Centre for Electronic Imaging

The Challenges Associated with

Imaging Technology in Space

Jason Gow
30th October 2012

Radiation Damage Workshop

Image 2012
credit: NASA
Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Current Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Current Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

Three main sources of radiation

Radiation Belts
High flux environment
High radiation dose

Solar Particle Events

Damaging events are sporadic in nature

Galactic Cosmic Rays

Low flux
High energy

Image Credit: E. Daly ESA

Imaging Technology in Space

 Radiation Belts
Inner belt The Slot Outer belt
Dominated by protons Low intensity of electrons Dominated by electrons
Approximately static Occasional injections of Very dynamic
100s of MeV more particles Few MeV

Imaging Technology in Space

 Radiation Belts
Io
An ultraviolet image of Jupiter's
aurora taken with the Hubble
Space Telescope in 2007

Europa

Ganymede

Jupiter's radiation belts as mapped by

Cassini, based on the strength of their
radio emissions

Imaging Technology in Space

 Solar Particle Events
The Sun (images from NASA Solar Dynamic Observatory)

Image credit:
NASA
Imaging Technology in Space
Solar Particle Events
The Solar Wind
A stream of charged particles from the Suns Corona
Velocity of around 670,000 to 2,000,000 mph
The solar wind consists of protons and electrons of a few MeV
Typically less than 2 keV.nucleon-1, therefore not generally a problem for spacecraft
components
Extends over a region of space known as the heliosphere which extends out past the
orbit of Pluto.

Solar wind resulting in a

geomagnetic storm
Credit: NASA

Imaging Technology in Space

Solar Particle Events
Solar Flares
During a solar flare the sun ejects radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum
The flares are classified by the peak X-ray flux in units of Watts per square metre (W.m-2)
The soft X-ray flux of large flares can interfere with short-wave radio communication,
Hard X-rays can be damaging to spacecraft electronics.

Credit: NASA Stereo Credit: NASA SOHO

Imaging Technology in Space
Solar Particle Events
Coronal Mass Ejections
Release around 110 tons of material into space
Often associated with solar flares
The size of an event can be approximated by the soft X-ray emission which precedes them,
Typically the proton shower reaches maximum intensity two or more hours after the
soft X-ray emissions
However in January 2005 a shower of protons peaked after only fifteen minutes

Credit: NASA SOHO Credit: NASA SOHO

Imaging Technology in Space
Solar Particle Events

Imaging Technology in Space

 Galactic Cosmic Rays
Credit: MIT OpenCourseWare
Typically composed of
85% protons
14% alpha particles
1% nuclides with Z greater than 4
Heavy ions with Z greater than 26 are rare

Cosmic rays are omnidirectional

Accelerated by supernova
Flux rate outside of the Earths magnetic field at 1 AU
4 protons.cm-2.s-1
0.4 helium ions.cm-2.s-1
0.04 HZ.cm-2.s-1
Interact with the interstellar
medium to produce -rays

Credit: Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope

Credit: NASA Imaging Technology in Space
The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad

~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad

~6 krad

Imaging Technology in Space

The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad
~150 mrad one year on the International Space Stattion
~2 krad one year in low Earth orbit
~5 krad one year in Mars orbit

~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad

~6 krad

Imaging Technology in Space

The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad

~50% chance of nausea

(5% chance of death within 8 weeks)
~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad

~6 krad

Imaging Technology in Space

The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad

50-100% chance of nausea, mild headache, slight fever,

cognitive impairment (5-95% chance of death within 6 weeks)

~50% chance of nausea

(5% chance of death within 8 weeks)
~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad

~6 krad

Imaging Technology in Space

The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad

50-100% chance of nausea, mild headache, slight fever,

cognitive impairment (5-95% chance of death within 6 weeks)

~50% chance of nausea

(5% chance of death within 8 weeks)
~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad
75-100% chance of nausea, moderate headache, moderate
fever, cognitive impairment, 95-100% chance of death within
4 weeks
~6 krad

Imaging Technology in Space

The Space Radiation Environment
Cumulative dose per mission phase for JUICE
~100 krad

50-100% chance of nausea, mild headache, slight fever,

cognitive impairment (5-95% chance of death within 6 weeks)

~50% chance of nausea

(5% chance of death within 8 weeks)
~42 krad

~34 krad
~30 krad
75-100% chance of nausea, moderate headache, moderate
fever, cognitive impairment, 95-100% chance of death within
4 weeks
~6 krad

Beyond 3 krad is likely to cause death within 1-2 days Imaging Technology in Space
Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Current Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

 Radiation Effects

Decrease in solar panel Spacecraft charging

efficiency

Single event effects in

Component failure
microelectronics

False stars identified in

star trackers Decrease in instrument performance,
e.g. CMOS and CCD imagers

Spacecraft components become

radioactive
Surface erosion

Imaging Technology in Space

Radiation Effects

Gate

SiO2 n-type buried p-type

channel epitaxial layer
Figure adapted from
Janesick 2001
Imaging Technology in Space
Radiation Effects

Hole Trap Surface trap

Incoming Radiation (flat band voltage shift) (dark current)
Si interstial

Gate

P-V trap (CTI)

Ionisation

Displacement damage
(dark spike)

SiO2 n-type buried p-type

channel epitaxial layer
Figure adapted from
Janesick 2001
Imaging Technology in Space
 What Image Sensor to Use?
Often dependant on the mission objectives
Full well capacity
Noise performance
Readout speed

The impact of radiation is dependant on the environment that could be experienced

Charge Coupled Device (CCD) or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Imaging Sensor?

0V + 10 V 0V 0V

Electrode or gate
Channel- Insulator
stop about 0.1 m
thick

Buried channel
(n-type)
about 1 m deep

Substrate (p-type)
Figure courtesy of typically 600 m
David Burt (e2v) thick
Stored
Substrate electrons
connection (SS)
Imaging Technology in Space
What Image Sensor to Use?
Drive Pulse
Connections
1 2 3 Bus lines

+10V
1
0V

Drive +10V
Pulses 2
0V
Or
Phases
+10V
3
0V
Figure courtesy of
David Burt (e2v) Time

The drive waveforms are sometimes called clock pulses

with charge transfer achieved by clocking the device.
Imaging Technology in Space
What Image Sensor to Use?
Control region Irradiated region

X-ray image showing an un-irradiated and irradiated region of a CCD

The CCD was irradiated with protons to level equivalent to 250 years spent at L2.

Imaging Technology in Space

Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Current Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 1
Assess the environment

Imaging Technology in Space

Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 2
Estimate the dose to the sensor

10,000.0

2016 launch, science phase

1,000.0

100.0
Dose (krad)

10.0

1.0

0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Aluminium Shielding (mm)

Model of the ESA ExoMars

Spacecraft
Imaging Technology in Space
Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 3
Perform a pre-irradiation characterisation of the sensor

Imaging Technology in Space

Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 4
Irradiate the sensor to different levels up to and above the predicted dose

Imaging Technology in Space

Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 5
Perform a post-irradiation characterisation of the sensor

CCD204
2.5E-04
Un-Irradiated
Irradiated with 100% end of life
2.0E-04
Serial Charge Transfer Inefficiency

Irradiated with 200% end of life

1.5E-04

1.0E-04

5.0E-05

0.0E+00
-135 -125 -115 -105 -95 -85 -75
Temperature (oC)Imaging Technology in Space
Radiation Damage Assessment
Step 6
Make recommendations for changes to device operation and structure

Change to operating conditions Reduction in serial CTI achieved by the decrease

Change temperature in register width from 50 m to 20 m
8.0E-05
Change operating speed CCD204
CCD273
7.0E-05 CCD204 Fit
Charge Injection CCD273 Fit

6.0E-05

5.0E-05
Change to the device structure
Parallel CTI
Serial CTI

4.0E-05

3.0E-05
Change to the mission
2.0E-05
Increase shielding
1.0E-05 Demonstrates a factor 1.7 improvement
Change orbital parameters in the serial CTI
0.0E+00
0.0E+00 2.0E+09 4.0E+09 6.0E+09 8.0E+09 1.0E+10 1.2E+10 1.4E+10 1.6E+10 1.8E+10
10 MeV equivalent proton fluence (protons.cm-2)

Imaging Technology in Space

Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Ongoing Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

 Hubble
Hubble Space Telescope 1990
Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC)
Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2),
1993
Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), 2002

M. Sirianni et al, Radiation Damage in Hubble

Space Telescope Detectors, Radiation Effects
Data Workshop, 2007
Hubble's cameras undergo a monthly anneal
to +20 C
A room temperature irradiation would
result in these defects not being identified

Imaging Technology in Space

 GAIA
Catalogue a billion stars with a billion pixel digital camera over a 5 year mission at
L2
Launched 2013
Largest array of CCDs ever launched
>3Gb/s data generation
Requires on-board compression for 3-8Mb/s
downlink

106 CCDs forming the GAIA focal plane array

Image credit: Airbus
Imaging Technology in Space
GAIA
Increasing charge loss as a result of radiation damage to the CCDs

Payload heated

Payload heated

Crowley et al., Radiation effects on the Gaia CCDs

after 30 months at L2, Proc. Imaging
of SPIETechnology
Vol. 9915in Space
Rosetta
Formation of defects identified by Dr. Neil Murray in images taken with the e2v
technologies CCD47-20 used in the NAVigation CAMeras (NAVCAMs)

Image credit: ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM

Image credit: ESA Imaging Technology in Space

Contents

Radiation Environment

Radiation Effects

Radiation Damage Assessment

Past and Current Missions

Future Missions

Imaging Technology in Space

 JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE)
JUICE is the first L-class launch slot in the European Space Agencies Cosmic Vision
Program foreseen in 2022.
The objective of the JUICE mission is the investigation of Jupiter and its icy moons

e2v CIS115

Image credit: Airbus

Imaging Technology in Space
Euclid
Euclid will spend 6 years at L2 where it will study the geometry and nature of the dark
Universe through the combination of several techniques of investigation, including
Weak Gravitational Lensing
Baryonic Oscillations
The payload consists of a single telescope and two instruments, the visible imager (VIS)
and the near-IR photo-spectrometer (NISP)

Demonstration model of the optical Demonstration model of the VIS

assembly for NISP focal plane array
Image Credit: CNES Image Credit: CEA
Imaging Technology in Space
Euclid
Weak Lensing
Measures the change in ellipticity of galaxies to a few percent
Requires the use of multiple galaxies to calculate the amount and distribution of
intervening matter
3D reconstruction of the dark
matter distribution

Galaxy cluster Abell 2218 and its gravitational lenses, Image courtesy of Richard Massey,
captured by Hubble in 1999 R. Massey et al., Dark matter maps reveal cosmic scaffolding,
Nature 445 (2007)
Imaging Technology in Space
Summary
It is important to understand the environment in which the sensor will operate to
minimise the exposure to extremes.
Increased shielding.
Modify orbital parameters.

By understanding the radiation damage to the sensor it is possible to reduce their

impact.
Optimisation of the device operation.
Changes to the design of future devices.

Radiation damage assessments should be performed under mission operating

conditions, i.e. temperature, to give the best insight into in-flight performance.

What will the future hold for both CCD and CIS technology for space applications?

Imaging Technology in Space