not only will the entire rock
mass have greater freedom to deform in the latter case but the flow of
groundwater, which plays a major role in controlling the stability of a slope, will
can be used such as widely or closely spaced joints, thickly or thinly bedded. For
engineering purposes, these spacings should always be defined. The block size is
related to joint and bedding spacing in that it is governed by, and approximately
equal to, the average spacing for all sets in the jointing-bedding system. Intensity
of jointing is the inverse of spacing, i.e. the number of joints per metre. As an
alternative parameter to spacing it has the practical disadvantage that large number
must be counted when joints are closely spaced (e.g. 1 cm, or less).
other, nOn-parallel joints (Merritt and Baecher, 1981). In stability calculations for
any slide area, the persistence of joints has a great effect on the shear strength,
and an engineer needs to know the total surface area over which sliding could
persistent and often are plotted for many kilometres on geological maps. Most
The surface properties and infilling material in joints and faults. Surface
characteristics such as roughness and the nature and thickness of any infilling
their mechanical characteristics, from very soft to very hard and strong. Materials
of extremely low strength, that call for precautions w h e n encountered, include clay,
platy and very soft minerals, such as smectite, illite, chlorite, graphite and talc.
Clays are soft and soapy in texture and usually have a high water content. W h e n
they have a bearing on rock mass stability they should be further characterised
thick and dipping at a few degrees, they have been k n o w n to cause extensive slope
as crushed or brecciated hard or moderately hard rock, lightly altered wall rock,
or veins of calcite w h e n weaker than the surrounding wall rock. Strong fillings
such as vein quartz, calcite and limonite can heal and recement a joint, which m a y
become as strong as the surrounding rock or even stronger than it if the latter
becomes weathered.
Most joints have no filling and are, therefore, neither strengthened nor weakened
joint has conducted groundwater, but usually has little or no influence on strength
the m e a n distance separating the two intact joint walls. Note that aperture includes
tight according to whether its aperture is large or small. The aperture is usually
greatest for near-surface joints, as a result of rebound and stress release, and joints
become tighter as the depth increases. Apertures are usually just a few microns
94
wide, except where the rock has been loosened by near-surface weathering or
Therefore, it is important that adequate provision is made for the collection of structur
information (Bell and Pettinga, 1984) and this means that a geologist who has some idea
of what structural features are important in controlling slope stability must be allocate
major faults and dykes are present which have resulted in the formation of prominent
topographical features such as the creek beside Clifton Fault. The majority of faults in
the study area possess strike maxima at 005 and 110 (Bowman, 1974).
The major faults which are identifiable on the surface are named the Scarborough Fault,
Clifton Fault, Jetty Fault and Harbour Fault (Fig. 5.1). Several other fault zones were
identified in mine workings but do not extend to the surface. The largest is the
Coalcliff Fault. This fault at the level of the Bulli seam has a dip to south of about
70 from horizontal. Some other smaller faults, although present in the Bulli seam,
could not be located on the surface (cf. Fig. 2.11). This may either be due to the
blanketing effect of the talus mantle or simply that they do not project to the surface.
Two small un-named faults occur in the Bulgo Sandstone (Fig. 5.2) and Stanwell Park
It appears that the faults with east and southeast trends observed in the mine working
have little or no displacement at the level of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. The north-
trending faults however show displacement in both the Bulli Coal seam and the
until after the deposition of the Hawkesbury Sandstone, whereas the east-trending faults
95
had become inactive or were only weakly active by this stage (Bowman, 1974;
Adamson, 1974).
East-west striking (110) faults are concentrated in the coastal area between Clifton and
Coalcliff. This group includes the Scarborough, Clifton, Jetty and Harbour Faults, all
of which appear to have steeply dipping fault planes. These faults are most readily
observed because of the rugged coastal outcrop in this locality which is almost normal
area. This fault is seen to dislocate the lower section of the Narrabeen Group in the
cliffs adjacent to the old Coalcliff Harbour, south of Coalcliff Beach (Fig. 5.4).
The fault has cut the rock platform with a readily distinguished lineament. A
downthrow to the south of 20 m was measured by the author in the coastal platform
at the top of the Coal Cliff Sandstone. T o the west of the Lawrence Hargrave Drive,
erosion has revealed the fault plane surface, which dips at about 70 to the south and
strikes east-west.
adit. The dip of the fault plane is 70 north on Lawrence Hargrave Drive and 45 north
in the lower coastal cliff north of the old Coalcliff adit; its strike is east-west (Figs 5.5a,
5.5b). This fault is particularly well exposed and Hanlon described a decrease in throw
decreases to about 7.5 m at the top of the Coal Cliff Sandstone, about 2.8 m at the
level of the Otford Sandstone M e m b e r and about 1.1 m at the base of the Scarborough
The Clifton Fault crosses the coast just north of Clifton. The strike of the fault is east
west, and it is downthrown to the north. The dip of the fault plane is nearly vertical
in the coastal cliff exposure (Fig. 5.6). It is marked by a prominent, straight creek and
an abrupt termination of the coastal platform. The Bulli Coal crops out approximately
at sea level on the northern side of the fault. The fault has a displacement of up to
The Scarborough Fault crosses the coast just north of Wombarra (Fig. 5.7). The vertical
Colliery. Harper (1915) gave the dip of the fault plane as 15 north but Hanlon (1953)
measured the dip of the fault plane to be between 40 and 60 north. The dip of the
fault is certainly steeper in the Triassic beds in the area. There is evidence of splittin
of the fault in both easterly and westerly directions. It is possible the main Scarborough
Joints are discontinuities in the rock mass along which there has been no relative
movement. When there has been movement along the structure then it becomes a fault.
For this reason, in many cases, it is difficult to identify a small fault when no
The most significant structural feature in the escarpment is jointing. On the local scale
of the escarpment, folding of the strata is generally negligible and the bedding is very
close to horizontal a dip of 2-5 to the northwest. Faulting is common and, although
fault zones influence the groundwater, it generally plays a very similar role to jointing
97
the measurement of joints for this study, examination of aerial photographs revealed the
predominant pattern which is closely related to the pattern of faults exposed in the
underground workings.
The most prominent joint set exposed at the surface is close to vertical with a north-
south trend or a trend a few degrees east of this direction. This joint direction is
subparallel to the main trend of cliffs in the study area. Hence the prominent sandstone
The frequency of joint spacing in the various rock units varies. Joint spacing has been
measured in this study in an attempt to predict h o w this property m a y affect rock slope
Joints in coal have been recognised and utilised by coal miners for centuries in the
layout of mines and in the mining of coal beds (Kendall and Briggs, 1933). Coal beds
of lignitic to bituminous rank are usually cut by an orthogonal system of two mutually
perpendicular joint sets; a prominent set termed cleats or face cleats and a secondary
set called cross-cleats or butt cleats. Butt cleats or butt joints commonly break away
at the face cleats or face joints which produce the larger and more continuous faces
seen in the mine. Joints in coal vary in spacing from 1 millimetre or less to several
centimetres. Widely spaced joints divide the bed into rectangular blocks, giving rise to
the miner's term "block coal". Where the coal bed is relatively homogeneous, jointing
is closely spaced. Also joint spacing varies with the amount of weathering. Well-
weathered coals show more joints than do fresh exposures. Coals are distinct structural
rock units because they display joint systems differing in orientation and frequency
from those of other rock types. In addition, bright bands within the coal beds show
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more prominent and, in places, differently oriented joints than do dull bands. Bright
bands thus act as minute structural rock units within the coal bed.
SANDSTONE
B o w m a n (1974) identified joint distributions in the Hawkesbury Sandstone with m a x i m a
at 005 and 105. W e a k maxima of 055 and 155 are also present in the niawarra.
Sandstone along the main scarp. The distinct vertical faces in the Hawkesbury cliff line
also highlight an obvious subvertical joint group. Joint spacing has been observed to
The author has measured joints at specific critical locations to determine if localised
joints patterns are important. Figure 5.8 shows where joint measurements were taken.
The results are shown as computer plotted joint rosettes in Figures 5.9 to 5.14. All
Joints were studied in the Bulgo Sandstone (BSs), Stanwell Park Claystone (SPC),
Scarborough Sandstone (SSs), Wombarra Shale ( W S h ) and Coal Cliff Sandstone (CSs).
The resulting strike maxima for the Bulgo Sandstone (localities 1, 2, 3) are 025, 045
and 105 (Fig. 5.9); for Stanwell Park Claystone (localities 4, 5) they are 025, 050 and
105 (Fig. 5.10); for the Scarborough Sandstone (localities 6, 7, 8, 9) they are 015,
035, 135 and 165 (Fig. 5.11); for the Wombarra Shale (9, 10) they are 015, 115 and
165 (Fig. 5.12); and for the Coal Cliff Sandstone (localities 10, 11, 14) they are 015,
025 045 and 145 (Fig. 5.13) and for localities 12 and 13 they are 005, 035, 065 and
135 (Fig. 5.14). A s mentioned above the most prominent joint set exposed at the
The pattern of faults is similar in orientation to one of the joint sets (105 to 115).
They appear to be tensional features which occurred as a stress relief process in the
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Sydney Basin strata along convenient zones of weakness. The northwest-southeast set
synsedimentary flexure within the Sydney Basin (Fig. 2.8). Several prominent joint sets
also exist and strongly influence the surface features. Jointing appears to be influenced
by the regional stress regime and localised destressing along the escarpment. The
principal north-south joints are likely to be tensional features resulting from tectonic
stress relief induced by consolidation within an east-west compressive stress field that
affected the area during the Permian and Early Mesozoic. They are also parallel to the
Localised destressing is possible near the exposed face of the escarpment. In the
Illawarra area the horizontal in situ stress is two to three times greater than the vertical
stress (Walton et al, 1990) and thus a large degree of destressing must occur at the
escarpment face. This, combined with weathering, would result in increased jointing
closer to the outer exposed face of the escarpment. Vertical permeability (fracture
porosity) is, therefore, expected to be greatest near the outer face of the escarpment.
Jointing in the Scarborough Sandstone is typically widely spaced (1-4 m) whereas in the
interbedded sandstone and siltstone of the Bulgo Sandstone it usually shows a 0.5-
1.5 m spacing and in the intervening Stanwell Park Claystone the joints are closely
spaced (0.1-0.5 m). Joint spacing in the Coal Cliff Sandstone is usually 0.6-2 m and
in the intervening Wombarra Shale the joints are 0.2-0.6 m apart. Many of the joints
on the escarpment and coastline are filled with calcite and/or clay.
A comparison with Bowman's (1974) joint pattern shows a reasonably good match
between the local and regional joint sets (cf. Fig. 2.12, Table 5.1).
The resulting strike maxima at 005 for the Coal Cliff Sandstone (Fig. 5.14) shows a
good fit with the 005 be (Fig. 2.12) regional group of Bowman (1974). Strike maxima
at 105 for the Bulgo Sandstone (BSs) and Stanwell Park Claystone (SPC) show a good
fit with the 105 ac (Fig. 2.12) regional group of Bowman (1974). Strike maxima at
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045 for the Bulgo Sandstone (BSs), at 050 for the Stanwell Park Claystone (SPC), and
at 045 and 065 for the Coal Cliff Sandstone (Fig. 5.14) are close to the 055 ac (Fig
2.12) local folding of Bowman (1974). Strike maxima at 165 for the Scarborough, at
145 for the Coal Cliff Sandstones (SSs, CSs) and at 165 for the Wombarra Shale
(WSh) are close to the 155 be (Fig. 2.12) local folding of Bowman (1974). Strike
maxima at 115 for Wombarra Shale (WSh) is very close to 105 ac (Fig. 2.12) regional
group of Bowman (1974). Strike maxima at 015 for Wombarra Shale (WSh) and
Scarborough Sandstone (SSs) are very close to 005 be regional group of Bowman
(1974). Total joint directions for Narrabeen Group show two prominent joint sets,
north-northeast and east-southeast in the study area (Fig. 5.15). A comparison with
Bowman's (1974) joint pattern (Fig. 2.12) shows a reasonably good match between the
local and regional joint sets. The resulting strike maxima at 105 in the study area
shows a good fit with the 105 Bowman's (1974) joint pattern (Fig. 2.12). The small
differences are probably due to local variations in the regional pattern. Strike maxima
at 035 for the Scarborough and Coal Cliff Sandstones (Figs 5.11, 5.14) and at 025 for
the Bulgo Sandstone (Fig. 5.9) have probably been caused by stress relief. The strike
maxima at 015 for the Wombarra Shale has a great effect on slope stability between
Considering all the localities mentioned above, it appears that the regional joint set
most important and the development of local sets is dependent on the closeness to local
faults or folds. Local stress relief probably caused some joint sets to form. The
resulting strike maxima for the lower Narrabeen Group show that the most prominent
joint set exposed at the surface, with a direction between 005 and 025, has a
significant effect on cliff orientation and slope stability in the study area.
101
5.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF FAULTS AND OTHER THROUGH-GOING
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
The importance of faults and through-going structures may sometimes be forgotten
because of the enormous amount of work and expense that may be involved in detailed
joint surveys and in the plotting and analysis of these data. There are relatively few
instances in which the joint orientation data turn out to be more important than
knowledge of the position, orientation, and strength characteristics of the major through-
going structures. A sketch summarising many of the reasons for the increased
Figure 5.17a shows a rock mass with discontinuous and/or irregular rock joints; Figure
5.17b shows the same rock mass after a shearing displacement of natural origin has
occurred along one of the pre-existing sets of joints. The effects of the shearing
(2) Irregularities are decreased. Therefore, one or both of the shear strength
parameters and c may be reduced and the strength parameters may approach
to develop, a decrease in the shearing resistance along the fault will then be the
consequence.
(4) Weathering and alteration are common along faults. The new weathering products
are frequently clay or other silicate minerals, e.g. chlorite. Therefore, reduced
Figure 5.18 is a sketch of a typical cross-section of a fault. The fault has a central
zone of crushed and sheared rock called fault breccia (a), flanked by fine-grained, often
102
clay-rich, fault gouge on either side (b) and with striated and slickensided surfaces foun
on the bedrock surface (c). The zone of rock (d) adjacent to either side of the fault is
likely to be more highly fractured than the surrounding country rock (e). This sequence
There are many variations to this sequence. For example, the breccia may be missing,
the breccia and gouge may be missing, the fractured rock may be missing and any or
all of these layers may have been re-cemented. In addition, weathering often extends
appreciably deeper along fault zones, due to the more intense jointing and alteration is
common along faults due to groundwater movement. The weathering and alteration can
The most significant engineering properties of the zones in the composite fault are also
indicated on Figure 5.18. These include the low shear strength of the gouge-rock
contact.
Small faults may have little or no influence on the slope stability. Other faults or
combinations of faults can be the most significant geological factors in the analysis and
prediction of the slope stability problem. The orientation of the structure relative to th
although the overall effect is not such that the cliff is joint controlled. The cliff-line
tends to represent the surface of least resistance to block movement. The movement
orientation and number of joint sets and the number of joints (spacing) all affect cliff
stability. The joints are often vertical or subvertical and so provide the unfavourable
orientation necessary for failure. They acts as discontinuities unable to sustain tension
and, combined with other factors, permit failure (Fig. 5.19). Any blocks which are
103
undercut by the weathering will very easily fall off under the pull of gravity (Fig. 5.20).
S o m e precipitating action is needed to remove the supporting material from the base of
the sandstone cliffs. Lubrication of the joint planes is also helpful in starting the rock
movement. O p e n joints at the crest of slopes act as drainage channels and very largely
determine the course of water in critical locations (Fig. 5.21). Root pry, due to
vegetation growing in joints, also causes them to open up and promotes failure.
The joints are often discontinuous both laterally and vertically. Thus blocks adjacent
to an unstable section m a y not necessarily become unstable at the same time. Blocks
above or adjacent to an unstable section will not necessarily be jointed in precisely the
Weathering is the second major factor. It is responsible not only for the overall
decrease in strength of the rock as a whole and the asperity of the joint surfaces, but
also is the primary cause of undercutting. Figure 5.22 shows strong undercutting of
5.6.1 BEDDING
Bedding appears to play only an indirect role in the stability of the cliffs. The dips are
about 5, or less, and the beds almost always dip toward the west or northwest (away
from the escarpment). For this reason the bedding planes are only the seats of block
sliding near the edge of the escarpment when the bedding plane is strongly weathered
In discussions of bedding in the lower Narrabeen Group sandstones, the effect of local
diastems is important. The diastems are often zones of dislocation between blocks in
the cliff sequence. This feature effects the stability of the cliffs because the diastem
Another feature which may prevent block sliding along suitable bedding planes is the
apparent roughness on some bedding planes. The major breaks between layers often
have ferruginous and calcareous nodules on them as well as having wavy irregularities
that show a pronounced laminated structure which is steeply inclined to the general
bedding. The cross-stratification planes vary from unit to unit. Most layers can be
recognised by slight changes in grain size. Some have very marked and distinct
bedding planes. The cross-stratification planes rarely affect the stability of the cliff
a whole, but some individual blocks can be removed by translational sliding along the
plane of a cross-bed. Normally the joints provide a more strongly defined zone of
weakness, but occasionally the cross-bed planes are particularly marked. Since the
general palaeocurrent trend is to the southeast (Bamberry, 1990), many of the cross-
bed planes dip toward the edge of the cliff and movement of a pyramidal block could
occur. Although this kind of movement is probably fairly rare, it could be precipitated
by gravity at the moment of failure, but the plane would have to be clay-lined and well
It is apparent that the sandstones of the Narrabeen Group only tend to be markedly
weaker along the bedding in special cases where the cross-stratification planes are
marked by sharp fissility planes. Most of these sandstones would tend to break away
Rock mechanics investigations (Nichols, 1980; Kulhway and O'Rourke, 1981) have
shown that many flat-lying sedimentary sequences near the earth's surface have a
105
horizontal stress equal to or greater than the vertical stress corresponding to existing
overburden. These high horizontal stresses are presumably related to previous over-
In the Illawarra region the horizontal in situ stress is two to three times greater than the
vertical stress (Walton et al, 1990; Hilleard, 1993) and thus a large degree of
Erosion removes horizontal support from escarpment walls, which then tend to deform
internally. The mechanics of this deformational response are well understood in concept
from elastic theory, but details of this deformational response are often complex,
Deformational response and rock discontinuities due to escarpment erosion and stress
relief in flat-lying sedimentary rocks are shown schematically in (Fig. 5.23a). The
escarpment walls are zones of extension. Rock discontinuities in the escarpment walls
reflect these deformation conditions and also the stratigraphy, particularly the strength
Erosional retreat of escarpment walls concentrates in the weaker and more deformable
beds which sometimes develop diagonal to curved shear joints, and commonly develop
shear zones at contacts with stronger stiffer beds (Fig. 5.23b). Stronger and stiffer beds
develop vertical to sub-vertical tension joints which typically do not extend across
weaker beds or bedding contacts. The spacing of tension joints in a given bed is
directly proportional to the bed stiffness. Stress relief effects diminish with distance into
the escarpment wall. The width of the relaxed zone along an escarpment wall is highly
variable.
Most deformation occurs beneath relaxed zones in the escarpment walls. Lateral
compression plus vertical load removal causes arching and buckling of beds in the
106
escarpment bottom (Fig. 5.24). Bedding planes open in strong stiff beds while fractures
develop in weaker and more deformable beds. Very gradual straining and fracturing
would be continually occurring far back from the scarp edge, but the overall effect
would be far less dramatic than in an open pit mine. Well before a particular rock
block was actually located on the edge of the scarp, due to cliff retreat over geologic
time, it would have had stress relief perpendicular to the cliff line. However, the
horizontal stresses acting parallel to the length of cliff edge often would not have been
Considering the escarpment shape (Fig. 5.23), it is clear that some situations exist where
these horizontal stresses have been relieved. However, the remaining unrelieved
horizontal stresses may act to stabilise a particular rock column by providing a lateral
shear stress inhibiting vertical movement. In other situations, these stresses may act to
induce failure.
Ma since the opening of the Tasman Sea; Veevers et al, 1991). At present most of
escarpment south of Wombarra is protected from active marine erosion by the coastal
plain. North of Wombarra, the base of the escarpment is subject to active marine
erosion. Only positive erosion control measures prevent the Lawrence Hargrave Drive
between Coalcliff and Clifton from being completely eroded away. Therefore, in this
critical location, marine erosion is a major factor; whereas along most of the length of
the escarpment it has minor indirect effects, for example sea spray may be an active
weathering factor.
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5.8.1 DIFFERENTIAL EROSION
Differential erosion is the result of weathering of rocks which are not uniform in
character but are softer or more soluble in some places than in other areas. The result
is usually an uneven surface with the softer rocks being removed more quickly than the
rainfall and sea acting on the various lithologies in the cliffs. T h e coarser sandy
lithologies of the Scarborough and Bulgo Sandstones form the harder units which are
eroded more slowly and which jut out as cliffs. The weathered Coal Cliff Sandstone
lithology is slightly softer and erodes slowly. Hence the sandstone is cut back by a
number of processes resulting in the loosening and removing of small sheets of rock
W h e n a unit has been deeply incised, the overlying units become unsupported and
ultimately blocks of the harder lithologies fall down. This undermining of the cliff
entire cliff face can collapse at one time as occurred in the Coalcliff area in 1988. T h e
physical processes of erosion which are operating on the cliffs are fairly easy to
delineate and define. At least five processes are thought to be acting on the cliffs and
causing differential erosion in this critical location. These processes are outlined below,
along with the effect that they appear to have on the rocks.
(1) W a v e action causes hydraulic pumping at sea level, giving alternately high and
low pressure in joints due to direct wave action. It is probably more effective
than abrasion, especially where closely jointed coal and claystone are present at
water level.
(2) Direct physical abrasion by seawater laden with sand and small pebbles. Running
water has an acknowledged effect on rocks of all kinds and this abrasion could
be a major feature in the cliff decay. It is likely that the more particles carried
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by the sea, the greater would be erosive effect of the waves. Storm waves are
likely to do more erosion in a given period of time than do normal sea waves.
The Coal Cliff Sandstone is the most susceptible to this battering, particularly
Related to waves, is sea spray tossed up when the waves break. This spray often
travels long distances and could, over extremely long periods of time, erode a soft
rock unit by salt crystallisation and thus cause it to recede. During storm periods
the spray is thrown faster and farther, and often it is accompanied by salt
Another feature is the marine cyclic wetting and drying that occurs between
regular tides and between seasonal storms. Simple tests on soft rocks show that
wetting a sample after a cycle of drying and heating will greatly increase the rate
of breakdown. Wetting and drying is probably very effective and accounts for the
development of most of the shore platform in the area. Between successive high
tides the preserved portions of the platforms remain saturated whereas the rock
above mid-tide level is subjected to wetting and drying. This allows the
development of a notch at the base of the cliff which promotes cliff retreat by
collapse. Similar processes can act on the exposed escarpment due to rainfall.
The sea level at times during the Quaternary was at least several metres higher
than its present level. The lower units of the Narrabeen Group including the
Wombarra Shale in the north and much of the Illawarra Coal Measures would
have been either below sea level or within the zone of wave breaking. Active
erosion and weathering would have occurred in the low strength portions of these
units.
During rain storms, there is an increase in the volume of water getting into the
surface pores of the rocks. The Coal Cliff Sandstone is slightly porous but they
Into the resulting openings, water could be splashed and on drying salts would
crystallise out. With time and repeated cycles of wetting and evaporation, the salt
could build up and force grains off the sandstone surface. The Coal Cliff
close to sea level through m u c h of the area. Also where the content of clays in
cyclical wetting and drying m a y occur, especially in the upper part of cliffs.
(6) The last process considered here is differential erosion caused by groundwater.
Groundwater can affect the Coal Cliff Sandstone where the water is channelled
d o w n joint planes and forced out along a diastem. Openings with different
heights, lengths and widths appear to have resulted from groundwater flowing
d o w n joints and along the interface between the Coal Cliff Sandstone and the
underlying laminated sandy shale. Also in Bulgo and Scarborough water moves
The petrology and mineralogy of the interbedded shale and claystone are such that the
expandable clay minerals present promote breakdown of the rocks. The most c o m m o n
cause is the influence of water, whether that influence be as a high pore pressure in a
joint complex in the weathered rocks (high artesian water pressures significantly
accelerating weathering, erosion and creep) or simply by saturating a rock mass and
increasing its weight. Solution of the siderite and calcite cements in the sandstones also
aids breakdown. The cyclic nature of the sedimentary sequence, specifically the
produces perched water tables and confined aquifers which invariably promote the
have been mentioned above, serve to illustrate the important influence of water in rock
failure.
110
On the basis of observations during this research, slides in talus often occur after rainfa
in the Illawarra area exceeds 350 mm per month and catastrophic slides invariably occur
that the through-going faults and shear zones and the intersections of such structures are
the most significant. Because of their continuity they can influence large areas of a
rock slope. In addition, geologic displacement along faults and shear zones have led
to the crushing or overriding of most irregularities in at least one direction so that low
residual shear strength values are often applicable rather than the higher strength values
Chemical alteration of the surrounding rock and the frequent presence of breccia and
clay gouge are also commonly associated with faults and shear zones. These factors
readily sheared off. Finally, the presence of clay gouge adjacent to the polished or
smooth rock surfaces of faults can mean that the usually low strength encountered in
the laboratory for soil-rock surfaces is applicable to the field problem. In spite of their
size and continuity, the major faults and their intersections are not always readily seen
The relationship of landslides to structural geology in the slip area appears to be very
important. These relationships may have direct and indirect effects on the landslide
problem. The direct effects occur in areas such as faults zones, where water movement
can give rise to major stability problems; the indirect effects are due to the structural
pattern causing certain beds to may form unstable foundations (for example the
Wombarra Shale occurs at road and railway levels). The best example of the direct
effects is the area of the Clifton Fault. At this point the road was completely cut in
Ill
1988 and remained so for a long period. The road from the north rises through a
cutting in the Scarborough Sandstone until the fault zone is reached. South of the fault
the m o v e m e n t has brought the basal portion of the Wombarra Shale against the fault at
road level. At rail level the northern and southern faces of the fault zone are occupied
by the Stanwell Park Claystone and Wombarra Shale respectively. The fault-zone also
acts as a drainage channel. Weathering and erosion along it have resulted in a thicker
talus cover than in nearby areas. The fault acts as a feeder for underground water and
even after prolonged dry spells water still runs from the area. The net result is that a
relatively small rainfall can thoroughly saturate the talus in the fault zone, where it is
already in a highly unstable position. This fault causes an increase in local water flow
and appears to be directly related to the Moronga Park slump in the area. The Jetty
Fault between Clifton and Coalcliff also appears to be responsible for the slide k n o w n
as the Jetty rock slump. The fault acts as a drainage channel for groundwater
circulation under the road. Similarly the Harbour Fault, south of Coalcliff, affects land
stability in the slip area and appears to be responsible for the slide k n o w n as the
Harbour slump.
The stabilities of the cliffs are mostly affected by the steeply dipping joints and by the
also affect the rate of retreat, and the shape of the blocks. The overall retreat rate is
quite slow, but there are occasional zones which suffer short-term, sudden movements.
The lithology forming the cliffs in the study area is the lower Narrabeen Group. This
can be divided in the field into six basic lithological types comprising Coal Cliff
StanweU Park Claystone and Bulgo Sandstone. Sandstones are the units most resistant
to differential erosion and generally define the line of cliffs. The W o m b a r r a Shale and
Stanwell Park Claystone comprises the weak rocks (soft, fractured and weathered rocks)
which are subject to differential erosion. They cause cliff collapse by undercutting
112
(weathering and erosion). Interbedded layers of shale are commonly associated with the
Coal Cliff Sandstone, Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone and provide minor
zones of weakness.
Lithologic control of joint types and spacing, including their orientation, planeness and
the existence of certain joints, is important in the study area. Joints were studied in th
various sandstone, shale and claystone units. Joints systems, which are well developed
in sandstones, may also occur in claystones and shales but the latter units usually
contain a great or number of joints. Joints in sandstones pass downward into the
claystones and shales with little change in strike or surface characteristics but a sligh
increase in frequency. Joints are parallel and of similar planeness in shales and
sandstones but are more widely spaced in sandstones. A sharp discontinuity in joint
spacing occurs at the contact between shale, claystone and overlying sandstone. The
joints in claystone and shale are spaced at intervals of fractions of millimetres to seve
Joints in the Scarborough Sandstone are typically widely spaced (1-4 m) whereas in the
interbedded sandstone and siltstone of Bulgo Sandstone they usually show a 0.5-1.5 m
spacing. Thus the widely spaced joints divide the Scarborough Sandstone into big
rectangular blocks while closely spaced joints divide the Bulgo Sandstone into moderate
to small blocks. As a result, more rockfalls occur from the Bulgo Sandstone than from
the Scarborough Sandstone in the study area. However, falls that occur in the
The high horizontal stress environment known to exist in the Illawarra area is an
important factor which influences slope failure. In the geologic past, and to a certain
extent now, the high inherent confining stresses produced stress relief joints in the
vicinity of the escarpment. Stress relaxation would be at a maximum on the very edge
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of the scarp with the ensuing fracturing contributing to the instability of the slope as
follows.
(1) Stress relief loosens and weakens rock in escarpment walls and thereby enhances
(3) Stress relief fracturing increases rock mass permeability and deformability and
decreases rock mass strength. Groundwater flow through stress relief fractures in
(4) Stress relief fracture permeability and variations in lithologic layering control
systems may occur and contribute to escarpment bottom heave and fracturing.
Escarpment bottom heave and fracturing, along with groundwater flow, contribute
to talus instability.
(5) Stress relief tension joints and bedding planes are also involved in colluvium
(6) Stress relief fracturing expedites rock weathering, alteration and solution and
natural, excavated slopes, tunnels and also the stability and deformation of
foundations placed on rock in the destressed zone along the escarpment wall.
An analysis of the joints cutting the sandstone was performed to determine if they had
any preferred orientations. The resultant data show that major joint directions indicate
stress directions compatible with the probable stress directions present during the
formation of major structures in the Sydney Basin. The resulting joint strike maxima
for the lower Narrabeen Group show that the most prominent joint set exposed at the
surface, with a direction between 005 and 025, has a significant effect on slope
CHAPTER 6
REVIEW OF THE ROLE OF GROUNDWATER, RAINFALL,
HYDROGEOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKES
6.1 GROUNDWATER
In most large landslides groundwater has an important influence in controlling stability.
The most important influence is the reduction in shear strength along the slip surface
due to an increase in pore water pressure. Water flow also creates seepage pressures
which usually act in the direction of flow or seepage. Thus groundwater flow can play
pressures may facilitate external and internal erosion in soils and weathered or closely
Porosity and permeability are the two important factors governing the accumulation,
migration and distribution of water in soils and rocks. However, both may change
within a rock or soil mass in the course of its geological or weathering evolution.
Furthermore, it is not uncommon to find changes in both porosity and permeability with
depth due to variation in a number of features, including pore size distribution. The
actual size of the pores is significant since in narrow pores or capillaries surface tension
forces exert a control over the movement of fluids. In addition, chemical interaction
may occur between the water and dissolved gases and certain rock or soil constituents,
6.2.1 POROSITY
The factors affecting the porosity of a rock include particle size distribution, sorting,
grain shape, fabric, degree of compaction and cementation, solution effects and lastly
The highest porosity is commonly attained when all the grains are the same size. The
addition of grains of different sizes to such an assemblage lowers its porosity and this
is, within certain limits, directly proportional to the amount added. Irregularities in
grain shape also result in a large possible range of porosity, as irregular grains may
theoretically be packed either more tightly or loosely than spheres. Similarly angular
After a sediment has been buried and indurated, several additional factors help determine
its porosity. The chief amongst these are closer spacing of grains, deformation and
some cases, dissolution. Hence the diagenetic changes undergone by a rock may either
The porosity of a deposit does not necessarily provide an indication of the amount of
water that can be obtained therefrom. Even though a rock or soil may be saturated,
pumping. The remainder of the water is held in place by capillary or molecular forces.
6.2.2 PERMEABILITY
when the rate at which it transmits that fluid is slow enough to be negligible under
gradient and the permeability. The latter is affected by the uniformity and range of
117
grain sizes, shape of the grains, size and shape of the pore throats stratification, the
amount of consolidation and cementation undergone and the presence and nature of
discontinuities.
between the pore spaces. If these are highly tortuous then the permeability is
considerations, since they influence the extent and rate of free water movement.
Tortuosity can be defined as the ratio of the total path covered by a current flowing in
the pore channels between two given points to the straight line distance between them.
frequently difficult to predict what effect stratification has on the permeability of the
For instance, very fine textured sandstone frequently has a higher porosity than coarse
sandstone though the latter may be much more permeable. In other words, the size and
throughout a formation.
permeability of the rock mass. The permeability of intact rock (primary permeability)
is usually several orders magnitude less than the in situ permeability (fracture
their frequency. Admittedly such estimates must be treated with caution and cannot be
applied to rocks which are susceptible to solution. In rock masses the discontinuities
are the most important conduits for water movement. Discontinuities allow water to
percolate through rocks with extremely low values of porosity. Indeed the frictional
resistance to flow through discontinuities is frequently much less than that offered by
in porewater pressure which also has the effect of reducing shearing resistance within
the slope (Crozier, 1986). Porewater pressure may be positive, resulting from a build-
up of groundwater above the shear plane, in which case the normal stresses are reduced.
Positive porewater pressure at any point in a freely draining slope is determined by the
product of the height of the water table or, more accurately, the piezometric surface,
vertically above that point and the unit weight of water. It exerts an upthrust which,
by reducing normal stress, reduces the resistance within the slope. This upthrust will
unsaturated conditions, porewater pressure may have a negative value, resulting from
tension exerted by attached water, and hence may provide an increment of strength.
If groundwater is already within the zone subject to applied loads or surcharge, sudden
loading will prevent drainage and excess porewater pressure will develop, immediately
reducing resistance. Hutchinson and Bhandari (1971) have described such 'undrained
observation that certain coastal mudslides advanced on slopes flatter than those
groundwater flowing parallel to the slope surface. From both theoretical considerations
and porewater pressure measurement in the field, they determined that debris
prevent drainage and to increase porewater pressure to artesian levels. Such pressure
appears to induce a forward thrust which may initiate shearing movement or accelerate
been responsible for triggering, reinitiating and accelerating more landslide, than any
other factor. In nearly all cases, an increase in water content decreases stability in one
(2) Developing cleft-water pressure within joints, voids and fissures. This has a
(3) Developing seepage pressure where a drag stress is set up in the direction of water
percolation, thus contributing to shear stress. Seepage pressure may also lead to
increase the disturbing forces along a potential slip surface. Increase of weight
can only instigate failure where the slope is already close to the critical
equilibrium.
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Slopes consisting of clay, particularly the expanding-lattice variety, are the most
susceptible to failure though the loss of cohesion. Some cohesion soils can take
(5) Decreasing cohesion (apparent cohesion). In soils, cohesion results mainly from
(1966) noted that apparent cohesion can be as high as 200 kPa but that it will
of soluble minerals exerts a major control over their removal in solution. The actual
site of dissolution is often controlled by the presence of rock mass discontinuities and
other variations in mass permeability, including low permeability clay seams. However,
besides removal of soluble materials from surfaces, reductions in bulk density or cavity
formation may also be prevalent. The amount of mineral removed from the rock mass
depends mainly on the rate of flow, quantity, temperature and chemistry of the water
passing through it. Also of major significance is the solubility characteristics of the
- that portion of the flow system which occurs within and adjacent to the slope. In
previous geotechnical literature the most common way to portray the groundwater flow
was to show the flow occurring subparallel to the groundwater table which could be
delineated by the groundwater level encountered by borings penetrating the slope (Fig.
121
6.1). Such a portrayal of groundwater flow within a slope is quite different from the
present view of the general case for groundwater flow in slopes (Fig. 6.2).
One significant result of the recent developments in the theory of groundwater flow
gradient in holes drilled in the upper portion of a slope and an upward pore-pressure
gradient in holes drilled in the lower portions of slopes (Fig. 6.1b); assuming
Significant variations from this would occur in areas where there is a regional
groundwater recharge or discharge, and where the permeability within, or recharge to,
the slope is non-uniform. Perhaps the greatest difference between the two portrayals of
groundwater flows in Fig. 6.1 occurs in the discharge area; an area of considerable
interest in the slope stability problem. According to the first case shown in Fig. 6.1a,
no adverse groundwater flow conditions are likely to result from the placing of an
impervious fill at the base of the slope. This is because the flow is parallel to the
surface and, therefore, the fill has no appreciable influence on the flow of groundwater
in the region of the base of slope. However, it is obvious from the second case (Fig.
6.1b) that placing an impervious fill at the toe of the slope would result in an
appreciable disruption of the groundwater flow within the hill and a build-up of
porewater pressure.
usually much less stable than the original slope and adjacent slopes. Fig. 6.2 illustrates
the manner in which the slide debris can block the normal groundwater discharge area
equipotential lines and flow lines shown in Fig. 6.2a illustrate the distribution of
groundwater pressures and the flow of water within a slope before a slide develops.
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Fig. 6.2b indicates the case where the slide debris covering the slope increases the level
of the groundwater table and increases the groundwater pressures in the area of the slide
debris.
A similar effect can occur in slopes formed in thinly bedded materials where adjacent
layers possess quite variable permeabilities. A shearing displacement can cut off the
outlet for the groundwater flow within the hill and allow porewater pressure to build up
to critical values more readily following the initial displacement than before the slide
slide and will tend to remove the slide debris from the hillside in a relatively short
period of geologic time. This type of groundwater behaviour is also one of the main
factors which cause deposits of slide debris to be so unstable, even though they have
The significance of high water pressures beneath escarpments and in escarpment walls
(1) very few piezometer installations have been made which are extensive and deep
(2) significant features can be masked by the effects caused by landslide debris;
(3) the groundwater discharges (springs) tend to occur at the base of the escarpment
(4) in areas of harder rocks not prone to landslides, and where better exposures are
available, the influence and effects of the regional groundwater discharge are
minimal.
Certain geologic environments (flat lying and inclined layered rocks with great difference
in their permeability) provide conditions for high porewater pressures to develop at the
base of an escarpment. In particular, the presence of thick low permeability rocks, such
123
as shales and related clay-rich rocks, volcanic ash deposits, thick fault zones and buried
soil profiles, would tend to be associated with zones of excess porewater pressure within
A schematic diagram showing the various effects that can develop due to the presence
of groundwater discharge at the base of an escarpment is given in Fig. 6.3. The high
porewater pressures can also act on pre-existing joints and bedding planes to decrease
rock mass. The typical composite fault that was shown in (Fig. 5.1) m a y have one or
more low permeability zones associated with the fault gouge which separates two zones
of high permeability in the fractured rock (e.g. Fig. 6.4a). In addition, the fault breccia
(if present) m a y be more permeable than the gouge (Fig. 6.4b, c). Thus, faults can act
The net result of this complex permeability layering within a fault zone is that faults
can have a variety of effect on the flow of groundwater and the resulting distribution
to find springs and seepage of groundwater along faults which have served as a failure
surface in open pit or underground mines. Wilson (1959) described such conditions
that the fault m a y act as a groundwater barrier as shown in (Fig. 6.4a). In this case the
rock adjacent to the pit slope m a y be well drained yet unfavourable groundwater
conditions m a y exist that could lead to a slope failure. Fig. 6.4b shows a fault serving
as a groundwater conduit leading water from a nearby stream into the pit slope. In this
case the dual behaviour of the fault due to the presence of one or more low
124
permeability layers in addition to the fractured rock may prevent the groundwater in the
fault zone from reaching the drainage gallery shown. Fig. 6.4c shows a fault serving
as a subsurface drain which would increase the stability of the mine slope. These
AREA
In a consideration of the hydrogeological aspects of the northern niawarra slip area the
conditions in each of the Hawkesbury Sandstone, Narrabeen Group and Illawarra Coal
Measures are important. On the basis of field observations the Hawkesbury Sandstone
is quite porous, although the fracture porosity may be very localised. Along the
Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff, the Scarborough Sandstone and
Bulgo Sandstone also show high fracture porosity along the joints (Fig. 6.5).
Along the outcrop of the Illawarra Coal Measures the coal seams have been observed
by the author to be permeable and to act as aquifers. The presence of aquifers, unstable
cements and swelling clays contribute to rapid weathering and disintegration and reduce
the overall rock mass quality in the Illawarra Coal Measures in outcrop.
Rainwater enters the various Narrabeen Group aquifers where they intersect a surface
recharge zone, be that along creek beds on the plateau or on the slopes of the
escarpment and under scree slopes. The plateau areas act as the major catchment to
replenish the groundwater table within the escarpment slope. However, sandstone
aquifers along the edge of the escarpment would be exposed to recharge from the
escarpment slopes. The area west of Coledale Station on the Illawarra Railway is an
example of a mid-escarpment recharge zone (Fig. 6.6a, b). A series of perched and
confined aquifers are also present in the escarpment because most of the claystone
sequences within the Narrabeen Group are relatively impermeable. The primary porosity
125
and permeability of the Narrabeen Group is very low. It is considered that the vast
majority of the groundwater is stored in fissures and fracture systems such as faults,
dykes, joints and bedding plane partings. Lateral facies changes would also inhibit the
transmitted via these secondary discontinuities usually as a vertical flow over limited
distances until a relatively thick impermeable claystone bed was encountered. In the
cliffs between Coalcliff and Clifton water was observed by the author to be issuing at
an estimated rate of about 8 litres per hour from the base of the Scarborough Sandstone
(Fig. 6.5). The outlet pipes were roughly spaced every 1 m and this was several days
after moderately heavy rainfall. This confirms the impermeable nature of the underlying
Wombarra Shale at this locality. Water is commonly seen issuing at other locations
along the escarpment. For example, between Stanwell Park and Coalcliff, where water
is flowing from the weathered Wombarra Shale and Coal Cliff Sandstone, or between
Scarborough and Clifton where water is flowing from the colluvium and over buried
Wombarra Shale (Fig. 6.10). It would be expected that the rocks in the immediate
vicinity of the escarpment would have a higher permeability due to stress relief joints
The relatively common observation of water issuing from the coastal cliffs and
escarpment slopes is most likely explained by discontinuities in the rock mass. The
sandstone of the Narrabeen Group appears quite permeable although the aquifers are
sporadically and irregularly spaced. Stress relief with the opening of discontinuities
would be most significant on the edge of the escarpment. The Southern Coalfield is
these structures yield any significant amount of water into the mine workings. This is
most likely due to the alteration and the presence of impermeable clay lined fault zones
and dykes and to the relatively impermeable nature of the claystone and shale units,
Many of the slopes are blanketed with relatively impervious clayey talus which covers
horizontally bedded strata in the study area. High groundwater pore pressures and
artesian conditions develop and cause failure of the talus, whose shear strength
approximates its residual value. For example, a deep seated failure has been active for
some time at Coledale and was moving slowly toward the sea in this place (Fig. 6.6c).
This was exacerbated by the heavy rainfall in April 1988 (Figs 6.7 to 6.9). This failure
was most probably controlled by a weak colluvial soil layer beneath the fill embankment
and overlying the bedrock (Mostyn and Alder, 1991). The Coalcliff slump between
Coalcliff and Stanwell Park is another example; this slump is active and will be
explained in chapter 8.
The effect of Water Board dams, which are located to the west of the escarpment, is
important for the slope stability in some places. For example, Coalcliff dam is 1.7 km
west of the railway at Coalcliff and at an elevation of 210 m above the railway level
(Fig. 1.4). The gully along which the dam is situated appears to correlate with the large
north-trending fault zone which includes the Ladysmith and Western Gully Faults. In
view of the probability that subsidence associated with the extensive coal mining in this
area would have caused disturbance to the rock, sufficient to cause opening up of pre-
existing fault related fractures, it is probable that the rock beneath the catchment and
storage area would have a greater than normal vertical permeability. Figure 6.11 (also
It is thought that this type of groundwater infiltration has probably increased due to coa
mine subsidence between 1967 and 1973. This would have caused a significant increase
in the water flow in the vicinity of the escarpment and also raised the regional
groundwater level.
127
Field studies and previous investigations suggest that groundwater flows, with or without
the contribution of local surface infiltration, may be a major cause of the slope
instability in the northern Illawarra slip area. Consequently, this factor has received
throughout the area of slip over the last ten years. Evidence of artesian groundwater
flows was discovered in the region (Coalcliff area, at between 5 and 6.5 m depth; State
Railway Authority, 1982). It would appear that the water is flowing within the top part
of the Stanwell Park Claystone. The layer was isolated above and below by grey shale
beds.
Correlation of rainfall with groundwater levels and slip movement has been attempted
during this and previous investigations, however no obvious correlation was found
linking short term events. During the flood rains of April 1988 along Lawrence
Hargrave Drive between Coalcliff and Clifton, large quantities of talus and topsoil from
above the road slipped down toward the ocean at six locations. Rainfall records at
Wombarra and Stanwell Park showed falls of about 656 mm for the 3 days of April,
just before the slip, which came on top of the earlier rainfall in the same month that
Young (1978), in attempting to predict rainfalls likely to initiate landslip in the Illawarra
area, stated that in Wollongong the recurrence interval of the most intense storms bears
little relation to the frequency of severe landslip activity. This proposition appears to
be supported by surveys of the rainfall and historical records which show that the
periods of greatest slope instability in the Illawarra area coincide with the years with
the highest cumulative rainfall, not necessarily the years with the most intense storms.
For example, Young (1978) noted that, for the Illawarra area in general, daily rainfall
10/2/1975 493 mm
11/9/1950 433 mm
15/3/1936 508 mm
05/5/1925 510 mm
The point to note is that although 1950 did not experience the most intensive storms,
it did have the highest yearly rainfall on record, and this year was noted for its larg
interesting to note that, according to Young (1978), the storm on the 11/9/1950, despite
being the most intense of the year, did not appear to cause any specific slope
movements. For the Illawarra area during this study annual rainfall has been low and
07/6/1991 110 mm
11/6/1991 225 mm
12/6/1991 168 mm
09/2/1992 101 mm
10/2/1992 240 mm
22/3/1992 104 mm
14/9/1993 102 mm
from the sea some 300 m to the upper plateau over a small horizontal distance. As a
result heavily laden clouds travelling inland from the sea lose rain as they pass over
scarp. Geomorphological features highlight periods of intense past surface water flows.
Erosion of the main gullies, particularly noticeable above the main cascades at the top
of the escarpment, has occurred in at least two cycles. Adamson (1974) described how
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the western and eastern gullies above Coalcliff had excavated the main bulk of the
valleys in the first cycle of erosion after which a lower flow situation occurred which
Hydrograph data shows that rainfall is highly variable along the escarpment but is
commonly concentrated within isolated areas on the steeper slopes. This leads to high
surface water flow and infiltration. Annual average rainfall along the coastal plain
ranges from 1100 - 1200 mm but exceeds 1700 mm (Fig. 2.4) at the crest of the
escarpment. Records are available for 1950 showing more than 3000 mm along part
In contrast to Young (1978), Brand (1993) and Olivier et al. (1994) documented that
mass slope failures appear to have occurred during high intensity rainfall events of more
than 400 mm over 24 hours, which occurred within a longer duration rainfall period.
Individual high intensity rainfall events such as in June 1991 and February 1992 (Figs
6.7 and 6.8) appear to have caused scours and flooding rather than activating major
landslips.
Bowman (1972) found no correlation of landslip with daily rainfall events, however he
postulated a connection of major failure with monthly rainfall in excess of 400 mm.
This was confirmed by Young (1978) and she suggested a monthly rainfall in excess
of 250 mm as likely to trigger landslip. She also noted a lag time between heavy
rainfall and accelerated movement. By studying rainfall and evaporation data, she
compared excess precipitation levels for the low coastal plain (Albion Park) with the
upper levels of the escarpment (Mt Keira). She concluded that on the higher slope the
average quantity of water available for runoff and infiltration is 55% of the average
rainfall, as compared to 15% in the lower slopes. This is even more dramatic when it
is considered that the upper levels receive more rainfall than the lower regions.
infiltration levels and the reaction of phreatic surfaces to cumulative rainfall events. As
130
the phreatic surface rises to a threshold level, movement occurs. This level represents
a situation where the factor of safety is unity. Longmac Associates (1991, see also Fig.
6.12 and Table 6.1) studied the relationship of monthly rainfall with respect to landslid
activity and found a poor correlation existed for the 1988 - 1992 period. They
concluded that data for three monthly rainfall records (e.g. 1950 with 1171 mm per 3
months) correlated better to the current large scale landslide (Moronga Park) in the
detailed study area. Fig. 6.12 depicts rainfall versus recurrence interval highlighting t
Between 1988 and 1990 was an active period for landslip occurrences. Referring to the
rainfall data (Table 6.1 and Figs 6.7 and 6.8), 1988 involved both high intensity and
long duration rainfall events. On the other hand, 1989 and 1990 displayed low monthly
and high three monthly levels. Landslip was equally active in each year. The year
1991 was mainly dry with only one major rainfall event in June (Figs 6.7 to 6.9; Fig.
6.9 shows a positive correlation between rainfall in the Clifton and Wollongong areas).
This resulted in many new debris flows but did not activate the existing larger landslips
The writer installed in late 1991 a series of surface survey pegs on the four landslides
(Clifton Hotel earth-slump, Moronga Park slump-earth flow, Jetty slump and Harbour
slump) for measuring slip movement, but no movement occurred during the study
there have been numerous attempts to derive thresholds beyond which slopes will
become unstable, the objective being to establish a value of rainfall which, when
exceeded, results in landslides (Guidicini et al, 1977; Crozier, 1986; Bhandari et al,
1991; Olivier et al, 1994). Guidicini et al. (1977) analysed rainfall records for nine
regions in Brazil and the results indicated that when rainfall exceeded 12% of the mean
131
annual rainfall, a critical level of soil saturation was reached which in most cases
triggered landslides. When the intensity of rainfall was greater than 20% it appeared
General observations by the author over the 1988 - 1994 period have confirmed previous
deductions that land instability occurs after prolonged rainfall which acts to top up the
phreatic surface until a critical threshold is reached (more than 400 mm per month,
when rainfall exceeded 25% of the mean annual rainfall). This contrasts with an
isolated high intensity event during low rainfall periods which generally tends to cause
longer term rainfall trends on a scale of several months to years, appear to significantly
influence the output of aquifers affluxing beneath the slip and hence the groundwater
levels in the adjacent talus and embankment materials. Within the Narrabeen Group,
groundwater flow from weathered porous sandstone aquifers into the interface between
the bedrock and overlying talus would be expected to apply hydrostatic pressures of at
least 60 kPa to the talus at a depth of 6 m. The important factor to consider in this
case is that the groundwater pressure applied to the lower boundary of the talus resulted
from upward flow from beneath and to the west, and it is not simply due to the height
The possibility of the occurrence of serious slip movement during relatively dry periods
can be explained by the time lag between the previous major rainfaU period, capable
of significant aquifer recharge, and the emergence of the groundwater flows and pressure
and sills, requires special attention in slope stability studies. The physical properties o
the fault zone materials must be considered as well as any change in permeability or
Perched water tables have been found to be quite common in the study area because
the many claystone sequences within the Narrabeen Group are relatively impermeable.
This involves the collection of surface water in a basin of higher permeability material
above the regional water table. Infiltration of the water then results, forming a local
rise in the phreatic surface aggravating creep type slides. Depending upon the
catchment, large water volumes may be involved which can often lead to rapid mud
flow failures. The Coledale Rawson Street disaster (1988) is a notable example of this
failure mechanism.
The natural pore spaces in the soil or rock constitute the primary porosity which may
be filled with water. In cohesive soils this water can be further subgrouped into free
pores and fractures. Unfractured claystone often has a low permeability due to its fine
grain size whereas sandstone with little intergranular cement would be expected to
Adamson (1974) discussed the relative permeability of the strata in the detailed study
area. The Hawkesbury Sandstone is the most permeable of the rocks, with Scarborough
Sandstone being reported to be the most permeable rock unit in the Narrabeen Group.
Water may also be contained within joints, fault zones or fractures which constitute the
sandstone and claystone, horizontal permeability is often m u c h greater than the vertical
permeability. The more impermeable claystone beds act as barriers to the flow. This,
In the detailed study area a complex hydrological environment exists. Mine plans
indicate that the area contains scattered faults, dykes and sills whereas weathered open-
jointed strata near the scarp face result from stress relief. Although m a n y fault and
dyke locations are unknown at the surface, they are believed to effect the water regimes
and create water concentrations, and thus high hydrostatic pressure, if confined by a
more impermeable outer layer. M a n y of these joints are noticeable on the surface in
the Bulgo Sandstone outcrop and they m a y be present, to a lesser extent, in the
underlying Stanwell Park Claystone unit. Several explanations exist for the weak, highly
jointed nature of the Bulgo Sandstone unit near the outer face of the escarpment. It is
likely that stress relief, mine subsidence and the intrinsic composition of the material
contributed to this characteristic. All these factors combine to provide high vertical
With a relatively impermeable colluvium mantle existing at the base of the steeper
sandstone slope where it joints the claystone terrace, seepage is restricted in its passage
from the more permeable bedrock resulting in large hydrostatic water pressures. The
Bulgo Sandstone overlying the Stanwell Park Claystone is highly jointed. Water tends
to enter the rock strata along the top of the escarpment and upper slopes through open
also enter the Scarborough and Coal Cliff Sandstone though open joint system along the
Water then travels horizontally and attempts to outlet on the outer face of the
escarpment at the base of the sandstone units. ff a deep colluvium deposit is situated
134
adjacent to the aquifer, the hydrostatic pressures will build up and m a y result in creep
The Stanwell Park Claystone has been observed by the author to the north of Coalcliff
litres/minute have been reported from the fractured unit at Coalcliff site (Ghobadi &
Pitsis, 1993). Borehole data for this unit show that, behind the escarpment, the rock
Based on observations by the author and the previous studies, it appears that fracture
permeability is the most important feature of groundwater movement, with most of the
Variation in water content of the talus has a marked effect on its shearing resistance and
hence on its stability. The presence of some water m a y increase the appearance
saturated soil pore water pressure due to groundwater and seepage will be positive and
shear strength will decrease with any increase in pore water pressure. T h e effect of
increasing the water content has been discussed by Terzaghi (1950) and m a n y others.
(1) decreasing cohesion due to filling voids with water and expelling the air;
(4) causing a rise in the piezometric surface, involving increase of pore-water pressure
It is quite obvious from studying the rainfall figures and periods of prevalence of
landslides that the most unstable periods are those when the rainfall is the highest over
On the basis of observations during the site visits, rockfalls are triggered by prolonged
rainfall and their behaviour is very similar to that of talus slides, which appear to occur
after cumulative rainfall exceeds some threshold (more than 400 mm per month).
Debris flows may be triggered by intense storms whereas most slope movement and
slides occur as a result of prolonged rainfall of certain magnitude (more 400 mm per
24 hours). Commonly a distinct time delay occurs between heavy rainfall and failure.
This time delay varies greatly, from merely a day to several months.
In any part of the escarpment the water may fall directly on it during rainfall, be
these source are combined that the maximum effects are felt, a good example being
along the zone of the Clifton Fault, which has been described previously is an active
aquifer system.
An important factor to consider in this area is that the groundwater pressure applied to
the lower boundary of the talus results from upward flow from beneath and is not
simply due to the height of the column of water represented by the water table in the
talus. Consequently, lowering of the water table in the talus cannot be expected to
produce the normally required decrease in hydrostatic and uplift pressures on the
talus/bedrock interface where the bedrock aquifer affluxes. This aspect is particularly
6.15 EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes reduce stability by imparting both a shearing stress and a reduction in
(1) the direct mechanical effect of horizontal acceleration which, at high shaking
(2) cyclic loading in clays, sands and silts with weak inter-particle bonding. In
saturated material, seismic loading shifts the weight of particles from its granular
support onto the porewater, thereby increasing interstitial pressure, buoying up the
mass and causing liquefaction. Loose sands and sensitive clays are particularly
(3) reduction of intergranular bonding afforded by cohesion and internal friction, due
to sudden shock, irrespective of the degree of saturation. This may lower the
shear strength of material towards its residual value. The effect is similar to that
experienced by a brick building when shaking breaks the bonds between mortar
and bricks. Although this response may not immediately initiate movement, it
Turkey, Iran and Chile, Australia is considered to have only a small earthquake hazard.
Two significant earthquakes have taken place in the vicinity of study area since
recording began in 1909; they are the Robertson earthquake of 21 May 1961 and the
Picton earthquake of 9 March 1973, both of magnitude 5.5 on the Richter scale and
they both occurred at depths of about 20 km. Also a significant earthquake took place
1989 had a magnitude 5.6 on the Richter scale (Melchers, 1990). This earthquake
(49 km from Newcastle), it occurred on 6 August 1994 with a magnitude of 5.3 on the
Richter scale. Earthquakes of this size occur on average about once every eighteen
those of the Robertson earthquake by Cleary and Doyle (1962). The isoseismal maps
are given in Figs 6.13 and 6.14. In both earthquakes the damage was confined to old
buildings (some more than 100 years old). For the Picton shock, which was felt over
an area of about 6000 km2, light damage was experience over about 4000 km2. This
consisted of damage to plaster, brickwork and the tops of chimneys where the heat from
fires had destroyed the adhesive properties of the mortar. The Newcastle earthquake
resulted in 12 deaths, hundreds of injuries and serious damage to, or destruction of,
thousands of homes and buildings. The isoseismal map is given in (Fig. 6.15). This
was the first time in written history that lives have been lost as the result of an
earthquake in Australia.
No reports were received of any sand boils during the Newcastle earthquake. The only
documented coseismic subsidence was on the southern abutment of the Stockton Bridge,
earthquake of this size and focal depth. In Australia during the last twenty years, five
faults have ruptured the surface following large, very shallow earthquakes in Western
Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory. In eastern Australia there are at
least two recent earthquake scarps, in Victoria and Tasmania, but each predate written
history.
virtually all the other earthquakes reported in the Sydney Basin. It is well known that
Any earthquakes occurring to the west of the Illawarra escarpment and at shallow depth
would have a very significant effect on the escarpment. High accelerations could well
be expected on the edge of the escarpment and on the edges of local benches on the
slopes of the scarp. Typical stress concentrations at the base of the escarpment are
likely, with possible tensile regions near the edge of the cliff tops. These very small
compressive forces and possible tensile zones are likely to result in stress relief whic
induces fracturing of the rock parallel to the escarpment. This phenomenon is common
throughout the world and has been noted by Mencel (1974). Thus the horizontal stress
perpendicular to the escarpment at the edge of the escarpment equals zero. Joints which
occur perpendicular to the escarpment are always closed, indicating the presence of a
horizontal stress parallel to the escarpment. The value of this horizontal stress is
difficult to estimate and would obviously increase with depth. It is likely that the join
which occur at mean orientations of 005 and 055 and produce a saw tooth plan on
the edge of the escarpment cause localised stress changes in the vicinity of the joints.
This could have a significant effect on stability as a wedging system may result.
Slow structural deformation would continue in the study area in the month following
the earthquake. The effect of earthquakes on slope stability are most likely to be
important in the study area when the earthquake occurs during a wet period which has
earthquake. A second aspect relates to damage to the mines themselves; water leakage
problems may be enhanced or the upper level faults or joints may result in a rupture
surface farther down. These factors will also affect the regional groundwater conditions
and may have implications for land stability in the escarpment area.
139
CHAPTER 7
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
GROUP
The factors which influence the engineering properties of rocks can be divided into
internal and external categories. The internal factors include the inherent properties of
rock itself, whilst the external factors are those of its environment at a particular point
in time.
As far as the internal factors are concerned the mineralogical composition and texture
are obviously important but planes of weakness within a rock and the degree of
Over the last decade the influence of weathering on the engineering properties of many
igneous and sedimentary rocks, under dry and saturated conditions, has been investigated
by numerous authors (e.g. Gunsallus and Kulhawy, 1984; Dobereiner, 1986; Kembla
Coal & Coke Pty Ltd, 1990, 1991; Jeffrey and Shakoor, 1990; Olivier, 1990; McNally,
1993; Ghayoumian et al, 1993; Haney and Shakoor, 1994; Ghafoori et al, 1994). A
great deal of test data has been accumulated on engineering properties of fresh and
weathered rocks. It is very well known that weathering generally affects the structure
and behaviour of rock. As the degree of weathering increases, rocks become more
porous and weaker. Additionally, it is also very well documented that the presence of
water decreases the strength of rocks. However, in nature rocks are found under
weathering state of the rock mass but also its strength and durability in order to predict
covers this large and somewhat diverse subject (e.g. Merril 1897; Rieche, 1950; Keller,
1957; Dearman, 1974; Oilier, 1984; Turk and Dearman, 1986). Weathering includes the
processes of alteration of a rock occurring under the direct influence of the hydrospher
and the atmosphere at or near to the earth's surface. Weathering as a natural process
development of new discontinuities and the opening of mineral grain boundaries and
minerals to from clay minerals, with attendant opening of grain boundaries. Thus
chemical weathering leads to changes in colour, strength and porosity, but original rock
mineral texture is largely retained until the final stages when a residual soil is forme
because of its importance. The natural weathering processes described are closely
related to three important environmental factors; the hydrosphere, the climate and the
topographical situation (Fookes et al, 1988). The influence which the hydrosphere has
on the weathering processes is evident from the vital role that water plays in the
degradation processes outlined above. The presence of water in the rocks also affects
their mechanical properties. In nature the degree of saturation will depend on the
position of the rock mass relative to the groundwater table. The position of the
watertable, and moisture content in the overlying vadose zone, both vary seasonally.
according to the position of the groundwater table and the moisture content in the rock.
141
The main climatic controls on rock weathering are related to the precipitation,
evaporation and temperature variations within the local environment. The intensity,
frequency and duration of precipitation events, along with seasonal and diurnal
temperature ranges, are important factors in the determination of which physical and/or
Oilier (1984) noted the important influence of topographical attitude of an area on the
such as an embankment or cut slope, can have an important effect because as the angle
increases, weathered products can be more easily removed, thus exposing new materials
to the weathering environment. Relief and slope angle markedly influence the amount
of surface run-off, and thus influence subsurface through-flow of water which affects
the rock materials. The orientation and shape of slopes will help determine the
by virtue of changes in volume or density, the interaction between mineral grains, and
Grim (1962) distinguished two hydration processes in clay soils: namely, intercrystalline
ard intracrystalline swelling. Intercrystalline swelling takes place when the uptake of
moisture is restricted to the external crystal surfaces and void spaces between crystals.
Such swelling may occur in all materials but it is most significant in fine-grained ones,
particularly clays. In relatively dry clays the particles are held together by relict water
under tension from capillary forces. On wetting these forces are relaxed and the
factors including mineral species and the type and concentration of cations present in
142
the individual molecular layers of the mineral are weakly bonded so that on wetting
water enters not only between the crystals, but also between the unit layers which
comprise the crystals. Here the magnitude of swelling is a function of clay mineral
type, especially the type of interlayer cations present in the mineral (Taylor and Cripps
1984). For example kaolinite is not expansive whilst montmorillonite is; Na-
montmorillonite being able to expand to many times its original volume. Swelling in
Na-montmorillonite can amount to 800 to 1000 times the original volume (Bell et al,
1986) the clay then having formed a gel of dissociated platelets with dimensions similar
to those of the unit cell (10A). Since swelling is principally due to the ingress of
water, the rock must be porous or fractured. If a rock has an intact unconfined
compressive strength exceeding 40 MPa, it is not subject to swelling (Bell et al, 1986).
Failure of consolidated and poorly cemented rocks occurs during saturation when the
Surface and near surface environments can represent conditions in which certain rock
and soil forming minerals are susceptible to chemical change within the context of
weathering. The most important processes, namely solution, oxidation and hydrolysis,
may be controlled by the movement and composition of groundwater since it will act
as the medium of transfer, both into and out of the reaction site, of active components
heterogeneous materials will lead to reductions in density and strength, together with
increases in porosity and permeability. In dry air, rocks decay very slowly. The
presence of moisture hastens the rate tremendously, firstly because water is itself an
143
effective agent of weathering and secondly because it holds in solution substances which
react with the component minerals of the rock. The most important of these substances
are free oxygen, carbon dioxide, organic acids and acids of nitrogen.
Weathering of silicate minerals, for example feldspar and mica, is primarily a processes
of hydrolysis. The process whereby feldspars are decomposed to form clay minerals is
affected by the hydrolysing action of weakly carbonated water. Clays are hydrated
aluminium silicates and w h e n they are subject to severe chemical weathering in seasonal
Nonetheless, for the rocks considered here the physical processes are dominant and
chemical changes are generally only significant in the later stages of weathering, where
the claystone, for example, has been altered to a residual soil. Other than wetting and
sedimentary strata. Considering the effects of weathering on the rock slope stability of
the upper part of the niawarra escarpment, only the earlier stages of alteration are
usually relevant. In this area, the rock is only slightly to moderately weathered, as
failures often occur before the rock has been completely altered to a residual soil.
The fissile claystones are generally m u c h weaker than the more massive claystones.
This is partly due to the ease of moisture movement into the fissile claystone. The
Clearly the sandstone is m u c h more permeable than the claystone and hence moisture
strength of the rock mass. The effect of wetting (producing swelling) and drying
(desiccation and shrinkage), as shown by the slake durability test, is more pronounced
in some of the claystones, even if the strata have been weathered only slightly.
According to the petrological study (XRD), the Wombarra Shale contains expandable
by adding interlayer water molecules into their structure and although the process is
reversible, the rocks break down by the generation of unequal local pressures between
grains. Consequently, wet-dry cycling would cause the rocks to disintegrate rapidly as
they do when they are exposed in the vadose zone weathering. Attewell and Farmer
(1976) have discussed the factors influencing the magnitude of the swelling of a clay
in the presence of water. According to their discussion minor sweUing may also
Failure of the mineral skeleton along the weakest plane ensues from weathering and an
Considering the extremes of rainfall followed by dry periods these cycles are very
common in the Illawarra area. The crack density patterns in claystone illustrate the
increased surface area which this physical breakdown produces. Intra-particle swelling
of the expandable clay minerals is also believed to be very important in the breakdown
swelling increases the surface area and water intake and drainage is more rapid. Slaking
produced by wetting and drying mechanisms tends to destroy any primary sedimentary
structures, principally bedding. The fissile claystones, even in the fresh state, are mo
Dearman (1976) has stressed the importance of direct solution in the weathering of
silicate rock material. The solution of siderite and calcite cement in both the sandston
and claystone in the Illawarra area is a contributing factor affecting breakdown of the
145
strata. This solution is usually a slow change, m u c h slower than the associated physical
which allow the entry of water. The surface weathering of sandstones can result in
heavy iron staining and case hardening due to the conversion of ferrous oxide to ferric
which is substantially below the watertable, is often quite different. In the latter case,
the claystone and sandstone are permanently saturated and the rate of weathering is
m u c h slower. Solution appears, from thin section studies, to be the major factor
affecting breakdown in this regime but ionic dispersion is also very likely. Chemical
alteration of the component minerals is more evident as the physical processes are
suppressed. The claystone has a more open structure with quite c o m m o n evidence of
solution. The same is seen in the sandstone although secondary deposition of quartz
m a y occur. The siderite and calcite cement are generally reduced in amount and the
shearing strength of the remaining cement and matrix is reduced by the mineralogical
changes resulting from near permanent saturation. However, the rate of strength
and drying. It is quite possible that salt weathering is also an important breakdown
mechanism for surface rocks in the northern Illawarra area. The salts are provided from
spray and the splashing of waves. Violent storms in the niawarra area are k n o w n to
blow sea spray to great heights and it is quite likely that the entire escarpment would
be covered by sea spray, even the top of the plateau, although the zone just above the
reach of the waves would be most affected. However these effects must be minor in
this area since the vegetation is not specifically salt tolerant. Wellman and Wilson
(1965) listed the conditions necessary for salt weathering: supply of salts; site protected
from wind and rain in which salts can accumulate; and cyclic changes in humidity
and/or temperatures that include the crystallisation point of at least one of the salts
146
present. The salts crystallise in the interstices or pores of the rock and fractures occur
if the stress produced by the growing crystal is greater than the mechanical strength of
the rock. This process is more prone to attacking sandstones than claystones, although
original fissures within claystone could well be opened and expanded by salt weathering.
A slightly weathered sandstone with some outer-most pores exposed would be very
susceptible and may result in honeycomb weathering (e.g. Scarborough Sandstone, south
The deposition of salts in the outer pores of rocks could well tend to break the outer
shell of the rock. Wetting and drying, and temperature and humidity fluctuations cause
alternating solution and crystallisation of the salt and create shear stresses in this out
zone which could induce failure. The common observation of so-called "onion skin"
Thermal stresses may develop in rocks depend on the rate of heating and cooling.
overall significant physical weathering process in the Narrabeen Group strata, as the
Wind erosion is believed to aid salt weathering and the removal of weathering materials
and so permit deeper weathering; however by itself wind action is not considered to be
The Narrabeen Group claystones were essentially formed in a fresh water environment
and connate water would have had a low salt content. Salts from sea spray find their
way into the groundwater in the Illawarra area. Wallis and Johnson (1969) stated that
Na+ is the principal cationic contaminant in the southern Sydney Basin and CI" is the
main anionic contaminant, thus illustrating the importance of NaCl from sea spray.
These salts, especially Na\ could replace some exchangeable cations in the clays
This is likely to occur more in the massive claystone where randomly orientated clays
However, this cationic substitution effect would be very small and could almost be
The excess sodium in the groundwater prompted B o w m a n (1972) to believe that sodium
Results of X-ray diffraction analysis indicate that Narrabeen Group rocks and talus
consist of quartz, kaolinite, illite, smectite, mixed-layer clay minerals and iron oxide.
Quartz and kaolinite are abundant in most rocks and talus in the Illawarra area. A n
clay minerals in the sandstone, shale and claystone. Weathered Stanwell Park Claystone
and W o m b a r r a Shale show a decrease in the kaolinite content and an increase in the
sandstones, with the kaolinite content increasing up the sequence while the content of
that the illite is degraded into mixed-layer clays with an increase in weathering.
Nonetheless, from aU of the results it is clear that although chemical weathering does
occur, especially in the more highly weathered materials, the main mechanisms of
breakdown of both the claystones and sandstones are fundamentally physical weathering
processes.
148
7.2.5 WEATHERING, STRENGTH AND LANDSLIDES
Weathering of the Narrabeen Group rocks and talus materials will lead to a decrease in
therefore, changes of strength are m a x i m u m near the ground surface. For example,
(2) For sandstone units in the Narrabeen Group, the rate of structural disintegration
and chemical alteration is usually slow so that strength changes of these rocks due
(3) For claystone and shale in the Narrabeen Group, the influence of structural
(4) Structural disintegration by weathering occurs more readily and rapidly in claystone
and shale in the Narrabeen Group, which have the capacity for significantly greater
volume change than in the associated sandstone units. T h e latter have little
(5) Structural disintegration occurs most readily in the Stanwell Park Claystone,
W o m b a r r a Shale and the grey claystone interbeds in the Bulgo Sandstone which
(6) Structural disintegration should also occur very readily in claystone interbedded in
the Coal Cliff Sandstone, which has a great latent capacity for volume change due
Claystone and claystone in the Bulgo Sandstone in the Illawarra area, can occur
rapidly after either artificial or natural exposure and its effect on rock strength
should be taken into account. O n the other hand, the rate of change of mineralogy
149
is slow, but is important during the long term weathering when considering the
(8) The effect of chemical alteration (either of mineralogy or matrix material) on the
effective stress and shear strength of talus soils is small in the short-term, to the
(9) The strength of talus soils changes very little due to weathering effects over
earthquakes.
excavation. Weathering effects at the surface are important for assessing the stability
of slopes in road, railway, canal, spillway and other cuts (Dearman, 1976; Rodrigues and
Jeremias, 1990; Hawkins and Pinches, 1992). Durability may vary considerably from
The potential breakdown during slake-durability testing may result from one or more of
the following causes or mechanisms: (a) permeability and porosity which control the
entry and retention of water and its mobility inside the rock; and (b) the action of water
can cause solution of cement, disruption of interparticle bonds, or may set up disruptive
forces due to pore-pressure. Hence a rock that is impermeable usually will be durable.
Clay-bearing rocks, not only mudstone but some sandstone and weathered igneous rocks,
are most susceptible to slake deterioration. The types of clay minerals present are also
important. Sodium clays are easier to disperse than potassium, magnesium and barium
150
clays. In the Illawarra area, for example the dominant clays are illite and
montmorillonite which contain inter-layer cations that favour hydration. In these cases,
swelling of the crystal lattice may well assist in dispersion and disruption processes.
rocks that have been subjected to burial, tectonic or diagenetic forces are likely to store
elastic strain which will be released if intergranular bonds are weakened by the action
of water.
Various testing procedures are available for the characterisation of argillaceous materials
but their range of applicability, given the need for a useful test result, are significantl
limited. There are many standardised tests for design parameters of soil-like materials,
cemented soils and rocks. There are, however, few test which sensitively quantify the
overlying more competent units, and long-term loss of intact strength affecting the
In the slake durability test (ISRM, 1985) lumps of rock are agitated in a cylindrical
mesh drum while immersed in water. Following this, the material retained in the drum
is oven-dried and weighed. This cycle is repeated; the slake durability index is the
amount of rock remaining after the second cycle, expressed as a percentage of the
original amount. The processes acting in the test are equivalent to those operating
during natural surface exposure. The results may therefore aid in predicting
susceptibility to and rates of surface weathering. It may also be argued that, since the
sample is subjected to stress because of the slaking and abrasion, the slake durability
index may give an indication of rock behaviour under stress conditions. In other words,
151
performance. However, since the test is rapid, it does not take into account any longer
really the inverse of the term weatherability. The durability index can vary from 0 %
takes place.
A brief review of the likely processes of degradation operating in the slake durability
test is necessary to establish the applicability of the test results. The test is a
Eeckhout (1976) concluded that shear strength was reduced by expansion of fractures
due to capillary tension changes, pore pressure increase, friction reduction and chemical
are relevant in the slake durability test, then the abrasive action of the test would be
significant. However, Hudec (1976) found that losses in the slake durability test were
no more than those in an alternating wet-dry test. Thus it seems that the slaking effect
is the most important process; the agitation merely enables all the small fragments
The mechanisms causing slaking breakdown are, however, far from completely
understood. Various authors have used liquids of different surface tensions to elucidate
Colback and Wiid (1965), Nakano (1967), Taylor and Spears (1970) all recognised a
surface tension. Oliver (1980) summarised work based on strain measurement of shale
152
during changes in humidity and moisture content. The degrading processes were related
respectively to capillary action and drying. Also noted was the relative importance of
These microdiscontinuities provide the conduits for the moisture redistribution that
resulted in slaking.
The primary objectives of this study were to: (a) identify the durability index and
delineate the engineering properties of strata in the lower Narrabeen Group. Such index
possibly to aid in geological classification; (b) derive a relationship between the slake
durability result and the mineralogy and fabric of the rocks; (c) account for differing
behaviours of shale units of similar age; and (d) interpret the processes occurring in the
test.
Samples of weathered rocks were collected from the northern niawarra district between
Clifton and Coalcliff, and between Scarborough Station and Stanwell Park Station. Coal
Cliff Sandstone samples came from the base of the landslide at Coalcliff Harbour.
from cliffs beside the road near the Jetty Fault and the railway cutting at Scarborough
Station. Bulgo Sandstone samples came from the railway cutting at Stanwell Park
Station,
153
Core samples were collected from boreholes IL64 and IL55, drilled in the North Cliff
Samples from each site consisted of ten representative, intact, roughly equidimensional
produced by breaking the rock with a hammer. Fragments were obtained from rock
cores and from weathered rock outcrops. Sharp corners were broken off and dust was
removed by brushing the sample just prior to weighing. The total sample weight from
7.3.4.3 PROCEDURE
(1) For each test the rock fragments were placed in a mesh drum. They were
weighed, and dried in an oven (110C) for 16 h. The rock and drum were
allowed to cool to room temperature for 20 minutes and weighed again. The
Where
C = mass of drum
(2) The drum was mounted in the trough and coupled to the motor. The trough was
filled with tap water, at room temperature, to 20 mm below the mesh drum axis.
(3) The mesh drum was removed from the trough immediately after the rotation period
was completed and the mesh drum and the retained sample were dried in the oven
for a further 16 h.
The mesh drum and sample were weighed to obtain the oven-dried mass for the
second cycle. Steps 2 and 3 were repeated. Again the drum and sample were
7.3.4.4 CALCULATIONS
Where
B = mass of mesh drum plus oven-dried sample before the first cycle
W f = mass of mesh drum plus oven-dried sample retained after the second cycle
7.3.5 RESULTS
Thirty six samples were subjected to slake durability testing. The samples ranged from
fresh to highly weathered claystone, shale, coal, sandstone and interbedded claystone.
A third and fourth cycle was performed in an effort to make the test more realistic for
long term weathering (Figs 7.1 to 7.8). The results are given in Tables 7.1 and 7.3.
The slaking fluid was tap water at 21C. The slake durability index is defined after the
second cycle and it is used for slake durability classification. According to Hopkins and
Deen (1984) the in-situ (natural) moisture content of shales provides a strong indication
of their slake-durability properties. They considered shales with a natural water content
below approximately 3.5% to have a high slake-durability index while those with natural
water contents of between 3.5% and 7.5% appear to have an intermediate slake-
155
weathered specimens, especially for the Stanwell Park Claystone (Figs 7.4b, 7.5a). The
durability of this claystone is highly dependent on its water content (Fig 7.8a), the
the Bulgo Sandstone has a very low durability (Figs 7.6 and 3.9a) and appears to be
akin to the underlying Stanwell Park Claystone. Weathered Wombarra Shale has a
natural water content between 1.43% and 7.25% (Fig 7.8b), and the durability decreases
as water content increases (samples were collected one week after heavy rainfall).
Sandstone samples 1, 2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15 (Fig 7.9), 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 26 and 27, and
shale samples 17, 18, 19, 22 and 23 showed only relatively a small breakdown, whereas
9 and 11 showed lower slake durability index values for weathered rocks compared to
fresh claystone rocks, especially samples 4 and 5 (Fig 7.10) which belong to the Stawell
Park Claystone.
Field observations and slake durability tests indicate a distinct difference between the
(Table 7.2) grey claystone interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone (Fig. 3.9a; samples 1 and
Sandstone (Fig. 3.6; samples 3 and 4) and claystone interbedded in the Coal Cliff
Sandstone (Fig. 3.22; samples 5 and 6) showed medium slake durability and only a
the amount of carbonate cement. Distinct differences in durability between the coal
(sample 3 in Table 7.3) and highly weathered sandstone (samples 1, 2 in Table 7.3) in
the niawarra Coal Measures may have important consequences for slope stability in this
Gamble (1971) proposed using the results from the second 10 minute cycle after drying
as a basis for slake durability classification. Values of the slake durability index for
representative shales and claystones tested by Gamble varied over the whole range from
durability (Table 7.4). Franklin and Chandra (1972) proposed a different subdivision
for slake durability classification (Table 7.5). Slake durability classification for
Narrabeen Group strata according to Franklin and Chandra (1972) is shown in Table 7.6.
Static durability tests were carried out on selected samples from the Narrabeen Group
which included both fresh core and weathered outcrop materials. Each sample was
subdivided into two portions, which were weighed and then tested with distilled water
or tap water respectively. Each sample was placed in a beaker, that was filled with
24 hours (Fig. 7.11) and two days. The specimen condition was reported as a
In an effort to make the tests more realistic for long term weathering, the samples were
subjected to repeated wetting and drying events to simulate wet and dry conditions on
the outcrop. The samples were, therefore, drained and dried in an oven (65C) for 24
hours. The rock and beaker were allowed to cool to room temperature for 10 minutes
and weighed again. This process was then repeated after one week, two weeks
(Fig. 7.12), four weeks and then at monthly interval to six months or until the sample
totally disintegrated. The results are shown in (Tables 7.8 to 7.13) for fresh and
water are shown in Figures 7.13 to 7.15 and Table 7.14. During the 6 months of
testing the percentage of weight loss per cycle for the Coal Cliff Sandstone,
Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone were 0.3%, 0.17%, and 1.11% respectively.
During the first two months the percentage of weight loss per cycle for the Otford
Sandstone Member was 1.22% but at the end of two months the sample became
completely disaggregated.
7.3.8 CONCLUSIONS
in the cliffs that cause differential erosion. They illustrate an accelerated reduction in
durability from repeated wetting and drying, which is one of the main factors affecting
the surface layers of the cliffs (Norris, 1990). Also it is useful for comparing the
Shale and Stanwell Park Claystone and claystone interbedded in the Narrabeen Group
sandstone. Moderately and highly weathered Stanwell Park Claystone samples have very
low durability (Fig. 3.8); it is dependent on their mineralogy, and especially on the type
and quantity of clay minerals present. Different clay minerals have different influences
on the mechanical behaviour of rock. Cripps and Taylor (1981) demonstrated the
of detrital and authigenic clay (Dick and Shakoor, 1992). Consequently, the clay
minerals have the most pronounced influence on the durability behaviour of claystone.
Stanwell Park Claystone and grey claystone interbedded in Bulgo Sandstone. The
important because their presence makes the Stanwell Park Claystone highly susceptible
to slaking when exposed to water. The relatively high durability of the Wombarra Shale
158
is attributed to its higher degree of consolidation and cementation compared with the
It is the structural laminations in shale that distinguishes it from other mudrocks. The
minerals in the rock (Potter et al, 1979). A s the degree of orientation increases, so
Field observations show that the Wombarra Shale is well laminated in parts of formation
Presumably the main problem with the slake durability test is that it is not totally
analogous to the natural processes which are acting on the cliffs. It gives quantitative
data concerning the rocks but, unless the complex processes of nature can be reproduced
in the laboratory, the results can not be expected to necessarily give values which are
directly useable. However, they should give the relative proportion of disintegration that
The third and fourth cycles were performed in an effort to make the slake durability test
more realistic. However, the results are not significantly different from the previous two
cycle losses. The extended testing was useful for the Stanwell Park Claystone and
Although the tests show little difference in durability or strength, except for the Stanwell
Park Claystone ( M W and H W samples), the lithologies are in fact different for each
formation, and the differential erosion in the cliff sections is probably controlled by
these differences.
The Coal Cliff Sandstone has a clay matrix content of around 3 0 % of the total rock.
It consists of cross-bedded sandstone with interbeds of shale and sandy shale. Marine
abrasion attacks these sandstones just above mean sea level at the base of the cliff and
tends to wash the clay from between the quartz grains in the sandstone beds. This
would cause a large increase in the porosity and also a significant decrease in the
159
strength of the surface layers. Small rock fragments or individual crystals can then fall
off, or be washed off by waves. The increased porosity of the surface would also
facilitate the deposition of salt from evaporating sea water. Such salt deposits expand
during crystallisation and can force off grains or thin layers of the surface material by
repeated solution and precipitation mainly just above high tide level.
In the Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone, the quartz content is higher, and
the rocks appear to be strongly cemented with calcite and kaolinite. If the clay were
washed out, the porosity increase would be less than the increase suffered by the Coal
Cliff Sandstone, so that the strength decrease of the surface layers would be marginal.
It has been well established that the moisture content in argillaceous rock masses such
as claystone and shale can have a significant effect on their properties. The
5 0 % of that under dry conditions (Colback and Wild, 1965). The weathered Stanwell
Park Claystone has a high water content which m a y be a useful index for determining
The petrological study (see chapter 4) also provided a useful indication of the character
of the rock, and gave a guide to the likelihood of differential erosion. The latter is
dependent on the clay content of the sandstone, and this feature, combined with the
secondary cement, is the most important factor controlling the erosion of these coastal
cliffs.
Sandstone units in the Narrabeen Group, which contain abundant clay minerals and
volcanic rock fragments, show significant strength loss on wetting. In the clay-rich
varieties the change in strength is likely to be related to the softening and possible
expansion of the clay minerals. The petrological study in this research showed that the
Narrabeen Group sandstone contains swelling clays. Therefore, expansive forces in these
rocks are a mechanism contributing to strength loss. High proportions of expansive clay
minerals were detected in volcanic rock fragments (cherts) which suggest that clay
160
in strength of sandstone in the Illawarra area. The nature of the cement also influences
slake durability. Sandstone units in the Narrabeen Group containing kaolinite and calcit
cements are generally less susceptible to moisture effects. Therefore, slake durability
of intact samples from the Narrabeen Group rocks is controlled primarily by the
The static durability test was performed in an effort to make the durability more
realistic. The results are useful for a better understanding of weathering and slope
stability. In the long term, solubility and disaggregation in the Otford Sandstone
Member would cause an increase in the secondary porosity of this sandstone. The
percentage of weight loss per cycle for the Otford Sandstone Member was 1.22% and
at the end of two month the sample become completely disaggregated. Small rock
fragments or individual crystals fell off and in the outcrop situation could have been
washed off by surface or groundwater movement (Fig. 3.5). The percentage of weight
loss per cycle for the Coal Cliff Sandstone, Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone
are 0.3%, 0.17%, and 1.11% respectively. The results of solubility and disaggregation
provide answers as to why the cliffs in Narrabeen Group strata have high fracture
porosity. It would appear that zones with soluble cement are eroded more quickly than
Strength determination of a rock usually requires, careful test set up and specimen
preparation, and the results are highly sensitive to the method and style of loading.
Many methods are available for the strength determination of rocks. An easy and
inexpensive field technique for measurement of rock strength is the point load test
described by Broch and Franklin (1972). This test provides an index for the strength
161
classification of rock materials. It may also be used to predict other strength parameters
with which it is correlated, for example uniaxial tensile and compressive strengths
(ISRM, 1985).
specimens could be tested for comparison with test results from fresh specimens; (b)
tests could be made both perpendicular and parallel to bedding and hence a
consideration of effect of anisotropy could be made; and (c) the strength classification
Samples of weathered rocks (irregular lumps) were collected from the northern Illawarra
district between Clifton and Coalcliff, and between Scarborough Station and Stanwell
Park Station. Coal Cliff Sandstone samples were obtained from the base of the
Scarborough Sandstone samples came from cliffs beside the road near the Jetty Fault
and from the railway cutting at Scarborough Station. Bulgo Sandstone samples came
Core samples were collected from Kembla Coal & Coke (KCC) boreholes IL64 and
IL55, drilled in the North Cliff area (Fig. 3.11). Diameters of core samples were 60
mm and diameters of irregular lumps were generally greater than 40 mm but this was
not always possible. The International Society for Rock Mechanics (1972) has
162
suggested a minimum of twenty lumps for the irregular lump test; this was possib
Core samples with a length/diameter ratio greater than 1.0 were used for diametr
testing. At least 10 tests were carried out per sample. Each sample was inserted
test machine and the platens closed to make contact along a core diameter. The
distance L between the contact points and the nearest free end was at least 0.5
the core diameter (Fig 7.16a). The load was steadily increased so that failure oc
within 1-2 minutes, and the failure load P was recorded. If the fracture surface
through only one loading point (Fig 7.17c) the test was carried out again.
Core samples with a length/diameter ratio of 0.3-10 were used for axial testing
7.16b). At least 10 tests were carried out per sample. The sample was inserted in
test machine and platens closed to make contact along a line perpendicular to th
end faces. The load was steadily increased so that failure occurred within 1-2 m
and the failure load P was recorded. If the fracture surface passed through only
loading point (Fig. 7.17d), the test was carried out again.
Irregular lumps with a ratio D/W between 0.3 and 1.0 were used for these tests (
7.16c). At least 10 tests were carried out per sample. The specimen was inserted
the testing machine and the planes closed to make contact with smallest dimensio
the lump.
163
The load was steadily increased so that failure occurred within 1-2 minutes, and the
failure load P was recorded. If the fracture surface passed through only one loading
7.4.8 CALCULATIONS
The point load index (L) indicates the rock strength at the time of failure;
Is = P/D2
The uncorrected Point Load Strength L. was calculated as P/De2 where De, the "equivalent
A = WxD = minimum cross-section area of a plane through the platen contact points
(Fig. 7.16c).
block and irregular lump tests, a size correction must be applied to obtain a unique
Point Load Strength value for the rock sample. The latter can be used for the purpose
The size-corrected Point Load Strength Index L(50) of a rock sample is defined as the
value of Is that would have been measured by a diametral test with D = 50 mm.
The "Size Correction Factor F" can be obtain from the expression:
For general purposes and for tests near the standard 50 mm size, very little error was
Therefore the necessary formulae for the strength calculation could be written as :
M e a n values of Is(50) can be used when classifying samples with regard to their Point
Load Strength anisotropy indices. The mean value was calculated by deleting the
highest and lowest values from the conducted valid tests and averaging the remaining
values.
The strength anisotropy index 1.(50) was defined as the ratio of the mean 1,(50) values
measured perpendicular and parallel to planes of weakness. This ratio would be near
1.0 for quasi-isotropic rocks and higher values would be obtained for anisotropic rocks.
7.4.9 RESULTS
The Point Load Strength classification for Narrabeen Group samples is shown in Table
7.15 for fresh core samples, and Table 7.16 for weathered samples. Summarised point
load strength results for the Coal Cliff Sandstone, Wombarra Shale, Otford Sandstone
Member, Scarborough Sandstone, Stanwell Park Claystone and Bulgo Sandstone are
shown in Tables 7.17 to 7.22. In general, there is a decrease in strength from the
fresh to weathered specimens and the strengths parallel to the bedding are generally
much lower than those normal to bedding (Fig. 7.18). The fresh core samples are very
strong (Table 7.15); in contrast, some of the weathered specimens sampled at the surface
show low strength as noted for moderately weathered Stanwell Park Claystone (Table
7.16 and Fig. 7.19). The Ia(50) results indicate the effect of orientation on the strength
(Fig. 7.20). The sandstones are generally only slightly anisotropic, whereas fresh shale
M a n y surface samples show medium to high strength, for example highly weathered
Wombarra Shale (Table 7.16). S o m e of the weathered samples are still strong to very
strong, for example moderately weathered Bulgo Sandstone, Scarborough Sandstone and
Coal Cliff Sandstone (Table 7.16). In these cases, it seems likely that the weathering
of the samples has caused alteration of the siderite cement to hematite and other iron
165
oxides cements, thus producing secondary hardening. A m o n g the weathered specimens,
cemented).
Compressive Strength (UCS) have been reported in the literature (e.g. Bieniawski, 1975;
Ghosh and Srivastava, 1991; Tsidzi, 1991). Bieniawski (1975) reported that for a
variety of rock types the global average (UCS) to Is ratio was approximately 23.50.
Ghosh and Srivastava (1991) recently reported that a ratio of 16 was more appropriate
For this study, the average Is w a s correlated with the (UCS) of the rock by the
U C S = (14 + 0.175 D J L
Based on tests concluded in the laboratory on core and lump samples the relationship
between PLSI and U C S for various members of the Narrabeen Group are presented in
In general there is a decrease in strength from the fresh to weathered specimens (Figs
7.21 to 7.23). The fresh samples are strong to very strong; in contrast, some of the
weathered specimens sampled at the surface are moderately strong to strong (Table
The strengths parallel to the bedding are generally much lower than the strength
perpendicular to bedding (Fig 7.24). This reflects the presence of oriented elongate and
7.4.11 CONCLUSIONS
The majority of samples subjected to the point load testing were sandstone because
much of the Narrabeen Group consists of sandstone and the shale units are commonly
unsuitable for testing because of the presence of closely spaced joints. The weathered
Stanwell Park Claystone and weathered Wombarra Shale usually broke up prior to
testing, or at the start of testing the specimens broke immediately upon the application
of the load before obtaining any record on the pressure gauge. It was not possible to
Anisotropy seriously affected the test values. Failures very often occurred along the
bedding planes rather than through the rock substance, particularly when the rock was
weathered.
These results provide answers as to why the cliffs in Narrabeen Group strata are
which are not uniform in character, but are softer or more readily altered in some places
than in others. The result is usually an uneven surface, with the softer rocks being
removed more quickly than the harder strata. As expected, the data presented here
show that the fresh rocks are stronger than weathered rocks. The Scarborough
Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone are marginally stronger than the Coal Cliff Sandstone.
The Wombarra Shale is stronger than the Stanwell Park Claystone. Based on the
Uniaxial Compressive Strength fresh Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone can
be classified as being very strong whereas fresh Coal Cliff Sandstone is strong to very
strong. Fresh Wombarra Shale can be classified as moderately to very strong whereas
the Narrabeen Group is moderately strong to strong whereas measured values from
weathered shale and claystone range from moderately weak to moderately strong. The
Strength is related to porosity, amount and type of cement and/or matrix, the
composition of the individual grains, and the amount and type of weathering. The
Narrabeen Group sandstones all contain variable proportion of quartz, clay and carbonate
cements, with the content of the latter generally being lower in weathered samples than
The amount of cementing material is more important than the type of cement, although
if two sandstones are equally well cemented, one having a siliceous, the other a
calcareous cement, then former is the stronger (Bell, 1983). Thus the cemented shales
are invariably stronger and more durable than poorly cemented varieties whereas
durable. Moderate weathering increases the fissility of shale by partially removing the
cementing agents along the laminations or by expansion due to the hydration of clay
particles. This has certainly occurred in the Wombarra Shale and accounts for the
sandstone, and give a reasonable guide to the likelihood of differential strength. The
clay content of the rocks, combined with the secondary cement, is probably the most
(SDI) is shown in Fig. 7.25. The relationship between uniaxial strength (UCS) and
slake durability index (SDI) for weathered Wombarra Shale and weathered Stanwell Park
Claystone are shown in Figs 7.26 and 7.27. In general, there is a decrease in strength
and durability from fresh to weathered specimens. The fresh samples which are strong
to very strong show extremely high durability; in contrast, weathered samples which are
168
moderately strong to strong show high to very high durability. Among the weathered
specimens, moderately and highly weathered Stanwell Park Claystone are moderately
the rock or rock mass but cannot be obtained from a macroscopic examination of a rock
sample, for example, parameters such as mineral content, grain size and texture
contact and cementation, explain the strength and behaviour of sandstones (Dyke and
Dobereiner, 1991).
confined to a short statement on the origin, classification and details relevant to the
of cement and/or matrix material as well as the composition of the individual grains
(Hawkins and McConnell, 1991, 1992; Haney and Shakoor, 1994). Price (1963) showed
that the strength of sandstones with a low porosity (less than 3.5%) was controlled by
their quartz content and degree of compaction. In those sandstones with a porosity in
excess of 6% he found that there was a reasonably linear relationship between dry
compressive strength and porosity, for every 1% increase in porosity the strength
decreased by approximately 4%. If cement binds the grains together then a stronger
rock is produced than one in which a similar amount of detrital matrix performs the
same function. However, as noted previously the amount of cementing material is more
169
important than the type of cement (Bell, 1983). For example, ancient quartzarenites, in
which the voids are almost completely occupied with siliceous material are extremely
strong with crushing strengths exceeding 240 MPa. By contrast poorly cemented
sandstones may possess crushing strengths of less than 3.5 MPa. In the Narrabeen
Group sandstones, porosity is generally less than 3.5 % (see chapter 4) and their
strength was controlled by their quartz content (Tables 7.24 to 7.26). Figures 7.28 to
7.31 show a reasonably linear relationship between unconfined compressive strength and
percentage of quartz for fresh and slightly weathered Coal Cliff Sandstone samples, fresh
Scarborough Sandstone samples, fresh Bulgo Sandstone samples and the total fresh,
Also there is a linear relationship between point load strength index and percentage of
quartz for fresh, slightly and moderately weathered Narrabeen Group sandstone samples
of less than 0.062 mm. Mudrocks can be distinguished on the basis of percent clay and
presence of structural laminations (Potter et al, 1979). Within the mudrock group, five
different classes of rocks are recognised: shale, mudstone, claystone, siltstone and
argillite. It has been estimated that mudrocks account for as much as 70% of all
in all types of geotechnical engineering projects. Where mudrocks are excavated and
left exposed to weather, they rapidly slake to produce a soil-like material having
situations, the durability of mudrocks becomes their most important engineering property.
The prediction of mudrock durability is complex because there are multiple lithological
nature of mudrocks which makes the lithology difficult to study except by XRD (Table
7.27). The durability of shales is related to the fabric as expressed by void ratio and
problem. The mineral grains in argillite have been recrystallised resulting in a very
durable rock (Russell, 1981). Obviously, the presence of swelling clays in any of these
Testing of samples from the Wombarra Shale has shown that the slake durability test
It is reasonable to expect that properties such as strength will vary with these
compositional changes. The form and amount of calcite is the principal control over
large scale variations of the slake durability index in the Wombarra Shale for fresh
samples (1 and 2 in Table 7.27) and weathered samples (3 to 8 in Table 7.27). The
presence of calcite in shale will usually cause high durability. The Wombarra Shale is
cemented in the Clifton area beside the Jetty Fault but north of Wombarra Station it
is not. Another difference in the behaviour of samples is that the slake durability of
Wombarra Shale from south of Wombarra Station (samples 7 and 8 in Table 7.27) is
sensitive to the abundance of clay minerals in the clastic fraction whereas the shale in
the Clifton area is not (samples 3 and 4 in Table 7.27). The shale south of Wombarra
Station is less durable than that at Clifton perhaps because of its fabric. Reflecting th
arrangement of individual clay particles, the microcracks, which allow access for water
and along which degradation is concentrated, have greater curvature in the fissile shale
south of Wombarra Station. The cracks will, therefore, tend to meet more frequently
during slaking of this shale, generating smaller and more equant particles which will fal
through the test mesh. There is, therefore, a complex interplay of geological factors tha
control the durability and presumably all the other properties of the Wombarra Shale
171
from south of Wombarra Station and from Clifton. Similar variability is expected in
A higher proportion of clay minerals in any rock may be expected to cause a greater
tendency to slake. For example pure claystone durability is controlled by clay content.
history that produce claystone apparently causes them to have a generally low durability.
Testing of samples in the Stawell Park Claystone show that this claystone to the north
of Coalcliff Station has a lower durability than that located beside the Harbour Fault
mineralogy. The distinct difference between the durability of fresh samples 1 and 2
(Table 7.28) and weathered samples 3 and 4 (Table 7.28) is controlled by the quantity
and condition of the clay minerals. The diffraction intensity of clay minerals in samples
Claystone interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone (samples 3 and 4, Table 7.29) shows very
low durability. Claystone interbedded in the Coal Cliff Sandstone (samples 1 and 2,
Table 7.29) have a high durability whereas claystone interbedded in the Scarborough
Sandstone (samples 5 and 6, Table 7.29) shows medium durability. The differences in
the behaviour of the samples is that slake durability is sensitive to the abundance of
clay minerals in these samples. Differences between the durability claystone interbedded
in the Coal Cliff Sandstone (samples 1 and 2, Table 7.29) is related to the intensity of
carbonate cementation. The claystone interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone and highly
weathered Stanwell Park Claystone have very low durability (samples 3 and 4 in Table
7.29 and sample 11 in Table 7.1). This has a significant effect on slope stability in
the Bulgo Sandstone and in the Stanwell Park Claystone while acts as the bedrock for
in the northern Illawarra region since they consist of unstable lithic sandstone largely
derived from a volcanic source. As the degree of weathering increases, the rock masses
become more porous and weaker with clay minerals concentrated along bedding planes
and joint surfaces. Therefore, a consideration of the weathering state of the rock, and
its resultant strength and durability, is essential for assessing the relative stability of
rock.
The effects of weathering and alteration processes on the weak sedimentary rock
sequences in the niawarra region has been studied here. Weak sedimentary rocks
(shale, siltstone and mudstone) are commonly characterised by having a high sensitivity
to variations in moisture content that cause alternating swelling and shrinking, especially
in smectite-rich volcanic derived sequences. Volume changes within the rock mass
consequence. These volume changes are very difficult to control without an extensive
drainage system being emplaced both on the surface slope and within the adjacent rock
mass. Most cases of rock-slope instability within the northern Illawarra can generally
be directly attributed to the alteration and weatherability of the weak rock units.
In the argillaceous rocks in the study area, although the differences in lithology and rock
moisture content are small, weathering produce considerable changes in the mechanical
properties of adjacent layers. Weathering is limited in depth to the zone above the
permanent water table position. Above the capillary zone, because of the great variation
In the low permeability rocks in the northern Illawarra region, a 0.5 - 1 m thick layer
of very weathered rock is formed at the surface by the fluctuation of moisture due to
cycle of wet and dry periods. Apparently this layer acts as a natural protection against
layers are interbedded with the argillaceous rocks, and these low permeability coarser
rocks have a higher strength and resistance to weathering, they form a series of small
benches which are generally fractured along joints, creating unstable blocks.
The rocks in the northern Illawarra area have been subjected to unloading stresses due
has led to differential stresses and strains being generated in interbedded sandy and
argillaceous strata. T h e fissile claystone units are generally m u c h weaker than the
associated sandstone strata. This is partly due to the ease of moisture m o v e m e n t into
the fissile claystone resulting from expansion and contraction of clay minerals. Hence
an increase in weathering of the claystone beds is the most important factor controlling
the decrease in strength of these rocks and thus increasing slope instability.
In the Narrabeen Group rocks slake durability is low in claystone laminae interbedded
in the Coal Cliff Sandstone, and its effect on rock strength should be taken into account
even if the adjacent strata have been weathered only slightly. The rate of change in the
physical characteristics of the rock mass due to slaking is slow, but it is important
during longer term weathering, especially when considering the secondary processes of
destroy any primary sedimentary structures, principally bedding. It also produces closely
spaced fractures and m a y completely disaggregate the swelling clay minerals. The
in fresh samples from drill holes, are particularly prone to this type of attack.
174
The potential for rock breakdown during slake-durability testing depends upon the
permeability and porosity, which control the entry and retention of water and its
mobility inside the rock; the presence of water, which can cause solution of cement,
disruption of interparticle bonds, and reduce shear strength due to increase of pore-
The solution of siderite and calcite cement in both the sandstone and claystone units
along the coastline is a contributing factor affecting breakdown of the strata. This
solution is usually a slow change, much slower than the associated physical processes;
however, over long periods of time it is more important. Breakdown of the sandstone
and some siltstone beds is primarily controlled by geological structures which allow the
entry of water. An increase in water content will lead to an increase in slaking and a
decrease in strength, which, in turn, will increase the possibility of landsliding along th
coastline.
The Coal Cliff and Scarborough Sandstone units consist of cross-bedded sandstone with
interbeds of shale and sandy shale. Marine abrasion and salt riving attacks this
sandstone just above mean sea level where it occurs at the base of the cliff and tends
to wash the clay from between the quartz grains in the sandstone beds. This causes a
significant decrease in the strength of the surface layers. Small rock fragments or
individual crystals can then fall off, or be washed off, by waves. The increased
porosity in the surface layer also facilitates the deposition of salt from evaporating sea
water. Such salt deposits expand during crystallisation and can force grains or thin
layers off the surface by repeated solution and precipitation mainly just above high tide
level.
Sandstone units along the coastline, which contain abundant clay minerals and volcanic
rock fragments, show significant strength loss on wetting. In the clay-rich varieties the
clay minerals. The petrological study in this research showed that the Narrabeen Group
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sandstone contains common swelling clays. Therefore, expansive forces within these
of expansive clay minerals were detected in both the volcanic rock fragments (which
were also partly replaced by chert) and in the matrix, which suggest that clay softening
reduction in the sandstone in the niawarra area. The nature of the cement also
influences slake durability. Sandstone units in the upper Narrabeen Group, containing
mainly kaolinite and calcite cements, are generally less susceptible to moisture effects.
Therefore, slake durability of intact samples from the Narrabeen Group rocks is
controlled primarily by the mineralogy of rocks and to a lesser extent by the rock
microfractures.
The cliffs along the northern Illawarra coastline are undergoing differential erosion.
Differential erosion is the result of weathering of rocks which are not uniform in
character, but are softer or more readily altered in some places than in others. The
result is usually an uneven surface, with the softer rocks being removed more quickly
than the harder strata. Weathered sandstone in the Narrabeen Group is moderately
strong to strong, whereas measured slake durability values from weathered shale and
claystone show that these rocks range in strength from moderately weak to moderately
strong. The highly weathered shale and claystone samples were too weak to test and
Rock strength is related to the amount and type of weathering. In the Illawarra samples
there was a marked decrease in strength and durability from fresh to weathered
specimens. Among the weathered specimens, moderately and highly weathered Stanwell
Park Claystone samples are moderately weak to moderately strong but generally show
a very low durability. Where mudrocks are excavated and left exposed to the weather,
they rapidly slake to produce a soil-like material having significantly inferior engineering
176
properties to those of the original rocks. In these situations, the durability of mudrocks
The claystone interbeds in the Bulgo Sandstone and the highly weathered Stanwell Park
Claystone samples have a very low durability. This has a significant effect on slope
stability in the Bulgo Sandstone and in the Stanwell Park Claystone which is the
bedrock below m u c h of the talus mantle between Clifton and Stanwell Park.
the effective stress and shear strength of talus soils is small in the short-term, to the
strength of talus soils changes very little due to chemical weathering effects over h u m a n
life spans, and landsliding of these materials is primarily initiated by changes of water
particles in the talus materials increases which, in turn, increases the total surface area
of the particles. With an increase in the proportion of fine particles, the void ratio
decreases, drainage potential drops and consequently water pore pressure increases.
Therefore, over the long-term, this latter factor has a very important influence on
permeability and drainage potential are gradual and not important on a h u m a n time-
scale.
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CHAPTER 8
SLOPE STABILITY IN THE NORTHERN ILLAWARRA
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the Illawarra area, with its steep coastal escarpment, slope stability is an old problem
and can have disastrous effects on development. This is directly related to the geology
and geological history of the area. The 300 m high escarpment consists of flat-lying
cemented quartz sandstone. The interbedded strong sandstone and weak shale succession
(Fig. 1.5) in the lower part of escarpment has been acted upon by erosion, stress relief,
weathering, creep and sliding processes to produce masses of talus on many of the steep
hillsides (Chowdhury, 1976). Rockslides are rare but rockfalls and toppling are common
involve translational or rotational slides, or slow to rapid flows of soil, talus or fill.
The precarious equilibrium of talus masses is frequently upset by heavy precipitation and
by man's activities, e.g. removal of toe support, loading the slope, and changing the
Artificial slides, many of which include underlying or adjacent talus, almost invariably
result from poor site selection or poor design and construction practices. Slope stability
requiring concepts from engineering geology, soil mechanics and rock mechanics. Of
these three disciplines, engineering geology is probably the most important. Reliable
evaluations of slope stability must begin with an understanding of regional and site
geology and of the geologic processes which formed the site and continue to act upon
it. Once this level of geologic understanding is reached, slope behaviour can often be
according to the above philosophy, with emphasis on the talus slope deposits.
Various aspects of slope development in the northern Illawarra have been described b
Hanlon (1952, 1953, 1958), Bowman (1972, 1974), Amaral (1975), Chowdhury (1976),
Evans (1978, 1981), Young (1977, 1978), Walker et al. (1987), Hutton et al. (1990) and
Ghobadi (1993, 1994). Slope development processes can be simplified and generalised
as follows: stream erosion has carved longitudinal and transverse escarpment profile
reflecting local stratigraphy, and has also removed lateral and vertical support fro
escarpment walls. Stress relief accompanying lateral support removal produced tensio
fractures and bedding plane shear zones in rocks adjacent to the escarpment walls.
These stress relief features, along with stratigraphic and lithologic details, contro
groundwater flow in the vicinity of the slopes; perched water tables and hillside sp
are common. Stress relief features and related groundwater phenomena have accelerate
physical and chemical weathering of rocks on the slopes. Under these conditions,
rockfalls and topples are common. They occur on the natural slopes, with weathering
and erosion undercutting joint-bounded rock blocks which slump backward or topple
forward depending on the their geometry, support conditions, and applied forces which
in addition to gravity, often include water. Rockfall volumes are typically small,
predominate in the typical stratigraphic section, so the weathering products are usu
silty clay or clayey silt with rock fragments ranging in size from sand to very larg
boulders. As weathering progresses, the strength of the near-surface soil and rock
materials decreases and they begin to creep or slide down the relatively steep
escarpment walls under the action of gravity and water forces. Deeper seated
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landsliding along bedding plane shear zones resulting from escarpment stress relief have
Eventually, these processes produced mantles of talus soil and rock fragments on m a n y
slopes. The composition, thickness and inclination of talus on a given slope reflect the
stratigraphy and erosional history of the slope. A great variety of talus slope
configurations are present. T w o cross-sections of talus slopes are shown in Figure 8.1.
W h e r e slopes are relativelyflat,on ridge tops or large erosional benches, residual soils
have formed. Residual soil on benches below steeper slope segments are often covered
with talus.
W h e r e erosion was intense, little or no talus has accumulated and rock strata are
exposed on steep slopes. Talus thickness can range from about 1 m to more than 10 m
approaching 20 m occurs at the toes of slopes in thick sequences of weak rocks (e.g.
claystone and shale) where deep-seated landsliding has occurred or where accumulated
talus has not been removed by erosion. Such conditions are rare.
The most important engineering implication of talus slope development is the presence
in talus of surfaces, or zones, along which shear strength has been reduced to, and
maintained at, residual or near residual levels by a combination of softening and strain
effects. Talus soils in the northern niawarra are generally cohesive and in most cases
are fissured. Such soils containing a significant clay fraction have pronounced
(Skempton, 1964).
concentrated along one or more surfaces or zones, commonly at the soil-rock contact.
A talus derived from claystone is often finer grained than the original rock, having a
larger clay fraction and plasticity index. This is often found at the base of talus
situation, the operative strengths in the clays, which are derived from the basal clays
The study area experiences a low tidal regime (1.2-1.6 m), moderate swell conditions
and infrequent storms. Platforms are susceptible to weathering which is related to the
degree of exposure to wave assault. Minor erosion takes place along the outer edge of
the platform due to hydraulic action of waves, acting along joints, especially during
storms. Platform surfaces appear to be reasonably stable since the low permeability of
the rocks prevents water loss during low tides and the saturation enhances the stabilit
of the diagenetic mineral cements and detrital grains. However, abrasion does occur,
especially along joint surfaces, due to movement of material across the top of the
platform by wave action. Most erosion is concentrated along the base of the headland
Recession of the sea cliffs in the northern niawarra region is caused by active
weathering and wave erosion in the splash zone within and at the base of Coal Cliff
Sandstone and within the Illawarra Coal Measures at Clifton (Figs 3.22, 8.34, 8.36 and
8.40b) and within the Scarborough Sandstone in the Stanwell Park area (Fig. 8.48).
This erosion causes undercutting and subsequent collapse of vertical joint blocks.
Although the rate of cliff recession is low to the east of the slope failures, it has c
181
oversteeping of the talus adjacent to the cliff and has initiated slumping and sliding of
the talus layer progressively back from the cliff edge. This would, in turn, have a
According to field observations during this study, marine erosion of the cliff sequences
is concentrated at the toe of exposed headlands and is less significant in the bay areas.
Since most of the slip areas along the coastline in the northern niawarra region occur
on headland areas, this faster rate of cliff erosion is significant in initiating slips and
maintaining unstable slopes. The higher wave energy in these areas also serves to
remove fallen material from the base of the cliffs, thus preventing the build-up of a
Coal mine subsidence would act as a triggering and contributing factor to land instability
in the northern Illawarra region in that it reduces normal forces across horizontal
bedding planes and rock defects, encouraging bedding plane slip and, hence, facilitating
progressive expansion of the rock mass in an easterly direction (Fig. 3.22a, see adit).
Examination of the Coalcliff Colliery mine plan revealed that extensive coal extraction
has been undertaken in the Bulli Coal below and to the west of the Coalcliff Slip
(Fig. 6.11a). The goaf resulting from this mining would have been deflected towards
the exposed (unconfined) portion of the escarpment causing additional opening of joints
throughout the Narrabeen Group which overlies the extracted coal. This factor,
combined with the high horizontal stress regime in the region, is probably a major
(5) Dykes
Dykes are easily recognised at the surface, because the physical characteristics of the
dykes are different from those of the host rock. Rapid surface weathering and alteration
The dykes have commonly intruded along pre-existing zones of weakness such as faults
or more closely jointed rock masses. D y k e intrusion has locally caused hydraulic
fracturing and brecciation of the adjacent rock mass during intrusion. Thus most dykes
were intruded parallel to the major joint sets in areas where the joints are closely
spaced.
Dykes m a y affect slope stability in the study area since they: (a) change the rock mass
characteristics as they rapidly weather to considerable depths; (b) cause water ingress
into the rock mass; and (c) are generally associated with more closely jointed rock
masses.
F e w dykes are visible on the ground in the study area (see section 3.4) but some are
for slope instability since they rapidly weather to clay and allow water ingress at the
surface, but their effects needs to be determined with more exploratory and research
work.
scarps are parallel to, and probably coincide with, vertical open fractures in the
underlying bedrock (Fig. 5.16). Along the coastline, the bedrock fractures can be seen
to have controlled the location and orientation of most small slumps. A slip surface can
develop at least partly along bedding planes in the bedrock (Fig. 8.2a), or the slip
surface m a y be confined along the contact of talus with the bedrock (Fig. 8.2b). In
183
two cases discussed in this thesis (Clifton Earth Slump, Fig. 8.34, and Harbour Slump,
Fig. 8.46), opening or movement along the 015 - 020 striking vertical fractures in the
bedrock stretched the overlying talus, forming cracks which allow ingress of surface
water and mark the crests of the resultant slides. Although the rock sequence in the
Illawarra escarpment is under the influence of a high horizontal stress (Stone, 1990;
Walton et al, 1990), the faults and fractures are not tectonically active, and no recorded
earthquakes have been reported to have epicentres related to any faults in the study area.
It is possible that at least some segments of the rupture surfaces in the niawarra region
m a y pass through the upper part of the bedrock, which is generally weathered and has
a relatively lower strength than intact bedrock. This type of failure was recorded in part
of the Moronga Park slump (Fig. 8.36). O n the edge of the escarpment, slight lateral
spreading of laterally unconfined blocks of bedrock, along lubricated bedding planes, can
widen bedrock fractures at the backs of the blocks, which in turn stretches the overlying
soil and forms tension cracks at the surface (Fig. 8.2a, b). Downhill movement of
blocks of rock is caused by forces exerted by expanding clays, which fill these open
fractures, as well as a sudden rise of cleft water pressure after heavy rains.
More frequently, the slip surface is the contact between bedrock and talus. The step-
like topography of the bedrock, with steps dropping at vertical fractures, forms wedges
of talus soil (Fig. 8.2b). The base of a wedge has a general downslope dip and the
back of it is marked by a fracture wall. In wet seasons, water flows along the contact
between talus and bedrock, drops at the joint steps and washes away finer grains. After
heavy rain, the water table rises sharply, reducing the shear strength along potential slip
surfaces within the talus material. The weight of saturated soil exerts a downhill
component to any expansion movement caused by swelling clays. This slight downhill
movement of soil can develop a tabular vertical gap at the back of the talus wedge,
which, in turn, stretches the overlying soil. The resulting crack marks the crest of the
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landslip involving curved slip surfaces within the talus (Figs 8.2c, 8.39). Opening of
cracks to bedrock promotes further ingress of water and further enhances slip movement.
Most slips occur after heavy rain but they usually follow periods of wetter-than-norrnal
conditions that have already fully saturated both the rock and talus.
escarpment and do not happen frequently. Rockfalls are clearly visible along the
In the northern niawarra, across the Bulgo Sandstone outcrop, debris from these
rockfalls spills down the steep upper slope of the escarpment. The large broken blocks
remain on the upper slopes until further movement occurs above. Erosion by rockfalls
along the escarpment is not a very active process under natural conditions. An
estimated rate of retreat of the cliff-line for the period 1950-1975, of 0.15 m/1000 year
may have little relevance to the long-term average (Chowdhury and Young, 1987). Cliff
retreat since the initiation of Tasman Sea rifting 100 Ma ago is estimated to be 25-
40 km with an average rate of 0.25-0.4 m/1000 years. It was probably faster in the
past when continental shelf and coastal plan were narrow and, therefore, the 0.15 mm/
The present-day rockfalls produce limited deposits of coarse debris because the fine
matrix is rapidly washed out of the surficial deposit. They do not generate extensive
Shallow debris slides are common especially after prolonged heavy rainfalls on the
upper slopes of the escarpment. These debris slides may involve only the shallow soil
cover but also may remove weathered bedrock. They appear to be more likely to occur
after heavy rainfalls of short duration than after light rain over long periods.
These movements are typically long and narrow with planar slip surfaces. Because they
are restricted to the forested upper slopes they rarely present a problem to the inhabited
Debris flows are more common where large volumes of surface water are present. The
best known of this type failure is the State Rail Coledale Rawson Street failure which
Deep-seated slump-earth flows off the faces of benches and the lower ridges of the
escarpment are the most extensive and severe natural failures in the northern Illawarra
area. They occur in a variety of slope materials including talus mantle, Narrabeen
Group and niawarra Coal Measures. The failure planes of these movements may be as
much as 15 m below the ground surface and they occur in materials of low shear
strength.
Upper slopes and benches of the escarpment allow water to seep deeply into the
talus/weathered rock rather than flowing rapidly off. Major slumps develop on the face
These failures are triggered by pore water pressures which develop as water moves at
depth through the slopes. They are not associated with isolated intense heavy rainfalls
where most of the rainfall flows off rapidly as overland flow. Rather they are
186
associated with periods of prolonged moderate to heavy rain and begin a few d
particularly heavy falls within such periods. Because of the strong influence
subsurface seepage these failures occur on slopes of gentle gradient. The ang
Narrabeen Group and between 10 and 15 in talus. Slopes gentler than these va
8.5.5 CREEP
Creep is common along the slopes of the Illawarra escarpment and is likely to
8.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Talus is geological material which has moved downslope under the influence of
i.e., landslide or creep debris. Talus slopes are natural slopes which have a
history of landslides or creep, or both. The zone of talus along these slopes
have reduced the shear strength along the surface (or surfaces) of sliding or
both. When an excavation is made at the toe of a talus slope, failure is frequ
initiated along the existing surface (or surfaces) of sliding in the slope.
Many landslides have occurred in the northern Illawarra area, some of them ar
the Lawrence Hargrave Drive. A section of the road between Clifton and Coalcl
passes through the Wombarra Shale and a zone of talus in the wall of the esca
187
When construction began last century on this section of road, several slides were
initiated along ancient landslide surfaces in the talus. Modern landslides were
investigated along this section of road during this study. The location and geology of
the slide sites are described herein, along with engineering and geological features of
the slides.
available. While the talus has often been considered to be of Quaternary age, the
Illawarra escarpment is no younger than Miocene and the talus may in some places also
be of Tertiary age. Duricrusted surfaces and subaerial basalts on the coastal plain below
the escarpment demonstrate that uplift of strata in the southern Sydney Basin and
formation of at least part of the coastal escarpment took place prior to 30 Ma B.P.
(Wellman and McDougall, 1974). Young commented that linear dissection has
dominated slope processes since uplift and that scarp retreat has been extremely slow.
Nevertheless, even very slow rates of retreat since the Miocene could account for the
2-3 km distance now separating the upper cliff-line of the Illawarra escarpment and
on the middle and upper slopes of the escarpment (the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone
and the Late Permian - Triassic Narrabeen Group). The early Late Permian Illawarra
Coal Measures have been of minor importance as a source of talus in the northern
Illawarra. In this area talus often lies above the niawarra Coal Measures outcrop.
Therefore, the major source rocks have been claystone and quartz-lithic sandstone unit
The jointed Hawkesbury Sandstone has supplied most of the boulders found in the talus,
even in deposits now several kilometres distant from the cliffs. Narrabeen Group
sandstone floaters occur less frequently and the more friable and easily weathered
sandstone of the Illawarra Coal Measures are not represented in the boulder fraction.
Therefore, its boulders remain hard and angular with no sign of spheroidal weathering
In contrast the sandstones of the Narrabeen Group and Illawarra Coal Measures are
more easily weathered and more likely to have disintegrated during transport. They
have a higher percentage of rock fragments; and the rock fragments are often volcanic
rather than siliceous. The most common clay mineral in the Narrabeen Group is
kaolinite with illite and mixed-layer clays also present in the lutites. Because of
weathering changes and the range of clay minerals in the parent strata, only the boulder
fraction provides direct evidence of the source of the talus. Therefore, the origin of th
unstable boulder material must result from small shallow debris flows or avalanches
from the slope above them. Falls of weathered rock, like the fall from the Narrabeen
Group mentioned earlier (section 8.3.1), produce slides with some iron staining and with
engineering behaviour, and especially the residual strength of talus derived from
fluid composition and types of cations adsorbed on mineral particles exert a significant
influence on the residual strength and on time-dependent strength changes, if any, along
T h e X-ray diffraction study of the talus materials, Wombarra Shale, Stanwell Park
Claystone, and interbedded clay and highly weathered sandstones in the lower Narrabeen
Group indicate that they contain quartz, iron oxides, kaolinite and expandable lattice
mixed-layer clay minerals (see chapter 4). The latter consists of randomly interstratified
For more information fifteen clay samples from the five landslides were analysed. The
X-ray diffraction traces of clay samples with particles less than 2 microns show no
chlorite (Fig. 8.3a) in the matrix of the talus. Kaolinite and mixed-layer smectite clay
are the dominate clay minerals in all the talus samples (Fig. 8.3a). The limited data
suggest that expandable lattice clay minerals m a y occur preferentially along the failure
Groundwater flow through the relatively permeable shear zones m a y have caused
clay minerals, or both, along the failure surface. Further investigations are needed to
clarify this but it is noted that similar phenomena have been inferred for a failure in
Skempton, 1972).
locations (five landslides) in the northern Illawarra study area between Clifton and
Stanwell Park. They include seventy five direct shear tests, sixty liquid limit tests,
thirty plastic limit tests, fifteen determinations of in-place soil density, water-content
The shear strength of talus has been determined from laboratory tests. The result of
The peak shear strength values in this study refer to samples from slipped talus
materials, moderately weathered Wombarra Shale and highly weathered sandstone. The
measured peak shear strength values from extracted samples may be lower than the true
undisturbed peak shear strength of talus before the process of failure began.
between grains in clay soils (Trotter, 1993). It is affected by the pressure of pore water
filling the voids. Therefore, soils of similar texture, clay mineralogy and permeability
can be expected to have similar engineering behaviour and are generally classified by
a chart relating their plasticity index to their liquid limit (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).
Liquid and plastic limit tests in this study showed that, based on soil classification, th
talus matrix in the northern Illawarra (between Clifton and Stanwell Park) is inorganic
General relationships between the index properties of a soil and its strength have been
(1964) finding that cohesion is very small and that the angle of shearing resistance (<(>)
falls with increasing strain to a value which is constant (residual angle (|)r) has been
frequently applied. <t>r declines with increasing clay content. This decline is echoed by
a fall in (J)r with increasing plasticity index, from which the angle of shearing resistan
is usually predicted. A relationship between <j)r and plasticity index (Ip) was presented
by Voight (1973; see Fig. 8.24), Kanji (1974; see Fig. 8.25), and Lupini et al, (1981;
191
see Fig. 8.26). Also a relationship between residual friction angle with clay fraction
((>= 46.6/L0466
The residual angles of internal friction estimated for the talus are shown in Table 8.2.
If w e assume that long-term stability of the talus is governed by the residual strength
and by seepage parallel to the ground surface, with the top flow line at the ground
surface on long straight slopes (Carson, 1969), then w e can estimate the approximate
Taking (f>r to be 19, 22, 17, 15.5 and 17 (from Table 8.2), this equation yield
estimates of |3 as 9.5, 11, 8.5, 825' and 8.5 for the Clifton Hotel slump, Moronga
slump-earth flow, Jetty rock slump, Harbour slump and Coalcliff slump respectively.
These estimates are not presented here as definitive angles for the gradients of long-
term stable slopes on the talus; clearly the assumptions on which they are based m a y
not always be satisfied. Rather they are presented to indicate that the stable gradients
on the talus are low, comparable with angles suggested for clayey slopes elsewhere.
For example, Carson and Kirkby (1972) suggested 8-ll for clay slopes in general, and
Along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and Stanwell Park, slopes in talus
are unstable at angles above 10 and in some cases m a y be unstable at even lower
1. Atterberg limits
The relationship between the liquid limit and plastic limit is shown in Fig. 8.28). There
is a clear trend of increasing plastic limit with increasing liquid limit. Figure 8.29
192
shows a plot of liquid limit against natural water content. A rough trend can be seen
showing the liquid limit to increase with increasing natural water content.
It has been well established that the moisture content in talus can have a significant
effect on its engineering behaviour. A plot of bulk density versus moisture content (Fig
8.30; Table 8.1) shows a definite tendency for bulk density to increase with increasing
3. Clay fraction
The results of grain size analyses indicate that the clay fraction, that is material fin
than 2 microns, varies between 1.60% and 26.06% (Table 8.1). For the niawarra talus,
there is a relationship between the percentage of mixed-layer (expansive) clay and the
liquid limit for the samples listed in Table 8.1. An increased clay fraction (less than
index. The poor correlation may result from many factors, for example small sample
size, differing sizes of clay particles (Hawkins and McDonald, 1992), or partial
adsorption of iron or aluminium hydroxide cations by the expanded clays (Grice et al,
1982). It emphasises the difficulty of estimating one soil property from a different
property.
Figure 8.31 shows the relationship between the angle of shearing resistance (peak and
residual) for the matrices of the niawarra talus versus the clay fraction. Figure 8.32
show the relationship between the peak angle of shearing resistance of the niawarra
talus versus percentage of clay and silt. Most of the points indicate a definite tendenc
for <|>r and <|>p to decrease with increasing content of clay particles. Figure 8.33 show
the relationship between clay fraction and liquid limit (WL%) for Illawarra talus.
8.6.7 CONCLUSION
The clay mineralogy can be used to identify the likelihood of instability in talus in the
northern Illawarra. The main clay minerals in the talus, claystone and shale of
Narrabeen Group are kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite and mixed-layer clays. In general,
samples with a high percentage of kaolinite are more stable than those high in illite.
Montmorillonite, although less common, was found to be less stable again in the
Illawarra area. In the detailed study area, samples with high percentages of kaolinite
are also unstable. This is related to discontinuities in the talus and existence of mixed-
loss in shear strength may be enough to initiate slope failure and to reduce the shear
The geotechnical properties of talus derived from the Narrabeen Group rocks in the
northern niawarra vary widely but can be generalised. Talus ranges from GM and GC
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Failure surface clay usually consists of CL or ML soils and
Index properties and Unified Soil Classes give insight into the engineering behaviour of
as shear zones and failure surfaces. Index properties of shear zone and failure surface
materials usually differ little from those of the overlying talus, with one important
exception. Due to seepage along the relatively pervious shear zones and perhaps due
to related mineralogical and geochemical changes, many shear zones and failure surfaces
have water contents a few percent higher than those of overlying and underlying
materials.
194
The nature and geological setting of talus are such that its undrained or total stress shear
1967). Drained or effective stress shear strength are much more meaningful in
situations involving either short term or long term stability, despite the inevitable
Peak and residual strengths of talus and its discontinuities depend on four inter-related
factors: (a) clay fraction; (b) amount of particles of sand size and larger (mainly rock
fragments of various types); (c) soil structure which includes fabric, composition and
Augmentation of talus by fine particles increases the total surface area of the particles
and consequently increases the angle of internal friction. With an increase in the
proportion of fine particle, void ratios decrease. Drainage potential drops and the
likelihood of developing positive pore water pressure consequently increase. Despite the
increase in the angle of internal friction of this material, the changes to hydrological
properties have an overriding influence on potential stability. In first time slides, the
value of the shear strength is close to peak shear strength, whereas in second or later
slides along the same slip surface the value of the shear strength is close to the residual
shear strength (Skempton, 1964). Residual angle (tyt) values for talus matrix are
Calculation of shear strength parameters required for the limiting equilibrium of talus
masses is subject to significant uncertainties regarding in situ pore water pressures and,
parameters, within the geological framework of the slope and known range of talus
195
strengths, often permit the range of possible strength value to be narrowed sufficiently
The low ((>, values for talus deposits in the northern niawarra may give some confidence
in the above techniques for evaluating stability of talus slopes but they also point out
the need for field observations and monitoring of water pressures in these slopes. Talus
failures that were observed on talus slopes in the northern Illawarra appear, on the basis
argillaceous rocks in England, such as at the famous Walton's Wood landslide (Early
and Skempton, 1972) and colluvium derived from the argillaceous rocks in Western
The study area site plan (Fig. 8.34), shows three regions containing seven study sites.
In general, distinction between bedrock and intra-talus surface failures needs subsurface
common bedrock blocks in the talus mantle along the coastline (e.g. Fig. 3.10).
Bedrock blocks are from the upper niawarra Coal Measures in the south and from the
lower Narrabeen Group in the north, respectively. For example in the Clifton earth
slump bedrock is the Coal Cliff Sandstone and the failure surface is in the talus and
weathered Wombarra Shale (Figs 8.35, 8.36). In the Jetty rock slump the failure surface
is related to the Jetty Fault (a series of small en echelon faults in the Jetty Fault
suggests that this fault may have been active during deposition, Fig. 2.11). In the Jetty
rock slump part of the surface of the Jetty Fault acts as a failure surface in the Coal
8.7.1.1 Location
This slump is located beside the Clifton Hotel. The area is on a small flat portion of
ground on the east side of the Lawrence Hargrave Drive above the sea cliffs (Fig. 8.35).
8.7.1.2 Geology
The town of Clifton is located on a narrow coastal terrace within the steep slope of th
escarpment above the coastal cliff-line. The natural landforms generally slope to the
The rocks at the site are essentially flat-lying strata consisting of alternating beds
sandstone, shale and claystone. The talus mantle comprises a heterogenous mixture of
angular, gravel to boulder size sandstone fragments with variable amounts of sand, silt
and clay. The average size of boulders is about 50 cm. Information from drilling done
by the Department of Main Roads (DMR) shows the talus to consist of yellow brown
and brown sandy clay with medium plasticity, medium to coarse sand with traces of
The head of the slump is underlaid by the upper beds of the Wombarra Shale (Fig.
8.36) close to the junction with the overlying Scarborough Sandstone which is visible
in a small cutting on the west side of the road. The Scarborough Sandstone contains
numerous vertical joints; this is an ideal condition for the development of contact
springs. Surface water infiltrates the Scarborough Sandstone and seeps down through
it to the contact with the relatively impermeable Wombarra Shale. This seepage
increases water pressures in the talus and contributes to alteration of the Wombarra
Shale. Both of these effects contribute to further landsliding (Fig. 8.36). The base of
the slump near the edge of the cliff lies on the Coal Cliff Sandstone and water drains
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from the base of the colluvium just above the Wombarra Shale-Coal Cliff Sandstone
contact.
The effects of movement, observed along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive beside the
Clifton Hotel, is a rotational slide (Fig. 8.35) with a tension crack at the ground surface.
The dip of the surface of sliding is between 8 and 10 toward the sea and subsidence
movement on the road at this site coincided with the April rains of 1988. It is
considered likely that the sliding surfaceflattenedor became convex-upward because this
slump moved very slowly. The slump is about 65 metres long and 40 metres wide.
The crown, main scarp, head and toe of the slump are recognisable, but the flanks are
obscured under dense vegetation. The main scarp is low and lies along Lawrence
Hargrave Drive. O n e creek occurs beside the slump to the south and has a direct
influence on slump by the introduction of water (Fig. 8.35). The main body of the
slump comprises talus and weathered Wombarra Shale. With any heavy rain, water
percolates into the slump and mobilises the matrix of the talus. O n e can expect the
formation of cracks as the slip develops further, including en-echelon, longitudinal and
crescentic cracks which extend back to the base of the Scarborough Sandstone.
Based on drilling information, between 4.5 m and 5.9 m depth, there is high plasticity
clay with highly weathered shale layers at or near the slip surface. A seepage zone is
between joints is between 4 c m and 10 c m and the joints are infilled with clay. The
Three inclinometers and two piezometers were installed at this site by the Department
of Main Roads ( D M R ) . These inclinometers show a slip plane has developed at depth
198
between 4.5 m and 5.5 m in clay, immediately above the bedrock. The piezometers
show that the groundwater table ranges between 1.5 m and 4.5 m at this site. At the
present time the slump is active and it is moving toward the sea very slowly; the
Index properties were determined for samples of talus materials obtained from 3
locations (crown, head and toe) in this slump. The range and average values of these
index properties are given in Table 8.1. It must be noted that these values of shear
strength parameters do not represent the properties of soil at the slip surface. Very
careful drilling, undisturbed sampling and testing would be required to obtain the
operative shear strength parameters on the actual slip surface. No resources for these
According to the results from the tests, the peak friction angle (p) decreases from 45
in the crown to 40 in the head and to 23 in the toe of the slump (Fig. 8.7). Probably
the value in the toe of the slump represents a residual friction angle since this materi
has moved. Also residual shear strength is primarily dependent on mineral composition
and system chemistry (Kenney, 1967). Mineral composition affects atterberg index
parameters, so it does not seem surprising that strength and plasticity can be correlate
particular variable soil deposit, provided that they properly reflect changes in the mor
8.7.1.5 Conclusions
The slump occurred in a weak zone composed of talus, claystone and shale. The failure
surface of the slump was located at the base of the talus or just into the Wombarra
Shale. Movement of the slump reduced the shear strength along the failure surface to
199
a residual level. The strength of the failure surface materials probably remains at or
very near residual levels until times of very heavy rainfall (West, 1994).
One of the causes of the instability in this slump is erosion of the toe of the slope by
the sea, resulting in relaxation of the materials above (Fig. 8.36). The movement
detected by inclinometers is aided by the high perched water table above the Wombarra
Shale. For improving short to medium term stability in this area the water table must
be lowered to or below the top of the bedrock by drainage either out to the edge of the
8.7.2.1 Location
This slump-earth flow is located in the Clifton area, opposite the School Parade and east
of Moronga Park. It was initiated during the April rains of 1988 and has remained
active until now (Fig. 8.37). This slip is a retrogressive landslide but retrogression has
been slow during the last few years because of low rainfall.
October 1994 the average rate of retrogression is 25 cm per year. This rate may
8.7.2.2 Geology
The rocks at the site are lower Narrabeen Group and upper niawarra Coal Measures.
They are essentially flat-lying strata consisting of repeated beds of sandstone, shale, coal
and claystone (Figs 8.38 and 8.39). The head of the slump is underlaid by the Illawarra
Coal Measures.
The talus consists of silty clay, sandy clay and gravel of medium high plasticity and
mottled light grey, red and brown colours. Large sandstone boulders were encountered
in the main body of the slump (Fig. 3.10). The typical thickness of the talus may be
200
about 10 m . Underlying the talus soils are weathered coal measure rocks consisting of
tuffaceous sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone, claystone and minor coal seams. Coal
seams are found to often provide groundwater paths within the Illawarra Coal Measures
rocks.
The toe of the slump is in the upper Illawarra Coal Measures (Fig. 8.40). Water flows
over the surface of the slope and then permeates the talus, infiltrates the tuffaceous
sandstone and seeps d o w n through it to the contact with the next relatively impermeable
claystone. The water then moves laterally along this contact to the ground surface
where it emerges as a line of springs. This seepage increases water pressures in the
talus and contributes to further landsliding. The Clifton Fault is located to the north of
this slip (Fig. 8.38). This fault has an approximate east-west strike with a steep dip
(85) to the north. A tension crack regularly opens up along the strike of the fault
during prolonged periods of wet weather due to water movement along the weathered
fault plane. The past performance along this fault would suggest that it is a major zone
of weakness. Consequently, there is a possibility that any such movement could have
introduction of water (Ghobadi, 1993). This fault also creates an additional area of
instability near the Lawrence Hargrave Drive. Recent movement within Rube Hargraves
Park (Fig. 8.38) to the northwest of the slip, and the first house near the railway
Fault.
This slump is about 100 m long and 50 m wide. The crown, main scarp, head, flanks
and toe are clearly recognisable. The main scarp is about 12 m high, it is a nearly
vertical scarp surface stained by iron oxides. The toe of the slump-earth flow extends
201
onto the niawarra Coal Measures, comprising interbedded shale, coal and sandstone
The natural talus slope lies on a typical talus deposit. The talus body shows clear
separation of components by grain size. The larger, heavier blocks are mostly toward
the base of the main body of the slump, which comprises soil and weathered boulders.
Wave action has winnowed some of the distal toe of the talus slope.
The morphology of these earth flows and slumps are the result of the interaction
between mass movement and the underlying geology. The flows developed in an older
talus body which came to rest above a bed of highly weathered sandstone and claystone
of the niawarra Coal Measures. The upper surface of this sandstone bed forms the
basal shear surface. The presence and continuity of low angle joints in the weathered
Illawarra Coal Measures beneath the talus confirms that the main failure plane is located
in the upper niawarra Coal Measures. Critical groundwater conditions are often a direct
consequence of the structural defects. Coal beds in the Illawarra Coal Measures act as
The rate of movement is uncertain and likely to be erratic depending on rainfall. Based
on observations during the three years of study, the average rate of movement is 20 mm
to 30 mm per year.
Index properties were determined for samples of talus materials obtained from 3
locations (crown, head and toe) in this slump. The range and average values of these
index properties are given in Table 8.1. As noted before these values represent peak
shear strength parameters and not the properties at soil of the slip surface.
According to the result of the tests peak friction angle ((|)p) decreases from 38 in the
crown to 33 in the head and to 30 in the toe of the slump (Fig. 8.10). The reduced
202
value for the head of the slump is dependent on the higher percentage of clay fraction
(Table 8.1) in comparison to the peak friction angle on the crown of the slump. The
value in the toe of slump represents peak friction angle in the earth flow (Fig. 8.37).
8.7.2.5 Conclusions
The slump-earth flow occurred in a weak zone of talus and clay-rich stratigraphic
section composed of the upper Illawarra Coal Measures (claystone, tufaceous sandstone
and coal seams). The main failure surface of the slump-earth flow is located in the
jointed and weathered upper Illawarra Coal Measures. The bedrock is highly fractured
and weathered. The geological and geomorphological field investigations have shown
that jointing and faulting in combination with weathering, steep topography, water
incision and heavy rainfall, played a significant role in the movement of the slump-
earth flow.
The presence of the Clifton Fault and joints in the weathered rock mass contributed to
the mass movement. Movement reduced the shear strength along the main failure
surface to a residual level, where it probably remained until times of very heavy rainfall.
Geotechnical experience with this type of landsliding generally shows that groundwater
pressure is often the dominant factor activating landsliding, when compared with soil
strength parameters and slope angle. Based on observations in the field, groundwater
pressures are present in the crown area of the landslide and these pressures are assessed
to be responsible for driving the landslide. N o laboratory testing of slide plane material
has been undertaken to date (because the depth of sliding is not accurately k n o w n at
present). Coal beds in the niawarra Coal Measures act as aquifers, and water flow
within the coal beds is concentrated along discontinuities at the base of coal unit. This
increases the rate of weathering of the already highly weathered sandstone and leads to
Due to the sensitivity of the slide to fluctuations of water table level, the remedial
works can be basically aimed at draining the slope and preventing surface water
infiltration.
REGION B
(GRABEN A)
8.7.3.1 Introduction
The southern amphitheatre complex landslide consists of large planar slides involving
both block and wedge failures, which occur within the less deformed cover strata (cf.
Pettinga, 1987a, b). They are controlled by grain size variation in the alternating
at potential bedding-plane failure surfaces (Pettinga and Bell, 1991). The failure was
apparently triggered by this water pressure which existed in the slope. The rear of the
failure mass was defined by a vertical joint at the crest of the slope. This joint began
to open several years prior to the slide. Most of the failure surface passed through
8.7.3.2 Location
This landslide is located immediately north of the Jetty Fault along the Lawrence
8.7.3.3 Geology
The rocks consist of sandstone, with interbeds of claystone and shale overlying the Bulli
Coal.
The Bulgo Sandstone consists of grey quartz-lithic sandstone with minor reddish-brown
approximately 130 m in the study area. The sandstone beds are normally between
0.3 m and 3 m thick and the claystone interbeds are normally between 0.1 m and 1 m
thick (Fig. 3.9). Joint spacing averages 0.3 m. The Stanwell Park Claystone is
approximately 40 m thick (Fig. 8.42) and consists of red-brown and greenish claystone
with two lensoidal quartz sandstone beds between 0.1 m to 1 m thick. The Scarborough
Sandstone consists of thickly bedded sandstone with conglomerate beds and minor shale
(Fig. 3.6). It outcrops boldly, forms the major part of the coastal cliffs and is
approximately 25 m thick.
Wombarra Shale is about 40 m thick and consists of predominantly grey shale but it
contains one sandstone layer 6 m thick known as the Otford Sandstone Member. The
Coal CUff Sandstone is a massive grey lithic sandstone which forms the lower coastal
cliffs in the landslide area. Joints are spaced up to 10 m apart but are normally space
downwards from the base of the Coal Cliff Sandstone. The uppermost layer is the Bulli
Coal which, in the landslide area, only occurs to the south of the Jetty Fault. Below
the Bulli Coal the unit consists of claystone, shale (Fig. 3.22) and lithic sandstone d
to the base of the cliff. The Bulli coal has been mined to the west of the slip area
(Fig. 3.22).
The sandstone beds are permeable because of jointing. Claystone and shale beds are
generally quite impermeable. Perched water tables are common where these
The Jetty Fault is located to the south of this landslide. The dip of the fault plane i
70 N on Lawrence Hargrave Drive and 45 N in the lower coastal cliff north of the old
Coalcliff adit; its strike is east-west. This fault appears to be responsible for
groundwater circulation under the road. It has a throw of 8 m at the level of the Bulli
seam which dies out to zero within the Scarborough Sandstone. This change in
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displacement is explained by considering that the fault was only active during deposition
of the sediments. This fault has had an influence on the landslide indirectly by the
Lawrence Hargrave Drive (Jetty rock slump) which will be discussed later. Fault 2 (F2)
is located to the north of the landslide. The dip of the fault plane is about 45 S W , its
to the Jetty Fault. The dip of the fault plane is about 55 N (Fig. 8.41a). The
sandstone beds (Bulgo Sandstone and Scarborough Sandstone) overlie claystone and
shale and have numerous vertical joints almost parallel to the face of the slope. These
joints are attributed to stress relief in the escarpment walls. The mechanism of this
escarpment wall stress relief and joint formation has been discussed in chapter 5.
Very little slide m o v e m e n t seems to have occurred after the initial slump (Jetty rock
slump). The location of the failure surface was determined from surface indications
(Fig. 8.42). The lower part of the failure surface generally followed the base of the
W o m b a r r a Shale. The upper part of the failure surface met the open vertical joint in
the Scarborough Sandstone (Fig. 8.42). Normally, surface water infiltrating the upper
part of the slope would pass d o w n through the vertical joints in the Bulgo Sandstone
and drain laterally to the surface of the cut through the W o m b a r r a Shale. Water in the
middle to lower part of the slope would likewise drain laterally along the three fault
(Jetty Fault, Fl and F2, Fig. 8.41a). It is likely that infilling material (clay) essentially
plugged most of the natural drainage outlets in the slope face and that hydrostatic
pressures in the open joint at the rear of the failure mass trigged the slide. The long
term water seepage to the north of this landslide indicates a zone of high fracture
permeability. It confirms the existence of a penetrative rock defect, such as a fault (F2)
Generally water flow within the rock mass is concentrated along discontinuities at the
contact between the Bulgo Sandstone and Stanwell Park Claystone at the middle of
southern amphitheatre and at the contact between the Scarborough Sandstone and
Wombarra Shale at the bottom of southern amphitheatre. This increases the rate of
weathering of the Wombarra Shale, causes fretting and weathering of the sandstone and
(GRABEN B)
8.7.4.1 Location
This landslide is located beside the Harbour Fault along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive
8.7.4.2 Geology
similar to that in southern amphitheatre (Fig. 8.41a, b). The Harbour Fault forms a
It has a strike of 080 and dips 62 toward the south. This fault also appears to be
responsible for groundwater circulation under the road. It has had an influence on the
landslide indirectly by the introduction of water. This fault also creates an additional
area of instability in the east of Lawrence Hargrave Drive (Harbour Slump) which will
be discussed later. The fault 3 (F3) is to the south of this landslide. The dip of the
The whole northern amphitheatre has been considered to be moving towards the sea as
(Fig. 8.44). A major fault to the north of the landslide (Harbour Fault) and F3 to the
south of the landslide are good localities for water flow. Movement of this type would
be expected to increase dramatically in the future. This amphitheatre area could in fact
represent or develop into a deep seated but slow moving rock slide. The slow
movement can be related to: (a) serious slippage of rock support along the amphitheatre
cliff line: (b) collapse of the underlying coal workings; and (c) the long term water
seepage at the north of this landslide which indicates a zone of high fracture
permeability.
This landslide comprises surficial mass movements, within the soft rock (Stanwell Park
debris flow and talus slump. The Stanwell Park Claystone contains appreciable
montmoriUonite clay (laboratory swelling tests on the fresh claystone core samples
produced unconfined swelling strains up to 10% and swelling pressures of 100 KPa for
Stanwell Park Claystone, Railway Authority, 1983), and is prone to slaking (chapter 7)
when subject to moisture variation above the perched water. From shear strength values
compiled by Pitsis (1992), it is clear that the Stanwell Park Claystone has a generally
low friction angle. The magnitude of the friction angle may be as low as 11 (Table
8.3). Claystones are thus readily transformed into material with clay soil properties,
such as plasticity and volume change, whilst the associated siltstone and fine sandstone
weakened the rock mass, greatly assisting the slaking process by permitting rapid
variations in moisture content. Surficial mass movements occur extensively and they
involve the entire length of a slope from ridge crest to amphitheatre floor. Generally
water flow within the rock mass is concentrated along discontinuities at the contact
between the Bulgo Sandstone and Stanwell Park Claystone at the top of northern
amphitheatre. This increases the rate of weathering of the Stanwell Park Claystone,
208
causes fretting and weathering of the sandstone and leads to toppling failures and rock
falls.
8.7.4.4 Conclusion
between Clifton and Coalcliff along the Lawrence Hargrave Drive. Amphitheatre
by bedrock lithology, rock mass structure and climate. The southern amphitheatre
complex landslide is a deep-seated block and wedge slide on the gently deformed lower
Narrabeen Group (alternating sandstone, claystone, shale) and upper niawarra Coal
block slide accompanying surficial creep earthflows and debris-flow slides on the lower
Landslides were triggered by the water which accumulated in the slopes. Water flow
within the rock mass is concentrated along discontinuities at the base of lower
Opening of the vertical joint at the rear of the failure mass occurred progressively over
a period of several years but the failure itself occurred suddenly w h e n water pressure
in the slope reached a critical value. These critical pressures probably corresponded to
water level of the head of the slump is at or near the top of the open joint.
The failure surface was largely defined by structural features in the slope. The open
vertical joint defined the rear of the failure mass and the lower part of the failure
surface followed two weak strata (Stanwell Park Claystone and W o m b a r r a Shale) in
the slope.
209
These amphitheatre complex landslides rotated slowly and incrementally (creep) on their
To produce a comprehensive engineering geological failure model for the southern and
northern amphitheatre slides, that would account for the deformation and failure
mechanisms along the large creeping rock slopes, data from surface surveys would have
to be combined with data from exploration adits and a series of carefully positioned
boreholes. Such data, to be collected from future research, would probably show that
the slopes have been deformed and relaxed. Boreholes through the slopes would obtain
rock quality designation (RQD) values for the major rock units and would permit an
assessment of the fissility in the Wombarra Shale unit (Fig. 3.15). The presence of
extensive near-surface fissility, in combination with unstable cements and swelling clays,
would account for the rapid weathering, disintegration and reduced overall rock mass
Further drill-supported field investigations should reveal that deformation of whole slopes
resulting from escarpment stress relief may have occurred in some locations.
In the upper parts of slides in both amphitheatres, tensile cracking zones, about 40 m
wide and composed of a series of vertical joints, can be observed. Within these zones
bending-toppling failure of the rock mass has occurred near the surfaces, and has
resulted in depression zones, about 10 m wide, at the backs of the slides. Tensile
cracking zones at the backs of these slides could not have resulted solely from
In summary, it can be concluded that the creep-formed slides probably have a composite
deformation mechanism, which is mainly controlled by creep along major faults which
bound these slide areas (faults 1 and 2 in the southern amphitheatre [Fig. 8.42], and
fault 3 and the Harbour Fault in the northern amphitheatre; Fig. 8.44), and creep-
210
induced tensile fracturing of the rock mass within the slide area. Slides in both
amphitheatres thus appear to fail due to progressive fracturing of the rock mass.
It is apparent that the slip failures on both slopes are still developing, so a basic
the full course of slope deformation, that is the mechanism of deformation and failure.
Finally, using the above mechanism and present stage of slope deformation, a qualitative
assessment of slope stability can be made, and its future development and final failure
Case studies used in this research also suggest that future research should include not
only systematic engineering geological investigations and geological surveys, but also
detailed exploration, rock mechanics tests and numerical simulation. Risk assessment
8.7.5.1 Location
This slump is located at the toe of the southern amphitheatre complex landslide (Graben
A ) between Clifton and Coalcliff beside the Jetty Fault and east of Lawrence Hargrave
8.7.5.2 Geology
The rocks are essentially flat-lying strata consisting of Wombarra Shale, Coal Cliff
Sandstone and Bulli Coal. The middle beds of the Wombarra Shale are visible at the
head of the slump in a small cutting on the east side of the road. The Wombarra Shale
contains numerous vertical joints; this is an ideal condition for the development of
contact springs. Water drains from the toe of the rock slump at the contact between
the Coal Cliff Sandstone and Bulli Coal. The thickness of the Coal Cliff Sandstone and
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Bulli Coal is about 5 m and 1.5 m respectively in this rock slump. The Jetty Fault
causes an increase in local water flow and is directly related to this rock slump.
The rock slump consists of a talus mantle, and middle and lower beds of Wombarra
Shale and Coalcliff Sandstone. The base of rock slump is in the Coalcliff Sandstone,
The slump is about 60 m long and 50 m wide, the main scarp is steep and
approximately parallel to Lawrence Hargrave Drive. The crown, head, flanks, and toe
This rock slump is a wedge slide failure and involves translational movements on low
shear strength planes that dip at angles as low as 15. Surface water infiltrates though
the talus and seeps down through it to the contact with the relatively impermeable
Wombarra Shale (Fig. 8.46). Seepage increases water pressures in the talus and
contributes to alteration of the Wombarra Shale. The failure surface can be lubricated
by montmorillonite clays, whilst water moves laterally along two discontinuities (Fig.
Index properties were determined for samples of talus materials obtained from 3
locations (crown, head and toe) in this slump. The range and average values of these
index properties are given in Table 8.1. It must be noted that these values of shear
strength parameters do not represent the properties of soil at the slip surface.
According to the result of tests peak friction angle decreases from 47 in the crown to
42 and 40.5 in the head of the slump (Fig. 8.13). These angles are higher than the
peak friction angles ((J)p) in the Moronga Park slump. This is relation to composition of
the talus materials. In this slump, the talus contains cemented shale fragments of
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Wombarra Shale. The Wombarra Shale has a calcite cement in this location, which
results in the high peak friction angle found in this rock slump.
8.7.5.5 Conclusion
The main causes of slumping are, erosion of the toe of the slope by sea, water
percolation into the slump along the Jetty Fault, and mobilisation of the material after
any heavy rain in the area. This slump is an active but it is moving very slowly
toward the sea. During the last three years hardly any creep m o v e m e n t has been
8.7.6.1 Location
This slump is located immediately south of Coalcliff, east of Lawrence Hargrave Drive
8.7.6.2 Geology
The rocks consist of the Wombarra Shale and Coal Cliff Sandstone. The upper beds
of the Wombarra Shale are overlaid by the Scarborough Sandstone which is visible on
the west side of the road. Water flow within the Scarborough Sandstone is concentrated
along joints at the contact between this sandstone unit and the relatively impermeable
Wombarra Shale. This seepage increases water pressure in the fill (ashes, slag and soil)
and talus material and causes alteration of the Wombarra Shale. Both of these effects
The Harbour Fault is located immediately south of this slump. This fault has an
approximately east/west strike with dip of 70 toward the north. This fault has created
This slump is about 25 m long and 65 m wide. The crown, main scarp, head, flanks
and toe of slump are recognisable; the main scarp is sharp and lies along the outer edge
of Lawrence Hargrave Drive. The base of the slump lies on the Coalcliff Sandstone
and water seeps from the toe of slump (between the base of the slip and the sandstone
(Fig. 8.48). The main body of the slump comprises fill and talus (weathered boulders
in a clay matrix). This slump can divided in two parts. The northern part of the
slump, comprising a shallow fill/talus failure involving the weathered mantle, occurs
irrespective of the bedrock lithology and is triggered on the steep slope (about 30) by
high intensity rainfall. The southern of part the slump is a creep mass involving talus
and weathered Wombarra Shale; it is moving very slowly southeast toward the sea.
Index properties were determined for samples of talus materials obtained from 3
locations (crown, head and toe) in this slump. The range and average values of these
index properties are given in Table 8.1. As noted before these values of shear strength
According to the results of tests the peak friction angle ((J)p) decreases from 44 in the
crown to 30 in the head and 16 in the toe of the slump (Fig. 8.13). This is related
to the grain size of talus materials which decreases from the crown to the toe of the
slump but not the clay content. Talus in the crown of the slump mostly consists
fragments of the Wombarra Shale as noted before for the Jetty rock slump. The value
in the head of slump represents a peak friction angle for soil fill and the value in the
toe of the slump show residual friction angle since this material has moved toward the
8.7.6.5 Conclusion
heavy rainfall. The toe of the slump is being eroded by the sea, res
of the material above. Also with any heavy rain, water percolates in
mobilises the material. This slump is active but the southern part o
REGION C
8.7.7.1 Location
This slump contains a broad active slip zone and is located between
Stanwell Park between the Railway and Lawrence Hargrave Drive (Fig. 8
8.7.7.2 Geology
The sedimentary rock units exposed in the vicinity of this slump bel
Narrabeen Group. The two members of immediate relevance are the Bulg
the base of which is exposed about 4 m above the railway level, and
Claystone which underlies the railway embankment and talus slope (Fig
three main claystone intervals and two sandstone intervals. The Bulg
near the base of the Bulgo Sandstone uphill of the slip area. The cl
215
is composed mainly of quartz, and kaolinite, with montmorillonite and illite. This
The dominant rock defects apparent in the bedrock exposed on the uphill side of the
slump belong to a close spaced joint set oriented subparallel to the cutting and the
to 20 m m , striking between 050 to 060 with dip of between 70 and 80 to the east.
The close spaced joints were produced by weathering and stress relief subparallel to the
hillslope.
This slump is about 150 m long and 600 m wide. The crown and main scarp are
recognisable. The main scarp lies along the railway line. The main body of the slump
comprises fill and talus, and base of slump lies on the Stanwell Park Claystone.
Evidence of artesian groundwater flows was discovered in February 1972 during the
diamond drilling by the State Rail Authority. From examination of drilling records it
would appear that the water flow originated from a soft sandstone layer (between 5.3 m
and 6.4 m depth) within the top of part of the Stanwell Park Claystone. The layer was
isolated above and below by grey shale beds. The core of the Stanwell Park Claystone
bedrock was highly fractured and displayed highly ferruginised joints indicating the
failure surface and cause saturation of the colluvial mantle. In addition to this, it is
possible that a fault detected in the nearby mine workings m a y crop out in the vicinity
Index properties were determined for samples of talus materials obtained from 3
locations (crown, head and toe) in this slump. The range and average values of these
216
index properties are given in Table 8.1. It must be noted that these values of shear
strength parameters do not represent the properties of soil at the slip surface.
According to the result of tests peak friction angle (<|>p) decreases from 34 in the crow
to 29 in the head and to 18 in the toe of the slump (Fig. 8.20). Talus in the crown
of the slump consists of claystone rock fragment (Stanwell Park Claystone). Depending
on the degree of breakdown of the claystone rock fragments in the talus materials the
difference of the peak friction angle occurs in this slump. The low peak friction angle
in the toe of the slump is related to the high percentage of silt and clay (Table 8.1).
The slump contains a broad active slip zone of talus, but the actual location of the
failure plane is somewhere within the uppermost weathered zone of the underlying
Stanwell Park Claystone and not in the talus layer itself. Cores recovered from diamond
drilling by the State Rail Authority (1982) showed that within this zone the top of the
4 m. The assessment that the failure plane is more likely to be located in this
Since cohesion (c) in a residual strength situation is progressively reduced with small
The results of tests (State Rail Authority, 1982) indicate that the average ((j)r) for
undisturbed talus (27) exceeds that of the completely weathered claystone (16) by 70%.
An approximate comparison of the relative residual strength of the colluvium and the
completely weathered claystone can be made by using the relationship between plasticity
index (Ip) and residual angle of internal friction (<\>T) published by Kanji (1974):
<|)r = 46.6/Ipa446
The relevant values of Ip for talus and completely weathered claystone are 19.6% and
33.2% respectively. The equivalent values of <j)r are found to be 12.4 and 9.7. Again
217
the angle for the talus is seen to exceed that for the completely weathered claystone,
suggesting that the basal sliding surface would more likely be located within the
weathered claystone.
8.7.7.5 Conclusion
The major feature of the Coalcliff slump is sliding of the talus layer on an inclined
failure surface toward the sea, with internal tension cracks and minor scarps. As
described before the Stanwell Park Claystone is highly to completely weathered for a
located in this weathered claystone than in the talus was suggested by a comparison of
the measured physical properties of the two materials. Since cohesion (c) in a residual
strength situation is progressively reduced with small creep strains, the controlling
Claystone into the bedrock/talus interface. This could have a controlling effect on the
instability of this slope. Therefore, lowering of the groundwater within the talus and
fill may not produce the full anticipated reduction in water pressures at the failure plane
due to the relatively constant pressure applied by the flow from the aquifer below the
interface. The relative effect of the aquifer uplift pressure would appear to depend on
the surface area and the permeability of the interface materials. For example, a decrease
in the permeability of the basal talus materials (which may include completely weathered
claystone) would cause an increase in the uplift pressures on the overlying slip mass.
(Clifton hotel earth-slump, Moronga Park slump-earth flow, Jetty slump and Harbour
218
slump) for measuring slip movement. The survey pegs are arranged along three transect
lines which extend across each landslide. The survey pegs are positioned about 10 m
apart along each transect line. The landslides did not show any surface movement for
more than three years of this study. The only exception was at the Moronga Park
slump, where the rate of opening of a tension crack in Moronga Park is about 3 mm
per year on the surface. Even the Newcastle earthquake on 6 August 1994, which
measured 5.3 on the Richter scale (4.2 magnitude in the study area) had no effect on
the slumps. A monitoring program with inclinometers by the State Rail Authority
(1982) showed that the landslides are moving very slowly (creep). The rate of
movement is between 30 mm and 50 mm per year depending on the amount and rate
is known about its long-term effect in natural rock slopes (Pritchard et al, 1990;
Culshow and Bell, 1991; Glawe et al, 1993; Cruden and Xian, 1994).
In the northern Illawarra, the Narrabeen Group is thick and slopes are steep with the
sandstone beds locally forming significant cliffs. The extreme is between Coalcliff an
Clifton where the Scarborough and Bulgo Sandstone bluffs obscure the topmost
Hawkesbury Sandstone cliff when viewed from the road. The cliff section from just
south of Clifton to Austinmer is very steep and significant toppling and falls occur i
this area. Rock failures are considered significant when a clear surface expression
results; which generally means that newly exposed faces are evident and vegetation
below the fall has been severely damaged. The rock mass involved may range in
During the present study very heavy rainfalls (700 mm per month) were not recorded
but heavy falls (400 mm per month) occurred in recent years (April 1988). This
resulted in some significant rock failure and talus failure on the escarpment as a whole,
A common occurrence is the flaking off of claystone fragments and after heavy rainfall
road. This common feature generally goes unnoticed and only the large rock falls are
recorded. However extreme fretting of the fine-grained rock units occurs which
vertical cliff faces which evolve by rockfall, toppling (Fig. 8.50a) and general
degradation processes. Commonly a distinct time delay occurs between heavy rainfall
and failure. This time delay varies greatly from merely a day to several months.
Rock failures on the Illawarra escarpment are relatively simple in their form and shape
because the bedding is very close to horizontal and jointing is approximately vertical.
The iron staining often extends to the base of the failure surface indicating open joint
systems at least near the surface. At the base of the massive, horizontally bedded
sandstone is a highly weathered claystone or shale. The rock failures are bounded by
joints and the basal weathered claystones or shale. Erosion of the claystone or shale
In summary, several features of rock failure have been observed in the study area.
(2) Failures are usually associated with heavy rainfall but usually a distinct time delay
is found.
220
(3) The joint surfaces often are iron-stained, which means they are open to weathering
(4) Weathering and fretting of the basal claystone and shale causes significant
undercutting of the sandstone cliff, for example at the contact between Scarborough
Sandstone and Wombarra Shale between Clifton and Coalcliff along Lawrence
(5) Variation in mechanical properties of the weathered rocks, and the importance of
creep.
(6) High horizontal stresses parallel to the cliff faces. The vertical joints perpendicula
of weathering is variable; it is greatly dependent on the rock type and may be a short
or long term factor. The variations, usually seasonal, of temperature and rainfall can
induce alternating stresses within a rock mass which invariably reduces its strength. In
a very long-term sense, the regional stresses within an area may vary and these may
effect the stability over a period of time. Variations in the position of the water table
are often time-dependent and this causes water pressure fluctuations and various
consolidation effects in the colluvium. Variations over time in the physical and
chemical action of the groundwater also induce breakdown of the rock mass.
Rocks containing soluble minerals are particularly susceptible to breakdown over time,
as are those containing swelling clay minerals. The permeability of a rock may,
weathering. The influence of joint irregularities is decreased as the strength of the joi
221
asperities is reduced (Glawe et al, 1993). This increases the possibility of them being
sheared off rather than overridden. Although the cohesion may increase due to the large
amount clay minerals produce during weathering, the friction between the joint surfaces
Patton and Deere (1970) have pointed out that weathering tends to zones of materials
bed can result in the formation of artesian pore water pressures in weathered slopes,
which could induce a slope failure. Weathering also is a strong undercutting agent
because of its differential action and thus it is most important in rock slope stability
In the study area relatively thick sandstone beds usually overlie thinner claystone beds.
The weathering of sandstone beds occurs, but the rate of weathering of the claystone
is much greater than for the sandstone. As a result, the sandstone units are relatively
fresh to slightly weathered, while the claystone units are slightly, moderately, highly or
completely weathered. The sandstone beds possess a number of vertical joints which
become less dominant back from the free face. Water movement down the joints in the
sandstone causes more intense weathering in the claystone. Water movement away from
the joints is along the contact between the sandstone and claystone causing weathering
and fretting in the claystone. Field observations of failure have shown the existence of
and continuity of jointing, and the extent of basal weathering and undercutting determine
the size of the rock-falls and toppling. Tectonic joints are usually continuous over long
distances. The joints tend to break the rock mass into various shaped prisms. Thicker
and coarser sandstone units usually have a lower intensity of jointing than the thinner
sandstone units.
222
8.9.4 CREEP
In long term rock slope stability studies, creep is an important factor. It is well kno
that creep occurs when rock material is subjected to relatively high stresses for a lo
time. Weathered rocks especially are very susceptible to creep. Even at low stresses,
certain rock types with moderate to high moisture contents can exhibit large time
unloading at the bottom of a slope where the beds bulge upwards. Creep may occur
on wett defined planes but this is difficult to observe because it may be taken up by
an infinite number of small shear planes (Huang et al, 1994). A failure may not exist,
Hamel and Adams (1974) suggested that creep may be an initial or intermediate stage
in the development of toppling failures. This suggestion is important and there appears
to be a relationship between toppling and rock creep in this study. With time, there
consequent decrease in grain to grain contact and perfection of mineral packing, and an
strength of clay. So that the time until failure is strongly dependent on the climatic
conditions.
As the clay in a slope is weathered, it is able to creep downslope if the shear stresse
in the failure zone due to gravitational forces are equal to the residual shear strengt
If the clay is highly disturbed and the strength of the failure surface has been reduc
A distinction should be drawn between creep along discontinuities and within the rock
material itself. In the former case, slow gradual movements occur primarily along joint
surfaces or along bedding or failure planes. In the latter case, the intact rock materi
223
deforms at a microscopic scale under the influence of a load. Both types of creep are
both rockfall and toppling from above and slumping of the underlying Wombarra Shale
(Fig. 8.51). Along this road many slumps are located in the talus and Wombarra Shale;
the latter generally occurs within approximately 2 m of the surface. These slumps have
been initiated by the removal of support from the Wombarra Shale due to coastal
erosion processes. The interbedded sandstone and shale sequence in the lower
Narrabeen Group are responsible for rock slope instability within the detailed study area.
Undercutting (weathering and erosion) of cliffs at the top of claystone and shale units
produces topples and rockfalls. Between Clifton and Coalcliff the Wombarra Shale is
located at the base of the Scarborough Sandstone cliff which fails due to weathering of
The Bulgo Sandstone forms the majority of the steep escarpment in the study area. The
Stanwell Park Claystone is located at the base of Bulgo Sandstone cliff. This claystone
unit rapidly weathers and breaks d o w n to form clay typically possessing low shear
strength properties. This process is aided by the many joints in the Bulgo Sandstone
and Stanwell Park Claystone. Also it is considered that, over geological time, creep
strains would affect rock slope stability because the claystone is more likely to creep
than the sandstone unit. Therefore partings along bedding planes occur, and the Bulgo
Sandstone c o m m o n l y fails due to weathering of the basal claystone (Fig. 8.52a, b), and
in small scale due to the interbedded claystone or shale in the Bulgo Sandstone.
224
Minor rockfalls are particularly evident where the finely laminated shales are being
weathered continuously causing the more competent sandstone blocks to fall from the
includes virtually all of the cliffs between Clifton and Coalcliff. Failure due to
undercutting may take one of two forms: that of toppling where the weight vector of
h) falls outside of the base of the block (Fig. 8.53). A master joint aUows release of
the block from the cliff and toppling occurs. Alternatively, fracturing through rock
bridges may take place, the fracture joints a line of existing joints leading to failure
(Fig. 8.53). In fact coastal erosion has undermined the Coal Cliff Sandstone leading to
rockfalls into the sea. This in turn leads to slides from the overlying Wombarra Shale
(Fig. 8.53). A notch exists at the high water mark level in the Coal Cliff Sandstone
indicating the strong coastal erosion forces. King tides combined with heavy storms
resulted in large rockfalls on the coast immediately north and south of Stanwell Park
in the Scarborough Sandstone (Fig. 8.53). In these areas the Scarborough Sandstone is
very coarse and tends to be conglomeratic. It was observed that during failure the rock
8.9.7 CONCLUSIONS
There are several factors contributing to the present instability on the lower Narrabeen
(1) the high rainfall levels experienced and, as a result, the high rates of infiltration
and runoff;
225
(2) the steep surface slope angle which forms a potentially unstable condition in the
(3) the rapid weathering of the Stanwell Park Claystone unit which breaks d o w n to
form clay typically possessing low shear strength properties. This unit has a very
(4) the low surface slope angle on the Stanwell Park Claystone which allows the
(5) pre-existing discontinuities, such as shear zones and failure surfaces in the talus;
(6) blanketing of the jointed Bulgo Sandstone and any fractured basal Stanwell Park
impermeable talus deposit. This is confirmed by the many failures which occur
(7) concentration of hydrostatic pressures within fractured rock immediately behind the
talus;
(8) the presence of interbedded claystone within the Bulgo Sandstone, Scarborough
Sandstone and Coal Cliff Sandstone which weathers to form low strength clay.
For example, claystone bands within the Bulgo Sandstone show very low durability
(9) The weathering of the Wombarra Shale which breaks down to form low strength
clay;
(10) the existence of seepage concentrations within the fractured Wombarra Shale;
(11) marine undercutting (Coal Cliff Sandstone and Scarborough Sandstone) especially
between Clifton and Coalcliff and the north of Stanwell Park Beach.
(12) the presence of coal seams results in seepage concentrations because of their
(13) the difference in the creep properties of the two predominant rocks (sandstone and
claystone). The weathered claystone has a faster creep rate than the sandstone
(Evans, 1978).
will be no adverse effects, landslides are simply left alone. In critical areas, landslid
on natural slopes are treated similarly to those in man-made slopes. The most critical
item here is understanding the geotechnical framework of the slope. If this framework
Deep-seated rock slides are treated on an individual basis because of their rarity.
Standard procedures are available for dealing with the more common shallow, slab-
type, rockfalls and rock topples. In natural rock slopes, the options are usually limited
to removal of potentiaUy unstable rock masses or supporting and/or stabilising such rock
masses.
With talus slopes, the key is recognition of old landslide masses (Gray at al, 1979;
Hamel and Adams, 1981). Talus masses, especially the larger ones, should be avoided
to the extent practicable. If they cannot be avoided, talus masses can sometimes be
by excavation alone generally requires removal of virtually the entire mass in order to
ensure stability. This is seldom practical with large talus masses. Improvement of
many talus slides, though drainage by itself may not be sufficient for slide stabilisatio
(Chowdhury, 1980).
The stability of filled slopes begins with the foundation. All foundations must be
carefully investigated. Fills placed on talus are seldom stable in the long term.
227
Assuming a stable foundation, good grading practices are mandatory to ensure a stable
fill slope. Surface and subsurface drainage must also be provided for a stable fiU.
With rock slopes, individual methods of stabilisation will very rarely be used by
passive factors, such as weathering, the use of structural restraints, such as rock anchors,
and drainage. In m a n y cases in the study area, the prevention of rock failures in natural
rock slopes will not be viable as access is very difficult and the cost would be very
high.
softer rocks is most important. Physical weathering processes, especially wetting and
drying, need to be prevented as soon as possible after a fresh claystone bed is exposed
by rock failure. Detailed work on such beds is described by Fookes and Sweeney
(1976) and usually involves the sealing of the exposed bed with reinforced concrete but
with appropriate drainage requirements. Complete sealing would minimise wetting and
drying and also salt weathering processes. The rapid rate of weathering of the claystone
necessitates prompt action, especially as the strength decrease with weathering is most
pronounced in the progression from the fresh to slightly weathered stage. Large areas
of high weatherable rocks can be treated by the use of mortar screeding where
groundwater erosion is not important. Figure 8.54 shows several stabilisation and
prevention measures carried out between Coalcliff and Clifton. The Scarborough
Sandstone is at the top of the figure. The Wombarra Shale (middle) overlies the Coal
Cliff Sandstone (bottom) and the Otford Sandstone M e m b e r form the small cliff beside
the roadway. For controlling lateral movement, rockfalls, toppling and subsidence,
significant work has been carried out by the Department of Main Roads along Lawrence
Hargrave Drive including concrete retaining walls, shotcrete, gabions, rock bolts and
steel mesh to prevent falls and slumps from and onto the side of the road (Fig. 8.54).
Figure 8.55a shows destruction of the shotcrete by swelling of the rock mass. The
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Wombarra Shale is strongly affected by wetting and drying processes which lead to the
expansion of the surface rockmass and water access is provided via the joint systems
This study indicates the progressive nature of toppling and the general degradation
processes whereby open joints become enlarged and failure ensues. The principal
method of minimising the effects of jointed regions is the use of structural restraints i
the form of rock bolts or anchors. They should be applied as soon as possible after
exposure of the particular face so as to minimise joint dilation. The interlocking effect
permitted strength is reduced. Rock bolts or anchors act as shear keys and are designed
designs. This may be in the form of subhorizontal drains drilled both paraUel and
perpendicular to the slope, or drains at the crest and toe of the slope (Fig. 8.55b). The
drains should have an impermeable lining and may act to re-channel existing permanent
flow or collect surface runoff. The amount of infiltration of surface water into the
joints at the back and sides of the slope is most critical. This can be minimised by
using drains or by sealing the cracks. The time delay noted following heavy rainfall
tapping the groundwater far back from the exposed face with drainage adits which will
Other methods used to control local rockfalls and general degradation are benches,
concrete or masonry retaining walls, free hanging mesh nets suspended from above,
stone facing with graded filter, rock trap ditches at the toe of the slopes, scaling of
loose blocks the construction of fences or walls and finally the flattening of the slope.
Local benches exit throughout the Narrabeen Group and greater use could be made of
229
them as they can act as access roads, rockfall arresters and can form the basis of a
The coastal erosion is most critical and large breakwater walls must be constructed to
combat this process. Rock failure, both of the coastal cliffs and of the escarpment itself
must be seen as a normal phenomenon of the erosion cycle and hence most measures
to prevent them will have a definite and limited life unless they are maintained updated,
At present, to enhance stability along Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Coalcliff and
(4) rockbolt, mesh and shotcrete can be applied to some locations, for example the top
(6) replace drainage pipes with larger sizes, and improve the inlet conditions for, and
(7) excavate n e w drainage trenches where possible (between the cliff and the road).
(8) construction of a breakwater at base of the cliff between Clifton and Stanwell Park
(9) a series of deep subsoil slot drains is needed in the lower part of the landslides.
These should be taken d o w n to bedrock and extended partially under the road to
intercept the regional water table and provide adequate drainage from the
subsurface aquifer.
A n alternative to remedial work along the existing roadway would be the excavation of
a tunnel to carry traffic past the dangerous section or construct a bridge across the shore
CHAPTER 9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the niawarra area, with its steep coastal escarpment, slope stability is an old problem
and can have disastrous effects on development. This is directly related to the geology
and geological history of the area. The 300 m high escarpment consists of flat-lying
cemented quartz sandstone. The interbedded strong sandstone and weak shale succession
in the lower part of escarpment has been acted upon by erosion, stress relief,
weathering, creep and sliding processes to produce masses of talus on many of the steep
hillsides. Rockslides are rare but rockfalls and toppling are common on the steep rock
involve translational or rotational slides or slow to rapid flows of soil, talus or fill. The
man's activities, e.g. removal of toe support, loading the slope, and changing the surface
Artificially induced slides, many of which include underlying or adjacent talus, almost
invariably result from poor site selection or poor design and construction practices.
geotechnical endeavour requiring concepts from engineering geology, soil mechanics and
rock mechanics. Of these three disciplines, engineering geology is probably the most
regional and site geology and of the geologic processes which formed the site and
continue to act upon it. Once this level of geologic understanding is reached, slope
232
behaviour can often be assessed on the basis of common sense or precedence. Where
according to the above philosophy, with emphasis on the talus slope deposits.
9.2 STRATIGRAPHY
The lower Narrabeen Group and upper Illawarra Coal Measures are essentially flat-
lying strata consisting of repeated beds of sandstone, shale, claystone and coal seams.
In the lower Narrabeen Group, thick sequences of weak rocks (Stanwell Park Claystone
and Wombarra Shale) are rather more easily eroded than sandstone strata and hence
relatively rapid rates of recession occur. Undermining along this thick sequence of
weak rocks at the contact between claystone and sandstone reduces the support for the
overlying vertically-jointed sandstone and eventually leads to stabs falling off along th
vertical joint faces. Thin marker beds (coal seams) in the Illawarra Coal Measures
commonly act as aquifers, with claystone beds acting as aquitards. Slope instability is
usually related to the presence of the aquifers which are the source of high pore water
pressures.
9.3 PETROLOGY
The Narrabeen Group was derived from the New England Fold Belt to the north and
consists predominantly of volcanic detritus. The volcanic detritus is present in both the
sandstone and shale units either in form of detrital grains of volcanic rock or as fine
volcanic ash. During post-depositional alteration and diagenesis, the original volcanic
glass in the ash and matrix of larger grains has devitrified to produce smectite clays.
These clays not only cause swelling and shrinkage near the surface as a response to
wetting and drying, but also reduce the permeability of the near the surface rock mass.
233
This latter factor increases the aqueous pore pressures and hence increases the likelihood
of surficial mass movement of both the rock mass and the adjacent talus deposits.
Based on the petrological study the rock fragments mostly comprise chert grains. The
majority of the chert contains clay minerals. Coarser sandstones tend to be poorly to
very poorly sorted whereas finer sandstones tend to be moderately to well sorted. Due
to an increase in weathering from fresh to weathered rock there is: (a) a decrease in
siderite and calcite content and a resultant decrease in the percentage of the cementing
matrix with an increase in weathering; (b) an increase in overall iron staining and
increase in thickness of iron oxide coatings around the edges of the quartz grains and
rock fragments with an increase in weathering; (c) an increase in chlorite content and
diagenetic alteration to chlorite enhances the weatherability of rock fragments; and (d)
Based on X-ray diffraction analyses the carbonates are mostly rare in the talus deposits.
The natural reduction in the carbonate due to weathering is one cause of talus slope
9.4 STRUCTURE
The faults act as feeders for underground water and even after prolonged dry spells
water is still running from area. The net result is that a relatively small rainfall can
thoroughly saturate the talus in the fault zone, where it is already in a highly unstable
position. Joints in the Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone vary in spacing.
The widely spaced joints divide the Scarborough Sandstone into big rectangular blocks
while closely spaced joints divide the Bulgo Sandstone into moderate to small blocks.
As a result, more rockfalls occur in the Bulgo Sandstone than in the Scarborough
Sandstone in the study area. However, falls that occur in the Scarborough Sandstone
The high horizontal stress environment known to exist in the Illawarra area is an
important factor which influences slope failure. The resulting joint strike maxima for
the lower Narrabeen Group shows that the most prominent joint set exposed at the
surface, with a direction between 005 and 025, has a significant effect on slope
9.5 WATER
Perched water tables have been found to be quite common in the study area because
the many claystone sequences within the Narrabeen Group are relatively impermeable.
Fracture permeability is the most important feature of groundwater movements with most
of the fractures occurring in areas of stress relief. It is quite obvious from studying th
rainfall figures and periods of prevalence of landslides that the most unstable periods
and highly weathered claystone and shale in Narrabeen Group rocks have low to very
low durability; the later is dependent on their mineralogy, and especially on the type and
quantity of clay minerals present. The presence of calcite in shale will usually cause
high durability. Claystone samples interbedded in the Bulgo Sandstone show very low
medium durability whereas claystone in the Coal Cliff Sandstone has a high durability.
The differences in the behaviour of samples is that slake durability is sensitive to the
Sandstone and the highly weathered Stanwell Park Claystone both have very low
durability. This has a significant effect on slope stability in the Bulgo Sandstone
235
especially w h e n the Stanwell Park Claystone acts as the bedrock for the talus mantle
Sandstone units in the Narrabeen Group, which contain abundant clay minerals and
volcanic rock fragments, show significant strength loss on wetting. The Narrabeen
Group sandstone contains swelling clays, therefore, expansive forces in these rocks are
were detected in volcanic rock fragments (cherts) which suggest that clay softening in
in sandstone in the Illawarra area. In the long term, solubility and disaggregation in the
sandstone. Differential subsidence of the Wombarra Shale is the result of solution and
The geotechnical properties of talus most related to its stability are clay content,
plasticity index and residual friction angle. These parameters and the angle of natural
slopes show the talus is unstable in the long-term at slopes above 10-12.
erosion has carved longitudinal and transverse escarpment profiles reflecting local
stratigraphy, and has also removed lateral and vertical support from escarpment waUs.
Stress relief accompanying lateral support removal produced tension fractures and
bedding plane shear zones in rocks adjacent to the escarpment walls. These stress relief
features, along with stratigraphic and lithologic details, control groundwater flow in the
vicinity of the slopes; perched water tables and hillside springs are c o m m o n . Stress
relief features and related groundwater phenomena have accelerated physical and
chemical weathering of rocks on the slopes. Under these conditions, rockfalls and
236
topples are common. They occur on the natural slopes, with weathering and erosion
depending on the their geometry, support conditions, and applied forces which, in
addition to gravity, often include water. Rockfall volumes are typically small, ranging
the typical stratigraphic section, so the weathering products are usually silty clay or
clayey silt with rock fragments ranging in size from sand to very large boulders. As
weathering progresses, the strength of the near-surface soil and rock materials decreases
and they begin to creep or slide down the relatively steep escarpment walls under the
action of gravity and water forces. Deeper seated landsliding along bedding plane shear
zones resulting from escarpment stress relief have also occurred in certain locations.
Eventually, these processes produced mantles of talus soil and rock fragments on many
slopes. The composition, thickness and inclination of talus on a given slope reflect the
stratigraphy and erosional history of the slope. Where slopes are relatively flat, on ridge
tops or large erosional benches, residual soils have formed. Residual soils on benches
Where erosion was intense, little or no talus has accumulated and rock strata are
exposed on steep slopes. Talus thickness can range from about 1 m to more than 10 m
but is typically in the order of 5-10 m in the study area. A maximum thickness
approaching 20 m occurs at the toes of slopes in thick sequences of weak rocks (e.g.
claystone and shale) where deep-seated landsliding has occurred or where accumulated
talus has not been removed by erosion. Such conditions are rare.
Talus soils in the northern niawarra are generally cohesive and in most cases are
fissured. The most important engineering implication of talus slope development is the
presence in talus of surfaces, or zones, along which shear strength has been reduced to,
and maintained at, residual or near residual levels by a combination of softening and
strain effects. Movement due to creep, sliding, or both, during slope development are
237
generaUy concentrated along one or more such surfaces or zones, commonly at the soil-
rock contact. Additional surfaces or zones of movement may exist at levels within the
A talus derived claystone is often finer grained than the original rock, having a larger
clay fraction and plasticity index. This is often found at the base of talus deposits
residual shear strengths often reflect the properties of the clays which are derived from
stabiUsed with drained buttress fills or retaining structures. Stabilisation of a talus mass
by excavation alone generally requires removal of virtually the entire mass in order to
ensure stability. This is seldom practical with large talus masses. Improvement of
many talus slides, though drainage by itself may not be sufficient for slide stabilisation.
With rock slopes, a realistic design will frequently involve a combination of control of
passive factors, such as weathering, the use of structural restraints, such as rock anchors,
and drainage. They should be applied as soon as possible after exposure of the
lost.
Subsurface groundwater flow in both jointed rock sequences and talus can only be
avoided by tapping the groundwater far back from the exposed face with drainage adits
The coastal erosion, which causes oversteepening of the cliffs, is most critical and large
An alternative to remedial work along the existing roadway would be the excavation of
a tunnel to carry traffic past the dangerous section or construct a bridge across the s
9.9 CONCLUSIONS
Main causes of slope instability in the northern Illawarra region is due to:
(2) thin marker beds (coal seams) in the Illawarra Coal Measures;
(3) the presence of interbedded claystone within the Bulgo Sandstone, Scarborough
(4) the steep surface slope angle which forms a potentially unstable condition in the
(5) the low surface slope angle on the Stanwell Park Claystone which aUows the
(6) the rapid weathering of the Stanwell Park Claystone and Wombarra Shale which
break down to form clay typically possessing low shear strength properties;
(7) the volcanic detritus in both the sandstone and shale units either in form of detri
(8) the natural reduction in the carbonate due to weathering in the talus slopes;
(9) pre-existing discontinuities, such as shear zones and failure surfaces in the talus;
(10) the horizontal beddings, vertical joints, faults and high horizontal stress;
(11) the high rainfall levels experienced (more than 400 mm per month) and, as a
(13) blanketing of the jointed Bulgo Sandstone and any fractured basal Stanwell Park
(14) concentration of hydrostatic pressures within fractured rock immediately behind the
talus;
(15) the existence of seepage concentrations within the fractured Wombarra Shale and
(16) significant decrease in strength and durability due to change in mineralogy and
(18) marine undercutting (Coal Cliff Sandstone and Scarborough Sandstone) especially
between Clifton and Coalcliff and the north of Stanwell Park Beach.
Hargrave Drive between Coalcliff and Clifton, the following measures need to be
considered:
(4) rockbolt, mesh and shotcrete can be applied to some locations, for example the top
(6) replace drainage pipes with larger sizes, and improve the inlet conditions for, and
(7) excavate n e w drainage trenches where possible (between the cliff and the road);
(8) construction of a breakwater at base of the cliff between Clifton and Stanwell Park
(9) a series of deep subsoil slot drains is needed in the lower part of the landslides.
These should be taken down to bedrock and extended partially under the road to
intercept the regional water table and provide adequate drainage from the
subsurface aquifer.
241
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1:100,000 Sheets 9029, 9129. Geological Survey of N e w South Wales, Sydney.
Simpson, B., and Walton, G., 1970. Clay mylonites in the English Coal Measures:
their significance in opencast slope stability. Proceedings of the 1st International
Congress of Engineering Geology, pp. 1388-1393.
Skempton, A.W., 1953. Soil mechanics in relation to geology. Proceedings of the
Yorkshire Geological Society 29, 33-62.
Skempton, A.W., 1964. Long-term stability of clay slopes. Geotechnique 14, 77-
101.
257
Skempton, A.W., and Hutchinson, J.N., 1969. Stability of natural slopes and
embankment foundations. State-of-the Art Report. 7th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. &
Foundation Eng. Mexico, State-of-the-Art Vol, 290-340
Standard, J.C, 1969. The Sydney Basin, Triassic system, Hawkesbury Sandstone.
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State Rail Authority of N e w South Wales. 1982. Geotechnical report and
recommendations on stabilisation of the Coalcliff slip. State Rail Authority,
Sydney.
State Rail Authority of N e w South Wales, 1983. Geotechnical progress report and
remedial works in the Coalcliff tunnel. State Rail Authority, Sydney.
Stone, I.J., 1990. Geological assessment of coal mine roof conditions, southern Sydney
Basin. P h D thesis, University of Wollongong, Wollongong (unpubl).
Surendra, M., and Lovell, C.W., 1984. Estimation of clay minerals in clay shales by
X-ray diffraction techniques. Fifth International Conference on Expansive Soils,
pp. 27-31. The Institution of Engineers, Australia, National Conference Publication
No.84/3, Adelaide.
Taylor, R.K., and Spears, D.H., 1970. The breakdown of coal measures rocks.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 7, 481-501.
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Arte w e 11, P.B., and Taylor, R.K. (eds), Ground Movements and their Effects on
Structures. Surrey University Press.
Terzaghi, K., 1936. The stability of slopes in natural clay. Proceedings of the 1st
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp. 161-
165. Cambridge.
Terzaghi, K., 1950. Mechanism of landslides. Geological Society of America, Berkley
Volume, 83-123.
Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B., 1967. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. John
Wiley and Sons, N e w York.
Trotter, C M . , 1993. Weathering and regolith properties at an earthflow site.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 26, 163-178.
Tsidzi, K.E.N., 1991. Point load - uniaxial compressive strength correlation. Seventh
International Congress on Rock Mechanics, pp. 637-639. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Turk, N., and Dearman, W.R., 1986. Influence of water on engineering properties of
weathered rocks. In: Cripps, J.C, Bell, F.G., and Culshaw, M . G . (eds),
Groundwater in Engineering Geology, pp. 131-138. The Geological Society of
London, London.
258
Tamar Valley
1956 70
Fig 1.1 Major areas affected by landslides in Australia. N u m b e r refer to important years of
rainfall-induced landsliding (after Blong and Eyles, 1989).
Wollongong
0 150 300
Kilometres
HELENSBURGH
LILYVALE
OTFORDJ 1^
STANWELL PARK
/SCARBOROUGH
'WOMBARRA
'<*
<f
SOUTH
THIRROUL,
'WOONONA
Scale 1:125.000
(
Si
c I
Freeway F6
CORRIMAL Trunk Road
/ Other Main Road
Railway, Station -t 1-*-
/
341800 |3418'00'
150550p 15100'00'
Fie 1.4 Topography of the specific area chosen for study showing the steep slope on the lower
part of the escarpment and the lack of coastal plan.
(W-E)
Hawkesbury Sandstone
Newport Formation
Bald Hill Claystone
Bulgo Sandstone
Fig 1.5 Schematic cross-section through escarpment showing geology and location of instability
between Scarborough and Clifton
/
a. Rotational failure in
overburden soil, waste
b. Plane failure in rock
rock or heavily
with highly ordered
fractured rock with no
structure such as slate
identifiable structural
pattern.
Transverse Cracxs
Degree ol
rotation
\ Transverse ~J
W ^ , C'acxs ^J
'one
rOOl
3aaiai Cracks
Toe
FLOW
SLIDE
SLUMP CR
ROTATIONAL SLIDE
^ivxv'.v^y
ZM^^^S
FALL
M
Fig 1.8 A simple classification of landslides
(after Blong, 1973).
TYPE O F MATERIAL
TYPE O F M O V E M E N T ENGINEERING SOILS
BEDROCK
Predominantly fine Predominantly coarse
Hare substratum
e) MULTIPLE
f f S S
Fig 1.12 Comparison of groundwater fluctuation between soil and rock slopes (after Patton and
Deere, 1971).
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 2
N
Tamworth
Bathurst
Central W e s t
Fold Belt
The Illawarra Region
Quaternary sediments
Ulladulla
Tertiary sediments
v
ii-
Triassic sediments
Fig 2.1 Generalised distribution of sequences in the Sydney Basin (after Young, 1976).
N
REFERENCE
~ Unconformity
Fault showing
yj>N, ->v<V.t Wollongong direction and dip
c^ Thrust showing
& direction and dip
40 k m Boundary of basin
Boundary of a
structural subdivision
Syncline
Anticline
Fig 2.2 Structural subdivisions in the Sydney Basin (after Branagan, 1985).
TN
Fig 2.3 Major joint trends in the Sydney Basin (after Branagan, 1985).
N
Wollongong
1200
Fig 2.4 Average annual rainfall (mm) in the study area (source : Bureau of Meteorology
records).
W NE
BULLI COAL
Loddon Sandstone Member
Burragorang Balgownie Coal Member
Tuffaceous Claystone Member- Lawrence Sandstone Member ECKERSLEY
Cape Horn Coal Member FORMATION
Hargrave Coal Member
Woronora Coal Member
Novice Sandstone Member
Farmborough Claystone Member-' SYDNEY
WONGAWILLI COAL
KEMBLA SANOSTONE SUBGROUP
American Creek Coal Member ALLANS CREEK
FORMATION
DARKES FOREST SANDSTONE
BARGO
CLAYSTONE Huntley Tuffaceous Claystone Member
Austinmer Sandstone Member
TONGARRA COAL
BLACKMANS FLAT CONGLOMERATE WILTON FORMATCON
Womtmn Ton I Mpmber
ERINS VALE FORMATION
Figtree Coal Member
CUMBERLAND
MARRANGAROO CONGLOMERATE PHEASANTS NEST
w
***
* Unanderra Coal Member FORMATION
Berkeley. Five Islands, Calderwood & Minumurra
Latite Members
SUBGROUP
Fig 2.5 Idealised stratigraphy of the Illawarra Coal Measures (after Odins et al, 1990).
Section Lower Half - Wombarra Shale
Coalcliff Adit
Measured Section W 308
W 606135
Mudstone,mid grey
Sandstone, fine-grained,limey,
.08 m
light grey, variable thickness
.53 m Mudstone,grey
Sandstone, fine-grained,variable
.09 m
thickness, limey
.31 m Mudstone\grey
.46 m Sandstone^edium-grainedjlithic
5923
Fig 2.6 Section of the lower half of the Wombarra Shale in the Coalcliff area (after Bowman,
1974).
Measured section from the upper Bald Hill Claystone to the Hawkesbury Sandstone
Location: Near Otford Station on Lawrence Hargrove Drive
No. W 172
Wollongong 1 : 250,000. (034226!
Unconformity
Fig 2.7 Measured section from the upper Bald Hill Claystone to the Hawkesbury Sandstone
above the Lawrence Hargrave Drive near Otford station (after B o w m a n , 1974).
CD
O
CD
n>
L.
.n
CD m
C QJ CD CD
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Fig 2.9 A series of small en echelon faults in the Jetty Fault suggests that this fault have been
active during deposition.
Fig 2 10 Rose diagram showing the distribution of forty faults in the study area (after B o w m a n ,
1974).
::::A\V".::::V/.*'.:.:!:::';': Scarborough Sandstone
Otford Sandstone
Member
> W o m b a r r a Shale
15 30 metres
metres _j i
90-
Vertical distance
60
above Bulli "
Coal
30 J
3 6 9 metres
Vertical displacement of faults
Fig 2.11 T h e Jetty Fault between Clifton and Coalcliff (after Hanlon, 1953).
Fig 2 12 Generalised diagram showing the relationship of joints and fold axes in the study area
(after B o w m a n , 1974).
\
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3.1 The basal formation of the Sydney Sub-group is the Wilton Formation which, in this
area, consists of an upward coarsening interdistributary bay fill facies overlain by the
delta top Tongarra Coal. The continuous shaly bands in the coal represent beds of
volcanic ash. The overlying Bargo Claystone strata with the 1.5 m thick Austinmer
Sandstone M e m b e r comprises coarse sandstone fining up to siltstone. South of
Wombarra Beach.
Fig. 3.2 The Bulli Coal can be seen along the waters edge from the Jetty Fault to Clifton
Fault. At the top of the photo Coal Cliff Sandstone overlies Bulli Coal and is in turn
overlain by Wombarra Shale at the top right of the photo. The laminated overbank
unit in the Coal Cliff Sandstone is truncated by erosion at the base of the second
channel-fill sequence.
Fig. 3.3 A section of the Narrabeen Group at Coalcliff. At the base of the section the Coal
Cliff Sandstone (CSs) erosionally overlies the Bulli Coal. The W o m b a r r a Shale
(WSh), on which Lawrence Hargrave Drive is built, overlies the Coal Cliff Sandstone
and the Otford Sandstone M e m b e r ( O S M ) is above the roadway. The Scarborough
Sandstone (SSs) forms the next cliff which is overlain toward the top of the photo
by Stanwell Park Claystone (SPC). The Bulgo Sandstone (BSs) forms the cliff at the
top of the photo. It is down-thrown on the right of the photo by Fault 1. At the
top left of the photo the Hawkesbury Sandstone forms top of the escarpment.
Exposed joint surfaces on the Coal Cliff Sandstone and Scarborough Sandstone show
the locations of the recent rockfalls.
Fig. 3.4 Wombarra Shale is composed of greenish grey shale with fine-grained lithic sandstone
interbeds. In the detailed study area, the unit is subject to weathering and erosion,
with active marine erosion occurring along the coastal cliff-line. The weathering of
the Wombarra Shale, which breaks down to form low strength clay, and the existence
of seepage concentrations within the fractured Wombarra Shale cause instability and
differential erosion along the coastal cliffs just south of Coalcliff adit.
Fig. 3.5 The Otford Sandstone M e m b e r has a m a x i m u m thickness of 7 metres with cross-
bedding, erosional scours, conglomeratic lenses and a few siltstone interbeds.
Undercutting is evident at the contact between the conglomeratic portion and the
cross-bedded fine-grained Otford Sandstone Member. Also the rapid weathering of
the interbedded siltstone, which breaks down to form clay, typically possesses low
shear strength properties and causes, small rockfalls. Lawrence Hargrave Drive
between Clifton and Coalcliff.
Fig. 3.3
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Fig. 3.7 South from the Coalcliff tunnel to the Clifton Fault, the Scarborough Sandstone and
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Fig. 3.11 (a) The location of the boreholes IL55, IL57, IL60 and IL64 in the West Cliff area;
(b) lower Narrabeen Group cross-section in the West Cliff area.
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Fig. 3.12 Upper Illawarra Coal Measures (ICM) cross-section in the West Cliff area, (a)
borehole IL60, (b) borehole IL57, and (c) borehole IL64.
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and conglomerate occurring locally (Otford Sandstone Member). Shale is thinly
bedded with occasional scow surface and very fine-grained sandy lenses and race
interbedded breccia - probably proximal floodplain. Marked erosional sew at the base
of conglomerate sandstone with cross-bedding evident higher in the core.
Fie 3 15 Fissilty in the Wombarra Shale has effected the mechanical properties of the unit.
T h e presence of the fissilty, unstable cements and swelling clays contribute to rapid
weathering and disintegration and reduce the overall rock mass quality in the
W o m b a r r a Shale in outcrop.
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siltstone and conglomerate. A prominent single vertical joint with a length about 1 m is
present in the sandstone.
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Fig. 3.20 The Bulgo Sandstone cross-section in the West Cliff area, (a) borehole IL60, and (b)
borehole IL55.
Fig. 3.21 T h e Bulgo Sandstone in borehole IL60. The photo presents the middle part of the
formation consisting of fine- to medium-grained sandstone with prominent vertical and
subvertical joints with a length between 0.7 - 1.5 m .
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QUARTZARENITE
SUBARKOSE SUBUTHARENITE
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ROCK FELDSPAR
FELDSPAR FRAGMENTS
(a) (b)
QUARTZ QUARTZ
QUARTZARENITE QUARTZARENITE
SUBARKOSE SUBUTHARENITE
SUBUTHARENITE
(c) (d)
Fig 4.7 Classification of fresh,slightly and moderately weathered sandstones, (a) Coal Cliff
Sandstone, (b) Otford Sandstone Member, (c) Scarborough Sandstone, (d) Bulgo
Sandstone, (o) Fresh samples, (o) Slightly weathered samples, (A) Moderately weathered
samples
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Fig 4.10 Moderately weathered Bulgo Sandstone (Table 4.3c sample No. M W B S s 7 )
between Coalcliff and Clifton. More intense weathering of the chlorite (Chi)
in the middle of the photo is accompanied by an increase in the amount of iron
oxide (10). Top - plane polarised light. Bottom - crossed polars.
20 -i
16
'B
U
1
' ' '''' M i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i | i i i i i i i i i
0 1 2 3 4
Fig 4.11 Decrease in calcite content with an increase in weathering for Narrabeen Group
sandstones, (1) fresh samples, (2) slightly weathered samples, (3) moderately
weathered samples.
10-i
X
o 6-
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&o
T i i r~i i i n j r*T~r - 1 i n i i | i i i n i i i i | i n i i r n i r~
Fig 4.12 Increase in iron oxide content with increase in weathering for Narrabeen Group
sandstones, (1) fresh samples, (2) slightly weathered samples, (3) moderately
weathered samples.
X
15
^
10
5-
i l i I i I T ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
0 i I I I I I I M I | I i i ' ' ' ' ' ' l ' |-r
0 1 2 3 4
Fig 4.13 Increase in matrix contend with increase in weathering for Narrabeen Group
sandstones, (1) fresh samples, (2) slightly weathered samples, (3) moderately
weathered samples.
12a
10 . F
O
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4- \* MW
2-
SW MW
- -
D i i i n i n r 1 i i i i i i r~i i ] i n i i i i i r ] n ir~ii
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% Matrix
Fig 4.14 Decrease in chert content with increase in matrix content for Coalcliff Sandstone
(CSs) and Bulgo Sandstone (BSs) accompanied by an increase in the weathering.
Fresh sample (F), slightly weathered sample ( S W ) and moderately weathered
samples ( M W ) .
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Degree^-Theta 12 14
Fig 4.16 X-ray diffractograms of sample J2 (talus sample from Jetty rock slumo) A
untreated, BB:
nntrp.ntp.ri. : glycolated, C: hpatoH
elvcnlsifpH P- heated tr>
to Anno
600 nC. v>
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M = mix layer K = Kaolinite
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 5
Leaend
Fault
Fig 5.1 The location of major faults in the slip area (modified after B o w m a n , 1974).
"*+n^e' 5
. SEES
ft>3 Xv
Fig 5.2 Small fault in the Bulgo Sandstone above
Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and
Coalcliff (see Fig. 5.1 for abbreviations).
,-r~- (Mil t Fig 5.3 Small fault in the Stanwell Park Claystone
above Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Coalcliff and
Clifton (see Fig. 5.1 for abbreviations).
Fig 5.4 T h e Harbour Fault to the south of Coalcliff Beach. T h e fault has cut the
rock platform with a readily disdnguished lineament (sec Fig 5 1 for
abbreviations).
c- < ^ The Jettv Fault (left) cutting the Otford Sandstone M e m b e r ( O S M ) on the
about 70P to the north and strife is east-wes The fau t J^ * J^, in the
groundwater circulation under the r o a d ^ T h ^ J ^ y ^ faPult p la e
abbreviations).
Fie 5 6 The Clifton Fault to the north of Clifton. The strike of fault is east-west
" with a dip that is nearly vertical. It is marked by a prominent, straight
creek This fault has caused an increase in the water flow and is directly
related to the Moronga landslide (the left of the photo; (see Fig. 5.1 for
abbreviations).
N Scarborou
Scarborough J?
Fault "
c
ft
1000 m
Fig 5.7 The Scarborough Fault has a throw down to the north. M a x i m u m dip is
60 toward the north. The photo shows the northern split of the easterly
directed fault to the north of Wombarra Beach. This fault appears to be
related to the Wombarra slump (see Fig. 5.1 for abbreviations).
N \ /X^^Stanwell Park
\ _
V_^7^^
^^A ^A^J
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T vA.
5 ,T Harbour Fault
1
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| 1000 m ,
/ iff
Fig 5.8 Location m a p of sampling sites for joint measurements.
Fig 5.9 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Bulgo Sandstone (113 reading,
from sites 1, 2 and 3, Fig. 5.8) .
Fig 5.10 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Stanwell Park Clavstone flOO
readings, from sites 4 and 5, Fig. 5.8).
Fig 5.11 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Scarborough Sandstone (133
readings, from sites 6, 7, 8 and 9, Fig. 5.8).
Fig 5.12 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Wombarra Shale (110 readings,
from sites 9 and 10, Fig . 5.8).
- /
r-
i-Sf
T^fc
"Jf tp :::: 3
-I
\ \
-- /
Fig 5.13 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Coal Cliff Sandstone in cliff
exposures showing dominance of joints parallel to the cliffline (90 readings,
from sites 10, 11 and 14, Fig. 5.8).
Fig 5.14 Rose diagram of joint orientations for the Coal Cliff Sandstone measured
on the shore platform (114 readings from sites 12 and 13, Fig. 5.8).
Fig 5.15 Total joint directions for Narrabeen Group in the study area (from 14 sites
between Clifton and Coalcliff area, Fig. 5.8).
Fig 5.16 The joint strike maxima at 015 for Wombarra Shale has a great effect on
slope stability between Clifton and Coalcliff. also for Coal Cliff Sandstone
and Scarborough Sandstone as seen in photo.
/C XC / s / v
a) Jointed rock mass, no pronounced X >^\\
effects of previous shearing displacement
Fig 5.17 Significance of faults in slope stability problems (after Patton and Deere,
1971).
Unaffected (country)
SIGNIFICANT STRENGTH &
PERMEABILITY CHARACTRISTICS rock (e)
Fractured rock (d)
Slickensided, striated
surface (c)
Average permeability Fault Gouge (b)
& strength of country
rock.
Fault breccia (a)
(with gouge)
\ Fault gouge(b)
- Slicken, str. surface (c)
Fractured rock (d)
High permeability
zone
Low permeability Unaffected (country)
low strength zone rock (e)
Low to high perm.
low to moderate
strength zone
Low permeability
low strength zone
High permeability
zone
Fig 5.18 Typical cross-section of a composite fault (after Patton and Deere, 1971).
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Bulgo Sandstone Bedding planes
\
Stanwell Park Claystone
\
Scarborough Sandstone
\
Wombarra Shale Major bottom deformation
\
Coal Cliff Sandstone
(open bedding planes)
Bulli Coal Illawarra Coal Measures
(a)
Vertical to subvertical
Scarborough Sandstone
tension joints
Wombarra Shale
Coal Cliff Sandstone Major bottom deformation
Bulli Coal (open bedding planes)
(b)
Scarborough Sandstone
Slump slide
Wombarra Shale
"Major bottom deformation
Coal Cliff Sandstone
(open bedding planes)
Bulli Coal
(C)
Fig 5.23 Schematic escarpment cross-section (modified after Ferguson and Hamel,
1981).
Zone of opened joints JI'I'I
(W-E)
-H-''/.// Hawkesbury Sandstone
<l
Fig 5.24 Horizontal stress plus vertical load removal causes arching and buckling of
beds in the escarpment bottom.
Fig 5.25 Sandstone cliffs along the sea are vertically jointed and break leaving
vertical faces. Rockfalls occur in these places because the toe of the slope
is eroded by the sea; relaxation of the material above produces toppling
along joint faces (see Fig. 5.1 for abbreviations).
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 6
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6.3 Possible effects of high fluid pressures at the base of an escarpment in the
groundwater discharge area.
a) Fault acting as a
groundwater barrier
due to fault gauge
b) Fault acting as a
groundwater conduit
through the fault
breccia
6.4 Different effects of faults on groundwater conditions (after Patton and Deere, 1971).
Fig 6.5 Water flow within the rockmass is concentrated along discontinuties at the bases of
the sandstone units, for example between the Wombarra Shale (below and behind the
shotcrete and concrete retaining wall) and Scarborough Sandstone (top). This increases
the rate of weathering of the Wombarra Shale, causes fretting and weathering of the
sandstone and leads to toppling and rockfalls. The weathered shale has been faced
with concrete. Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff.
(a)
Perched
water
table
Main -
water
table
(b)
40 Scarp crack
(c)
6.6 (a,b) Coledale Station on the Illawarra area acts as a local catchment to replenish the
groundwater table within the escarpment slope, (c) A deep seated failure has been
active for some time at Coledale, this was exacerbated by the heavy rainfall in April
1988.
I w y ' February ' March ' Apn7 ' May ' Juno Ju* August Septet October November December
Month
1990 1092 1994
1985 1986 1987 1988
m
Fig 6.7 Rainfall data for the Illawarra area. 1988 involved both high intensity and long
duration rainfall events. 1991 was mainly dry with only one major rainfall event in
June, Which resulted in many new debris flows. (Wollongong University Station).
600
500 -
400
E
E,
= 300
c
'5
m 200
100
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Month
1985 1988 1990
Fig 6.8 Rainfall data for the Illawarra area. 1988 involved both high intensity and long
duration rainfall events. 1991 was mainly dry with only one major rainfall event in
June, Which resulted in many new debris flows. (Clifton Station).
A positive correlation between rainfall in Clifton and Wollongong areas during the
period 1985-1991.
1! t&''~yr:^*'&$i%-i IIP?
xr ^"}?*'' |flifcjj'<"' i W^'l^'''
^ffiaSaflflfi
- ^
4t' '
N ,
Colluvium
Fis 6 10 Water flow within the soil mass is concentrated at the base of colluvium (between
' Scarborough and Clifton). Just above the Coal Cliff Sandstone Wombarra Shale is
present the water should escape into the joints and sandstone itself, this m a y be due
to the slight northwest tilt on the sandstone. The base of colluvium (top) lies on the
Wombarra Shale and water drains from the base of colluvium. Slope instability is
aided by the high water table.
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6.12 Rainfall vs recurrence interval (years) for Woonona/Coledale Station during the
1930-1990, (after Longmac Associates, 1991).
Fig 6.13 Isoseismal m a p of the 9 March 1973 Picton earthquake. Small figure next to open
circle indicates intensity different from zone designation (after Denham, 1979).
DATE: Zl MAY 1961 A EPICENTRE
TIME: 21: 40:020 UT IV ZONE INTENSITY DESIGNATION (MM)
MAGNITUDE: 5 8 M B , 5 6 M L
HYPOCENTRE: 34 55S 150 50E
DEPTH: 19 km
Fig 6.14 Isoseismal m a p of the 21 M a y 1961 Robertson - Bowral earthquake. Isopleths show
zone intensity limits (after Denham, 1979).
DATE 28 December 1989
I- TIME 23:26:58 1.5 s UT
MAGNITUDE :5.6 ML
EPICENTRE : 32. 95 S. 151.61
DEPTH: 11.5 1.0 km j
A Epicentre
IV Zone Intensity Designation
3 Earthquake Felt (MM)
30
o Earthquake Not Felt
100 km
I
Port Macquarie
32
34
o
2-3
Wagga Wagga O
Batemans Bay
s NSW 36^
"'^Albury \
VIC
.0
146 148 152 154
_L
Fig 6.15 Isoseismal m a p of the 28 December 1989 Newcastle earthquake (after M c C u e et al.,
1990).
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 7
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3
Sandstone a-
15 \. MW
n 20- 2
(0
80 -
T3
O
^ ^ - * ffi
1 2 3 4 2 J "
No. or Slaking cycles " 75- A
70 No. of slaking cycles
(a) (b)
Fig 7.1 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability (a) for upper Illawarra Coal Measures
(coal and interbedded highly weathered sandstone), (b) for Coal Cliff Sandstone
(interbedded claystone, sw = slightly weathered; m w = moderately weathered).
2 3
No. of slaking cycles 2 3
No. of slaking cycles
(a) (b)
Fig 7.2 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability (a) for Coal Cliff Sandstone (sw =
slighdy weathered; m w = moderately weathered), (b) for Wombarra Shale weathered
samples from different locations, (top)from Clifton area beside Jetty Fault and (bottom)
from south of Wombarra Station.
2 3 2 3
No. of slaking cycles No. of slaking cycles
(a) (b)
Fig 7.3 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability for (a) Wombarra Shale samples, (b)
for Scarborough Sandstone (sw = slightly weathered; m w = moderately weathered).
100
2 3 2 3
No. of slaking cycles No. of slaking cycles
(b)
(a)
Fig 7.4 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability (a) for Scarborough Sandstone
(interbedded claystone), (b) for Stanwell Park Claystone ( m w = moderately weathered;
h w = highly weathered).
t=r _
SW -^ITrrrE^t -
"k .
MW
92 - - -
2-
- ^^.
^"\
J i 1 , i
2 3 2 3
No. of slaking cycles No. of slaking cycles
(a) (b)
Fig 7.5 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability (a) for Stanwell Park Claystone samples
from different locations, between Clifton and Coalcliff beside Harbour Fault (open
circle) and from northern Coalcliff Station (filled square), (b) for Bulgo Sandstone (sw
= slightly weathered; m w = moderately weathered).
Fig 7.6 Effect of number of cycles on slake durability for interbedded claystone in the Bulgo
Sandstone (weathered samples).
OSM SSs CSs SSs SPC
Name of formation N a m e of formation
(a) (b)
Fig 7.7 Slake durability index (a) for Narrabeen Group fresh samples (West Cliff, boreholes
IL55 and 1164), (b) for Narrabeen Group weathered samples (between Clifton and
Coalcliff).
(a) (b)
Fig 7.8 Water content versus two cycles of slake durability (a) for Stanwell Park Claystone
( m w = moderately weathered; h w = highly weathered), (b) for Wombarra Shale
weathered samples. (Samples were collected one week after rainfall).
a,
R
"a.
CO
(4-1
S.
0
t
a,
S
a
o
tm.t^s< 1
AAA, CO j8
oo o
a a
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CO
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- j
x; XCOJ
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u
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r j
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C3) ssoj aq3ia^\
(3) ssoj jijaiayvj
L > O.50
Equivaienr core
(a)
(b)
L > 0.5 0
Equivaier
Section through
loaainq points
<0 < W
W
(C)
Fig 7.16 Specimen shape requirements for: (a) the diametral test; (b) the axial test; and (c) the
irregular lump test (after I S R M , 1985).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig 7.17 Typical modes of failure for valid and invalid tests (a) valid diametral tests; (b) valid
axial tests; (c) invalid diametral test; and (d) invalid axial tests (after I S R M , 1985).
8 Y 5 -/
4-
6
1
3 -
<\ I S
1 B:
^1 ^B^
1 II B H H Hi
is
CO 2-
2 -1 I I Hi |
1 -
1 !
^^
II 1 1 li
0
xjifl HI
0 -
CSs WSh OSM SSs SPC BSs CSs WSh OSM SSs 1 SPCB P 9BSs
Wis?
Formation Formation
(a) (b)
Fig 7.18 (a) Axial point load strength results, and (b) diametral point load strength results for
Narrabeen Group (fresh core samples).
00 -/ ^ |
80 -
60 -
c
40 -
1 B
20 -
^H:;'
B
B
/jiMBl IBH
CO CO CO O
0-
ISxBB Bf> IB
CO
j? CO CO CO
.CSs
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 2
CSs
0- CO CO CO CO o CO CO
Oo g CO CO
o
5 co m m g CO CO CO Q.
tg
5
1 2
%
g
CO
g
5
g
2
g
CO
g
5 I 1 n
g g CO
m m
CO
Formation ^ FORMATION 2
(a) (b)
Fia 7 19 (a) Point load strength results for Narrabeen Group (weathered irregular samples), (b)
' Uniaxial compressive strength for Narrabeen Group (weathered irregular samples).
CSs WSh OSM SSs SPC BSS
N a m e of formation
Fig 7.20 Anisotropy for Narrabeen Group point load strength (fresh core samples).
120
100
VI
O
Weathering
(a)
Fig 7 21 (a) Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) versus weathering for fresh, slightly and
moderately weathered Coal Cliff Sandstone, (b) Uniaxial compressive strength versus
weathering for fresh and slightly weathered Otford Sandstone M e m b e r and moderately
weathered Otford Conglomerate. Numbers in brackets are the slake durability index.
Fresh M.weathered
Weathering
(a)
Fig. 7.22 (a) Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) versus weathering for fresh and moderatel
Stanwell Park Claystone. (b) Uniaxial compressive strength versus weathering for fresh
and moderately weathered Wombarra Shale. Numbers in brackets are the slake
durability index.
M.weathered Fresh S. weathered M.weathered
Fresh S.weathered
Weathering
Weathering
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.23 (a) Uniaxial compressive strength versus weathering for fresh, slightly and moderately
weathered Bulgo Sandstone, (b) Uniaxial compressive strength versus weathering for
fresh, slightly and moderately weathered Scarborough Sandstone. Numbers in brackets
are the slake durability index.
200 - /
"c? HH HB#
0.
H. <ool
100 1
C/3
U
3
Hi
111 mm
0-
CSs WSh fl
OSs fl?
91SSsiH> SPC BSs
CSs WSh
OSs SSs SPC BSs
Name of formation
N a m e of formation
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.24 (a) Uniaxial compressive strength from axial point load strength, (b) Uniaxial
samplesT1^ ^"^ ^ ^^ Pint l0ad Strength f r Narrabeen Grou
P (fsh
_12d
i
a? 100
SSs
CSs WSh OSM SSa SPC BSs N a m e of formation
N a m e of formation
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7 . 2 5 Comparing uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and slake durability (SDI) (a) for
Narrabeen Group fresh core samples (West Cliff, borehole 11155), (b) for Narrabeen
Group moderately weathered samples (between Clifton and Coalcliff).
60
40-
o
3 20-
I i I i I i r i i i i ii i i ii i i i r i i
66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
SDI (% d 2 )
Relati
Fig. 7 . 2 6 nship between uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and slake durability (SDI)
for Wombarra Shale moderately weathered samples.
30
O 20-
CL
V)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SDI {% 62)
Fig. 7.27 Relationship between uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and slake durability (SDI)
for Stanwell Park Claystone weathered samples.
132.00 z\ 85.00
80.00
1 28.00
75.00
124.00 D
a Q_
CL 70.00 i
120.00 -;
00 00 65.00 i
o 116.00 - O
D
60.00
1 1 2.00 i
55.00
1 0 8 . 0 0 1111111 n1111 n n 11111111 n 1111 i-rrrr 11 m 11111 M 111i1111111 11 I|i 111 50.00 "1111 M II 1111 M 111111111 i M 1111 M 11111111 M 11111111
25.00 26.00 27.00 28.00 29.00 30.00 31.00 21.00 22.00 23.00 24.00 25.00 26.00
% Quartz % Quartz
(a) (b)
Fie 7 28 Relationship between uniaxial compressive strength ( U C S ) and percentage of quartz
(a) for fresh samples, and (b) slightly weathered samples from the Coal Clitt
Sandstone.
1 70.00 180.00 n
165.00 - 170.00
160.00 z 160.00
D D
CL
1 55.00 150.00
00 00
O O
D 1 50.00 D 140.00
1 45.00 130.00
Fig. 7.29 Relationship between uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and percentage of quartz
(a) for Scarborough Sandstone (fresh samples), and (b) for Bulgo Sandstone (fresh
samples).
180.00 80.00
160.00 -
70.00
140.00
D D
CL CL 60.00
120.00
00 00
O O 50.00
Z) 100.00 - z>
40.00
80.00
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.30 Relationship between uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and percentage of quartz
(a) for fresh samples, and (b) for slightly weathered samples from the Narrabeen
Group Sandstone.
35.00 -j
30.00
D
CL 25.00 :
00
O 20.00 :
z>
15.00
1 0 . 0 0 | i 11 i 1 1 1 1 i i 11 i i i 11 i i i i i i i i i i i i | i i i i i i i i i i i i i
12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00
% Quartz
Fig. 7.31 Relationship between uniaxial compressive strength and percentage of quartz for
Narrabeen Group sandstones (moderately weathered samples).
8.00 -n 4.00 -i
7.00 - 3.50 -_
X
(1)
d
a
c 6.00 3.00
X3
+J bo
til
C
c b.ao {5 2.50
eW
+> w
T3 cd
cd 4.00 2.00
n
+->
c o
o 3.00 OH
1.50 T
DH
Fig. 7.32 Relationship between point load strength index and percentage of quartz for (a) fresh
samples, and (b) for slightly weathered samples from the Narrabeen Group Sandstone.
1.60
X 140
tJ, 1 -20
bfl
c
K
w
T3 1.00
cd
OO 0.80
a,
Fig. 7.33 Relationship between point load strength index and percentage of quartz for Narrabeen
Group sandstones (moderately weathered samples).
FIGURES TO CHAPTER 8
g
u
E
c
c
>
cu
Sea level
(a)
40 Scarp crack
Piping & collapse of
E talus along scarp crack
c
c
o
3
Sandstone
(b)
Water table
Talus
(b)
talus-rock interface
(potential slip surface)
(c)
-Main scarp
^ ^
." . . .* ',
''.' . ' . . ' ' . . '
^^V*
* * * . .
. ,
, -
'''.' ' "
- .
. ' . '
'*."' * \ \.
Fig. 8.2 Engineering geological failure model for talus slope instability along the
northern niawarra coastline, (a) Initiation of tension cracks in talus and their
relation to vertical fractures in bedrock. Slip surfaces partly or totally pass
through the bedrock, (b) Slip surface at the contact between bedrock and
talus. A wedge of talus is developed in front of a drop in bedrock, which
represents a 015-020 joint (Fig. 5.16). The weight of the wedge causes a
downhill movement after heavy rain when the water table rises, reduces the
shear strength of the talus material and the wedge becomes detached from
bedrock at its back, (c) The tabular vertical gap formed between the bedrock
and the soil stretches the soil above, and forms a NNE-oriented fracture
which marks the crest of a future slide (Fig. 8.39).
Sample: B:\GHOBADI\ch2 07-27-1994
C 2000-
1600-
Kaolinite
1200-
800-
Swelling clays
\
1111111111 n n 11111111 n 1111111111111 ri p 1111111111111111111 rr 11 n 11 r m M M i M 111111111111111111111111111111 n 11111111111111 ITI 111111111111111111 in 1111 n i ITI 1111111111111111
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Degrees 2-Theta
(a)
1600-
1200-
Kaolinite
800-
400- WwW%M^
muMrtfV
w^w^V^
~| 111 n 1111111111111111111 111111 u 111111111111111111111111111111111 -i 111 111111111111111 111111111111111111111 n 11111 m Trm 1111 m 111111 m 11111111 n 11
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Degrees 2-Theta
(b)
Fig. 8.3 T h e X-ray diffraction trace of clay samples from the Clifton earth slump (a) before
glycolation and (b) after glycolation.
100n
>
H
81.33 KPa
80-
U
ft
67.7 KPa
60- 54.1 KPa
co
40.48 KPa
CM
26.85 KPa
>
40-
H
T)
G
H 20-
R3
0
0 f I I IIIIIIIIII III II IIIII I | I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I H I I | I I I I I II I I |
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Horizontal displacement x 10" mm
26.85 KPa
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
3
Horizontal displacement x 10"
mm
Fig. 8.4 Plot of load and vertical displacement vs. horizontal displacement for samples from
the head of Clifton earth slump (test 2, five repeated measurements, see appendix).
160
>
H ~ 81.33 KPa
120
CD
a
-__^ 67.7 KPa
00 80- . . 54.1 KPa
* 40.48 KPa
>
H 26.85 KPa
40-
C
i-i
cd
0
i i 11 i i i i 11 i i 11 i i 11 i i i i i i i l i i i i i i i i i i
0 400 800 1200 1600
Horizontal displacement x 10 -3 mm
50-i
26.85 KPa
40.48 KPa
c -50-
CD
g
u ^ * 54 . 1 KPa
rd -100-
.i
Fig. 8.5 Plot of load and vertical displacement vs. horizontal displacement for samples from
thecrownof Clifton earth slump (test 3, five repeated measurements, see appendix)
160
81.33 KPa
>
H
~ 67.7 KPa
PI 120-
CJJ
ft
54.1 KPa
26.85 KPa
C
H
cfl
0 0 fiii 111 n 1111111111111111 " 11111111111111 11 i|i II 111 i I'M
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
3
Horizontal displacement x 10" mm
Fig. 8.6 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from the toe of Clifton earth
slump (test 1, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
90
80 r
to
ft: 70-
ix,
"'
(0 60 i
to
CD
u
CO 50 -. Test 2
u
(0
CD 40-
c
in
9.
30-
2 0 "| III III I ll| 11IIII III |ll II III ll| II III llll| III III II l| I III III II |ll III 11 ll| III II ll|||
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Normal Stress (KPa)
Fig. 8.7 Plot of shear stress vs. normal stress for Clifton earth slump.
200 -i
81.33 KPa
67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
- 40.48 KPa
. 26.85 KPa
(a)
150-1
81.33 KPa
.67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
40.48 KPa
26.85 KPa
(b)
Fig. 8.8 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from Moronga Park slump-earth
flow, (a) test 1 from top of slump and (b) test 2 from head of slump (five repeated
measurement for each test, see appendix).
160-i
, , t 81.33 KPa
67.7 KPa
**S=Z=S
54.1 KPa
- 40.48 KPa
26.85 KPa
in II |ti I I I H I I I I I H n'11 in 11 m II M I II u i n
200 400 600 800 1000
-3
H o r i z o n t a l d i s p l a c e m e n t x 10" mm
89 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from the toe of Moronga Park
' slump-earth flow (test 3, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
100
ft) 80
ft
CO
to
60-
CD
U
+J
CO
40
u
<0
CD
cn
20-
Fig. 8.10 Plot of shear stress vs. normal stress for Moronga Park slump-earth flow.
200-,
>
13
PH 81.3 3 KPa
CD 150
ft 67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
oo 40.48 KPa
100
26.85 KPa
T3
C 50-
H
T3
cd
0
0 f 1111111111111111 M 111 n 11 1111111111111111111111111
0 200 400 600 800 1000
3
Horizontal displacement x 10" mm
(a)
160
81.33 KPa
- 67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
~ 40.48 KPa
* 26.85 KPa
1
11111111111111 M 1111111111111111111111111111111111
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Horizontal displacement x 10"3 mm
(b)
Fig. 8.11 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from Jetty rock slump, (a) test
1 from the toe of rock slump and (b) test 2 from the head of rock slump (five
repeated measurement for each test, see appendix).
200
0
0 fi i i ii i i ii i i ii ii ii i i ii i i ii i i i i i i ii i i i i i i i
0 400 800 1200 1600
Fig. 8.12 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from the top of Jetty rock
slump (test 3, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
8 0 zi
~ 70
(0
ft
60:
CO
CO
CD
u 50: Test 1
CO
u
to 40:
CD
30:
Fig. 8.13 Plot of shear stress vs. normal stress for Jetty rock slump.
200
81.33 KPa
+ 54.1 KPa
*
- 26.85 KPa
cd
0
0-fI I I II II I I| III I I II I I | I II I II II I| I I M II II I | I I I III I I II
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Horizontal displacement x 10"3 mm
(a)
too i
81.33 KPa
>
H * 67.7 KPa
(H
ft
54.1 KPa
rt
CO ~ 40.48 KPa
IN
T3
C
H
cd
0
iJ 0 fIIIIIIIII|IIIM IIII| IIIIIIII I|IIIIIIIIII IN IIIIII|IIIIIIIII |
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
3
Horizontal displacement x 10" mm
(b)
Fig. 8.14 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from Harbou
test 1 from the top of rock slump and (b) test 2 from the toe of slump (five
repeated measurement for each test, see appendix).
81.33 KPa
.67.7 KPa
54.I KPa
40.48 KPa
26.85 KPa
Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from the head of Harbour
slump (test 3, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
80
cd
ft RO
bi
CO
CO $ = 16'
CD
u 40
4->
cn :
Test 2 C ^
u
to
CD
A 20
cn Test 3
8.16 Plot of shear stress vs. normal stress for Harbour slump.
<-v I6O-1
>
81.33 KPa
ft
OJ
120- 67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
co
(N
40.48 KPa
> 26.85 KPa
H
T3
C
H
tj
cd
0
1
" 'I M I I 11 I I M I I II |l II II II II 11 I I I I n n 11 u u u | | 11 | | n n u !
) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
lOO-i
26.85 KPa
40.48 KPa
4J
C
CD 54.1 KPa
S
CD
CJ
to
-H -50-
ft 67.7 KPa
CO
H - ^ 3 ^ 8 1 . 3 3 KPa
a
CJ -100-
H
-U
U
CD
> 150'1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Fig. 8.17 Plot of load and vertical displacement vs. horizontal displacement for samples from
the top of Coalcliff slump (test 1, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
250 q
>
H * 81.33 KPa
200-
cu
ft
150
co
CM
> 100
H
T3
cd
0 T T T T T ' I I I I I I I i rr\
W - ^ ~ ^ ^ 1000
- 3
Horizontal displacement x 1 ' ^
I6O-3
26.85 KPa
81.33 KPa
120:
*J
c
CD
&
CD
CJ
(0
iI
ft
CO
H
to
a
CJ
H
4J
CD
> - 8 0 - 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 'i 1 1 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 11 1 1 1 ' ' ' i i' i 11 i
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Fig. 8.18 Plot of load and vertical displacement vs. horizontal displacement for samples
from the head of Coalcliff slump (test 2, five repeated measurement, see
appendix).
160-1
>
H
81.33 KPa
120-
0)
ft 67.7 KPa
54.1 KPa
40.48 KPa
CO
80-
CN
26.85 KPa
>
40-
C
cd
0
0 tiniinu1iiiiiiiiUi'niiiii|iinniii|iiiiiiiii|MMiMii|
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-3
Horizontal displacement x 10 mm
Fig. 8.19 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement for samples from the toe of Coalcliff
slump (test 3, five repeated measurement, see appendix).
120-n
100
10
ft Test 2
ZL 805
CO
CO
CD 60
U Test 3
*J
CO
u 40
(0
CD
A
C/J
20:
Fig. 8.20 Plot of shear stress vs. normal stress for Coalcliff slump.
160-1
>
u 54.1 KPa
CD
ft
CO
, t T 40.48 KPa
> ~- 26.85 KPa
H
Tl
C
H
cd
0
0 "ft II I I I I I I I " I H I I ! I M i l l I I I I I I ' ' " I
0 200 400 600 800 10UU
(a)
45 ->
40
to
ft
35
^"^
CO
CO
CD 30
u
<J
CO
u 25
(0
CD
A
cn
20:
(b)
Fig. 8.21 Plot of load vs. horizontal displacement (a), and plot of shear stress vs. norma
(b). Samples from highly weathered sandstone (niawarra Coal Measures) at the base
of Moronga Park slump-earth flow (three repeated measurement, see appendix).
cd
t
cd
a
it
cd
CX | e
cd *
CJ
X
00
<* f-H
c
uE-o o
o^
in o ^f 8 -a J 3Si ^xl <u
00 jt- ID CO c/3 O .
CO u C/3 TO c/a c3 -
N
C a S o u
CO cd co E > <- CO
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60
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to
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CL-ML
I l l l IIXl.i l I l l I II I I I I i ' i i i i i i I I I i i i i l I I I I I
10 40 50 60 80 90 10
Liquid limit wL
Fig. 8.23 Plasticity chart showing plasticity index (Ip) versus liquid limit ( W L ) for the matrices
of the Illawarra talus (between Clifton and Coalcliff). C L = inorganic clays of low
to m e d i u m plasticity. M L = inorganic silts and very fine sands with slight plasticity.
Fig. 8.24 Plasticity index plotted against residual strength coefficient (after Voight, 1973).
(T)Kenney(l9S9]
(7)'skempton-Gibson-BJerrum'ln Bjerrum and Simonl (I960)
Mitchell (1965)
0Voljht(l973)
K 40
Plasclclty index. I
0 Bishop cfa(.(l97f)
.j A Townsend and Gilbert (1973)
fj. values* n Tulinov and Molokov (1971)
o Kan|l (1970, 1972), soil-polished rock
Fig. 8.25 Drained shear angle plotted against plasticity index. Figure shows the test results in
the form of curves obtained for peak strength under low and medium stress levels
(after Kanji, 1974).
2
C J n = 100-200 k N / m
40
- 48*
50
~
69
a.
-
>.43. 36- Happisburgh till
30 *
r'38* / London clay mixtures
1 1 i 1 1
4l^50 ^ / ' 05
CO
N ^ r 51
40 \Y
20
-- 0.4
20 N s
52 .^ s . Sand-benlonitz
0.3
\ N mixtures
33. 46 \ -3" /
9 . 11 12 /
"* \ v / 0.2
10" 1 5 ^ - JS 3^2.29 ^ " . . y
5
~ " 'V^?",A 32. -^
0.1
_
"I 1 1 1 1 1 I i i ! i i i i i i t . i 1 i i t t i t i M 1 i i t i i i i i i 1 i i i i r i t i i
20 40 SO B0 100
Plasticity index . I - (7.)
F i g . 8 . 2 6 Natural soils: residual friction angle against plasticity index (after Lupini et al., 1981).
Sf so' H 0.6
XL
39. 0.5
40<
0.4
20'
0.3
i 7 .*
,,14,. 9 26 ."
3
S 10 . \6. 1 16 0.2
cn
ed * 5 " a\ 2'.27
or 0.1
1
" ' ' '" I ' " '" " ' I ' " 11 1111
20 40 60 80 100
Clay fraction ( 7. < 2 / u m ]
F i g . 8 . 2 7 Natural soil: residual friction angle against clay fraction (after Lupini et al., 1981).
26 ^
24
22:
J1 201
6
18
w
a. 16:
14-7
12 1 1 1 11 i 11 11 i 11 1 1 1 1 1 i i | 11 11 1 1 1 11 11 r i i 11 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 i I I |
24 28 32 36 40 44
Liquid limit ( W L ) %
Fig. 8.28 Relationship between the liquid limit and plastic limit for Illawarra talus.
22
20
+J 18-
c -
a.) ~
+J
c 16:-
o
o
+J
;
w 14:
o -
5 -"
12:
1 0 In II in HI 11 in in MI n in i n II in in i n n HI n HI in mil MI II in in II in i n i II
24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Liquid limit ( W L ) %
Fig. 8.29 Plot showing increasing moisture content with increasing liquid limit ( W L ) for
Illawarra talus.
2.20
2.00
.80 -
4-1
H
to
fl 1.60
CD
1.40 -
3
1.20 -
1.00 11 11 111 i I i M 11 II i i'| 'i n H I ITI ] 11 i "nil 11 11 11111 i i \'\~\ r n r n 1v\ vrrvvnTT"|
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00
Fig. 8.30 Relationship between bulk density and moisture content for Illawarra talus.
r
c. i
fl
o
H
4->
u
H
>-i
4I-t
1
fl
U
ID
4J
fl
H
4-1
0 .,- H
cn
rI
01
fl
to
11111111 . I .II , II i I i T T T i
10 15, "'h
Fig. 8.31 Decrease in angle of internal friction with increasing clay fraction for niawarra talus
(upper line for peak friction angle and lower line for residual friction angle).
50
G 40-
rH
01 30
fl
CO
fl
0 2.0-
rH
4J
U
H
l-l
4-1
10
tO
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T T T T T T T T I | I I I I I I I I I | 11 I I I I I I I | I I T T T I T T T T T T T T T T l T T r r r r i T T I I I | I I I I I F T T T ]
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
30
CO
fl 25
o
l-l
u
H
e
CN
15
C
o
H
4-J
U 10
rO
u
cd
0-T
20 ""^''^ST'""^
Liquid limit (WL)%
Fig. 8.33 Relationship between clay fraction and liquid limit for Illawarra talus.
*
Stanwell Park
Coalcliff.
C
cd
CD
0
o
Site 5
u
H
ti-l
< j Region B 0
cd
Jetty Pauit JJ
3
0
01
500 m
Legend
HawkesburySandstone
Narrabeen Group
Illawarra Coal Measures
o
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CD
3
s
o
U
03
ttJ
u
rt
Cw
1 CJ
3 X!
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3
n C3
tlj
Fig 8.37. Plan of the Moronga Park slump-earth flow.
I Rnb 1 Bulgo Sandstone
IRnspj Stanwell Park Claystone
I Rns | Scarborough Sandstone
Wombarra Shale
Coal Cliff Sandstone
Bulli Coal
Pi IIllawarra Coal Measures
Fig. 8.38 The geology of the Clifton area showing the area affected by the Moronga Park
slump.
Clifton Fault
Moronga Park
Joint
Earth flow
Fig. 8.39 Geological cross-section of Moronga Park slump-earth flow above the cliff-
line shown in Fig. 8.37.
a
o
I
a
c
CD
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a
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UH
(a)
(b)
F i g . 8.41 (a) PI*"1 f southern amphitheatre complex landslide (Graben A ) , (b) Aerial
photograph of the southern amphitheatre, this section of Lawrence Hargrave Drive (c)
has a history of the slippage, rockfall and mudslip.
(W-E) Water - filled joint
200
Rockfall /1J_^
j i
160
jj Perched water
L -120
Talus //-
SPC
Toppling
-80
Natural drainage
AA-A~\ I
Ft~T~l~\ I ~ 7 " SSs ,
Road ^ 7 / WSh 40
'Talusry_ Failure surface
Rockfall CD
60 s
Natural drainage
Road
uau^ i
il'ii^H>? re
s-^yXj^.
a
o
WSh 30
Talus Slump //^T?^-~=^ - /
-Potential failure surface
a
Sea level ',.>: J i . .- ^CSs^ 0.00 >
f
,-. . :{ : ...^.v;. CD
U
o
o
o o
CN
o
CD CD
1-1
CO >
CO
CD Q
h
CO CD
73 >
Uj
CD
SO
-1 J3
1-1
BOJ
CD u
c3 <
=5 I<
-1
m
Fig. 8.47 Plan of the Harbour slump.
S3IJ9UI UI U0pTJA3J3
y>
71
CJ
CD
CO
CO
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OX)
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150
140 -
130- 3 0 HJ
120-
110-
100-
Bulgo Sandstone \ g
90-
80- V BH 464
s BH 466
Road
70- *~\ .r-J-
Stanwell Park Claystone ^5^, ..... Tens i on t-.rack
e 60-
Water table j>^". Ta 1 us \^-____^
o 50- Indicated befe
a Failure surface Natural drainage
40- -
s 30-
20-
Scarborough Sandstone -A ~\-
n- ^TusVQ^SealevelV
Fig. 8.49 Geological cross-section of Coalcliff slump (modified after State Rail Authority, 1982).
F i g . 8 . 5 0 (a) toppling in Scarborough Sandstone; (b) the toppling mechanism of failure is very
often induced by undercutting, Lawrence Hargrave Drive between Clifton and
Coalcliff.
Fig. 8.51 Significant rockfalls from the Scarborough Sandstone and Bulgo Sandstone bluffs
occur afterheavy rainfall between Clifton and Coalcliff along the Lawrence Hargrave
Drive. The patch is related to a big rockfall which necessitated repairs to the road by
Department of Main Road ( D M R ) .
Tension joints closer spaced wider open toward escarpment: edge
Bulgo
Sandstone
Water
(a)
Tension crack
' J...J-,i"
' Talus
!
Rockfall \ If Bulgo I Sandstone
(Slump or Topple) -Joints'! |
Stanwell Park
Water Claystone"
(b)
Fig. 8.52 (a) creep, setting and tilting of sandstone blocks on the claystone,(b) undercutting
(weathering and erosion) produces topple, rockfalls.
Toppling Fracturing
Fig. 8.53 Failure modes due to marine undercutting, between Clifton and Coalcliff, north of the
Coalcliff beach and north of the Stanwell Park beach.
Fig. 8.54 Significant work has been carried out by the Department of Main Road (DMR)along
the Lawrence Hargrave Drive including concrete retaining walls, shotcrete, gabions,
rockbolts and steel mesh to prevent falls from the side of the road. Lawrence Hargrave
Drive between Clifton and Coalcliff.
(b)
F i g . 8 . 5 5 (a) destruction of shotcret by swelling of the rock mass (Wombarra Shale); (b)
subhorizontal drains just below the contact between the Wombarra Shale and
Scarborough
TABLES TO CHAPTERS 1-3
Table 1.1 Typical D/L % Ratios for various landslide types based on data in
Flows 0.5-3.0
Slides 5-10
Slumps 15-30
Loddon Sand-
stone Msaber 50.2 5.7 15.0 3.A 18.0 12.2 1.2
Lawrence Sand-
stone Msafaer 47.5 5.0 10.8 2.7 22.0 15.9 1.1
Nrvice Sand-
stone Member 41.2 6v0 10.1 4.7 24.0 20.0 -
Kenhla Sandstone 55.9 3.8 8.6 1.8 18.1 15.0 0.6
AllansCreek
Formation 43.9 5.8 12.6 4.4 8.3 30.8 -
Darkes Forest
Sandstone 47.8 12.3 9.2 1.5 15.4 25.9 0.2
Wilton Formation 22.0 0.5 37.7 1.5 16.4 19.9 2.5
Marrangaroo
Conglomerate 27.1 6.4 46.7 0.4 11.9 5.7 8.2
Erins Vale
Formation 43.0 23.2 20.8 1.1 18.5 15.4 1.2
Pheasants Ifest
Formation 61.5 16.8 2.7 6.6 10.5 18.1 0.6
Table 3.1. S u m m a r y of the general stratigraphy of the area from North Stanwell Park to Clifton
Fault (after Ghobadi and Pitsis, 1993).
Newport
Formation Sandstone and
(Gosford interbedded shale Rhu 30
Formation)
Based on Hanlon (1953) and Adamson (1974) and confirmed by currently available borehole data.
Thickness is somewhat variable. Those quoted are typical.
TABLES TO CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1 Point count analysis (with mineral proportions expressed as percentage) of the Coal
Cliff Sandstone, (a) fresh core samples from North Cliff, borehole IL55, (b) slightly weathered
samples and (c) moderately weathered samples between Coalcliff and Clifton. Note : K =
kaolinite, Cal = calcite, Sid = siderite and Ir.o = iron oxide.
(b)
(c)
Table 4.2 Point count analysis (with mineral proportions expressed as percentage) of the
Scarborough Sandstone, (a) fresh core samples, West Cliff, borehole IL55, (b) slightly weathered
samples and (c) moderately weathered samples between Coalcliff and Clifton. Note : K =
kaolinite, Cal = calcite, Ir.o = iron oxide.
(a)
(c)
Table 4 4 Point count analysis (with mineral proportions expressed as percentage) of the Otford
L L o n e Member, (a) fresh core samples, West Cliff, borehole ^ \ % ^ % ^ ^
samples between Coalcliff and Clifton beside the road south of Jetty Fault. Note . Cal - calcite,
Sid = siderite.
Table 4.5 Classification of the Otford Sandstone Member, (a) fresh core samples, West Cliff,
borehole IL55, (b) slightly weathered samples between Coalcliff and Clifton beside the road south
of Jetty Fault.
Samples 1 2 3 Samples 1 2
Depth 414.7 412.5 411.5 Rock OSM OCONG
Q 27 26.3 26.6 Q 29 21
F 2.1 2.3 2 F 1 2.3
Chert 15 15 6.3 Chert 11 9.3
RF 17 17 9.6 RF 9 14
%Q 44.19 43.40 59.78 %Q 58 45.06
%F 3.44 3.80 4.49 %F 2 4.94
%RF 52.37 52.81 35.73 %RF 40 50
100 100 100 100 100
(a) (b)
Table 4.6 Classification of the Coal Cliff Sandstone, (a) fresh core samples, North Cliff,
borehole IL55, (b) slightly weathered samples and (c) moderately weathered samples between
Coalcliff and Clifton.
Samples 1 2 3 4
Depth 442 442 436 440
Q 29.4 30.5 31 26
F 3.6 8 4.5 10
Chert 9.4 5.5 9.5 4
RF 10 9 11 5
%Q 56.1 57.5 55.4 58
%F 6.87 15.1 8.04 22
%RF 37 27.4 36.6 20
100 100 100 100
(a)
Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Q 26.2 24 26.5 23 23.6 24.5 25
F 3.2 5.2 2 2.4 1.3 0.5 1.6
Chert 8 4.5 10 6.8 7 9.2 5.6
RF 17.5 20 15.5 15 22 12.2 25.3
%Q 47.7 44.7 49.1 48 43.8 52.8 43.5
%F 5.83 9.68 3.7 5.1 2.41 1.08 2.78
%RF 46.4 45.6 47.2 47 53.8 46.1 53.7
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
(b)
Samples 1 2
Q 18 18.5
F 2.5 6.5
Chert 4 10
RF 19.7 14.2
%Q 40.7 37.6
%F 5.66 13.2
%RF 53.6 49.2
100 100
(c)
Table 4.7 Classification of the Scarborough Sandstone, (a) fresh core samples W e s t Cliff,
borehole IL55, (b) slightly weathered samples and (c) moderately weathered samples between
Coalcliff and Clifton.
Samples 1 2 3 4
Depth 394.7 400.5 402.1 396.8
Q 41.6 50 58 52.3
F 0.3 0.6 3.6 3
Chert 2.8 22.3 8.9 14.8
RF 14.3 11.6 6 8.3
%Q 70.51 59.17 75.82 66.71
%F 0.51 0.71 4.71 3.83
%RF 28.98 40.12 19.48 29.46
100 100 100 100
(a)
Samples 1 2 Samples 1 2
Q 32 32.3 Q 26 30.6
F 1 1.6 F 1.3 3
Chert 1.3 2 Chert 1.5 2.6
RF 18.8 19.3 RF 15 15
%Q 60.26 58.51 %Q 59.36 59.77
%F 1.88 2.90 %F 2.97 5.86
%RF 37.85 38.59 %RF 37.67 34.38
100 100 100 100
(b) (c)
Table 4.8 Classification of the Bulgo Sandstone, (a) fresh core samples, North Cliff, borehole
IL55, (b) slightly weathered samples between Coalcliff and Clifton and (c) moderately weathered
samples at Stanwell Park Station.
Samples 1
Depth 298.4 305.5 289.6 316
Q 59 20 31 48.3
F 0.3 3.3 0.6 0.6
Chert 6 2 11.6 4.6
RF 10.3 17.3 7.6 10
%Q 78.04 46.95 61.02 76.06
%F 0.40 7.75 1.18 0.94
%RF 21.56 45.31 37.80 22.99
100 100 100 100
(a)
Samples Samples
Q 40.3 34.3
Q 22.3 19
F 2.3 0.3 F 0.5 0.5
Chert 1.6 1.3 Chert 1 3
RF 15 13.3
RF 10.6 13
%Q 68.07 69.72
%Q 64.83 53.52
%F 3.89 0.61
%F 1.45 1.41
%RF 28.04 29.67
%RF 33.72 45.07
100 100
100 100
(b) (c)
Table 4.9 X R D analyses of upper Illawarra Coal Measures
(highly weathered sandstone).
Location of samples : Clifton area (Moronga Park slump)
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
VSS1 A R F M
VSS2 A R F M
VSS3 A F F
VSS4 A C R
VSS5 A F T
R a w intensity
A= abundant > 500 Qz= quartz
C = c o m m o n 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 Mc ; = mica (muscoviteJ, sericite)
F= fair 50-10( C = carbonate (Ca, I% Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace < 20 S = smectite
I:= illite
G:= goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K G
HICSS1 M R T
LICSS2 M R
LICSS3 M R
HICSS4 M R
HICSS5 M R R
R a w intensity
A= abundant > 5 0 0 Qz= quartz
C = c o m m o n 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Table 4.11 Wombarra Shale (moderately weathered samples)
Location of samples : Coalcliff area (beside Jetty Fault)
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K S I G
WS2 A F M T R
WS3 A R F T M R -
WS4 A F M R
WS5 A - R - M T R
R a w intensity
A= abundant > 500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feldl= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C == carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20- 50 K == kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace < 20 S == smectite
l := illite
G == goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
WS1 A F R M T M
WS2 A F R M T
WS3 A F - M -
WS4 A F T M T
WS5 A M R M T
R a w intensity
A= abundant > 5 0 0 Qz= quartz
C = c o m m o n 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Table 4.13 X R D analyses of Wombarra Shale (moderately weathered samples)
Location of samples : between Coalcliff and Clifton (north of
Jetty Fault).
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K S I G
WSHJ1 M R R
WSHJ2 M R T T
WSHJ3 C . R
WSHJ4 F F R
WSHJ5 M T R
Raw intensity
A= abundant > 500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20- 50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace < 20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
WSHWC1 M . . . - F
M . . . R R
WSHWC2
M . . . R R
WSHWC3 F - - R R R
WSHWC4 R - - R R R
WSHWC5
R a w intensity
A= abundant >500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Table 4.15 X R D analyses of Scarborough Sandstone (whole rock
highly weathered samples).
Location of project: Scarborough Station
CO \-
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K
SSS1 A - R M -
A T F M T -
SSS2
SSS3 A - F M F M
SSS4 A F F R M F F
SSS5 A R F F T R
Raw intensity
A= abundant > 5 0 0 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M= moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C == carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R = rare 20-50 K == kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S == smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
SSSS1 A M F M F
SSSS2 A F - M F
SSSS3 A M - F R
SSSS4 A F - F F R
SSSS5 A F - M R
Raw intensity
A= abundant >500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M= moderate "100-200 MC:= mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-10C C == carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S == smectite
l =illite
G = goethite
Table 4.17 X R D analyses of Stanwell Park Claystone (fresh
samples)
Location of samples : West Cliff (borehole IL55)
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K S I G
SPC1 A - M M R .
SPC2 A - F - M F .
SPC3 A - F - M F .
SPC4 A - F - F F .
SPC5 A - F - M F -
Raw intensity
A= abundant > 500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20- 50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace < 20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
SPC1 C F R M M F M
SPC2 M T R M M F -
SPC3 C T - F M F T
SPC4 C R F F M R -
SPC5 C
R R M F M
Raw intensity
A= abundant > 500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20- 50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace < 20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Table 4.19 X R D analyses of Stanwell Park Claystone (moderately weathered
samples).
Location of samples : between Coalcliff and Clifton (Harbour
Fault)
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
SPCH1 F M H
SPCH2 M - R
SPCH3 M - R
SPCH4 F R R F
SPCH5 M R R
Raw intensity
A= abundant >500 Q z = quartz
C:= common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M== moderate "100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, M g , Ba)
R=: rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Samples Qz Fed Mc K
BSS1 A - R
BSS2 A F - F
BSS3 A - F R T M
BSS4 A - F -
BSS5 A - F -
Raw intensity
A= abundant > 5 0 0 Q z = quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M= moderate 100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, M g , Ba)
R = rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
X R D analvsesof
Table 4 21 weathered grey shale interbedded in Bulgo Sandstone.
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
S1BSS A F F F
S2BSS A - C - F R
A R - - F T M
S3BSS
S4BSS A - M - M F
S5BSS A F M
Raw intensity
A= abundant >500 Qz= quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M= moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
Samples Qz Feld Mc K
H1 A - F M
H2 A - F F M
H3 A T R M
H4 A - F R M M
H5 A - F M
H6 A T R M M
H7 A - R M M
H8 A - F T M T
H9 A - R M M
H10
A - F M
M
R a w intensity
A = abundant >500 (3 z = quartz
C = common 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M= moderate 100-200 Mc = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
l == illite
G = goethite
Table 4.23 X R D analyses of talus materials
Location of samples : Coalcliff area (Jetty Fault slump)
Samples Qz Feld Mc C K S I G
J1 A - C R F - - -
J2 A - C - M R - M
A - F R M - - -
J3
A - F R F T - R
J4
A T M - M R - -
J5
A - M T F R - -
J6
J8 A - - - M F F R
J9 A - C F M - C R
Samples Qz Feld Mc K G
T1 A F T M T - R
T2 A R - - F R -
T4 A R - M F R
T5 A R - M - C R
T6 A R - M R -
T7 A F R M - R
T8 A R - M R -
T9 A F - M R -
T10 A R - M R . R
Samples Qz Feld Mc K G
C1 C R R R F - - -
C1 A - R T M T M F
C3 A C R - M - - -
C4 A - F - C T M -
C5 A - R T M - - -
C6 A - R - M T - -
C7 A - F - M T . F
R a w intensity
A = abundant > 5 0 0 Qz= quartz
C = c o m m o n 200-500 Feld= feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
M = moderate 100-200 M c = mica (muscovite, sericite)
F= fair 50-100 C = carbonate (Ca, Mg, Ba)
R= rare 20-50 K = kaolinite (dickite, nacrite)
T= trace <20 S = smectite
I = illite
G = goethite
TABLES TO CHAPTERS 5-6
Table 5.1 Main joint orientation foi lower Narrabieen urou p in the nc)rtnern i
area.
xz
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97.4 96.85CSs
25 96.26 HD Fresh 1 98.2
95.22 94.73
26 CSs93.52 HD SW 1.97 97
S W = slightly weathered
M W = Moderately weathered
H W = Highly weathered
W % = Water content
Id1 % = Slake durability index (first cycle)
Id2 % = Slake durability index (second cycle)
Id3 % = Slake durability index (third cycle)
Id4 % = Slake durability index (fourth cycle)
Gr.N = Group n a m e
V H D = Very high durability
H D = High durability
M H D = Medium high durability
M D = Medium durability
L D = Low durability
V L D = Very low durability
Table 7.2 Result of the durability test for the lower Narrabeen Group (claystone interbeds in
the sandstone), classification according to Gamble, 1971).
No. Rock type Weathering W% Id1% Id2% Id3% Id4% Gr.N
1 Claystone (BSs) MW 10 0 0 - - VLD
2 Claystone (BSs) MW 14 1 0 - - VLD
3 Claystone (SSs) MW 7 91 74 61 55 MD
4 Claystone (SSs) MW 7 89 72 61 53 MD
5 Claystone (CSs) MW 3 94 86 77 71 MHD
6 Claystone (CSs) MW 2 97 93 90 87 MHD
Table 7.3 Result of the durability test for the upper Illawarra Coal Measures (highly
weathered sandstone and Coal), classification according to Gamble, 1971).
No. Rock type Weathering W% Id1% ld2% Id3% Id4% Gr.N
1 Sandstone (ICM) HW 7 9 2 - - VLD
2 Sandstone (ICM) HW 8 13 3 - - VLD
3 Coal (ICM) Fresh 13 96 94 94 91 HD
Table 7.5 Slake durability classification (after Franklin and Chandra, 1971)
Table 7.6 Slake durability classification for Narrabeen Group strata ( classification according
to Franklin and Chandra, 1972).
The name of formation Weathering Id2% Classification
BSs Fresh 97.8 Extremely high
BSs SW 97.5 Extremely high
BSs MW 90.8 Extremely high
SPC Fresh 81.1 High
SPC MW 16.3 Very low
SPC HW 0.35 Very low
SSs Fresh 98.3 Extremely high
SSs MW 95.1 Extremely high
SSs HW 88.6 High
OSM Fresh 97.6 Extremely high
OSM SW 97.5 Extremely high
WSh Fresh 96.1 Extrem
WSh MW 94 Very high
CSs Fresh 97.4 Extremely high
CSs SW 95.2 Extremely high
CSs MH 93.6 Very high
S W = slightly weathered
M W = Moderately weathered
H W = Highly weathered
BSs = Bulgo Sandstone
S P C = Stanwell Park Claystone
SSs = Scarborough Sandstone
W S H = Wombarra Shale
O S M = Otford Sandstone Member
C S s = Coal Cliff Sandstone
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Table 7.16 Point load strength classification for Narrabeen Group (irregular samples, between
Clifton and Coalcliff), according to Franklin and Chandra, 1972).
Table 7.19 Summarised point load strength results for Otford Sandstone M e m b e r .
Table 7.20 Summarised point load strength results for Scarborough Sandstone.
Table 7.21 Summarised point load strength results for Stanwell Park Claystone.
Table 7.22 Summarised point load strength results for Bulgo Sandstone.
S W = slightly weathered
M W = Moderately weathered
H W = Highly weathered
Table 7.24 Engineering geological study of fresh samples from the lower Narrabeen Group
in West Cliff borehole IL55.
Table 7.25 Engineering geological study of slightly weathered sandstone samples from the
lower Narrabeen Group between Clifton and Stanwell Park.
Table 7.26 Engineering geological study of moderately weathered sandstone samples from the
lower Narrabeen Group between Clifton and Stanwell Park.
Table 7.28 Relationship between rock composition and durability for fresh and weathered
Stanwell Park Claystone.
Table 7.29 Relationship between rock composition and durability for weathered interbedded
claystone (CSs, SSs and BSs) samples.
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study area.
Location Sample Range Average Range Average
number Ip IP ^ <J>r $r
Clifton 1 15 21
Hotel 2 10 12 17.5 19
Slump 3 11 18.5
Moronga 4 14.5 21
Park 5 18.5 16 23.5 22
Slump 6 16 22
Jetty 7 11 18.5
Rock 8 10 10 17.5 17
Slump 9 9 16.5
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Slump 11 5.5 8 13 15.5
12 6 13.5
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Table 1. T h e result of Point Load Strength test for fresh Coal Cliff Sandstone.
Depth : 436-443(m)
2
No Type W (mm) D (mm) P (MPa) De (mnr) De (mm) Is F ls(50) U C S (MPa)
1 45 30 5.2 1718 41 4 0.91 3.65 84.7
2 35 30 3 1336 36.5 2.9 0.86 2.51 59.12
3 50 30 3.2 1909 43.7 2.2 0.94 2.07 47.62
4 50 32 5.5 2037 45 3.6 0.95 3.43 78.75
5 43 29 3.6 1587 39.8 3 0.9 2.71 62.89
6 40 35 3.8 1782 42.2 2.8 0.92 2.58 59.78
7 40 40 5 2037 45 3.2 0.95 3.05 70
8 40 40 3.5 2037 45 3.5 0.95 3.33 76.56
9 50 30 3.1 1909.8 43.7 2.16 0.94 2.03 46.75
10 50 34 3.6 2164 46.5 2.22 0.96 2.14 49.14
11 30 30 1.5 1145 33.8 1.4 0.83 1.45 34.65
12 28 30 2.5 1069.5 32.7 3.12 0.82 2.57 61.53
13 30 30 2.5 1145 33.8 2.9 0.83 2.43 57.75
14 32 40 3 1629 40 2.45 0.9 2.21 51.45
15 29 30 1.8 1107 33 2.17 0.82 1.79 42.91
16 35 37 2.2 1648 40.6 1.78 0.91 1.62 37.56
17 40 35 2.2 1782 42 1.64 0.92 1.51 35.01
18 40 44 3.5 2240 47 2.08 0.97 2.02 46.22
19 30 30 2 1145.9 33.8 2.33 0.91 2.13 46.4
20 34 40 3 1731 41.6 2.31 0.92 2.12 49.15
II u ll ll it it n it
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No Type W (mm) D ( m m ) P (MPa) De (mm ) De (mm) Is F ls(50) U C S (MPa)
1 80 40 7.6 4074.36 63.8 2.49 1.1 2.74 62.66
2 68 36 7.9 3116.89 55.8 3.38 1.05 3.55 80.32
3 35 20 5 891.26 29.8 7.49 0.79 5.93 143.9
4 40 25 4 1273.2 35.68 4.19 0.85 3.59 84.82
5 56 38 7.5 2709.4 52 3.69 1.01 3.72 85.93
6 44 23 4.8 1288.5 35.89 4.97 0.86 4.27 100.79
7 67 38 11 3241.6 56.93 4.53 1.06 4.84.79 115
8 55 35 8.9 2450.9 49.5 4.84 0.92 3.61 109.5
9 46 32 5.9 1874.2 43.3 4.2 0.86 6.43 90.62
10 45 34 10 1946 44.1 6.85 0.94 4.24 148.7
11 70 32 8.8 2852 53.4 4.12 1.03 3.8 96.18
12 75 40 9.9 3819.71 61.8 3.46 1.1 4.8 85.85
13 69 32 9.9 2811.31 53 4.7 1.02 5.32 109.39
14 32 22 4.5 896.36 30 6.7 0.79 3.88 128.97
15 45 28 5.2 1604.28 40 4.32 0.9 3.73 90.72
16 60 42 8.5 3208.5 56.64 3.53 1.05 4.33 84.4
17 55 35 8 2450.9 49.5 4.35 0.99 3.74 98.5
18 72 35 8.6 3208.5 56.6 3.57 1.05 3.56 85.34
19 40 25 4 1273.23 35.68 4.19 0.85 3.85 84.82
20 68 40 7.8 2720 52.15 3.82 1.01 3.94 88.34
No Type W(mm) D ( m m ) 2 2
P (MPa) De (mm ) De (mm) Is F ls(50) U C S (MPa)
u
1 58 35 2.9 2584.6 50.8 1.49 1 1.49 34.1
2 ,, 60 45 2.8 3437.7 58.63 1.08 1.07 1.16 26.2
n
3 60 36 2.8 2673.8 51.7 1.39 1.01 1.4 32.03
M
4 45 30 3 1718.8 41.45 2.33 0.91 2.12 49.52
H
5 52.5 38 2 2540 50.3 2.1 1 2.1 47.88
II
6 40 32 1.6 1629.7 40.37 1.31 0.9 1.17 27.6
II
7 55 35 1.7 2450.9 49.5 0.92 0.99 0.91 20.84
II
8 75 35 1 3342.25 57.8 0.39 1.06 0.41 9.4
II
9 55 35 1.1 2450.9 49.5 0.59 0.99 0.58 13.37
II
10 75 38 1.9 3628.7 60.2 0.69 1.08 0.74 16.92
II
11 60 35 2.4 2673.8 51.7 1.19 1.01 1.2 27.42
II
12 65 30 1.5 2482.8 49.82 0.8 0.99 0.87 18.17
If
13 55 35 1.2 2450.9 49.5 0.65 0.99 0.64 14.73
II
14 67 35 1.9 3241.66 56.93 0.78 1.06 0.82 18.69
15 " 62 32 3 2526.1 50.26 1.58 1 1.58 36
II
16 60 48 2.9 3666.9 60.5 1.05 1.08 1.13 25.81
II
17 43 32 2.8 1751.9 41.8 2.13 0.92 1.95 45.4
II
18 53 35 1.5 1855 43 1.07 0.93 0.99 23.03
II
19 48 30 3.1 1833 42.8 2.25 0.93 2.09 48.35
20 " 63 35 2.5 2807.4 52.9 1.18 1.02 1.2 27.44
2 2
No Type W (mm) D (mm) P (MPa) De (mm) De (mm ) Is F Is (50) U C S (MPa)
1 40 25 0.1 1273.23 35.68 0.1 0.85 0.08 2.02
2 40 30 0.1 1527.88 39 0.08 0.89 0.07 1.66
3 60 40 1.6 3055.77 55.27 0.7 1,04 0.72 16.57
4 60 30 1.2 2291.83 47.87 0.7 0.98 0.68 15.6
5 60 40 1.9 3055.77 55.27 0.83 1.04 0.86 19.64
6 50 40 1.8 2546.47 50.46 0.94 1 0.94 21.46
7 30 30 0.1 1145.91 33.85 0.1 0.83 0.08 2
8 58 36 1.9 2658.52 51.56 0.95 1.01 0.95 21.87
9 65 40 2.3 3310.42 57.53 0.92 1.06 0.97 22.14
10 40 30 0.5 1527.88 39 0.43 0.89 0.38 8.95
11 50 32 0.1 2037.18 45.1 0.06 0.95 0.05 1.3
12 60 50 1.4 3819.71 61.8 0.49 1.1 0.53 12.15
13 60 35 1.8 2673.8 51.7 0.89 1.01 0.9 20.51
14 70 40 2.6 3565.07 59.7 0.97 1.08 1.05 23.71
15 60 40 1.2 3055.7 55.27 0.52 1.04 0.54 12.3
16 70 45 3.4 4010.7 63.33 1.13 1.1 1.24 28.34
17 40 30 1.2 1527.88 39.08 1.04 0.89 0.93 21.67
18 50 38 1 2419.15 49.18 0.55 0.99 0.54 12.43
19 65 30 2.5 2482.8 49.82 1.34 0.99 1.32 30.44
20 60 50 1 3819.71 61.8 0.34 1.1 0.37 8.43
Vert, dial Vert. Horiz.dial Horiz. Correction Load dial Horiz. Shear
reading displace. reading displace. area reading shear stress
(0.01mm) AV mm (0.001mm) AH m m A' N/div force (N) (KPa)
0 0 0 0 108.0 0 0 0
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n
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if
-1.5 250 0.25 / 26 48.62 13.5
-3 -0.03 300 0.3 / 30 56.1 15.5
-8 -0.08 350 0.35 / 31 57.97 16.1
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