Redes y Servicios:

Lecture -9 Client Server Concepts

DNS,Telnet,Ftp
in this lecture I would like to applications today now as the
touch name
upon a very important concept implies there is the notion of a
which is client
used widely in the internet there is the notion of a server the
nowadays you basic idea is that a server is a
must have heard about the term program
client-server concept client- or which is sometimes call a
server process a
programming in fact most of program in execution is called a
the internet process
applications that we see today a server is a process which is
that we continuously running and it wants
use today they are based on to
this kind of offer some services to clients a
client-server programming so client
first I try in contrast is another process
to explain what this client- which is
server requesting the service from a
programming concept is all server
about then we well a simple example the server
shall be specifically looking at can may
some of simply return with the date and
the applications of the internet time the
so current date and current time the
client-server concepts and client
some of the can ask the server what is the date
applications are the topic of and
our time please tell me the server can
discussion today so first see return back with the date and time
what the this
client-server model is all about can be a very simple example
this is when
a standard model for general a server can provide any
developing Network kind of
service and a client is
somebody who is
asking for that service ok this
is the
difference between client and
server and
in general since we are talking
about a
networking environment the
server and
the client may not be running
on the
same machine they may be on
different
computers all together
typically server is the program
which
starts first and server waits for
requests from clients so as and
when the
requests come from client the
server
will service them and will
again go back
and wait for some more
requests from the
clients ok so pictorially this
looks
like this there can be one server
there
can be several clients which
can need
the service and we shall see
later there
are different ways of handling this
requests in case there are
simultaneous
requests coming ok typical
scenario as I
have mentioned that the server
should be
the first process to start in the
typical scenario first the server
process process must start on
some
system the server process must
initialize itself and then it goes to
sleep waiting for a client request
see
sleep is a terminology which is
used in
operating system it means that it
basically goes to the waiting state
it
is not executing anything right
now but
it is waiting for a request from a
client if that event occur that
means a
request from a client comes then
the
server program will wake up and
it will
start executing so if you if you
remember to recall the the typical
state
transition diagram her process that
we
ready running blocked then
possibly the
server process will be in the
block
state it will be waiting for a
request
from the client to come in
order to move
into ready okay then a client
process
will start well it can be in the
same
system it can be on some other
system
and it can send a request to the
server
so the server will obviously
process the
request so when the server has
finished
providing the service the server
can go
back to sleep waiting for the
next
client request and this process
will
repeat indefinitely as long as
you do
not explicitly shut down the
server
this is a very simple scenario
server is
waiting clients are sending
requests the
server will be servicing the
requests it
will be sending back the response
and
this will go on okay now typically
the
roles of the client and server
processes
are a symmetric say a symmetric
in terms
of the roles as well as when you
write
the actual client and server
programs
this programs you may be writing
in a
language like C or C++ or maybe
in Java
or any language you will find that
when
you write the client program the
way you
write the server program there are
some
places where they differ that is
why
they are called asymmetric they
are not
symmetrical if the client and
server
program looked exactly the same
then
they would have said to be
symmetrical
but they are asymmetric now in
in terms
of the of the exact way the
requests are
processed by the server servers
can be
categorized as either iterative
or
concurrent let us see what
these two
mean a server is set to iterative
when
first thing is that the server
process
knows in advance how long it
takes to
handle its request typically this
kind
of server are used only when
the service
time is fairly small
if the request service time can
be
fairly long this is not a good
solution
if this is not a good alternative
typically isolative servers are
used in
cases where the service times
for the
client requests are fairly small
in time
so single copy of the server
will run at
all times and the server will
process
one client request at a time the the
server will handle each request
itself
since it is a single copy then only
one
request can be handled at a time
so if
there are five clients which are
sending
requests at the same time the first
one
that the server receives will be
handle
first the other four will have to
wait
as soon as the server is finished
with
the first is ready with the next the
next requesting queue will come
and the
others will have wait so in this it
will
go on so one request is being
serviced
or process at a time and all other
clients which have also sent
requests
will be waiting this is how it
works so
the client may have to wait if the
server is busy processing other
requests
now in contrast concurrent
servers work
in a different way they are
typically
used when the amount of work
required to
handle a request is unknown so
you
really do not know how long
the client
process will engage the server
in
providing the result of the
request some
requests may take much longer
time say I
am giving a simple example
you can you
can think of of an application
like a
railway reservation system
suppose
whenever an operator turns on
the system
and connects to the server say
after
three hours he shuts down the
connection
maybe for this entire three-
hour the
client remains connected to the
server
and whatever request is going
the server
is servicing immediately so this is
a
long-term connection or you can
say
request processing scenario here
you
cannot handle the requests in
iterative
way but here what is done is that
whenever a client request comes
the
server starts another process to
handle
each request which means that a
copy of
the server caters to a client's
request
in a dedicated fashion as many
copies of
server as there are client requests
see if there are see here the
scenario
is like this there originally there is
one server which is waiting for
client
request say client a sends a
request so
what the server will do server will
make
a copy of itself and will and will
allocate that copy to cater to the
request of client a in a dedicated
fashion and the server itself will
go
back and wait for another
request now a
request from client becomes
the server
again makes a copy of itself
and asks
that copy to the service request
from B
and so on so in this way the
thing will
go on if there are ten requests
coming
simultaneously there will be
ten copies
of the server now this may
seem to be a
little complex that means how
these
copies are created but if you
know the
some of the details about
process
management in an operating
system you
will know that almost in all
operating
systems there are some
functions which
you can use to create new
processes like
for example if you are using
the UNIX or
the Linux system there is a
function
call called fork that is a system
call
now suppose you are writing a
program in
C if there is a function called fork
in
the C program so whenever that is
executed there is another copy of
the
process that gets created
so effectively concurrent servers
uses
this fourth kind of calls to create
multiple copies of itself okay
now whatever it said is the basic
concept behind client and server
now how
it actually works well the client-
server
communication can use either
TCP or UDP
depending on your requirement
now if it
is TCP then before start of
communication a connection has
to be
established but if it is UDP of
course
you do not need see when we talk
about a
connection we must first
understand what
do we mean by a connection see
suppose
there are two computers on two coming from so you can have this
side one source
out here one out here this is port number and destination port
your number
source this is your destination also so when you have all these
and you five
want to establish a connection components known to you you
between know exactly
SNT well this can be a two- what is going on you know
way exactly what
communication in general now protocol is being used you know
there are a exactly
few things you need to know which program out here is talking
about this to
communication like which which program out here okay now
protocol are you can
you using are using TCP are say that a connection has exactly
using UDP or been
something else some new established actually been
protocol what is established
the IP address of the source between these two programs right
what is the so this
IP address of the destination five components will constitute a
and also connection
as I mentioned that in both the now typically when you develop a
source network
and destination sides there can application it is always advisable
be to
multiple programs which are use some standard and well
running so accepted
the port number specifies protocols because if you follow
exactly which some
program the packet is destined standard you will often get
to or is support from
the software tools that we use in
developing the software now
here I am
showing a very typical scenario
say say
if whenever one wants to
develop an
internet application usually at
the data
link layer level you have the
Ethernet
protocol in most of the lands
we see in
the network layer it has to be
IP at the
transport layer it can be TCP
and when
you are developing the
application if
you are using TCP and IP then
there are
some standard application
programming
interfaces or epi s which are
available
one very popular api is called
the
so-called Berkeley socket
interface now
if you are using Berkeley
socket
interface you will be you will
be having
access to some functions which
if you
call using that you can actually
establish a connection between a
client
and a server you can actually send
a
packet you can receive a packet
you can
do whatever you want so you
have to
understand what these functions
are and
how to use them once you know
that you
can very easily write such an
application now the basic concept
behind
the Berkeley socket which is part
of the
so-called Berkeley socket
distribution
BST or Berkeley standard
distribution is
called the socket socket is the
basic
concept behind inter process
communication over the network
between
client and the server basically the
concept of socket allows one
process to
communicate with another now
this one
process can be the client the other
process can be the server they
may be on
the same machine they can be on
different machines now an association and technically
analogy is speaking
like the telephone line you can socket is defined as a so-called
establish a connection over the half
telephone Association like you have the two
to allow one person to talk to sides
another one is the source other is the
similarly socket is an analogy destination now if we have
to the complete
telephone connection using information about one of the sides
socket you that
can establish the connection is called a socket like either if you
then client have the protocol local IP address
can send something the server the
will local port number that is also a
receive this server can send socket
back on one side on the side of the
something the client would source if
receive in we have protocol remote IP
this way a two-way address
communication can remote port number then you have
start now from the socket point the
of view socket on the size of the
there is a term called full destination so
association the source opens the socket the
which refers to that same five destination opens the socket then
table I there
refer to earlier protocol local IP are some functions using which
address local port number they
remote IP communicate and establish a full
address remote port number all association among the sockets this
these is
five things taken together is how it actually works but but in
called an order
to actually understand how it things was to give you a rough
works idea
we'll have to look into this about what this client-server
functions concept is
in depth and we'll actually all about and I told you all the
study how Internet application that you see
this client-server programming they
can be are all based on the on the
done but I am NOT going to client-server concept now I would
the details start
of the coding and the details of with the one of the most important
the applications which well in itself is
function because these are not
slightly out an independent application but is
of the scope of the present used
lecture but by many other practical
if you are interested you can applications
certainly that is the so called domain name
look into the details of the system
Berkeley or DNS this you may have heard
socket interface what kind of this is a
functions very important service which is
are available and how you can provided
utilize in the Internet in lands in different
those functions to write client areas basically the domain name
and system
server programs both is a global database system for
in the in the connection- Internet
oriented that addressing mail other info it say
means using TCP or in the here
connection this need not be restricted to
list which means the UDP internet
environments email it can refer to world wide
okay so my purpose of telling web
all these
telnet FTP any kind of easier to memorize but I also
application you know that
use today you typically use a the IP address of this CSE
name you machine is
do not always use an address 144 dot 16 dot 192 dot 57 of
the purpose course you
of the DNS essentially is to cannot remember many such
convert addresses with
from a name into an address numbers you may tend to forget
okay so this but using
is how it works now the names is much more easier
advantage of because it is
using DNS is that see the using more English like more easy to
names memorize
rather than addresses is much ok now in the domain name
easier system there
easier to use easier to is a concept of domains and
memorize like subdomains
for example I am giving you actually domain refers to a set of
one computers which are related in
practical you can example say some way
the mail there are some computers which
server of the computer science are
and related either by their location
engineering department of IIT location means I am talking about
Kharagpur geographical location they may be
that can be referred to by a I can
name CS e say all computers in India all
the full name is CA C dot IIT computers
kgp dot e in IIT Kharagpur these are some
are net examples
in well you are familiar with these are some categorization of
names of subdomains based on their
this type now this kind of a location and I
name is
can also specify these will be one single server available
computers based in
on the way they are used or one place where you can get all
their the information rather this has to
function like I can say that will be
all some kind of a distributed you can
computers which are in the say
educational database where information is
institutions all computers spread
which refer across a number of different
to commercial organizations computers
these are so just using some systematic
example of distinction from the algorithm
functional point of view ok so these computers can interact
as I have among
mentioned that DNS servers themselves to to get means
basically whatever you
translate domain names to IP can say result you want to get
addresses given a
this is the basic task and this DNS and name say name you can
thing is get an IP
done in a distributed system address by systematic querying of
because of these
the simple reason because one multiple server in a particular
server in order we
one place cannot have shall see how these orders would
information about be
all the domain names in the shortly but before that let us talk
whole world about something called top-level
there are millions and millions domains
of such well this you may be aware that
domain names and the the
corresponding addresses you write for example
addresses you cannot expect yahoo.com com say something
that there dot gov
something that is stanford.edu
in in refers to India say yaar
net dot
in C these are called pop level
domain
when you write an address like
for
example when I write say
www.yahoo.com
the last part that I write that is
called the top-level domain
now
top-level domain can be can be
one of
many I have only shown a few
out of them
some of these are based on
functional
classification comm means
commercial or
commercial organization org
means non
profit net means network
service
provider gov gov traditionally
it stands
for US government mill
military a do
educational now in addition to
this
there are two later domains for
each and
every country of the world
for example PK stands for
Pakistan there
is a code for each and every
country
this I n stands for India okay
this NZ stands for New Zealand
TW which stands for thigh one
and so on
now the domain name structure is
a
hierarchy I am giving an example
so I
talked about the address of our
mail
server in the computer science and
engineering department so the
address
has four different parts CACI
80kg p
unknit in well if you look from the
other side from the side of in this
in
is a sub domain this in refers to all
computers in India this year net is
a
sub class inside India now within
India
there can be other sub classes or
so
there can be ni si there can be
VSNL
there can be others also okay so
your
net is a sub domain that is inside
India
again inside your net you have iit
kgp
so within a net you have iit kgp CSE I have specified in our net iit
iit kgp
bombay you can have other and then CAC so these are
salts as well examples of
I have not shown all I have domains and subdomains okay so
shown only as I have
two then inside iit kgp you can mentioned that domain
have distribution is or
computer science engineering domain name management is not
electronics in one
communication engineering place it is distributed for example
and mechanical iit
engineering kgp domain name server can only
then within iit bombay you can keep
again information about the
have computer science names that are under iit KGB like
engineering math ccc
and so on so you can see that make and so on domain name
when you system of our
give a domain name this is an net can only keep track of all the
example of institutions that are under our net
a so-called fully qualified like
domain name iit kgp iit bombay iit delhi and
fully qualified means starting other
from the institutions
top-level domain similarly domain name india can
I am specifying the entire path they can
of the keep track of all those ISPs that
subdomains that you should are
Traverse to inside india like our net n IC
to arrive at the particular place VSNL and
that so on so in the each of these tables
you want to come okay I want you
to refer to have only those entries that are
immediately under it there is a big
domain there are smaller sub 2 lakhs in 1995 it is about 2.4
domains million
under it and each of these sub similarly a duet equation
domains institutions
again they will be having from 250 thousand it has gone to
smaller sub about
domains under them so each of 1.7 million so you can just
this imagine in
domain will contain the the rate in which the number
information only of
about the sub domains that are computers are growing okay
immediately under it this is so the number of such domain sub
how the domain
domain name server and these names are growing okay
information is now DNA
distributed so effectively DNA server converts an IP address
server converts a
will store the domain name and domain name into an IP address
the IP now let
address they will store us see how this is actually done
information only and how
about the computers that are these domain name servers are
immediately called or
under them okay just to have a where they are kept
quick now the most common domain
look of statistics this is only up name server
to is Berkeley internet name domain
the year 1995 you can just in
imagine how short it is called bind be IND for
it has grown since these are the instance if you are using a UNIX
figures or a
in thousands the number of Linux system you will find that
computers in there is
the dot-com domain in 1991 it a process whose name is name D
was about the
berkeley internet name domain
server
runs as a process called name d
this is
the actual name server process
for an
application it can be telnet FTP
web
mail anything when it wants to
get some
information from the server it
can
invoke the so called DNS name
resolver
see the bind program is already
running
that is the server program the
client
program is separate the client
program
we'll be using will be used to
send a
request to the server program
so there
is one popular client program
this is
called nslookup so if you run
nslookup
on any system it can be a
Windows system
it can be a Linux system
whatever so the
if you run this nslookup then
what will
happen it will ask you to type in
the
domain name well it has to be the
fully
qualified domain name starting
from the
top level and this nslookup will be
actually contacting the name
server and
it will get translated into the IP
address and the IP address will be
returned back to you so either in
the in
the UNIX or Linux scenario or or
in the
Windows environment wherever
if you give
a command nslookup say say if
you are
using the Windows environment
you can
give it from that run prompt or
through
a command prompt then you will
find that
it will be asking you to type a
domain
name you type a domain name
www.yahoo.com return you will
find that
after some time it will return you
back
with the IP address of that
yahoo.com
okay this is how it works but as
I've
mentioned that the name server
that is
running it cannot have have all
the
information well and in general
it will
not have the information
locally in that
case every name server has a
connection
with a so called primary name
server
which means if we have a
name server out
here this is your name server if
it does
not have an information then it
will
contact a primary name server
now you
can configure that which will
be the
primary name server for your
case okay
and in case the primary name
server is
not available you can also
specify some
secondary name server okay
some other
name server also you can
specify
secondary name server so if the
primary
is not accessible you can contact
the
secondary name server but the
point to
note is that well whether you is
whether
you contact the primary or
secondary
that is not important important
thing is
that information is not available in
one
place you have to look into other
places
if you do not have the information
for
example in your primary name
server I am
giving an example in our Institute
there
is one primary name server
available so
in all our computers I have we
have a
set means I also set it in my
computer
set the primary name server to be
that
particular machine so whenever
we type
in some name some domain name
that
domain name gets transferred name server say the top you have
to that a
primary name server with a virtual root level name server say
request for I
the IP address if it is available have taken some examples I have
in taken to
this local table it immediately education institution Stanford and
sends Georgia Tech and to commercial
back otherwise it sends back to sites
its rediff and Yahoo Stanford and
primary name server because if gay Tech
you look will be connected to a name
at that primary name server server under
that is also a do they will be connected with a
not knowing everything so name
with respect server under comm if you have
to that particular machine there Indian
will be companies there will be under the
some other primary name India
server who it I n name server if you have
will ask if it does not have the Australian
information there okay so companies they will be having
everyone under a u
really having a so on so this is how name servers
link to some other name server are
till you organized this route will contain
reach the absolute top level information about all the top-level
name server domains this a du will contain
from there it can again come information about all the
down so I universities
will give a small example this under this I do this Kong will
diagram contain
gives you the so called all the dot-com companies okay
hierarchy of this is
how the domain name will tell well yes I know what
information are calm is
distributed now let us see how calm is somewhere here so it will
this name follow
resolution takes place well here that request to the calm name
let us server
take an example suppose here finally calm name server will
we have a know well
client and we want to get the IP yes I know yahoo.com yahoo.com
address is here
of yahoo.com say and the so from here you can get back the
client is a actual
machine which is connected to IP address once the IP address is
the obtained this is the so-called
stanford.edu site so the client recursive
will name resolution the response that
first send a request to the means
stanford.edu the actual IP address which you
name server this stanford.edu have
name found out this will be following
server will find that the the
information is exact reverse path with respect to
not available with stanford.edu the
so it original request so you see that so
will be sending it sending the many
request message exchanges are required
up to the a do name server well to get
you will back the IP address of the of the
also find that while yahoo.com name
is not an that you had requested for this is
in my table so this I do the
server will also send it one requested name resolution process
level up to and
the root name server so root here say with respect to the client
name server if
you send out one request
exactly one
response is being sent back so
just if I
am the client if I if I were
client
means I am on a computer I am
typing and
typing some name say W of W
yahoo.com so
from my computer exactly one
request
will go out and exactly one
response
will come back so beyond that
what is
happening that I am unable to
see that I
am not seeing so but but if it is
recursive name resolution then
there are
lot of message transmissions
that are
going on from one name server
to other
in order to resolve the name
okay there
is another alternative it is
called
iterative I Titov says that the
client
will sequentially send code is
to DNS
server like for example this
was the
client the client first sends a
request
to the say stanford.edu
nameserver stanford.edu
nameserver will
be sending Mike a response
saying that
well I do not have the information
but
you can contact a do so it will
send
back another request to the ado
name
server the ed unum server will be
sending back another request
saying that
well I do not have root maybe
having so
it will be sending another request
to
the root so in this way the client
has
the responsibility of sending the
requests getting the response
sending
the next requests and so on so the
responses that the client is getting
back in this case will contain
which
name server I can contact next or
in the
final case I have got the IP
address
finally so this iterative name
server is
easier to implement that is why
most
most of the systems they
implement this
I to ative name server process
so the
client will sequentially send
requests
so the response is negative it is
not
found then the corresponding
DNS server
will be sending back that
which server
to query next okay so unlike
recursive
name server where only one
response is
being sent back to the client
here you can have multiple
requests
going out and multiple
responses coming
in to the client okay
now this name resolution or
this DNS
protocol is central to any
internet
application okay now now we
now talk
about some of the internet
applications
which may be using DNS for
their use two
of the protocols we would be
discussing
as part of in today's lecture the
first
one is the so-called telnet protocol
telnet is one of the oldest
protocols
that have been used even before
the
internet took its shape this telnet
command or the telnet facility was
available subsequently telnet has
become
an internet standard the idea of
telnet
is that it allows a person sitting on
one computer to work on another
computer
like for example I am sitting on
this
computer II and I want to start
using
computer B over the network
what I do I
give a command from a the
command looks
like this telnet followed by the
address
of the computer in which I want to
work
well here I can either specify the
name
or if I remember the IP address I
can
also specify the IP address now anything if I run a command
once I command is
do a telnet from A to B well not running on my computer
obviously I rather the
am trying to start a remote command is running on the
session and computer B but
usually there is some what is happening whatever is the
authentication output
where where I am if I am of that command somehow that
sitting at a I output is
will have to supply a valid coming on my screen so as if I am
logging having
login name and password an illusion that I am actually
corresponding to sitting
machine B to gain entry so on the computer B okay this is a
sitting on very
machine a I give a telnet B and useful facility particularly in a
on the networked environment where
screen I find some username you do not
password have everything on your computer
coming I type in those things I something may be available on
gain some other
entry into machine B now computer you can do a telnet and
whatever I see use it
is this screen corresponding to okay
Machine fine so some typical applications
B if I give a directory listing I telnet
can can be used to use software which
see the files which are there on is
machine only available on a central server
B if I run up from if I say for for
example example another application
run a command like C suppose you
compiler or have a printer attached to one
computer
so you want to take some this change only in one place okay
printout so you so
can do a log you can do a telnet talent is a very useful command
to that now by
remote machine remote host default the telnet server runs on
and then you port
can give a print command so a number 23 which means
typical whenever you give
scenario in a laboratory a command like telnet something
environment is telnet
that many users who are say SM is a machine name XYZ
typically then a TCP
students do a telnet to a remote connection is established with the
server machine TCP for the the Machine
and work their server is XYZ over
actually a port number 23 23 is a standard
bigger and faster computer for
now the telnet which is the default port
advantage of this is that that number
instead which is used but in fact this
of loading the software all the telnet
students command can be used to specify
are wanting to use on all their any other
computers you are loading port number as well how like this
them in only I can
one central place it also do a telnet to any machine by
simplifies a specifying
lot the maintenance of the the name but at the end as an
software that optional
means the how they are using parameter I can also specify the
what they port
are using and if you want to number
change the now you will learn later that this
softer to a newer version you port
need to do
number 25 is actually the port
number
which is used by the mail
servers so
when I do a telnet to them to
this
machine over port number 25
what I am
trying to do is that I am
actually
trying to contact the mail
server
directly okay there are many
cases are
many application where you
may want to
do this well we shall be talking
about
this in more detail when you
talk about
the mail emails in electronic
mail
system later they will see that
we can
actually do a telnet to connect
to a
mail server and you can
actually send
and receive mails through that
facility
okay just to show you a sample
telnet
session this is an example
which I have
taken from a Linux system this
was the
original Linux prompt sunny this
is the
command which was given telnet
CSE see
once this telnet CSU has given
CSE was a
name so automatically the domain
name
system ask was contacted and the
name
CSE was translated into the
corresponding IP address but as a
user I
do not see that happening it is
happening in the background
automatically so even if I have
given
telnet CSE I am seeing that some
IP
address is coming trying to
contact one
for two for sixteen 192 57 this is
the
IP address of the CSE so finally
after
connection is done some message
is
coming connected to CSE this is
the
message Connect which is coming
from the
telnet server on the CC side some
other
message is coming ignore these how we can use telnet to connect
things to a
some Linux version exotics new or remote machine okay now
that are we talk
coming then a prompt is about another protocol called FTP
coming asking me see
to supply the login name so I using telnet we are able to log on
supply the to
login name here a prompt is another system and use some
coming to facility out
supply the password well I there but what we cannot do in
supply the telnet is
password here but this is not that we cannot physically transfer
visible because passwords are a
normally file from one machine to another
not visible on the screen so if we
my cannot bring a file from that
username and password are machine to
correct some my machine or I cannot send a file
welcome messages come from
lightly like here my machine to that machine for
last login this line X this you that
have new purpose in you to use a protocol
mail and this is the prompt called
which is the FTP or File Transfer Protocol so
prompt of the CSE machine so let us
now I can see what FTP is now FTP allows a
give some commands where person
the responses to transfer file as I said between
will be coming from the CSE two
machine and machines just exactly like telnet to
not from this sunny machine so provide authentication you need
this is to
just a simple example I have supply login name and password
shown that because
if this was not so then anybody
can
transfer any file across any
machines
that is not what you always
want there
has to be some security also
some files
you do not want anyone to
access only
persons who are having a valid
account
login name password can only
access so
this kind of login name and
password
authentication has to be there
and the
command is very simple very
very similar
to telnet FTP name or FTP IP
address
okay now anonymous FTP is a
variation of
FTP which had become very
popular in the
early days of the internet now
see the
conventional FTP requires a
user to
supply a username and a
password but
suppose on my machine I have
kept a
number of information useful files
which
many people may want but how
many people
have access to my machine they
do not
have a valid username and
password many
of them in fact
so this anonymous FTP is a
mechanism
using which anyone who is sitting
anywhere in the world can come
to my
machine and take some files from
me okay
here the idea is very simple
whenever
the system asks for the login name
you
type this string anonymous
instead of a
valid login name and when it asks
for
the password you type your email
address
then whenever you type the login
name as
anonymous and your password as
your
email address then you get logged
in as
an anonymous user in that FTP
server
there may be a lot there may be server on which the FTP server is
a whole work
lot of files available for the working okay
anonymous now in fact FTP uses two port
user for downloading so now numbers
you can you port number 21 is standard and
can have a look at the files you this is
can 22 can be anything in fact this can
list it you can get the files that be
you anything but port number 21 is
need must okay
in fact this anonymous FTP is there are two connections which
in the are
early days of the internet was established one is called the
one control
reason that Internet becomes so connection through the control
popular connect
there are many good peoples control connection is established
who wanted over
to share information they kept port number 21
a lot of so the FTP connection gets
information on their servers established
and using after the control connection
that they they allowed other whenever
peoples to you want to transfer a data so a
share so the huge amount of data
resources connection will be established
were available in anonymous every time you transfer a data and
FTP sites that
now the FTP process model data connection can be opened
looks like over any
this suppose this is a client port number here as an example I
which have
gives the FTP command and shown 22 but it can be thousand
this is the two
thousand three thousand connection okay and some typical
anything but FTP
this port number 21 is standard come under the many commands I
so that have
is that if you do a telnet and if I shown only a few put or input put
want means
to transfer five files there will send one file import means
be multiple put
five data connections opened get or M gate receive a file or
and closed multiple
one after the other for every file hash if before put an input you
single give the hash command you can
file transfer a data connection see the
lu progress of the file transfer some
opened and after the transfer is symbols are getting displayed one
complete it will again be after
closed okay so the other
this is what I said two now each symbol typically
connections display
established one is the control display shows either four
connection over port 21 and kilobytes or
control eight kilo
connection remains all of data transfer so you can see the
throughout a hashes coming one after the other
session until or unless you log you
out of can see that well my file transfer
that FTP and the other port is is
number is a is in progress okay
temporary port number used prompt it prompts a user before
for every they
file being transferred as I said transfer whether you really want
for to
every file transfer you establish transfer yes/no like that it asks
new you
whether the file you want to 331 anything which ends with 1
transfer is this
a binary file or a text file means is an intermediate
ASCII file completion
exit means it terminates exists reply so this user name/password
the FTP thing
server well some summers is not yet complete it is halfway
example session through so once this
let us say suppose here again authentication is
we are done it responds it to 30 it ends it
sitting on a machine called zero means it is the end of one
sunny from step so
that I want to do an FTP into now you see a prompt FTP comes
another now can
machine whose name is AC give the FTP commands like one
AC Indigo so small
connected to CS Indigo the example I am giving if I give a dir
connection command it mean directory so I
over the control connection is can see a
established C is CC some list of all the files which are there
response codes in
are coming say 220 summer the other computer ok so I can say
say 331 230 list
these are some intermediate of all the files their sizes how big
response they are and so on so if I choose
codes followed by the actual to
response C transfer any one of these files I
when I when this connection is can
done then give a command say I want to
this 220 means that the transfer
connection is this file and see if we get this file
successful then it asks for the name
user so it opens a new connection it
name then it asks for the also
password this tells you that 671 bytes received
transfer complete then I can supporting real-time traffic
terminate because
the connection by the squid they are based on Datagram they
so connection gets terminated do not
okay so guarantee that packets will follow
this shows the sample FTP the
session how same path ok so there will be
you can use it so this brings me unequal
to the delays in the packet and may also
end of the todays lecture before they
before can also be out of order delivery
ending today let me have a for
quick look at which real-time response is not
the solutions to the quiz possible
questions of how are the headers in an ipv6
last lecture first question was packet
what are kept track off so all extension
the four types of BGP headers
messages they are after the base header are chained
open update keep 11 in a
notification how is linked list this ID mentioned how
the BGP connection between does
two routers ipv6 a team to support real-time
maintained as I mentioned by traffic
periodically exchanging ipv6 allows a pair of stations to
keepalive establish a path before sending
messages what are the main packets
functional so this is an option you have in
procedures in BGP neighbor ipv6 to
acquisition support real-time traffic what does
Network acquisition Network the
reach payload length signify they
ability why is ipv4 not suitable specify the
for length of the extension headers
and the
transport level protocol data to send ipv6 over ipv4 the entire
unit in an ipv6
ipv6 packet what does the next packet is encapsulated as payload
header and
field mean the type of ipv4 ipv4 header will be added to
information that it so
immediately follows the now some questions from today's
correct header lecture
the current header so there can what is an idea tip server what is a
be concurrent server which of client
multiple headers or the PDU so or
the next server must start first what are the
error will contain what is components of a socket what is a
following the domain
present header in ipv6 how are what an MD and nslookup how
the does
fragments kept recursive name resolution works
off in case the packet is how can
fragmented you connect to a server XYZ
first thing is that base header is comm over
copied into all the fragments port number one two three four
and if why does FTP use more than one
there is a fragment header in port
one packet numbers for communication what
it means that it is fragmented are the
so there functions of the hash and bin
has to be a fragment header in commands
all the in FTP so with that we come to
fragments what is any caste the end
addressing of today's lecture thank
packet will deliver to exactly [Applause]
one of a [Music]
set of computers how can use
tunneling
[Music]
[Music]
Lecture -10 Electronic Mail
[Music] in practice for instance for sending
you mails we use a protocol called
you Simple
[Music] Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP
continuing with our discussion in
on conjunction with it we use another
internet applications today we protocol called multi-purpose
would be internet
talking about perhaps the most mail extension or mine on the
widely other hand
used application that people when you are receiving mails on
use our
nowadays over the Internet computers there are two other
namely protocols
electronic mail so our topic of which are used in fact one of these
discussion today is electronic two
mail now one is post office protocol version
you know everybody knows 3 or
that electronic is it is also known as pop through
mail is perhaps the most in
widely used short or Internet mail access
application on the Internet well protocol
anybody or IMAP now let us start our
who has a connection or discussion
connectivity to on Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
the Internet invariably uses in fact
electronic this SMTP forms the basis for all
mail or email which is more electronic mail transaction that
popularly takes
called in some form or the place on the net on the Internet
other now now this SMTP is the basic
talking about email there are a protocol used
number to send mail from one machine to
of underlying protocols which the
are used other ok so let us try to understand
what this SMTP protocol is
what are its
capabilities and limitations and
how it
works ok the first thing is that
you can
get all the details about SMTP
in RFC
number 821 this is the
corresponding RFC
well SMT
is a simple protocol in the
sense that
it has the capability of
transmitting
simple text messages only it
cannot
transmit anything other than
simple text
well when you say simple text
it means a
simple 7-bit ascii file you
cannot have
any international characters
which may
require 8-bit ASCII encoding it
must
strictly be 7-bit ascii format but
the
most significant bit of the bytes
will
be always 0 and in the SMTP
protocol the
mails are transferred based on
information which is written on
the
envelope of the mail just like
when we
send a letter to a destination we
put
the letter inside an envelope and
on top
of the envelope we write all the
details
namely the address which will
help the
post office to deliver the letter at
the
correct destination so in the same
way
well inside the envelope you have
the
message header message header
can
contain the address of the recipient
and
some other information this we
shall see
later what other information are
required this the SMTP while it is
transferring or transmitting mails
it
does not look at the mail contents
or
the message body as long as it is
in
simple text format it only looks at
the
message header that is only of the mail now once you have
important to created a
send the mail to the correct mail and has given a command to
destination send it
so effectively a mail message the messages get queued up and
looks like this
this there are two parts one is messages go to the input of an
the SMTP
message header other is the sender program sure illustrating
message body this is
basically when you are trying an example with the help of a
to send a diagram
mail the mail is created by a so now this SMTP sender program is
called actually
user agent program which responsible for sending the mails
which is also this SMTP sender program is run
sometimes called as a mail usually
client some as a server process which for
examples of user agent example in
programs are the UNIX environment is
Outlook Express Outlook or sometimes called
you can say a demon demon process some
Pi in Eudora examples of
this kind of mail because client some SMTP server processes are
or your send mail
hard user agents are ever or cumin both of these are widely
based on the platform you're used q
using you mail is slightly better than send
can use any one of these mail
platforms to because of some of its attractive
compose your mail whatever features now let us try to illustrate
you are the process with the help of this
trying to send you can type in diagram here we have the user
the body agent
where the mail is getting
composed but
however this user agent may
not be
running the the SMTP server
program
suppose this is the place where
the
nearest SMTP server program
is running
out here so this SMTP server
will be
acting as the SMTP sender or
the mail
sender the user agent after the
mail
gets composed will open a
connection to
the SMTP server on port
number 25 port
number 25 is the port for
SMTP server
and as you can see several mail
messages
might get queued up in the user
agent
for being processed by the
SMTP sender
program so each of these
queued up mails
will be containing a mail
header
followed by a male body now
this SMTP
server program when it receives
the
mails it will try to follow the mail
to the destination now it is
possible
that it does not have a direct path
to
the destination it may have to send
the
mail through a number of
intermediate
mail servers this may be necessary
so
for the purpose this mail server
program
out here this may send the mail to
some
intermediate SMTP server one or
more of
them with a connection on port 25
established in each case and
finally it
will be delivered to an SMTP
server
which has a connection with the
destination user mailbox directly
so
this SMTP server will receive the
mail
and you will find that well this this
particular mail is destined to a
mailbox
on on my machine so the mail will
get
deposited in the appropriate
mailbox
this is how the overall thing
works so
starting from the user agent
you go to
an SMTP server which acts as
the SMTP
sender to start with the SMTP
sender
will be sending the mail to
another SMTP
server which may simply
followed it to
another SMTP server and this
process
will go on till the mail receives
the
final SMTP server which acts
as the
final destination or receiver
which
accepts the mail and puts it in
the user
mailbox this is how the overall
SMTP
mail transmission phase works
now in
terms of the mail message
contains each
message that gets queued up
contains of
course the text of the message
the
message text in fact contains the
header
and the body now in the header
there is
an RFC 822 which defines the
fields of
the header so if you look at 8:22
you
can know all the details of the
header
fields so this header will contain
message envelope containing
some
information as we shall see in
some
examples and also a list of
recipients
and it will also contain the
message
body which of course will be
composed by
the user
and in addition to the message text
each
queued message will also have a
list of
mail destinations this list can be
derived by the user agent or the
smtp
server from the header the idea is
that
although the mail destinations are
anyway present in the header of
the
message but in order to process
it in
order to followed it that same
information is extracted from
the mail
header and also kept in a
separate place
which can be accessed very
fast by the
mail sender program ok so the
mail as a
whole is kept somewhere and
only the
destination addresses are kept
separately along with a pointer
to the
corresponding mail so that it
can be
processed relatively fast and
this list
of mail destination may
sometimes
require expansion of mailing
lists like
you know sometimes we have
the group
mail facility we give an email
address
which actually is a mail alias
which
actually refers to a group of
email
addresses so when a mail is
being sent
to that alias that alias expands to
all
the email addresses that belong to
that
group so this kind of expansion
can also
take place with respect to the
SMTP
sender it takes messages from the
queue
one at a time it tries to transmit it
to
the proper destination via an smtp
transaction it is a TCP connection
over
port number 25 and when all the
destinations corresponding to a
mail has
been processed please note that a
particular mail message may have
more
than one destinations unlike a
postal
mail okay an electronic mail can
have
more than one destinations so
when all
the destinations have been
processed
meaning there by the copy of the
mail
has been sent to all the
destinations it
is destined to the messages deleted
from
the queue well some given host may not be the same
optimization are user okay
carried out by the mail server multiple users then instead of
like if a sending
message is being sent to well this is not the same as in the
multiple users first case it was the same message
on the same host then they may going
then the to more than one user on the same
mail message will be sent only machine but here multiple
once messages going
to the destination host the to the same machine then to save
delivery to time a
the individual users will be single TCP connection can be
handled at opened and
the destination host so if the all the messages can be sent this
mail is actually overheads this actually
going to two different users on reduces
the same the overhead of creating and
machine hotmail.com say only terminating
a single the TCP connection over port
copy of the mail will go to number 25
hotmail.com you have to do it every time you're
with an information on the sending min so it reduces the
header that number of
this mail has to deliver to two time you are establishing the
of these connection
addresses so the final fine sending a mail there are a
destination say number
hotmail.com will do the rest of errors which are often
after encountered
receiving the body and like due to some problem a host
suddenly if there may be
are multiple messages are unreachable it can be a problem
ready for the with the
host it can be a problem with the final sender will find a final
the link mail
through which the host is server which of course it can keep
connected due in
to some reason the host may be the queue for certain period after
out of that
operation TCP connection may it will give up because if the
fail due to mainus
some error in the network the failed often a mail bounces with
destination address may be an
faulty like error message that will I have kept
the name of the user or the user it
ID may in my queue I am unable to have a
be wrong the target user connection or some problem now
address may the mail
have changed sometimes some will remain on an outgoing queue
of the mail for
servers allow redirection if the certain period of time that
user particular
address has changed period of time is configurable it
automatically the can be
mail will be redirected to an one hour it can be one day it can
alternate be
email address now if this seven days it can be even more
redirection is depending
not possible usually the user is on that time it the the SMTP
informed in the form of an server will
error message be keeping on trying to send the
and if this redirection feature is mail
there during that period and if it fails
then the sender can riku the within that period it will simply
mail well discard the mail after that okay
after the message comes back talking
from about the reliability of the SMTP
protocol well we have ensure that end-to-end transactions
mentioned that it are
uses TCP connection over port successful for example from your
number 25 machine
well we know that TCP is a to the nearest SMTP server that
connection-oriented protocol it transaction is successful but
tries to somehow
recover from errors supposedly beyond that something might have
TCP is happened which has caused the
reliable but in an application mail
like message to get lost so there is no
electronic mail which runs on effort made by the SMTP protocol
top of TCP to
there can be so many different recover from these lost messages
kind of similarly there is no end to end
errors like I have just acknowledgement from the final
mentioned some destination back to the sender that
hosts may be unreachable some is
users used in SMTP similarly error
email address may have been indication
redirected report is not guaranteed sometimes
to some other address and so you
on so under get back a message that that will
these conditions mail
so although TCP attempts to has bounced but even if you do not
provide get
reliable service there is no back a message there is no
guarantee guarantee
that the mail will be delivered that the mail has actually reached
correctly some messages may the
be lost destination we trust SMTP well
there is no guarantee to recover well if
lost you do not get an error message
messages see although TCP we
tries to
assume that the mail has queue to some other SMTP server
reached the through
destination but in practice it a process called mail forwarding
may not suppose
be so but now at the side of the I am an SMTP server I receive a
receiver well when you are message
talking about first I see if the destination
some TV receiver we are corresponds to a user on my
talking of the machine or
SMTP server at the final not if so I put it in the appropriate
destination mailbox if not I try to find out
which is finally connected to which
the user SMTP server I have to forward it
mailboxes these are the user next I
mailboxes simply followed it to the next
now this SMTP receiver will station
be accepting TP server this is how it works
the arriving messages and they so in doing so the receiver must
will be verify
placing the messages in the the local missed mail destination
appropriate of
user mailboxes if the Mail's are course because you have to verify
destined to a mailbox before
connected to the actually putting them in the
particular server but if it finds mailbox and
that it deals with some kind of errors
the destination address does like
not belong it can check whether the packet
to a particular user in the that has
mailbox of arrived
its own machine own server has any error or not there is a
then it checksum
copies the mail message to an computation or it can also check
outgoing whether
the user mailbox where you are email that the sender can specify
trying to the
put the mail whether it has a exact route well if it does not then
free space like routing each SMTP server
or not many mail servers allow will try
something to find out the best route when the
called a disk quota but the sender can also specify a route
maximum through
amount of space you can use which the mail messages will go
for storage the
of emails is limited and if that sequence of SMTP servers the
quota mail
gets exceeded or filled up no message will Traverse before
more new reaching
messages can be put in there the final destination mail server so
okay so again looking back at the same
that is also an error condition diagram I
and SMTP want to just make one comment
forwarding means you have an here if
SMTP server you look at the first SMTP server
out here it gets a mail as an in
input it this chain the SMTP server which
finds out it has to followed the receives mails directly from the
mail to user
some other SMTP server this is agent this works as a SMTP
a process receiver and
called forwarding now this sender boat it receives mails from
forwarding the
may need to go through a user agent over port number 25 it
number of follows some of the Mail's again
intermediate mail servers in over
general now port number 25 to some other
it is possible in electronic mail SMTP server
in so what I mean to say is that the
the
intermediate SMTP server
there are dual
functionality they act as server
when
they're receiving mails
somebody else they also act as
a what they actually mean and
scientific client when they're
forwarding meals to some
other SMTP
server so you see these these
SMTP nodes
intermediate nodes they have a
dual role
of both client and server
they are client where they're
trying to
send the message to another
server they
are a server when they are
receiving a
message from another node
which is
acting as the client okay so this
is
what we should remember now
talking of
the basic commands that
SMTP uses well
there are commands there are
responses
the one node sends a command
to the
server a client sends a
command to the
server the server sends back a
response
to the client now let us see what
this
command and response messages
look like
represent
the first thing is that this command
and
response the initiative lies with the
sender because if the sender is not
responsive this dialog cannot go
on the
process starts by the client
establishing a TCP connection
with the
with with the SMTP server of
course over
port number 25 there are a number
of
commands we shall see it through
an
compute example sender can send
some
command to the receiver an
example
command is hello is one such
command
hello followed by a domain name
followed
by carriage return and line feed
this is
a command and the server after
receiving
the command reacts by
responding with a
reply
a typical reply looks like this it
stacks with a three digit
response code
followed by the actual string
indicating
the meaning of this code okay
for
example 250 means requested
mail action
okay completed okay
talking of the three digit codes
this 3d
h codes can start either two
three four
or five well any numbers
starting with
two means positive completion
that means
it is a positive response it is
successful and the step that it is
referring to has been completed
successfully
well well anything starting
with three
this also means positive but
this is not
the end of the story we are only
halfway
through the process so this is
sometimes
like a positive intermediate
reply you
may have to go through one or
more such
positive intermediate reply so as to
reach or arrive at a positive
completion
reply
similarly anything starting with
four is
a transient negative completion
reply
negative completion means some
failure
but transient means well we are
not very
sure about it yet maybe this error
will
be recovered but five starting with
five
means this error is of a permanent
nature and the mail transaction has
to
be stopped or aborted okay these
are the
meaning of the codes now in terms
of the
dialogue that goes on between the
mail
client and the mail server broadly
there
are three steps first is the
connection
setup second is a step where a
number of
command and responses are
exchanged
between the client and the by hello message you will see a
server and complete
finally the connection gets transaction very shortly receive I
terminated will
now let us see how these three accept this end as identification by
steps sending back a 250 positive reply
look like well in the in the now if
connection the mail service is not available at
setup step the sender opens a that particular point then instead of
TCP 250 okay so a message like this
connection with the receiver will
this is come 421 indicating this is a
very easy this can be done by negative
the sender completion reply 421 service is
giving an explicit telnet not
command telnet available okay now in the second
followed by the server name step
whatever when we are talking about the
server you are using followed actual
by the Mail Transfer commands there are
port number of SMTP telnet some
server name commands which which identify
followed by 25 this will this the the
will allow email address of the source and
the the
the client to open an smtp destination because email of email
connection address of the destination is
with the smtp server now once required
connected for obvious reason the mail has to
the receiver will identify itself be
by a delivered sometimes email address
message like 220 its domain of
name server this source is also required
ready sender will then identify particularly when error messages
itself have to
be sent back in case of some 250 ok message or if there is
errors the something
receiver might like to send wrong then there will be an
back an appropriate
email message notifying the failure message similarly there
error back will be
to the sender so for that reason a received
the command where you can identify
email address of the sender is the email
also address of the recipients there can
required to be present as part of be
the more than one recipient which is
email message the header so in identified by more than one
the Mail received to
Transfer command these kind commands there will be separate
of messages reply
are used there is a command for each recipient finally there will
called mail there is a command called data
from command which which
identifies this indicates that now the actual body
sender of the email or the of
originator the email starts so after the data
this as I said this is required to command the client can start
provide the reverse path for sending the
error messages which will form the
reporting suppose you have to body of the
send back mail to the mail you can say to the
an error message we can use SMTP
this email server for processing and this
address for doing that and if message
the email can go on continuously the end of
address if it has the proper the
syntax this message will be indicated by a line
is the receiver will will return containing just a full stop or a
with a period
so it is a full stop appearing in
the
first column of a line will
indicate the
end of the message before that
you can
go on typing whatever you
want okay
and finally when you are trying
to close
the connection there are two
steps
basically the sender or the
client will
be sending a quit command to
the server
and we'll wait for the reply
after the
reply comes back from the
server it
initiates a TCP flows operation
the
receiver similarly after sending
the
response to quit it also initiates
TCP
flows okay this is how the
connection is
closed well now we try to
demonstrate an
example SMTP session well
normally the
way we send and receive mails
is that we
use some mail software like
Outlook many
of us also use a web-based mail
like
hotmail rediffmail yahoo mail they
have
a suitable web-based user interface
through which we type means we
shall see
later how these are implemented in
practice see at some point in the
implementation these machines
where you
are sending your mails the body of
the
mail address is subject whatever to
they
must respond to the SMTP
requests in
responses there must be an SMTP
server
situated somewhere which must be
contacted to send the messages we
have
typed as an email message okay so
this
simple example that we'll show
will
demonstrate how a low-level
SMTP session
is carried out well although we
may be
using a high-level tool or her or a
high-level package to send the
mail but
actually in internally these are
the
kind of commands that get
generated
automatically and your mail
gets sent so
let us see how the process
starts here I
am assuming that the client is a
simple
simple window a command
window from
where I am establishing a
connection
with my server well this can be
any mail
server I am giving a
hypothetical name
server name if you give telnet
over port
number 25 this will open a
TCP
connection over port number
25 so a TCP
connection gets established
over port
number 25 now after this
connection is
established the dialog can start
let us
see this slide shows you how
the dialog
goes on here s indicates the
mail server
client indicates the mail client so
after the connection is established
the
server responds by a welcome
message -
20 suppose the server is hotmail
dot
comes over I am connecting it to
hotmail.com it will send to 20
hotmail
comm Simple Mail Transfer
Service ready
something like this now after that
the
client will give a hello message
and
also it will identify the domain
name
the client belongs to suppose the
client
belongs to the domain yahoo.com
so it
will respond by sending hello
yahoo.com
the server again will be sending
back a
positive response that well hello
yahoo.com I acknowledge you this
means
that the server has identified or has
registered the domain name from
where
the client is sending
then again the client uses the mail
from
command to identify the sender
of the
mail here you can specify any
an email
address you want well when I
say any
email address it is actually an
email
address you can also write in
place of
the email address that is
specified you
can even write say for example
Bill
Gates at microsoft.com you
can write
anything out there okay so if
the syntax
is correct the server will
respond by
250 okay similarly after that
there can
be one or more received to
common in
fact in this example there are
two where
you can specify the email
addresses of
the recipients again the server
will be
responding back by 250 okay
messages
okay so now the sender and the
receiver
of the mail has been identified so
now
let us prepare to send the data so
now
the client sends a command data
server
sends back an intermediate
positive
response
3:54 saying that start mail input
end
with dot depending on the server
this
mail message may differ slightly
but
actually the meaning is the same
this is
intermediate because the Mail
Transfer
is still in progress the body of the
mail is still being tight so it is just
an intermediate message asking
the user
to type in the message and ending
it
with a full stop or a dot in the first
column so after this the actual
body of
the mail can be typed and finally a
single dot in the first column will
indicate the end of the main
message so
at this point the server will
respond by
a positive response 250 okay
then the
client can send quit and the
server will
finally send this message and
close down
the connection now the point to
note
here is that this is a simple mail
dialog I've shown in fact
anyone
we can use this command to
have a
connection with the mail server
which is
available to you for example in
your
organization if you have a mail
server
you can directly do a telnet to
your
mail server over port number
25 and you
can send a mail message by
fabricating
any arbitrary source address
well well
if somebody is not that much
familiar
with how this email headers
and other
stuff looks like they might get
confused
by receiving a meal for
example if I get
a mail message from from say for
example
Bill Gates but without knowing
that it
is not really from Bill Gates but
some
of my friends has played a prank
on me
it is quite possible but if I look at
the email header carefully I will
know
that the mail although it is saying
it
is coming from somebody at
microsoft.com
but in fact the mail had originated
in
some other place in fact today we
have
so many email spam filters which
are
supposed to block and identify
spam
means they will in fact detect this
kind
of you can say mischievious mails
let me
call it but otherwise this SMTP
does not
check for this kind of what should
I say
misuse misuse of mail transfer
facility
okay so far we have talked about
how
males can be sent from one a mail server located somewhere
machine to on the
other using SMTP now we are network your mailbox is present
talking on that
about mail access protocol see mail server you have a mail client
here the that
idea is like this you have an mail client should have a
SMTP capability of
protocol running on a machine pulling your mails from the mail
out here server
this is your SMTP server but I into your machine so that sitting
am on
sitting on a computer out here your machine you can view the
and here contents
I may be having a software like of emails okay in fact there are
Outlook two
Express so I can establish a protocols which are used for this
connection purpose one is called the post
with the SMTP server and office
through this protocol version 3 or pop3 pop3 in
connection I can I can access I short
can read the other one is internet mail
and I can send mails sitting on access
my protocol version 4 or IMAP for
computer only I need not have these are
to login the two alternate protocols
into this SMTP server go to the available
SMTP let us look briefly at the
server and check capabilities
means their infect to protocols of this the way the work as I
which mentioned
allow you to access your mails is like this this refers to an SMTP
from a server mailbox this is your mail
remote mailbox the idea is that client
you have
so whenever the mail client
wants to
read mails it sends a request to
the
SMTP server to in fact not the
sent
yourself to the machine which
is running
the SMTP server and will be
sending back
the response in the form of the
mails
and other information you want
to have a
look now in fact this SMTP
server is one
program which is running
suppose when
you are trying to access a mail
through
pop3 you must in addition have
another
server the pop3 server running
on the
same machine as the SMTP
server ok so
first let us talk about pop3 so
for poxy
to work the client popsie
software must
be installed on the recipient
machine
well in fact Outlook Express
and the
other mail client they have an
inbuilt
feature of specifying which mail
client
you want to have and the server
pop3
software is typically installed on
your
mail server the same machine
which runs
the SMTP server so
a client which is the user-agent
here
opens a connection with the server
on
TCP port number 110 this hon 110
is the
port number of pop3 then the
client
authenticates is set with the server
by
sending a valid username and
password
and once the verification of
username
password has been done the client
can
directly have an access to the
mails
sequentially one by one so the
Mail's
can be read by the client by
transferring them from the mail
server
one at a time one by one
sequentially
now when the Mail's are being
read
sequentially one after the other
there
are two different modes in
which you can
do so one is the delete mode
delete mode
says that as you are reading the
mails
they are getting deleted from
your mail
server so that you are not
unnecessarily
occupying the disk space of a
mail
server you are freeing the disk
space as
soon as you have brought your
meals to a
machine for reading but the
other option
is that if you do not want to do
so
there is a keep mode where you
can leave
the mails intact in your
mailbox so pop3
has basically commands to log
in log out
fetch miss messages without
deleting and
delete messages so in the delete
mode
fetch and delete work together in
the
keep mode only fetch works not
delete
okay so the pop3 protocol
provides you
with a basic facility to access mail
from a remote mail server to read
mails
into a machine so that you can see
them
but if you look at the mail clients
that
are available today it can be
Outlook
Express it can be hotmail it can be
read
if mail all of them are based on the
same technology you will find that
they
provide many more facilities than
just
reading the mails one at a time so
there
has to be something more
supported by the mail access
protocol
than just what pop3 provides and
in fact
IMAP provides you with the
answer
so IMAP in addition to the
capabilities
provided by pop3 it has the
following
extra features first a user can
simply
check the email headers see in
pop3 you
did not have an option you
have to fetch
the entire mail to your machine
and then
view them but using IMAP you
can simply
fetch the headers of the emails
you just
view the the headers which one
you like
you just click on the header
now the
mail will get transferred and
you can
view it ok this is one option the
second
is that the user can also search
the
contents of the email for a
specific
string suppose I want to look
only at
those mails which has a
specific string
as part of its body so I can even
do
that in IMAP and you can
manage
mailboxes on the mail server
which was
not possible in pop3 so a user can
create multiple mailboxes delete a
mailbox rename a mailbox or also
can
create a hierarchy of mailboxes
like
here what I mean is that if you just
recall how the typical mail you
can say
mail utility systems work it can be
out
look at it can be Yahoo radio see
each
of these mail servers or let us call
it
mail systems they have a facility
for
the user to specify folders and
subfolders you can manage your
mails in
terms of multiple folders you can
move a
mail into a folder you can delete
mails
from folder and so on so these
kind of
folder management is directly
supported
by IMAP because IMAP supports
it modern
day email systems
also I have a facility to support it
they they indeed support this
kind of
you can say management of
folders
through the iMac capability
now we
talked about multi-purpose
internet mail
extension or mind Nam now let
us try to
understand why we have to go
for another
protocol because using SMTP
you can send
mails using pop3 or IMAP you
can read
mails on to machine the main
problem we
have till now is that the SMTP
protocol
has a facility of transmitting
only pure
text messages simple text
messages which
are encoded as 7-bit ascii but
anything
beyond that SMTP is incapable
of
handling so you must have a
mechanism
through which these kind of
non text
documents can be handled so
the first
thing is that this SMTP cannot
transmit
non text messages there are some
solutions which were developed
earlier
as ad hoc solutions for example in
some
UNIX system there was a
command called
you you encode this converted a
non text
messages into a text equivalent but
it
was not accepted as standard this
existed only between UNIX
systems when
you want to transmit something
between
UNIX systems you could do this
moreover
if we have text that includes
international characters like this
special symbols which are
typically
encoded in 8-bit ASCII here also
your
your simple SMTP will not be
allowed
will not be able to handle this kind
of
things so for these kind of
problems
the protocol mine was developed
mine can handle something more
like many
servers may reject mail over can start a message exchange it
certain but remember mime is a little
size so the mine protocol also different
has a from SMTP in this regard mime is
facility of breaking males into not a
smaller program which is running as a
pieces server and
moreover some SMTP someone can contact with mime
implementation do not and can
adhere to standards like that send and receive something mine
even if it is not
is a text some SMTP running as a server as a demo
implementations will rather
remove all white spaces like mime acts as a translator mime sits
tabs and on
other things replace them with top of SMTP if it is a non text mail
single mine will try to translate it in some
space so your mail formatting way into an equivalent text version
will get along with relevant information so
lost when it reaches the that
destination so the final receiver can decode it
mime tries to keep this mail back
formatting and then it can forward the
intact in addition now let us try message the
to translated message to SMTP
understand what is mine is it a which can
new transfer it this is the basic idea
protocol in the same sense that behind mine now in order to have
SMTP is mime we
C SMTP is a mail transfer must have some additional
protocol it is information in
a program which is running as the translated version I told you so
a server this additional information are
the client can contact the server present
and
in the form of five new
message header
fields in the email messages
there is
something called mime-version
content
type content transfer encoding
content i
and content description they
have their
they have their own million
without
going into details of this I shall
be
showing some examples a little
later so
this content type actually
means what
type of content it is whatever is
following whatever you are
translating
is it an image is it a Word
document is
it a PDF file what it is okay so
it
specifies the type of the
content so you
can have types and subtypes
for example
it is an image subtype it's it is a
JPEG
image subtype can also be a Jif
image so
on this transfer encoding tells
you that
what kind of translation you have
done
there can be more than one choice
available so the receiver must be
knowing about the translation you
have
done so that it can it can basically
translate it back to the original
form
so some of the context types some
of the
content type examples are given
here it
can be a text body it can be a
multi-part in indicating that the
mail
has multiple parts with the
subtypes
being mixed parallel alternative
message
several subtypes image video
audio
application there are several others
just example the way it is written
for
example image you give this the
type a
slash followed by the subtype this
is
how you specify the type and
subtype
mime transfer encoding specifies
how the
translation has taken place which
in
technical term is called how mostly simple ASCII characters
the male with a
body is wrapped for few non-printable characters these
transmission because non-printable characters can be
male body has to be translated represented by a code followed by
or their
transformed somehow into a hexadecimal equivalent that say
text form so these
that SMTP can transmit it okay are called code printable if you
this is have a
mandatory content transfer special character give a code
encoding can followed
have six possible values out of by its two digit hexadecimal
them equivalent
seven bit 8-bit and binary these okay base64 is perhaps the most
are widely
special cases there are no used technique for transforming
separate arbitrary non-text information into
encoding required for these a
because these header this form which can be handled by
content smtp so it
transfer encoding type directly Maps arbitrary binary input into
tells printer
you what kind of information it block we shall see how this works
is if and X
you are wanting to send them token is a method but the user can
in plain specify its own non-standard
binary you simply send them encoding
seven bit method now to talk about the
8-bit similar there is one base64
method called encoding method it works like this
quoted-printable or code base64 encoding method can
printable here transform any
you use this for documents non text message message into its
which contain
equivalent text message now
the way it
works is like this it takes three
bytes
of the input message at a time
it breaks
zipper up into four chunks of
six bits
so the three bytes of message is
broken
up into six bits each each of
these six
bits are expanded into eight
bits
through a simple table lookup
process
the table lookup process is
called r64
it works like this see in six bits
you
can have 2 to the power 6 or 64
combinations so from 0 0 0
0 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 there are 64
combinations you have a table
which says
that for the first 26 of these you
replace them by the by the
ASCII code of
the letters capital a to capital Z
for
the next 26 replace them by the
ASCII
code of small a to small Z for
the next
10 the digits 0 to 9 and for the last
2
plus and slash these are the 64
characters so each of these 64
combinations you encode them as
one of
64 esky characters this is how you
encode it and replace each ASCII
character by its 8-bit ASCII
equivalent
so 24-bit gets translated into 32
bits
so this means an expansion in
message
size by 33% so
[Music]
some examples of mime header so
yes you
can look there are some header
information there is a boundary
which
contains a string this string
wherever
it occurs this indicates some
boundary
in the mail message there can be
several
several such parts in the mine
header
this is another example here also
there
is some header here the boundary
name is
bound for t2 here there is a
boundary
here there is a boundary here mail they get encoded in the same
there is a way
boundary so the content a for now with this we come to the end
example of
multi-part alternative means today's lecture let us now quickly
there are look
multiple parts in the content at the the answers to the quiz
and questions
alternative means the receiver which were posed as part of the
can last
choose any one of these two lecture solutions to quiz questions
alternatives on
depending on the capability the lecture 9 the questions were what
first is an
one says content type text plain iterative server it is one in which
the the
second one says text enriched client requests are processed one
so if your by one
receiver mail client can display sequentially what is the concurrent
rich server here multiple client requests
text then the second alternative can
can be be handled at the same time
chosen otherwise the first multiple
alternative copies of the server are created
now I suggest you can look at using
the process system call like fork or
headers of some of the mime you can
encoded also use a thread for this purpose
messages to understand more which
about how of client and server must start first
the encoding and the obviously the server what are the
attachments work components of a socket it will be
the attachments when you send protocol local IP local port or
with a protocol
remote IP
port it is also called half server xyz.com over port number
Association one
what is the domain it is a set of point one two three four by a
computers which are related command
either by like this telnet server name
the geographic location or by followed by
the way port number why does FTP use
they function what an MD and more than
nslookup one port numbers the first port
name D refers to the domain number
name server 21 is used for control connection
which runs on the UNIX and
system and the other one is used for actual
nslookup is a command which data
invokes the transfer what are the function of
DNS name resolver through the
nslookup you hash and bin command in FTP this
can actually translate a name hash
into an indicates the status of the file
address how does recursive transfer it displays some hash
name symbols
resolution work host sends a continuously each hash indicates a
request to chunk
a DNS server D this DNS of data transfer either two kilobyte
server or
recursively forwards the four kilobyte or each lower
request to depending on
other DNS server the responses the system and bin selects that you
are sent are
back to the to the initial host trying to transmit a non txt file a
along binary file now some questions on
the same path through is the today's lecture what are the basic
request drawbacks of SMTP which port
that went how can you connect number to
to a
SMTP servers used for now with this we come to the end
accepting client of
requests why does mine does today's lecture in our next lecture
not have any we
port number associated with it shall be starting our discussion on
under the
what condition can an SMTP world wide web which is yet
server also another very
act as a mail client what are the popular application that we have
purposes of the mail from and on the
receive Internet
two commands in SMTP what thank you
is the [Music]
difference between CC and in the last class we were talking
BCC in the about
SMTP header this is something electronic mail which is one of the
I suggest most
you can look up and find out widely used application on the
the Internet
solution today we'll be starting our
why is I'm a preferred over discussion
pop3 a on another very popular
message of size three thousand application
bytes is which I am sure all of you are
encoded using base64 scheme already
what will be familiar with you must have you
the size of the encoded must
message is it have used it in practice and it is
mandatory for the DNS server the
to run on world wide web now this world
the same machine that runs wide web
SMTP server has become so popular that today
how our mail attachments world
handled in mind wide web and Internet they are
used
synonymously sometimes this [Music]
world wide [Music]
web or www is meant to be [Music]
referring to [Music]
Internet or vice versa so there Oh
is an [Music]
impact of the popularity of this
www
Lecture -11 World Wide Web Part-I
 popularity of this www now let
us see
[Music] what this world or web actually
you is this
[Music] is of course the latest revolution
in the last class we were talking in
about the internet scenario millions
electronic mail which is one of and
the most millions of people are using the
widely used application on the World
Internet Wide Web today the main
today we would be starting our feature of www
discussion on another very is that it allows us to share
popular multimedia
application which I am sure all documents between machines
of you when you say
are already familiar with you multimedia we say document
must have containing
you must have used it in practice text pictures audio clips video
and it moving
is the World Wide Web objects animation so all these
now this worldwide web has things
become so together can be part of the same
popular that today worldwide document and means we can
web and have this kind
Internet they are used of multimedia information
synonymously which is
sometimes this world wide web available on our desktop which
or www is has been
meant to be referring to Internet displayed on a browser which
or makes this
vice versa so there is an impact application so very interesting
of the and
attractive from the cover of this World
now what this world will do Wide Web
actually is this term has come so the name
this is basically a huge collection World
of Wide Web has come from
documents which are interlinked cobwebs the
interlink means one document is interlinking among documents is
linked so
to some other document this complex and unstructured it
some other resembles a
document may be linked to some cobweb okay now in www the
other documents
document so there can be links reside on web servers well what
between is a web
one document and another you server web server is a server
know that which
whenever link you can click it understands hypertext Transfer
on a Protocol
mouse you go to some other or HTTP so web servers are also
document sometimes known as HTTP
is what link means so these servers and the
documents documents which are residing in
are all linked together okay so web
there servers they are typically written
are billions of documents they in a
are language called hypertext
linked in all arbitrary possible markup
ways language so they're either
and since there is a very written in
complicated HTML or there are some other
interconnection of this document scripts or
using programs which can generate an
this links they resemble a HTML
cobweb and document as the output which is
sent
back to the browser client can send an HTTP request
finally the browser can receive it will
an HTML get back an HTTP
document and display it in a response or reply so let us see
suitably what
formatted way so the purpose of this HTTP requests and
the responses look
browser the browser has the like so first let us try to
main understand
responsibility to receive these HTTP the hypertext Transfer
documents and display it in a Protocol
suitable Transfer Protocol this is a
formatted fashion there are so protocol
many web which the web clients which the
browsers available today I've browsers
listed are typical examples of web
some of them explorer netscape plans
mosaic interact with web servers this is
and conqueror there are many the
others also language using which a browser
available now this HTTP is the and a web
driving server talk among themselves
force behind the World Wide the
Web so when hypertext Transfer Protocol the
we talk about the World Wide first
Web when version at least it is a stateless
you talk about web server it is protocol stateless protocol
the HTTP means no
protocol we are talking about so history is maintained every time
the web a
server is running a program request is sent a fresh connection
which is has
understanding the HTTP to be established ok if you are
protocol any requesting for three documents
from the
same server you have to to some other place there should
establish be a
connection three times not that mechanism inbuilt in the HTTP
you are protocol
connecting only once and which should support this kind
transferring of a
three documents at the same thing now as I have mentioned
time there browsers
of course some subsequent and web server communicate
versions of using HTTP
HTTP which allows the so- the basic steps look like this the
called client first opens a socket
persistent connections where connection
you can to the HTTP server typically the
make multiple transactions over HTTP
a single server runs over port number 80
connection this HTTP transfers but some
hypertext web servers also run over some
across the internet through the other
documents that are stored in the port number like h 0 h 0 or
web something
page as I said there are some else also so you must know the
pages with port in
links to other pages okay these on which the server is running so
are that
called hypertexts so hypertext is you can establish a connection to
a text it
with links to other documents so typically by default the port
this number is
this HTTP protocol allows 80 so after connection
transfer from established the
one document to another using client sends HTTP request to the
this server
hypertext by clicking a link you server will send back response
can go and the
server will immediately closed comes back on the screen and if
down you
connection this is the stateless click on one of those so-called
mode hyperlinks which which links to
where for every connection you other
are documents then what happens
opening and closing the now another
connection if HTTP request goes to fix the
there is another request then the other
whole document the other document
process will will have to repeat it possibly is
again residing on some other web
again start a connection again server and
transact that some other web server will
and then close so just look at this again be
diagram suppose you are sitting sending you back response and
here this will
this is a web client here your continue sending a request
means see getting back
here using a browser here when a response click in the link going
you are to
typing the address of a site say some other server this continue
www.yahoo.com say this is the this is
yahoo.com called web browsing and this
server so an HTTP request is browsing
being sent can take you from one server to
to the yahoo.com server and the the
server other across the world you really
sends back a response which is do not
actually know that from where you have
an HTML page which gets started
displayed on and where you will ultimately
your screen now after the HTML stop in
page this process now talking about
the HTTP
request format a client request to additional data but for those
a methods
server consists of the following which do not need the data that
it part may
consists of a request method not be there so let us look at
there are some of
several request methods we shall the important request methods
be one by one
talking about get head post port gate is the most widely used
etcetera method this
the path portion of the HTTP is the method which is used to
URL is URL fetch a
is a way of specifying the path web page from a server it returns
we shall the
be talking about URL later in the contents of the specified
lecture version number of the document get
HTTP can place any parameter that you
protocol and for some of the need in
request the request header itself it does
methods you may need some not
optional need any additional lines of
header information and in case header
you need information like an example is
to supply some additional data shown
the data here this is the gate command
has to be supplied after a blank you are
line in putting some additional
between this blank line acts as a information out
delimiter between the header here followed by the HTTP
portion and version number
the additional data that you are you see the first part of it CGI
supplying some of the request will be
methods in my script doc CGI this
like post or put they need the specifies a
path to a particular resource my
script
dot CGI but after that following
this
question mark there is some
additional
data role equal to 1 to 64 ampere
cents
X equal to M this actually comes
from
so-called forms well we shall be
studying forms later when you
study HTML
in detail C form is something
like you
have seen many web pages like
the search
engines where some blank
form like place come or you can
type in
something and face entire such
something
else comes back so whatever
you are
typing in those boxes empty
boxes and
placing enter you are actually
filling
up of form and submitting it
when the
data goes back to the web server
it goes
in this form for example there
was one
space for rule number one space
for sex
I have typed in 1 2 3 4 & M and
this is
what which goes okay this is the
data
you get filling you basically fill
up in
the form and the way this roll
number
equal to M percent this is called
you
are in this is URL encoding this
we
shall study in detail when you
talk
about CGI scripting and HTML
forms later
in course of this lecture but this
example shows how we can give
this kind
of information along with a gate
command
now a very simple illustration of
gate
where you are trying to retrieve
a
simple document no sending or
form data
a simple document C to start
with it you
can just open a command
window again and
you can start this transaction you
can
give a command telnet you can name of the server it is running
give the 1.1
name of a server to which you version
want to great server type last modified
connect and HTTP you can this
either give document when was it last
HTTP or you can give the modified
default port accept-ranges of course this is an
number 80 whatever this HTTP option we'll talk about it later
will mean content length what is the size of
that the default port number of the
the HTTP document connection close
protocol well after this means this is
connection is the default approach that means
done you get back a screen with after
nothing the transaction is over you
displayed which means that the terminate
server is the HTTP connection this is the
expecting you to type something so
so you called stateless approach that I
type a command like this gate is was
the talking about so instead of close
request method slash test dot you
HTML is can also specify connection keep
the document you're requesting alive
and this that is supported in the HTTP
is the version of the HTTP the version
server 1.1 where you can leave the
will be sending back a response connection
like open by default okay and and
this first you see there are after this
several after these lines come this
lines of header HTTP the HTTP content type
version there is a text of type HTML
here there
is a blank line you see there is a so a typical session with head
blank will look
line in between this blank line like this after doing the telnet
indicates or exacts a delimiter you
that now send a command like this head
the actual data follows so the name of a
actual file followed by Stevie version
content of the file follows after you get
this back only the header portion
this is a very simple HTML file what is
which missing is actually the body of
was created to give you this the
demonstration so the content of contents of the file that you are
the HTML not
file will come after that so you requesting here you are
see requesting only
that this command gate the header portion so only the
command can be header
used to fetch an HTML file from portion is coming
a server back to you and you can have a
if you know of course the name look at
of the the header portion to see what it
file contains
there is another request method if example this file size is one
called four
head which returns only the nine four bytes
header okay right post is another
information well you may not be request
interested to get the whole file method post is again another
but you method
may need some information which is used in conjunction
about the file with the
like the file size when was it last submission of the form so we'd
modified server version etcetera be
talking about post now but you
can
actually put it in a proper
country
context when we discuss CGI
script later
during our class now this post is
used
to send some additional data to
the
server to be processed typically
by a
CGI script CGI script is a
program CGI
stands for common gateway
interface it
is a program which is running on
the
server side whenever you fill up
our
form typically the data submitted
in a
form goes to the CGI script the
CGI
script reads the data does some
processing and generates some
output
which comes back to your plant
on the
browser it gets displayed there
this is
how CGI scripts work now this
post
request method allows you to
send data
to the CGI script but the way
this data
is sent is different from the gate
approach that we had discussed
the this
uses two additional header types
content
type and content length the
requested
object is not a resource to
retrieve
rather it is a script and
executable
script
similarly this server response
which
comes back is not a static file
but
rather it is the output of the CGI
program which are saying where
the
server is not sending you back
the
contents of a file which is
already
there rather it is sending you
back the
output of the CGI program for
instance
which is receiving the data
executing it
and sending back the output to
you okay
now the post command can be
illustrated
with this simple example well sending user agent the name or
again the
after telnet version of the user agent that is
suppose you give a command running on your machine content
like this type for
post followed by a pot name this type of content it is well
cgi-bin application
/ my script dot cgi this does not something xw form URL
refer encoded these are
to a document or resource which URL encoded see this is the
you want actual
to download rather this is the content the way this has been
name of a encoded
program the CGI script program this is called URL encoding and
for the name
instance which you want to is X www form URL encoded
execute and content
whenever this post command is link the total size is 32 there is a
given and blank line in between followed
this is the additional information by the
you actual body of the this additional
will also have to supply after information so so in get this
post see information is put on the same
in gate or head you give a one line
line after a question mark in post it is
command and a lot of response put
comes back as part of the command after a
but in post you have to give a blank
multiple line now in post you can put as
line command this first is the much
first material as you can so if you
line followed by from you have have a lot
to of data to send post is the
identify yourself from where you preferred
are
approach because then get the you can understand not all web
total size servers
of the string is limited by by allow you uploading facility
usually only a few
256 the maximum size of the web server will allow you to do
string that that and
the machine can support some of course only after proper
other authentication then it is similar
request method put put is used to in the
upload sense that this also makes
the contents of a web page it updation this
replaces can delete a specified document
the contents of the specified this
document also is not used very widely only
with the data supplied along in
with the some servers where you have
command proper
so here the data that we are authentication you can do that
supplying and after
this you can supply exactly like sending the request well there is
the some
post command so after some request header you see that mean
initial that
header give a blank line then means when you are sending the
give me request
your entire webpage which you some request header
want to informations are
upload so the entire thing will be required now after the initial line
the get
data you are trying to send to the post put etcetera so a client can
server the server will handle it send
and it any number of header lines some
will be uploading it but of course of these
as we have illustrated with the
example for
post so after the post command
there
were several additional lines of
header
followed by the data that were
supplied
so this is usually optional for
some
request types like gate you do
not need
it for some others you need some
of the
common header types are except
this
except followed by a string
indicates
that which mime types the client
will
accept connection connection is
the
connection type if it is close you
are
asking it to close connection
after
every transaction if it is
keepalive
then you are saying that well it
will
not be stateless you will let the
connection be persistent I can
send more
than one file one transaction
over that
open connection so you can
specify this
as part of the header content
length of
course you have seen number of
bytes of
data content type what mine type
of data is there there is a Padma
header
pragma : followed by no cash
this
indicates that if you are
redirecting
your command to a proxy server
you are
saying that you please do not
send me my
requested information from your
cache
you try to send me a fresh copy
from the
original server
so this pragma no cache tells you
to
return a fresh document well
although a
cached copy may exist you may
want some
time that you want the latest
update is
updated copy from the original
server
and for commands which
requests which
requires request data like the
post and
put so you will have to put a
blank line
followed by the actual data so
there
will be the initial header
followed by a
blank line then the data part this
will
be a structure of your overall
HTTP
request okay now after the
request is
sent now it is time to get back
the
responses so the responses look
similar
the requests for most of them
other than
get there are some standard
request
headers followed by optional
data the
responses also look very similar
there will be an initial response
line
which is also called the status
line
response status line it consists of
three parts the STP version a
three
digit response code and English
phrase
indicating what type it is two
examples
are shown it will either be HTTP
version
name 200 ok or version name
4:04 not
formed this 204 0 for the error
codes
and ok and not found at the error
types
and after this this initial status
line
will come the
actual content of the response
there
will be some header at the
beginning
followed by the actual data and
again as
usual there will be a blank line
in
between so there will be a blank
line
separating them so the header
looks very
much like this TV request line
there
will be some header types
followed by
the value the content length
connection
close content type and at the end
you
will get the data that you are
requesting and the three-digit
status
codes they indicate anything requesting has been moved
starting permanently 3
with 1 indicates that this is only 0 2 means temporarily 4 0 1
for there is
information this is not an error some this authorization problem
message maybe
you would need not have to do you have not supplied the
anything password
special with respect to this this is correctly 4 0 3 some documents
just for your information some some
informational message to access permissions are not there
anything for 0 4
starting with 2 indicates not found' 500 some server error
successful ok now
transaction anything starting in the response header there are
with 3 several
indicates that you have been things which are included like
redirected content
to another URL some servers length you already know and
support specify the
redirection start with 4 mean size of the data in bytes content
some error type
condition 5 means there is some again mime type and subtype
internal what kind of
server error so this kind of errors data is coming date means the
are current
reported by error code which is date when each document that
starting resides on
with this initial digits some of the server
the can also have something like an
common status codes are like expiry
this 200 date associated with it so
means ok 3 0 1 means some whenever you
document of are fetching a document it will
also
contain what is the expiry date
some
document may contain expired
some
government may not contain if it
contains then you will have a
look at
the expired date and find out
whether
this is an obsolete document or
not
there is a last modified the name
is
obvious what it means and set-
cookie
set-cookie is another information
which
is sometimes sent back see
setcookie
followed by some name value
pair see
whenever you want to have
cookie in your
browser cookie as some values
name and
value pair which are sent from
the other
side which can be used by your
browser
to do some kind of local
processing like
when you are maintaining a
session you
use cookies you maintain some
information about the session
some
session ID you continuously
check
whether your present session
variable
matches with the session ID
stored in
the cookie if not you give an
error
message that your session has
expired
something like that so this
cookie can
also be sent back and after the
initial
header again there will be a
blank line
which will be followed by the
actual
data so the way the requests are
sent
and the responses are sent back
are very
similar they use the mime format
for for
the heading a blank line then
followed
by the data there is no upper
limit to
the data size it can be very big
also
the two versions of HTTP which
you see
around you today this HTTP 1.0
is the
older version but most of the
modern web
servers use the later version 1.1
then
1.0 the server typically closes
connection after complicating a
transaction that is the default
well in
1.1 the server keeps the
connection open
it is persistent so it depends on
the
scenario that you are working in
whether
you want to keep it persistent or
not
see four servers which are very
heavily
used keeping a connection
persistent
will add the load on the server
because
every machine has a maximum
limit to the
number of connections that it
can handle
simultaneously so if it is a
precision
persistent connection and there
are many
connections which are coming
and
remaining because active for a
long time
it may so happen that the
maximum limit
may reach and after that requests
which
are coming they will not be
honored they
will be denied so for most
servers which
are pretty popularly used they
prefer to
use stateless or non persistent
connection type now HTTP
version 1.1 let
us try to see in what way this is
different from the HTTP 1.0 the
STB
version 1.1 has become an IETF
drop
standard as early as in 2001 so
details
about this version is available on
the
net now the improvements that
have taken
place over HTTP version 1.0 are
this
version requires a mandatory
host
identification see what is meant
is that
in the conventional gate
command in
version 1.0 you need it only a
single
line but in version 1.1 you also
need an
additional line after that host :
followed by the domain name of
the
server what does this mean
suppose I
want to get a document from a
server I
give a gate command next line I
give
following the host type of the
header
type I follow it with the name of
the
server but you can argue that
will
anyway I am s
Publishing a connection to the
server
either by using an explicit telnet
or by
typing the address on the
browser so why
do I have to specify the name of
the
server again see this is required
for
some of the server types which
we see
around us today these are called
multihomed servers multi-home
server
means there is a single machine
but more
than one domain resides on them
like
what I mean to say is that there
is a
single server computer but on
the same
computer
there is one domain name
xyz.com there
is another domain name say for
example
ABC com both are residing so
whenever I
am sending a request to that
computer I
must identify that which of the
two
servers I am actually trying to
send my
request to so what for this
purpose
explicit server identification is
required and of course there has
to be a
blank line after that and then
enter ok
default support for persistent
connection this I have already
mentioned
so that by default multiple
multiple
transactions take place over a
signal
connection but if you want you give me in some other PDF
can make format like
the connection type as close and that so these are some
and you preferences which
can make it a stateless support has to be negotiated and this can
for be
content negotiation let's see you negotiated based on some
can initiative made
have several alternate by the browser or also the server
representations both
this may be with respect to the are possible now one interesting
browser thing
this may be the server also so which is to be version 1.1
you can supports
negotiate and find out which of which was not there in 1.0 is that
these browsers can request part of the
are the best among the available document see earlier what
ones happened say
this may be driven by the server for example when you're
this accessing net
may be driven by the browser you're clicking on a link and
like you some file
are looking for a document that was being downloaded suppose
document it was a
may be presented to you in one big file now in between if due to
of some
several formats possibly the error if the connection got
browser can broken then
give a preference that well I again if you have to resume the
prefer the connection you have to start
document in HTML well if it is from the
not beginning because ultimately
possible for you to give an request for
HTML the document has to go as an
HTTP
request that I want that
document but in
this new feature what has been
incorporate is that you can
specify that
I want this document but you
start
sending me this document from
this
particular offset maybe a part of
this
document I already have with
me I want
to start downloading from this
particular point this helps in
saving a
lot of time for download this can
be
done by using the range header
type by
specifying bytes like an example
range :
bytes equal to 1200 - 3 5 0 this
means
that I want to fetch only bike
number
1200 up to 3500 browsers can
ask for
more than one range there can be
several
such range lines this as I
mentioned
this allows us to continue with
interrupted downloads
okay then HTTP version 1
allows
efficient caching support this is
another feature which has been
added so
this supports a document
caching model
that allows both the server and
the
client to control the two for tax
extent
you need to maintain the cache
so when
you say I am maintaining cache
there are
a number of things what is the
size of
the cache up to how many days I
will
maintain information in the
cache what
is my cache architecture a lot of
things
can be negotiated upon so using
this
caching support through some
specific
headers the clients and the server
can
negotiate and fix up exactly
what kind
of caching you desire see earlier
the
caching architecture was fixed
statically but here it can be
negotiated
upon and you can fix upon an
architecture but in order to have
all
this facilities working HTTP 1.1
obviously require several extra
things
from both client and server just
one
example I have just given that
explicit
host identification is required
after
the gate command the client
must must
also send that extra host
command so if
you are writing a new client
today you
must keep this in mind you must
incorporate this new architecture
so
just to have a quick look at what
are
the different features you need to
have
suppose you are going ahead
with the
design of an HTTP 1.1 client so
what are
the new requirements you must
have first
as I said the explicit host
identification is required you
must
include the host header with
each
request
well persistent connection is
supported
by default but but if you want to
have
the other a stateless transaction
then
you must have this connection
close
option specified in the header
priscila there are some other
features
also I am NOT going to detail
but you
can have a look at the HTTP
documentation and try to find
out what
these are there is 100 continued
response and there is something
called
chunked data which is also
sometimes
useful when you are sending a
number of
different things together so these
are
the kind of supports you must
have from
the client if you want to have an
HTTP
1.1 1.1 compatible client which
can
faithfully talk to an HTTP 1.1
server
and communicate similarly from
the point
of view of the server there are a
few
thing the server must also do like
it
will require a host header from
the
client it should accept absolute
URLs in
a request because most of the
earlier
servers they only accept a
relative URLs
the absolute URL mean you start
from the
root HTTP slash slash hostname
slash
path the complete path that is
absolute
URL then accept requests with
junk data
this again you can have a look
for this
junk data include the date header
in
each response this is the
additional
thing support for at least gate
and head
and mandatory but others you
can keep
depending on the environment in
which
you want to use this and in order
to
have backward compatibility
you should also support 1.0
HTTP
requests and either support
persistent
connection or include
connection close
header request explicitly in the
request
okay so if due to some reason
persistent
connection cannot be supported
by the
server then connection : close
this must
explicitly be present in the
headers of
every response you generate so
that the
clients will know that well this
particular server cannot support
persistent so let me go for
non-persistent okay
so talking about HTTP proxy
server we'll
be talking about proxy servers in
more
detail later proxy server is
basically
an interface between a client and
a things
server say here you have a proxy
server
you have the client out here you
have
this server out here so client
sends the
request to the proxy server proxy
server
sends the request to this server
the
server when it sends back the
request
request goes to the proxy the
proxy
sends the request back to the
client
so proxy works more like a
middleman
proxy sits in between but what
does
actually proxy do well the proxy
is a
number of other features that we
shall
talk about later it can provide
some
kind of authentication it can
provide
some kind of filtering some kind
of
simple firewall configuration it
can
implement there are a few other
the proxy server will receive
requests
from the client on one side and it
will
followed them to the server on
the other
side similarly where the
response comes
back responses come back from
the server
and they are forwarded to the
client so
you can say that the proxy at the
same
time is acting both as HTTP
client as
well as HTTP server so
whenever it is
receiving requests from the
client so on
one side it is receiving requests
from
the client it is acting in the
server on
the other side it is forwarding
that
same request to the web server at
that
time it is acting as the client so I
just mentioned proxy server here
because
proxy server is an example
where you
need to have both the
functionalities of
HTTP client and server in the
same
software package software tool a
software program so the details
of the
proxy server you will see later
but the
point I wanted to emphasize is
this that
this is one example of a program
where
if you want to code
you must have both the
functionalities
of the server and client in it so
another thing our proxy server is
that
they request from a client to a
proxy
server is a little different from
normal
server why because in a normal
web
server - do you establish a
connection
then you specify the path name
of a
document okay so the the server
knows
that well a connection has
already been
established with me I have this
part
name so I can look at the
particular
file on this path and I can send it
back
to the requesting client but in a
proxy
server the situation is different
here
here every request must contain
the
complete path along with the
name of the
machine which means the
complete URL
well I will come back to the CL
shortly
complete URL means complete
path
starting from the name of the
machine
along with the document say for
example
www XYZ com slash dot slash
ABC door
text because the proxy server
will have
to forward this request to some
other
server if it does not know which
server
the request is going to how will
you do
that if it was just a relative URL
relative path name then it would
not
know where to forward the
request to
okay so that is why a request
coming to
a proxy server must be coming
in a
complete way so that you will
see that
in most of the browsers there is a
facility for specifying proxy
server you
can specify that that request
from your
browser will go through a proxy
server
you specify the name or the IP
address
on and the port number in which
the
proxy server is working the way
the
browser will behave is that
whenever it
is trying to send something to a
proxy
server it will send the complete
path
name to the proxy server so that
it can
handle okay
now let us finally talk about the
uniform Uniform Resource
locator sore
URL the URL are nothing but
mechanisms
to locate some resource on the
Internet
in the simple case I want to
locate a
particular file on the web server
that
is the example of a URL okay so
URL is
the short form for Uniform
Resource
locator so as I mentioned this
this URL
is a mechanism or it is a format
whatever you call by which
documents or
resources can be addressed in
the
Internet in the world wide web a
URL
contain several information first
of
course the name or the address
of the
site or the server where the
actual
resource you are trying to
address is
located secondly what is the type
of
service you want to use to access
the
resource do you want to use FTP
do one -
is HTTP or something else port
number of
the service well in most cases whatever we have specified it
some starts
default port number is assumed with this scheme this is a syntax
but you scheme
can explicitly specify a port which access method you are
number using
also and once you have located followed by a colon double slash
or if whether
specified everything you may there is one example where you
also do not
specify a path name on the need this
server which / followed by the address of the
specifies where the resource is machine
located this colon port is optional if you
on that particular server so all want
these to specify an explicit port
things taken together will number if :
actually port followed by a path name
identify where this server will some
actually examples follow the first
what the particular resource you example is a
are URL which says it is an HTTP
trying to address is actually this is the
located on name of the server and this is the
the server now let us see what path
are the of the resource the resource is a
different URL types I have listed b1 dot
with HTML the second one is also
the example of that going into HTTP but it
detail specifies an explicit port number
this URLs are nothing but a form here
of the HTTP server is running on
specifying Internet addresses so port
the number 2 3 4 5 the resource is
rose def
jpg in this path the third is an
example
of an email
male 2 at the end you have the
email
address well if you have this
male 2 URL
as part of a web page if you click
on it
automatically a mail window
will open
where you can type in a mean
this is the
reason why the male 2 URL is
required
news is one example where
double-flusher
is not required this refers to
news
groups FTP is for file transfer in
the
first case after the slash you give
the
user name colon you give the
password
then this at the rate sign then the
machine where you want to do
an FTP then
this is the path name where the
documented resource is located
the last
example refers to anonymous
FTP where
user name password are not
given so if
the user name password are
missing then
by default it is taken to be
anonymous
FTP and this is the address of
the
machine and this is the address
of the
document or resource under the
anonymous
directory and this URL can also
be used
to send a send a query string like
the
example that we had given
earlier for
gate well gate is a way to send it
as an
as an HTTP string but even
when you type
a URL on the browser
they're also you can explicitly
specify
that like like an example follows
it
says HTTP this is the name of
the
machine this is the path name of
the
resource here this path name
refers to a
CGI script program again a
question mark
followed by some additional
information
now this whole thing is a URL
this you
can type on a browser and press
Enter
what the browser will do it will
generate a get HTTP request
from this
and it will send it to the
requested
server so actually what will go to
the
server will be the same get
request as I
had mentioned earlier but this is
how
you can also specify in an URL
as part
of HTTP so with with this we
come to the
end of this first part of our
discussion
on World Wide Web now let us
quickly
have a look at the answer to the
questions that were posed in our
last
class solution to the quiz
questions on
lecture 9 what are the basic
drawbacks
of SMTP well in SMTP the
main drawback
is that this SMTP cannot send
non text
messages for this purpose you
need mine
and error reporting is not
guaranteed
these are the basic drawbacks
number 2
which port number 2 SMTP
servers use for
accepting plans requests this is
port
number 25 why does mine does
not have
any port number associated with
it well
as I said mime is not a server
what
happens is that suppose this is
mine
this is your SMTP so mime
actually
translates a document into an
alternate
form and gives it to SMTP it is
the SMTP
server which is actually sending
the
mail and it is SMTP which is
acting
which is residing as a server
program ok
so this mime is not a server it is
a
simple translator so under what
condition can SMTP server also
act as a
mail client this I mentioned
when an
intermediate SMTP node is
doing mail
forwarding receiving a mail
from one
server and forwarding it to
another then
it is simultaneously acting as
main
receiver and mail sender both
client and
server what are the purpose of
the mail
from and receive two commands
the SMTP
mail from will identify who is
sending
the mail received two we
identified to
whom you are sending the mails
what is
the difference between CC and
BCC in the
SMTP header C CC and BCC
both are used
to send copies of the mail to
some other
people for example your primary
destination may be somebody
you are
sending copies of the mail to
someone
else if you use CC suppose the
mail was
destined to me when I received
the mail
I can also see that well this mail
was
also copied to these fellows but
if you
specify those copies using BCC
or blind
carbon copies CC means Carbon
Copy BCC
means blind carbon copy then
the final
recipient will not know that to
whom the
copies were sent to okay that is
how it
is blind
why is IMAP preferred over
pop3 because
in IMAP there are some
additional
features like and check the email
headers you can search the mail
contents
you can manage user mailbox
these are
the main extra features a
message has
3000 bytes you are encoding it
using
base64 what will be the size of
the
encoded message now in base64
if you
recall every 24-bit of the with appropriate boundary
message gets headers and in
encoded in 32 bits so the total each such attachment there will
size be
will be four thousand bytes is it additional headers which will
mandatory for DNS server to run specify
on same what is the type of attachment
machine as a 70p known DNS whether
can run on it is an image user audio file
any other machine whenever you video
configure file what it is and how they are
your computer you have to encoded
specify the is the encoding technique base64
address of or
the DNS server so whenever something else okay now some
there is a questions
name involved the DNS server from today's lectures why is the
will be traditional HTTP protocol called
will be automatically quad it and stateless what is the hypertext
the IP what is
address obtained from there the default port number of HTTP
Howard mail attachments handle what
in mine does the client request to a
mail attachments are separated HTTP server
by using comprised of how can the gate
the boundary strings mime command be
headers will used to submit forms what is the
be associated with each such purpose
such as I of the head command in what
as as each attached attachment way is post
for different from gate when data is
example your mail has two being
attachments sent to a CGI script how are the
okay there will be two such data
attachments
sent in post command what are our last class we are talking
the about the
connection field in the HTTP HTTP protocol and I mentioned
request that this
header signify what does a HTTP protocol provides the
typical HTTP heart of the
response consist of what are the welded web all transactions that
basic go over
differences in the HTTP 1.1 the Internet today whenever a
version from client
the 1.0 version how does a proxy wants to contact a web server
server and the
act both as a client and a server responses are sent back they are
what done
is the URL syntax for FTP so through the HTTP protocol so
with this today we
we start at the we stop to this would be continuing our
lecture discussion from
in our next lecture we shall be there so Weld wide web part 2 is
talking the
about some other aspect of topic of our discussion today so
world wide we
web subsequent to which we'll start with by looking at the
be talking requirements of a web server for
about example
how we can design web pages if someone asks you to design a
using web
various technologies like HTML server so we try to address the
is P and issues
so on thank you that will be faced by you as a
[Music] designer
we'll be continuing with our what are the things that needed
discussion needs to
on weld wide web now if you be taken care of so let us look at
recall in the
basic requirement of our web another form of net which is
server perhaps the
first now of course the most most popular this is called
basic of overloading
the requirements is that your this in a sense is a special form
web server of
must be able to accept HTTP dynamic net because addresses
requests are not
because because our web is assigned statically to the
based or computers
works on the basis of the HTTP they are somehow access
protocol permissions are
so the first point is absolutely generated dynamically this again
mandatory and for the majority is used
of to map multiple unregistered IP
requests the requests type will be addresses to a single registered
either gate where you are IP
possibly addresses see here there is a
trying to fetch a web page a head difference
where you have a single registered
you are trying to fetch the address not
information multiple as I was discussing in
about a page and if you're the
supporting previous case there is a single
forms then possibly also post valid IP
there are address available with me but I
other HTTP commands also can
recall but support 100 simultaneous
these three are the most basic requests from
that are the private network how I can do
put delete this this I
kind of commands also there but can do this by using the port
these numbers
three are the most basic ones [Music]
there is you
Lecture -12 World Wide Web - Part-II
we'd be continuing with a
discussion on
World Wide Web now if you
recall in our
last class we are talking about
the HTTP
protocol and we had mentioned
that this
HTTP protocol provides the
heart of the
worldwide web all transactions
that go
over the Internet today
whenever a
client wants to contact a web
server and
the responses are sent back
they are
done through the HTTP
protocol so today
we'll be continuing our
discussion from
there so world wide web part
two is the
topic of our discussion today
so we
start with by looking at the
requirements of a web server
for example
if someone asks you to design
a web
server so we try to address the
issues
that would be faced by you as a
designer
what are the things that needed
needs to
be taken care of so let us look at
the
basic requirement of our web
server
first now of course the most basic
of
the requirements is that your web
server
must be able to accept HTTP
requests
because because our web is based
or
works on the basis of the HTTP
protocol
so the first point is absolutely
mandatory and for the majority of
requests the request type will be
either
get where you are possibly trying
to
fetch a web page or head where
you are
trying to fetch the information
about a
page and if you're supporting
forms then
possibly also post there are other
HTTP
commands also you recall but
these three
are the most basic there are put
delete
this kind of commands are also
there but
these three are the most basic
ones now
if you want to have get and
post
facility where you can submit a
query
string then in addition you will
have to
have the facility for handling
so-called
server-side scripts now surface
ID
scripts are nothing but some
programs
these are executable which are
residing
on the server machine these
executables
can be written in any language
they may
be written in some scripting
language
Perl or may be written in
languages like
C or Java okay and and
whenever you
submit a query string using
gate or post
these executables will get
executed of
course which program you are
trying to
get executed that must be
mentioned in
the gator post command and after
execution the outputs of these
programs
will be sent back to the browser or
the
client typically this will be in the
form of a HTML page so this is a
simple
requirement that a web server
must
conform to now in addition there
are a
few other things well when a
typical web
server is getting installed is being
installed you will find that there
are
some typical convention for the
directory structures which are
followed
for instance there is something
called
the root directory so all HTTP
files and
folders are created under this root
directory okay so as an example
this
root directory may be slash home
slash
HTTP D for some web server like
Apache
this is the default web server root
directory similarly there will be a
directory which will be located programs and other scripts can be
under stored
the root that will be called the well again as an example this
HTTP directory
home directory well home can be home
directory is yebin this is the typical name with
something where all your web now
pages would further files which are stoning
be located ok so whenever you under
are the cgi-bin
putting in some web pages on normally server-side execute
the server permission
it must be under the home is provided for them because the
directory idea is
in contrast the that the files that are stored under
root directory something where the
all the CGI bin directory they are meant
files related to the web server to be
will be executed they will get executed if
stored some of them maybe you
your home is have a gate or a post command
actually webpages some may which is
be other actually specifying a query string
miscellaneous files also so and a
typically script which is located under the
the home directory can be CGI
something as bin directory for example so all
home httpd Docs maybe and these
optionally files must have the execute
there can be another directory permission
under the whenever they are specified the
root under which all the so- programs
called will start executing okay so the
common gateway interface or directory structure looks
CGI script something like
this so on top will be having
HTTP root
under which all the HTTP
drifters and
folders will be created there
would be
the home directory CGI bin
directory
there can be other directory
some may be
simple documentation some
may be some
other library files etcetera and
your
web page or website that you're
designing that will be under
this HTTP
home okay so these wave
folders which
are shown here they will
contain the
directory tree structure of your
so
called
web site this is how the files
are the
directory folders are located or
organized in addition there is
something
called a default web page
which is
supported by all all web
servers there
is some default web page that
will get
returned by the server if you are
not
specifying the document explicitly
for
example you consider a request
like this
get you are simply specifying the
name
of a site you are not specifying the
name of any file or the pot name
of that
file directory structure so just as
specifying www dot X Y Z dot
com
what this command will actually
mean is
that the request will be sent to the
web
server of course and the web
server what
it will do
we'll search in its own directory
structure under the web root and
we'll
try to find out whether there is a
file
with that default name present in it
if
it is found that default file name is
returned to the requesting client
and
usually the default file name is
index
dot HTM or index dot HTML they
refer to
an HTML document now now written in any language you want
it is possible so this
to change the name of this actually refers to a file that will be
default file executed by the server and the
directory because there is output of
something execution will be sent back to the
called server script client this is how the scripts work
configuration there but
is a configuration file where a how do the server know that
number which script
of options are there you can to run and how to get the input
simply open data and
that file and edit so in that file where to send back the output well
there there
is one line which specifies are two ways the server script may
what is the start
name of your default page so executing in response to either a
instead of get
index dot HTM you can HTTP command where there is a
change it to for question
example default dot HTM so mark in the command line or a
that will be post HTTP
your default base in that case command now we shall see this in
now detail
talking about the scripts the first let us look at the gate
first command
thing our scripts is that they are with a question mark so an
residing on the side of the example is
server they shown here
are server-side scripts and as and so recall get command with a
I've question mark means that
mentioned these scripts they're whatever
nothing follows the question mark this will
but a program this program represent a so-called query string
may be may be so
there will be a number of name
and value
pairs separated by ampersand
for example
role is a name 1 2 3 4 is the
value sex
is a name M is the value so
there can be
any number of such name
value pairs you
can put in separated by
ampersand and
whatever comes before this
question mark
this does not refer to a width
page
rather this refers to an
executable file
or a script this is how the client
can
specify which program to run
on the
server side so you explicitly
specify
the name of the script so here
for
instance you are referring to a
file
called X Y Z dot PL which is
residing
under the CGI bin directory
this file
needs to execute it and the
output has
to be sent back now if you look at
what
happens internally the server has
to
identify this question mark in the
query
in the total command line if it is a
gate command and if it finds a
question
mark then it identifies that
whatever
file name is specified before that
that
is actually a program which is to
be
executed now it starts executing
the X Y
Z dot does not come this X Y Z
dot PL it
starts executing the X Y Z dot PL
program now the program is
written in
such a way that it can read in the
values of this name value pairs
which
are supplied as part of the
parameters
now how this values can be read in
this
we shall be discussing later not
now and
again the output generated by the
XYZ
dot PL program that will be sent
back to
the client and as it said
typically the
output is generated in the form
of a
HTML page so that when it is
sent back
to the browser the browser can
displayed
a suitably formatted way on the
screen
now if it is a post command it
is in a
voice similar to get but the
difference
is that the name value pairs
which need
to be taken as input to the
program are
not present on the command
line rather
they are present and as data
following
one or more header lines and a
blank
line so there will be a number
of header
lines after the header line there
will
be a blank line after the blank
line all
the name value pairs will
appear ok this
is the format in which post
sends the
data to the web server but in post
again
the name of the file that you
specify
that will be the executable
program ok
and here there is one difference
from
gate is that you do not limit the
number
of such name value pairs or the
total
size of the string that you can send
ok
and here again the executable
program
which runs can read in the data
values
but how this again we shall be
talking
about later because we know that
the
program has to execute it we have
explicitly named the program as
part of
the command but when the
program
executes how to get the values of
those
name value pairs this we shall say
later
when we talk more about the CGI
scripts
and and the way the works and
how they
are actually written ok so an stands for common gateway
example of interface
the post command is shown now these executable programs
here so the can be
first line is the actual post potentially written in any language
command of
which specifies out here the your choice it can be written in
name of the some
CGI script program the name shell script
of the this can be see shell bone shell
executable here the name is my conch
script shell or any other shell it can be
dot CGI this is the name of the written as pearl pearl is a popular
executable file then there are choice for many it can be written
some using
header lines followed by a some scripting language like ASP
blank line or PHP
out here then the name value these are also quite popular they
pairs now may be
this name value pairs can written in in conventional
appear in as programming
many lines as you want languages like C or Java but one
not necessarily they will have thing
to appear you remember in whatever
on a single line you can break language you
it up write the program you must ensure
into your hindrance if you want one
okay now thing that the program when it is
there are a few points which executed on the server side it must
you need to have
remember first thing is that the some support for execution for
executable program that we are example
talking if it is a C program then there has
about the so-called CGI script to
CGI
be a C compiler to compile that
first if
it is a Java program there has
to be a
Java bytecode interpreter if it is
a what are the facilities that a proxy
Perl program there has to be a
Perl
interpreter so in this way so to
run a
script written in a particular
language
support for that particular
language
should exist on this side of the
server
this is what you have to
remember for
example SP a program written
in ASP it
can be run under the Internet
Information Service IAS which
is
available under the windows
but you
cannot directly run it under the
Apache
web server because I is by
default
supports a speii it can interpret
ASP
commands directly that is why
when you
have and a program within a
spiel you
have to run it through iis
now let us very quickly look at
what is
a proxy server and why we use it
for
server can provide now a proxy
server we
had mentioned before that it acts
as an
intermediary between a client and
a
server typically in the internet
scenario
the client will be a web browser
like
Netscape like Internet Explorer the
web
server can be some site from
which you
are trying to access a page this
web
server is sometimes also called
origin
server that is the origin of the
document on the resource you are
you are
trying to access now in this
scenario
you are having the access through
the
proxy server which is intercepting
all
your requests okay so whenever
you want
to send a request to the outside
world
your request will first be sent
to the
proxy server the proxy server
will be
sending the request on your
behalf to
the outside world this is how
the proxy
server works but let us see how
well the
first thing as I said that it acts
on
behalf of other clients and
presents
requests from other clients to a
server
the clients can be on one side
of it and
the server is located on the
other side
of the proxy server now
depending on
which mode it is in whether it
is
receiving a command from a
client or
sending a request to an external
server
it can sometimes act as a web
server
sometimes act as a web client
how see
the proxy server whenever it is
receiving a command from a client
then
it acts as a web server to the client
as
if the client is sending a request to
the web server so the proxy server
accepts the request as if it is a web
server
but it is not processing that request
directly and locally rather it is
forwarding the request to some
origin
server or web server which is
outside
the network now while making
this second
part of the request the proxy server
acts as the client and the server
located outside that acts as the
HTTP
server so a proxy server has a dual
role
sometimes it is a client sometimes
it is
a server and the most commonly
used HTTP
proxy server is a program called
squid
which is freely available and it can
be
installed on almost all platforms
diagrammatically a proxy server
looks
like this typically these huge user
agents which are shown on this the origin server so the origin
side this server
part belongs to a private after processing the request will be
network this sending back the response to the
is a private network say in proxy
these are the proxy intern will be sending
three computers which are back
located inside the request to the original
the private network these user requesting
agents user agent this is how it works
are nothing but maybe these now now
are simple in addition to this simple request
browsers there are some forwarding and response receiving
commands which a
have been typed on the proxy server typically also
browser and they contains
are possibly referring to some some access rules and cache this
origin we
server maybe this is yahoo.com shall be talking about very shortly
there can these are some additional
be one origin server there can information
be which are maintained inside a
several such origin servers proxy
okay what I server so talking about the
am showing just one origin functions of
server in a proxy first one we have already
this diagram just to illustrate so mentioned it forwards a request
the see when it is forwarding a request
user agents will be sending the it
request also acts as a simple and
to the proxy rudimentary
so requests will be coming like firewall it can allow some requests
this the it
proxy will be forwarding the can deny some requests when
request to someone from
outside is trying to access an
internal
node your proxy can stop it so
these
kind of capabilities can be
programmed
in the proxy so it can act as a
simple
firewall and you can have
access control
through a proxy access control
means you
can allow or deny certain
accesses based
on contents based on location
now when
you say based on contents it
may be
based on some string which
appear in the
documents which are trying to
fetch
maybe some string patterns in
the
website name which are trying
to access
depending on the policy of the
installation you can set some
rules that
somebody should not be able
to access
this kind of sites or these kind
of
contents typically these are
specified
by mentioning a list of strings
which
are okay you can say you can only
access
sites which contain the strings or
access the sites which does not
which
does not contain the strings so is
that
kind of either way you are
allowing or
denying based on some contents
similarly
you can also control access based
on
some location you can specify that
these
are the websites I do not want
anybody
to access from inside so these are
some
websites which are blocked okay
this
kind of things can be done very
easily
the third thing is that a proxy
maintains a HTTP cache
what the cash means is that see
httpd
HTTP requests are coming to the
proxy
proxy is forwarding the request
and is
getting back the requester
information
maybe the web pages from the reason why we use a net or many-
servers fold
these pages are forwarded back well in the simplest scenario a net
to the allows a single device the single
requesting client but what the device
proxy can be a router it can be a
does is that it also maintains or dedicated
keeps box see this router can act as the
a copy of these pages in its net
local disk this dedicated box can also act as
there is a disk array which is in at
called a these are available commercially
cache where these are so what
maintained or we are saying is that we are
stored the idea is that if some allowing
client this device to act as an
requests for a page which is intermediate
already agent between the internet and a
there in the cache it need not local
send out network now the local network
a request outside and get that were
page calling or we are referring to as the
again it can be directly private network and the internet or
followed it the
from the local cache it of external network were referring to
course saves as
bandwidth and allows for faster the public network now NAT sits
access between
okay now let us talk about a the public network and the private
very network so you may argue that
important device which is used well it sounds very similar to a
in the proxy
Internet this is called a network server but well there are some
address translator or a net now differences this will be clear as we
the go
into the details in the working
of the
net C net does not only
regulate access
it also manages IP addresses
see one big
problem that many of us face
today is
that suppose if we have an
organization
which contains say 1000
computers but we
do not have 1,000 valid
registered IP
addresses with us which we
can assign to
these computers rather the
internet
service provider through which
we have
obtained internet connection
they give us only a set of few
addresses
so how we can manage with
these few
addresses NAT is one such
solution okay
so NAT tries to address the IP
address
distribution problem the way
net is
specified in twerks is specified
in a in
an RFC document if you're
interested you
can have a look at it 1 6 3 1 is the
number of the document now if
you are
using NAT then potentially one
single
unique IP address is sufficient to
provide connectivity to an entire
group
of computers of course there are
several
variations which are possible but
in
general even if we have a single IP
address with you which is a
registered
IP address that may be sufficient
for
your organizational requirements
to have
access to the outside world but
there
are some restrictions and we just
see
later that not all kinds of access l
or
maybe accesses from inside the
network
to outside will be allowed but not
the
reverse someone from outside
your
network may not be able to
directly
connect to a computer inside ok so
as I
mentioned NAT resides remember this is a one-to-one
between a private network and mapping
the public which means that if we have n
network which is the Internet number of
now NAT is available as a unregistered IP addresses on n
separate box machines
from the network vendors most then to provide static NAT you
of the would be
routers which also connect up a requiring n registered addresses
private what
network with the public this means is that say internally
network they suppose you have 10 computers
also have the capability to act and you
as a NAT have 10 registers IP addresses with
so NAT can be embedded you
inside a router NAT will provide a
or you can have a separate box correspondence
that can between the internal computers
act as a NAT now let us see and these
what are the IP addresses so that with this IP
various forms of NAT network addresses they can access the
address outside
translation static net well as the world now static NAT is almost
name similar
implies were trying to provide to providing this addresses directly
a static to
address translation so what the computers ok so it is not much
you're useful
trying to do is that you are other than some very specific
trying to needs
provide a mapping of an where you want to assign some
unregistered IP fixed IP
address to a registered IP address to some of the computers
address you inside
like for example inside your registered IP address from a given
network pool
there is one computer which is of registered IP addresses what I
the mean
webserver and you want the to say here is something like this
outside users suppose I have with me 10
that means users or people who registered IP
are address suppose I am the net I
deciding outside your network have 10
they registered IP addresses with me
should also be able and on
to access your web server so the other side in the public
you show network
your web server must have a there are 100 computers so
statically whenever I
assigned IP address okay but get a request from one of the
for others computers
you may not need this for in the private network I assign one
others you of
have alternatives one this 10 addresses to that computer
alternative is to and
go for dynamic network as long as the request is being
address processed that address will be
translation dynamic net statically assigned to that
dynamic net also computer but
provides or maps an once the request processing is over
unregistered IP that
address to a registered IP address will again be de-allocated
address but and
the difference from static net is will be returning back to my pool
that so with this scheme I can have 10
here you do not have any one- simultaneous access connections
to-one at the
mapping rather here you are same time but we are not limiting
getting this the
total number of computers that computers they are somehow
can access
possibly have connections to permissions are generated
the outside dynamically
world in fact hundreds or even this again is used to map multiple
thousands unregistered IP addresses to a
if there are thousand computers single
they can registered IP addresses see here
have access but not more than there
10 at a is a difference you have a single
time registered address not multiple as I
I have only 10 valid addresses was
with me discussing in the previous case
and I am allocating them based there is
on demand a single valid IP address available
so this addresses are assigned with
dynamically you can have any me but I can support hundred
number of simultaneous requests from the
computers but you will be private
having a limit network how I can do this I can do
n depending on the number of this
addresses by using the port numbers so here
you have to the number I am
that can communicate at a using port numbers the different
given time requests will be using different
there is another form of net port
which is numbers because we are using
perhaps the most popular this ports to
is called distinguish the requesting
overloading this in a sense is a computers
special this method is also sometimes
form of dynamic net because called
addresses port address translation or p80 in
are not assigned statically to short
the so effectively in this scheme each
computer on the private with a single remote computer but
network will get several connections can be
translated to the same IP maintained by
address only using different port numbers like
difference is that they will be for
having a example I can have a connection
different port number okay so with a
with this machine X but effectively I can
kind of a scheme you are no have 100
longer connections with X if I if I use 100
limited by the number of IP different port numbers okay now
addresses each of
you have you can have as these hundred connections may
many refer to
simultaneous connections you some different server programs or
desire may be
using this scheme okay this as I the same server program there are
said multiple requests coming to it I
this is widely used so let us can has
look at different port numbers to
NAT overloading in some distinguish
detail so as I right okay now just recall that the
said that using multiple port IP
numbers packet header well including the
you can support several extension header this will contain
simultaneous the
connections this is what is source and destination IP
called addresses and
multiplexing in the transporter the port numbers so the
level of combination of
the tcp/ip protocol stack these four elements will define a
multiplexing means that a complete connection so even if the
computer source IP address and destination
maintains several concurrent IP
connections
address is the same if we can this ATT will have to be
very say maintained by
for example the source port the router or the network address
number then translator while it is carrying out
this for couple will still remain the
unique address mapping and also the port
maybe the other three tuples mapping well now let us look at
have the the
same values but at least one of issue one by one suppose we want
the to
values of the four things must implement simple dynamic net no
change overloading for the timing okay
between the different simple
connections this dynamic NAT means I have a pool
is how we can ensure that of IP
multiple addresses if there are n addresses I
connections can be established can
now some notations we define support n simultaneous
something connections okay
called stub domain stub so for implementation of dynamic
domain means the NAT let
private network so the domain us try to see what should the ATT
which is contain the ATT need only contain
behind the net which is as part the IP
of the addresses of the source and the IP
private organizational network address which has been allocated
that is like
your stub domain and for net you try to understand some
for this computer had
address translation we must sent a request to the NAT that
maintain a computer
table which is called address suppose had an address 10.5 dot
translation table or in short 6.7 say
ATT the NAT assigns a valid address to
it
and in the table makes an entry
that
10.5 dot 6.7 has been assigned
and
addressed this so for all the
requests
which are coming there will be
an
intrument in in this table now
what this
table will allow it will allow
outgoing
connections of course but it
will also
allow incoming connections
why say as
long as an entry like this
remains in
the table you can have a
connection from
the outside world coming to
you if you
see that that request is destined
to an
address which is called 10.5
dot 6.7
then you can possibly followed
that
request to the destination
machine
because you know that this
particular
address is there but there is a
problem
if you are saying that the request is
coming with a $10 dress which
you may
recall that refers to a private
address
maybe the external routers will be
discarding them okay so the
packet may
not reach the net at all
so what you can do instead of
advertising this private address to
the
outside world
you tell the Oxford Wall that well
my
net has given me this IP address
and has
assigned me this so you please
connect
me through this valid IP address
maybe
they'll be a valid IP address 2203
dot
ten dot 5.17 or something like that
the
outside agent will be using that IP
address the ATT will provide the
translation and will be forwarding
the
request to the internal machine
internal
host so using dynamic address
mapping
you can have some of the entries
in the
table fixed statically say for the needed but when you talk about
web neck
servers I give an example overloading you require port
where you need numbers the
a permanent address which is scenario is like this the internal net
known to over that said it possibly has
everybody but the other non-routable IP addresses or
addresses can be private IP
dynamically assigned I addresses which if it appears as a
changed during destination address in a packet a
the duration of a connection router
only so in will ignore it a router cannot
this way you can have the best follow a
of both packet to an address which is a
worlds you can have some private
addresses which address it will simply ignore it
you need to be accessed from NAT
outside and enable routers or an Add box will
with the other IP addresses contain a registered IP address
available which
you can provide dynamic will be assigned by the internet
access from the authorized access provider address
internal nodes but you cannot provide
have the Eenie so the sir is one single IP
other around a note from address will be sufficient now
outside a host suppose
from outside cannot directly the scenario is like this an internal
access an host say X tries to connect to an
internal node if it does not have outside web server so the request
a will
statically assigned IP address first reach the router the router
stored in will
the table okay fine receive this request packet from X
now in this scheme port okay
numbers are not
the router will now save the IP
address
of the requesting computer this
is a
private IP address please recall
and the
port number which the
computer was using
while sending this request this
can be
obtained from the packet that
was
received from X it saves this to
into
the table address translation
table and
in the packet it will replace the
IP
address which was the private
address
with the routers IP address
replace the
port number by the port
number if the
entry was already in the table
or if it
is a new connection you are
trying to
make to generate a unique port
number so
you are basically modifying a
packet by
changing the destination IP
address and
the destination port number some
internal computer was sending the
packet
to the router or the net the now the
NAT
changes the address of the packets
to
some address of the outside or also
the
address of the source is changed
because
the request has to come back okay
now if
the source address still is that
private
address the request cannot come
back so
it changes the source address by
the
valid IP address that the router
contains and also port number is a
unique number that it generates
automatically so on the other hand
when
a packet comes back the
destination port
number of the packet is used to
search
the ATT so destination port
number as I
mentioned was assigned
automatically and
uniquely so that port number will
uniquely identify an entry in the
table
that you can say that will act as stored and also the port numbers
a which
primary key of that ATT okay the source computer were it was
so from using
that table you can obtain the the NAT IP address there is only
source and one
port numbers source address address so this will be the same
and port and
numbers you can accordingly then NAT
change the generates unique port numbers for
source addresses of the IP every
packet and outgoing packet so if whenever an
finally you can forward the incoming packet comes it will
packet to come with
your to the host which was this particular address as the
there in the destination address but this port
internal network so finally the number
packet will be the distinguishing factor so
will get forwarded to the whenever it is coming to port
computer from number two
when the request had then through this table lookup
originated so a NAT will
typical table this this address change this address to this
translation table may look like particular
this address and port number two to
well the first column is not port
really number seventy-five and will be
necessary but for forwarding the packet to the
documentation purposes internal
it is sometimes kept source network this is how through this
computer table
names are stored here when a the net can provide address
request translation
comes the source computer dynamically but one thing you
addresses are remember
this overloading all although it the maximum number of
appears concurrent
to be a very powerful translations that our net may
technique but the provide
only problem is that you this is primarily determined by the
cannot allow a memory size the size of the
permanent address through memory that
which an we use to store this table just to
outside host can access access show
a means a simple calculation but typical
one of your internal servers entry
suppose you in the ATT may take around 160
have one web server you want bits so
to have a if you have 8 megabytes of
public IP address available to it memory
through net you cannot do that available with you then for every
because request we'll be needing about 20
all requests are bytes
processed dynamically by so if we make a calculation these
assigning a are
port number to it so if we want the total number of bits divided by
to have 160
this kind of facility also then this will come to more than 4
you have lakhs
to mix static net and this kind concurrent translations which
of means you
overloading where some can have so many entries in the
entries in the table
table will be permanently fixed potentially and port number will
some never
entries will be assigned port be a constraint for you because
numbers port
and processed dynamically number is a 16-bit number you can
talking about have
up to 65,000 distinct port that private network has to be
numbers okay there in
so the number of distinct the source part which the routers
numbers you will
can have that will ultimately ignore so from the private network
provide you
the upper limit and talking can
about which reach an outside host but not the
addresses to use in the private reverse in order to achieve this
network you
there are some private address have to have a proxy server or a
classes net
which also had mentioned sitting in between the private
before let us address
very quickly brush through it classes just to brush up there is
this has one
will set aside by the address class address 10 dot there are 16
assignment Class
agency as non-routable means B addresses 172 dot 16 through
these are 172 the
unregistered routers will 31 there are 256 Class C addresses
discard this 192
addresses if they are used as 68 0 up to 255 so many addresses
destination which means that a are
packet available to be used as private
from a host within a private addresses depending on the size of
address can your
reach a registered host but not organization and requirements you
the can
reverse possibly select one of these and
because if you are trying to use a
have the proxy server or an 18 can you give
reverse connection then the this
address of to provide access to the outside
world
now other benefits of NAT static and dynamic address
well NAT mapping to
automatically creates some have this flexibility some address
kind of a statically assigned some address
firewall between the internal dynamic
external a question which sometimes arises
networks that
why because NAT only allows is net and proxy server the same
connections but
that has originated from inside technically speaking although they
and work
outside hosts just I've in a similar way they are not the
mentioned cannot same
directly establish a connection why the main difference is that net
with the is
internal hosts because an transparent to both source and
internal host destination hosts neither the
is having a private address and source not
an the destination need to know that a
outside host cannot directly net
specify is present but rather in case of a
that public that particular proxy
private server
address to initiate a connection for example if you are if you're
so for accessing the internet through the
cases where you need proxy
environment mapping server you have to explicitly
as I mentioned just for web mention
server for the name of the proxy server and
example you need static the
address port number it is using in the
assignment in those special configuration for your browser
cases so in that is
general you can have a something which is not transparent
combination of which
you must explicitly specify that completing a transaction and no
this is history
the proxy server I want to use is maintained but again you just
and and recall
the another difference is that we had mentioned that you can
networks have an
in the network layer and a option either close or keep alive or
proxy server you
works at the transport layer or can specify whether you want
above so these kind
with this we come to the end of of stateless transaction or
today's connection
lecture we shall be now as default or you want to have a
looking at the persistent persistent connection
solutions that we pose for the but the
problems connection will remain active over
of the last lecture and we shall successive transactions or requests
also be what
presenting some quizzes for is a hypertext hypertext is a text
today so let which
us first look at the solutions to contains some documents or text
the of
quiz questions on our previous course it also contains links to
lecture other
the first question was why is texts these links to other texts are
the called hyperlinks now in the cont
traditional HTTP protocol in
called Hindi in the context of the World
stateless this server mentioned Wide
that it Web the pages that we see on the
is stateless because the HTTP browser
server they are mostly hyper texts
immediately closes a they are usually typically written
connection after in
HTML there are other of a client request how can the
technologies also gate
but hTML is most popular command be used to submit forms
what is the well
default port number of HTTP this say again we are mentioned
which is today by
port number 80 what does the including a question mark after the
client path
request - HTTP server name and including a query string
comprised of it after
consists of several things that question mark what is the
request purpose
method path portion of the of the head command to return the
URL and the header
version number they must information of the specified
appear on the document
same line depending on the because in many cases the client
command does
depending on the request not need to have the full document
method you may rather the header information this
have optional request headers may
if you be used for a number of wins
have an optional request header applications cases there is one
then application I can decide for
there will be a blank line instance in
followed by case of the web search engines
some additional data if you when they
want for try to maintain an update their
post and put request methods database
you need they simply look at the header
this additional data so this all rather
these than the complete document so the
things taken together are the header
components should contain some information
which
may be useful for the search following the header lines what
engine to does the
update its database in what connection field in the SD be
way is requested
forced different from gate I signify well it specifies whether
when data has you
been sent to a common want to have a stateless kind of a
gateway interface communication or so-called
script well if you recall in post stateful
we do whether you want to close the
not send data as part of the connection
header line immediately after transaction
rather there will be the header whether or
lines whether you want to remain or
then there will be a blank line retain the
as the connection across several
delimiter following the bank transactions
blank what does a typical HTTP
I will specify the query string response
now now consist of response is similar to a
in case of post the size of the request only difference is that the
query initial request header is not there
string can be larger than get but
forget it in place of it there is a initial
is limited to the maximum size response line following the
of this response
string that the machine where line there will be some header
the server lines the
is running supports typically it blank lines followed by the
is 256 requested
256 characters how are the data data so the remaining part is quite
sent in similar to a request the initial
post command well after the response line is only different
blank line what are
the basic differences in HTTP 1.1
version from 1.0 where the now the questions from today's
differences lecture
are host identification defaults well which HTV commands can
support result in
from persistent or keepalive execution of server-side scripts
connection what
content negotiation requests a are the differences between root
part of directory and home directory no
the document caching these are web
the server installation what are the
additional features which the main
version purposes behind the use of proxy
1.1 supports how does a proxy servers
server act name two web servers and one
both as a client and a server proxy
well it is server that are widely used in
a server when it is receiving a static
request net on what factors with the
from an internal client it is a number of
client registered IP addresses depend on
when it is forwarding the for
request to an NAT overloading what are the
external origin server what is typical
the URL entries in the fields of the address
syntax for FTP for FTP it will translation table which of the
is fields
starting with FTP dental would not be required if it is only
specifying the required to implement dynamic
username and password net can a
followed by colon machine with a private IP address
then is at the rate sign symbol communicate with the public host
followed in the
by the pathname of the outside world so these are the
document you are questions
going to transfer
from today's lecture in our next
lecture
we shall be starting our next
module on
webpage design we shall be
starting with
discussion on the hyper text
markup
language HTML which is so
popularly used
for designing the web pages
that we
shall see in our next class thank
you
today we shall start our
discussion on
HTML which is the de facto
language for
designing web pages although
today we
have several other alternatives
available with us but still
HTML remains
one of the most popular
choices when it
comes to the design of web
pages so
could actually we shall be
starting with
the basic structure of an HTML
document
what are the different things what
are
the different so-called tags and
attributes that a typical HTML file
can
contain and we shall see in our
subsequent lectures what are the
other
features that you can support as
part of
HTML so the first thing is that
hTML the
film is hypertext markup language
so
there are temples to this name one
is
hypertext other is markup well
hypertext
we had already talked about earlier
hypertext is a kind of textual
document
where you can have links to other
documents in HTML this kind of
links are
allowed so in that sense hTML is a
hypertext document