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Healthy Homes: A Guide To Indoor Air Quality in The Home For Buyers, Builders and Renovators
Healthy Homes: A Guide To Indoor Air Quality in The Home For Buyers, Builders and Renovators
healthy
homes
Images are numbered sequentially and attributed in the order: left to right, top to bottom on any page.
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be
reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth available from the
Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts. Requests and inquiries concerning
reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Manager, Copyright Services, Info Access,
GPO Box 1920, Canberra ACT 2601.
The Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing acknowledges the assistance of the Built
Environment Research Unit, Building Division, Queensland Department of Public Works in creating
this booklet.
The support of the Housing Industry Association and Master Builders Australia is gratefully
acknowledged.
Concept/Editor: Chris Greenaway
Contributions: Michael Ball, Anne Bullen, Neil Davidson, Keith Eigeland
Editor: Jenny Cook, PenUltimate
The technical advice provided by the Editorial Committee is gratefully acknowledged. The Editorial
Committee members were; Jan Bowman, Sophie Dwyer, Geoff Morgan and Steve Brown.
Our thanks also to Anne-Louise Ponsonby for her contribution.
Photos courtesy of the Australian Greenhouse Office and The Carpet Institute of Australia Ltd.
Dr Keith Adam, a medical practitioner and Director of Health for Industry, a commercial practice
which specialises in occupational health.
Ms Mary Baker, a graduate architect and trained nurse, specialising in hospital and health facility
design.
Dr Steve Brown, a principal research scientist with CSIRO Manufacturing & Infrastructure,
specialising in particulate and gaseous pollutants in indoor air and control of indoor pollutant sources.
Mr Dale Gilbert, Director of the Built Environment Research Unit and specialist in public policy
development.
Dr Ray Mullins, immunology and allergy specialist, Canberra, representative of Australasian Society
of Clinical Immunology and Allergy.
Dr Anne Neller, a lecturer with University of the Sunshine Coast, specialising in public and environ-
mental health.
Dr Shannon Rutherford, a lecturer with Griffith University, specialising in airborne biological
particles and public health.
Dr Melissa Stoneham, a lecturer with Queensland University of Technology, specialising in public
health promotion.
Dr Mimi Lai-Kuan Tang, allergist, immunologist, representative of National Asthma Council Australia.
Disclaimer
The Commonwealth, the members of the enHealth Council, Master Builders Australia and Housing
Industry Association make no representations or warranties, express or implied, in relation to the
relevance, accuracy, completeness or fitness for purpose of this document in respect of any
particular user’s circumstances. Users of this document should satisfy themselves concerning the
application of this publication to their situation and, where necessary, seek expert advice. The
Commonwealth, the members of enHealth Council, Master Builders Australia and Housing Industry
Association shall not be liable to any person or entity with respect to any liability, loss or damage
caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this publication.
iii
HIA’s GreenSmart initiative focuses on educating builders, designers, product manufacturers and
consumers about the benefits of environmentally responsible housing.
The Healthy Homes Guide provides the consumer with valuable information about indoor air quality
and therefore complements GreenSmart’s market-driven approach to advancing responsible
building practices.
contents
The old saying, ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’, neatly summarises what this
booklet is about.
With ever increasing emphasis being placed on healthy lifestyles, many people are asking: how
‘healthy’ is the air we breathe? By world standards, Australia has relatively clean outdoor air.
Nevertheless, many Australians list air quality as one of their highest environmental concerns.
So, as most of us spend more than 90 per cent of our lives indoors, it is worth thinking more
closely about air quality, especially inside the home.
This booklet provides householders, home-buyers, builders and renovators with balanced
information and health advice about air pollutants that may be found inside the home.
It discusses the likely sources of indoor air pollutants, and the health conditions that may be
associated with these pollutants. It provides advice and actions that you can take to protect your
health and the health of other people in your home. This booklet will also help householders make
better-informed decisions about health and indoor air quality issues when discussing home
maintenance or renovation activities with their architect, builder or building material suppliers.
1. Clean air, or mean air? — a description of sources of indoor air pollutants, how the human
body may become exposed and how it deals with these pollutants;
2. Potentially hazardous air substances — a description of some of the air pollutants that
might be found in your home in a little more detail, and whether or not they have the
potential to create health problems for you or your family; and practical advice on how to
maintain a healthy indoor air environment;
3. Clear the air: questions for a healthy home — a list of questions you could ask when
planning, designing, using and/or renovating a home; and
4. Further information — ideas on where to go for more advice or help on a particular issue.
3
Clean air,
or mean air?
6
Table 1. Indoor air pollutants
Formaldehyde pressed wood products, laminates eye, nose, and throat irritation,
consumer products (hobbies, crafts) reduced lung function,
aggravation of asthma
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) new building products, cleaning eye, nose and throat irritation,
products, office equipment, headache, lethargy
consumer products
House dust mite allergens dust mites in bedding, carpets, aggravation of asthma, nasal
furniture inflammation, eczema
Lead in indoor dust Pre-1970s paint, hobbies and poor childhood intellectual
renovation development
7
The skin’s protection is less within the same individual over their
how can pollutants effective if it is damaged or lifetime. A number of factors
enter the human diseased. influence the effectiveness of the
immune system, including: age,
body? The respiratory tract has built-in
gender, genetics, state of health,
defences from the nose to the
and other factors in the
deepest part of the lungs. Larger
In general, pollutants enter the environment.
particles in the air are likely to be
human body through: caught in the nose and upper Inhaled gases usually penetrate the
• breathing in polluted air airways, becoming trapped in the respiratory tract barriers very
(inhalation), mucus that lines them. Mucus in quickly. Gases pass through the
• swallowing harmful substances the upper airways is constantly surface of the upper nasal
(ingestion), and pushed back up the airway to the passages, reaching the nerves
throat by millions of special hair-like responsible for smell, which then
• absorbing pollutants through the filaments called cilia. These cilia send a message to the brain. Gases
skin (absorption). can be damaged by smoking. can also enter the bloodstream
A person is most commonly through the lungs. Once in the
exposed to air pollutants when they Small particles penetrate deeper
blood-stream, the absorbed gases,
breathe in an air pollutant or into the lung, down to the smaller
along with any other pollutants
allergen. Exposure to an air airways and the tiny air sacs
present, are channelled through the
pollutant by swallowing or through (alveoli). The alveoli are normally
liver where they are processed.
the skin may occur in some circum- responsible for moving oxygen from
Most substances are eventually
stances. For example, infants can the lungs into the blood stream.
expelled from the body.
get substances on their hands The particles are engulfed by
when they spend time on the floor, specialised defensive cells called
and may swallow the substances macrophages and removed from
when they put their fingers in their the lungs. size matters …
mouths. Some particles are made of
proteins, for example, pollen or cat
The body’s respiratory tract and
dander. When these particles are
supporting systems operate in a
inhaled they may initiate an allergic
how does the human way that either automatically
response by the complex network of
screens out larger particles or
body defend itself? cells and organs that make up the
actively engulfs and disposes of
immune system. The immune
smaller particles. As a general rule,
system fights ‘foreign’ proteins that
The body has a range of defences particles larger than one-hundredth
cause disease, like viruses, bacteria
against airborne substances. Some (1/100th) of a millimetre rarely get
and fungi. An allergic reaction is an
defences keep substances out of past the nose. Particles between
overreaction by the immune system
the body; others overcome 1/100th and one-thousandth
to foreign substances that, on their
substances once they enter the (1/1000th) of a millimetre become
own, might not cause disease.
body. trapped in the mucus of the
Everybody’s immune system reacts airways. Only the very smallest of
The skin is a very effective barrier. differently to different substances. particles are likely to reach the most
It stops most substances entering Not everyone is allergic and there important part of the lung – the
the body. However, some are differences between individuals alveoli. Figure 2 gives you an idea
substances, such as solvents are as to the substances they are of how small these particles are.
capable of moving past this barrier. allergic to. Allergies can also vary
8
Figure 2. Relative particle sizes in comparison to thickness of human hair
Tobacco Smoke
breathing,
swallowing and
1 /1 00 00 0 1 /1 00 00 1 /1 00 0 1 /1 00 1 /1 0
mm mm mm mm mm
absorbing
9
potentially
hazardous air
substances
12
Some work and hobbies use lead or Sources of lead poisoning can
lead-based products, including usually be traced, with the majority
lead-lighting, making fishing sinkers of recent cases being linked to
or pottery glazing. People can either home renovation (removing
unknowingly take lead residues into
their homes on clothes, skin, hair
old paint) or drinking water that has
been contaminated by, for example,
Lead is a
and equipment. lead solder or old brass fittings. concern when
small particles
Lead is a concern when small You can ask your doctor to order a
particles or fumes are swallowed or blood test to determine the amount
or fumes are
inhaled. People may come into of lead in your body. If you are
contact with lead from home concerned about your health or that
swallowed
renovation activities, particularly of your family, in relation to lead,
when stripping old paint, through consult your doctor.
or inhaled
some hobbies or coming into
For general advice about managing
contact with contaminated soil.
lead risks in the home, contact your
Young children are especially at risk local or state health department.
because their developing bodies
absorb lead much more readily
than adults do. Crawling on the
ground, and putting toys or fingers
in their mouths increases the
chance of swallowing contaminated
dust, soil or paint chips. Lead may
slow a child’s mental and/or
physical progress, and can cause
behavioural problems when
absorbed.
Household pets have also been
poisoned by eating paint chips.
Therefore, it is important to prevent
exposure of all members of the
family.
People renovating old homes
should be especially careful when
cleaning or removing paints (see
also the section on ‘Renovation’).
Care needs to be taken to avoid
sanding, abrasive blasting or
burning paint containing lead to
protect yourself and your family. Do
not burn old painted wood in
fireplaces or in barbeques.
13
worked with asbestos-containing As the level of exposure which may
asbestos products (like demolition workers, cause health effects is not known,
maintenance workers, and exposure to asbestos fibres or dust
Asbestos is a naturally occurring brake/clutch mechanics). containing asbestos fibre exposure
fibrous silicate mineral. It was used should always be kept to a
Generally, home building products
widely in the construction, car and minimum.
which contain asbestos do not pose
textile industries because of its a risk to health. However, if the Always seek professional advice
strength and ability to resist heat asbestos is disturbed during activity about managing asbestos in your
and acid. which produce fibres or dust from home. Accurate identification can
The three main types of asbestos the asbestos product, (for example, be difficult, and immediate removal
which may be commonly found in home maintenance or renovation) is not necessarily the best option.
old products are: asbestos fibres may be released Work practices for removal and/or
into the air and inhaled. disposal of asbestos-containing
• ‘white’ — used in asbestos products are covered by regulations
blankets and asbestos-cement Microscopic fibres become airborne
— check with your relevant state or
(AC) sheets, when asbestos-containing products
territory authorities for specific
are sawn, drilled, sanded or ground.
• ‘brown’ — used for heat guidelines.
Some ageing asbestos-containing
insulation (also AC sheets), and
products can deteriorate to a state
• ‘blue’ — used for car battery where they are likely to crumble
cases, cement pipes and AC when disturbed (friable), releasing
Generally, home
sheets prior to the mid-1960s. asbestos fibres into the air when
Now that the health hazard of handled.
asbestos is well understood, it is no
longer allowed to be used in
Living with asbestos-containing
products does not automatically
building
building products for the home. The
importation and use of all forms of
lead to ill-health. The risk to your
health depends on:
products which
asbestos will be prohibited from 31
December 2003. • whether asbestos-containing contain
Asbestos-containing products were
rarely labelled. Products like
products are damaged or
breaking down and releasing asbestos do not
cement sheet, roofing sheet, some
textured paints, vinyl floor tiles, pipe
fibres into the air;
• the size and type of the fibres;
pose a risk to
lagging and fire-resistant boards
and blankets bought for the home
• the length of the exposure; health if left
• the concentration of the inhaled
before the mid 1980s may contain
some asbestos. Asbestos was
fibres; and undisturbed.
• an individual’s susceptibility or if
phased out in many of these they have any pre-existing
products after the mid 1980s. disease.
Nearly all of the disease or deaths The potential for ill-effects from
attributed to asbestos are linked to asbestos fibre exposure is greater in
people who mined the mineral, smokers than in non-smokers.
made and/or installed products
containing the mineral, or closely
14
Combustion
products
15
Depending on how much you are Combustion products from different
exposed to, and for how long, sources can add together and build Volatile organic
symptoms may range from up in poorly ventilated rooms to compounds
headaches to confusion, collapse or levels that could affect your health.
even death. At high levels of carbon
To maintain good air quality when Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
monoxide exposure, death can
you have combustion sources: are chemicals (containing carbon)
occur within minutes.
• vent products to the outdoors that evaporate into the atmosphere
Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide at room temperature. They often
(via a flue, chimney, exhaust fan
can irritate the eyes, nose, throat have an odour and are present in a
or rangehood) where possible;
and lungs. Of the two, sulfur dioxide wide range of household products,
is more noticeable — even minor • keep flues and chimneys clean,
construction materials and new
exposure can lead to irritation. and make sure any permanent
furnishings. Some household
ventilation openings are not
More complex combustion products products that contain VOCs include
blocked;
known as polycyclic aromatic paints, varnishes, adhesives,
• have heating or cooking synthetic fabrics, cleaning agents,
hydrocarbons (PAHs) may also be
appliances serviced regularly to scents and sprays. VOCs can also
produced and can adhere to the
ensure they are working properly occur as a result of personal
surface of airborne particles. While
and are not leaking gases into activities, such a smoking.
a number of PAHs are either
your home;
suspected or recognised as possible When used in building products or
cancer-causing substances, more • make sure plenty of fresh
other indoor items, VOCs slowly
research is needed to understand outdoor air is coming into the
make their way to the surface and
their impact on health. room(s);
escape, ‘offgas’, into the
• make sure insulation has not surrounding indoor air (a process
In many cities around Australia,
obstructed a heater flue or similar to evaporation). Most
wood heaters are a major source of
ventilators in the wall or roof offgassing tends to occur when the
outdoor air pollution during the
space. products are new and/or freshly
wintertime. Wood heaters can also
increase indoor air pollutants if not • always follow the appliance installed. After this initial release,
operated properly. Unflued or faulty manufacturer’s instructions offgassing lessens dramatically over
gas heating and cooking appliances — seek advice from the time.
can also increase nitrogen dioxide manufacturer, supplier or your
Only a few specific VOCs have been
and carbon monoxide exposure. gasfitter/plumber if you have
studied in any detail and little is
any concerns;
Charcoal heat beads are safe to use known about the health hazards
• make sure doors connecting when VOCs mix with each other
in outdoor barbeques, but not
garages to the house are tightly and other pollutants. The level of
indoors. Never use treated or
sealed; VOCs in the home can vary greatly,
painted woods in any barbeque or
indoor fireplace; painted wood can • minimise running time for not only over time but also from
contain lead; treated woods, such vehicle engines in garages; room to room, especially if new
as fence palings, can contain • never use an appliance if it is VOC-containing products are
arsenic. When burnt, these damaged or not working frequently introduced. In some
substances may be released into properly; cases VOC concentrations can build
the air or be present in the ash and • do not use a gas oven or gas up to levels that are higher indoors
pose a risk to health and/or to the cooker to heat a room; and than outdoors. Levels in poorly
environment. ventilated rooms increase with
• do not use barbeques or camp increasing temperature.
stoves indoors.
16
The health problems that may be • seek advice from the supplier or
attributed to VOC exposure are manufacturer, particularly if the Pesticides
many and varied. Symptoms information displayed on the
include nasal or airway irritation, container is not clear — you can Pesticides are chemicals used to
headache, and in some cases, ask for the product’s Material control plant and animal pests and
vomiting, and feelings of Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). may be used in and around the
drowsiness. Not only do the • make sure the room is fully home. There are many types of
symptoms vary from individual to ventilated, when adding new pesticides including insecticides,
individual, but a person’s response furnishings or resurfacing walls herbicides, termiticides and
can also change over time. and floors, until the odour fungicides. Some pesticides are
Asthmatics and those with sensitive reduces considerably or very specific, targeting only one
airways, for example, can disappears. type of animal or plant species.
experience effects from VOCs at Others are effective on a broad
lower concentrations than other range of species.
people do.
Pesticides are safe to use indoors
Strategies to reduce VOC exposure when the product is used according
in the home take two forms: to the directions on the label. You
• consider not using, or reducing are more likely to be exposed to
the use of, products that contain harmful levels of pesticides and to
VOCs; and experience health effects if you do
• if the product is necessary, not carefully follow the instructions
on the label.
Only use
ensure adequate ventilation
when using it — you should Only use pesticides when absolutely
pesticides
open doors and windows, necessary. There are a number of
whenever possible and effective ways to control pests in
when absolutely
practicable. your home that do not require
Air fresheners, cleaning sprays, chemicals. For example, good
necessary.
polishes and spray deodorants and hygiene will reduce the opportunity
other spray toiletries are major for pests to establish themselves in
sources of VOCs and should not be your home.
used excessively in non-ventilated In Australia, most professional pest
areas. Building products are controllers are licensed by state
another source of VOCs. When authorities and are required to have
selecting such products you should: training in safe pesticide use. When
• look for building products that selecting a pest controller check to
are pre-dried in the factory or see if they are licensed and
are ‘quick-drying’; perhaps even speak with some of
their other customers.
• use surface coating products
that are water based or classed
as containing zero or low levels
of VOCs;
17
effective at killing mites. If you
house dust mites have a house dust mite allergic pollen
disease (such as asthma), you
House dust mites are microscopic should wash bedding every At certain times of the year
creatures closely related to ticks week. (typically Spring) most grasses and
and spiders. Mites feed mainly on • Encase mattresses, pillows, many trees and shrubs produce
minute flakes of dead skin that doonas and blankets in covers large numbers of light-weight pollen
people shed. They thrive in warm, that mites cannot pass through. grains that can travel in the wind for
moderately humid conditions found Covers stop mite allergens many kilometres.
in your home. scattering from bedding to the
Such windborne pollens are so
air, and reduce the amount of
Mite droppings and body parts small (typically between 1/100th
moisture getting into bedding,
crumble into tiny particles which and 6/100th of a millimetre) that
making them less likely to
can be easily inhaled. The proteins they can be inhaled and lodge in
harbour dust mites. You should
in these particles can induce an either the nose or upper parts of
hot wash covers regularly.
immune response in some people the lungs. When pollen comes into
who are allergic to house dust mites • Dry cleaning kills mites but does contact with moisture, such as that
and make asthma, hay fever, and not necessarily remove in mucous membranes in our
eczema worse. Recent research allergens. The dry cleaning airways, many pollen proteins pour
suggests that exposure to mite chemicals can also leave VOC out of the grain and into the mucus.
allergens as a baby or young child smells.
The range of health responses
may play a role in the initial onset of • Vacuum your carpets regularly.
varies, from mild nasal inflam-
asthma. Ensure the vacuum cleaner is in
mation, through to hay fever,
good working order and has a
Mite activity is highest in regularly asthma and dermatitis. It is also
fine filter system to minimise
used soft furnishings, such as known that a person can be more
allergens escaping from the
mattresses, doonas, pillows, affected by pollen allergens if other
machine. eg HEPA cleaners
couches, chairs, cushions, carpets, airborne pollutants are present.
(see page 28 Is the floor
curtains and drapes and in soft
properly cleaned?) As with many allergens, it is
toys. These items, particularly
• In new homes, consider possible that exposure to pollen
bedding, potentially place people in
installing a wall-mounted allergens during the first months of
close contact with the allergens for
vacuum system which expels life can mean you are more likely to
long periods of time.
exhaust air outdoors. be affected and to suffer allergies
To minimise house dust mite as an adult. Also, some individuals
• Wet-mop smooth floors rather
exposure, it is important to reduce may have a genetic predisposition
than dry sweep, and dust
exposure to the allergen by lowering toward pollen allergy.
furniture with a damp rather
the levels of mite allergens and
than dry cloth to reduce For pollen-sensitive people, the best
discouraging mite growth.
airborne dust levels. protection remains personal
Things you can do include: • If you have an allergy to house awareness of the seasons and
dust mite allergens, consult your conditions that trigger a reaction.
• Wash sheets and pillowcases in
local allergy self-help group on If possible, identify the plants that
hot water. Hot water washing
o
how to set up a low-mite- cause a reaction and discuss this
(greater than 55 C) of bedding
allergen home. with your doctor, who may refer you
kills mites and removes
to qualified medical staff for skin-
droppings. Cooler water washes prick tests. Remove the offending
mite droppings away but is less plants from indoors and stay away
from those outdoors during the
pollen season.
18
Keep a record of your health For those with animal allergies, it is
responses and see if a pattern Pets important to reduce exposure by:
emerges. For example, it has been
• stopping pets from coming
shown that many severe asthma The presence (or even former indoors (check local government
attacks are triggered by a presence) of a pet can lead to ill- by-laws about leaving cats and
combination of rainstorms and high health for some people. A number dogs outside);
pollen counts (the rain seems to of diseases can be passed from
‘burst’ the pollens, the fragments of • excluding pets from bedrooms
pets to humans; talk to your doctor and reducing opportunities for
which can be inhaled deeply into or veterinarian if you would like to
the lungs). them to sleep on beds, sofas or
know more. What is more common, carpets;
Medication to alleviate the but still poorly understood, is that
pets may cause allergic reactions in • washing pets regularly (even
symptoms may be appropriate, but
people. cats) to reduce the allergen load
discuss this with your doctor.
(it will not remove it completely);
Cat and dog saliva, oil from cats’ and
skin, dander and ‘droppings’ are all • washing hands after stroking or
known to carry allergens. The daily playing with pets to lower the
grooming habits of dogs and cats risk of swallowing or inhaling
cause allergens to remain, even for allergens; or
a short time, on the surface of the
fur. Over time, the dried oil or saliva • removing the pet altogether, by
either falls off or sticks to other finding it a new home.
surfaces, such as clothes, Removing pets from the family
furnishings or bed covers. home can be a difficult decision,
Cat dander is especially sticky. It is but one that takes into account
often found in places where there is both medical and social consider-
no cat, having been carried there ations.
on people’s clothes. The fine
particles to which the allergens are
attached become part of the
microscopic dusts around the
home. If the dusts are disturbed
they become airborne and may be
inhaled.
For people who are allergic to
animal proteins, such as cat
dander, exposure to animal dander
allergen will worsen allergic
diseases, such as hayfever and
asthma. However, studies have
provided conflicting results on the
possible link between family pets in
early life and subsequent asthma.
19
The presence of moulds in or condense in any one room —
around the home may cause health many modern coolers automat-
problems. Whilst we still don’t have ically drain after use which
a full understanding of why some allows them to dry out and
people are more affected than reduces mould and fungal
others we do know of three ways in growth inside the cooler;
which moulds make people ill: • clean and disinfect the internal
• allergic reactions of varying surfaces of evaporative coolers
strengths can be triggered when every year — for more
airborne mould spores are information, ask the
inhaled; manufacturer, supplier or local
health department; and
• toxic poisoning may occur if
various mycotoxins (including • do not use unflued gas and
VOCs), produced by a mould, kerosene heaters as they release
become absorbed through the water vapour and other
skin, the lungs or the intestine combustion products.
— reactions vary, but sometimes
they affect the human nervous
system; and Cockroaches
Fungi and moulds • some fungi can infect various
parts of the human body, partic-
ularly the lungs and the skin — Cockroaches can be found in most
Fungi and moulds are an important often such infections relate homes, at least for short periods.
part of the natural world, often directly to an occupation, The two types of cockroaches most
forming complex relationships with although anyone whose immune commonly found in the home are
other plants or animals. Most fungi system is weak can be at risk. the large ‘American’ and small
are invisible to the human eye, ‘German’ species. Australia has its
being nothing more than just a Having a warm dry house with own native ‘roaches, but they are
collection of fine transparent effective extraction fans is a good most commonly found outside.
filaments. Under favourable way to discourage mould growth. To
reduce mould or other fungi growth Cockroaches in your home can
conditions however, many can grow
in your home: cause two health problems:
rapidly producing sizeable and
sometimes colourful growths. These • reduce indoor relative humidity • cockroaches themselves can
growths contain spores — the next to below 50 per cent, if possible, transfer bacteria onto food or
generation of fungi — that can by increasing ventilation and air food preparation surfaces; and
become airborne and be inhaled. circulation, extracting moist • cockroach particles can induce
Mould spores are present all year kitchen, bathroom and laundry an allergic reaction in some
round, but levels are highest in air to the outdoors with exhaust people.
Spring and Autumn. Indoors they fans, and venting clothes driers Controlling cockroaches is best
like damp areas such as to the outdoors; achieved by good housekeeping
bathrooms, cellars, pot plants and • make sure there are enough and maintenance. You should:
poorly ventilated rooms and under door- or window-openings in
stairs. Outdoors they will be in the each room to allow moisture-rich • clean all food preparation
garden, lawn, bark-chips, compost air from evaporative coolers to surfaces regularly — don’t leave
heaps and piles of leaves. flow through the house and not any food lying around, including
pet food and kitchen scraps;
and keep all foods in sealed
containers;
20
• make sure cupboards, fixtures • potting mixes — a different form
and fittings are snug, leaving no Bacteria of legionnaire disease may be
gaps into external walls — this is caught from potting mixes.
especially important in kitchens Bacteria are found almost Always use potting mix outdoors;
and bathrooms; everywhere. Many bacteria occur read the manufacturer’s
• install fly screens on windows normally in the human body — instructions; and use gloves and
and doors to reduce the number some are even beneficial to our wear a dust mask to avoid
of cockroaches that come in; health. breathing the fine potting mix
and dust — you can reduce the
In the home, bacteria are always amount of dust by wetting the
• reduce access to water — present, but only rarely lead to mix. Always clean up the
cockroaches, like humans, don’t health problems. Where problems surrounding surfaces and wash
stay long in places where they do occur, they are likely to arise your hands after use.
can’t drink. from one of the following sources
(only one of which relates directly Spa pools or hot tubs may be
Many chemicals are registered for
to indoor air quality): contaminated with Legionella
controlling cockroaches — they
bacteria, particularly if they are
come as sprays, dusts and baits: • food — food poisoning usually located outdoors or close to doors
• sprays can be applied as spot or occurs through a combination of or windows. You need to properly
crack and crevice treatments; poor hygiene, incorrect food disinfect and maintain spa pools or
• dusts can be applied with a puff preparation and inappropriate hot tubs that recirculate warm water
duster into cracks and hiding storage practices; to reduce the risk of legionnaire
places that are hard to reach • people — physical contact with disease and skin infection. Spa
with a spray; and people who have, or are baths that are drained after each
carrying, a bacteria-caused use are less risky and need only be
• baits (pastes, gels and particle)
health condition; maintained in a clean condition
are generally of lower toxicity to
• pets — physical contact with after use. Your hot water system
humans than many dusts and
pets carrying a bacterium which needs to have adequate
sprays but often require precise
can cause disease in humans; temperature control for storage and
placement, are usually more
should be used regularly.
expensive, and are often not as • water aerosols — legionnaire
effective in controlling heavy disease is a rare form of
infestations. pneumonia caused by Legionella
When selecting and using bacteria which occur naturally in
chemicals, make sure they are the environment in soil and
registered for use on cockroaches water. If this environmental
and are mixed and applied bacterium is allowed to multiply
according to the directions on the to high numbers in warm water
label. If you are unsure, ask your with the right conditions, it can
local health department for advice cause illness if breathed in small
or ask a professional pest control droplets (aerosols) by vulnerable
company to treat your house. people, such as the elderly,
diabetics, people with weakened
immune systems and smokers;
and
21
Clear the air:
questions for
a healthy home
24
If buying or moving to an
established home, will major Design
renovations be needed?
25
Will building security compromise fuel costs, will improve thermal Can the dust be easily removed
health outcomes? comfort (cooler in summer, warmer from the rooms?
in winter), and will help reduce
Concern for personal and property The visible and invisible dusts in
noise between areas inside your
safety leads many home occupants your home are made up of many
home. Home insulation is now
to close doors and windows. While substances. While most of the dust
mandatory in most Australian states
reducing the chance of burglary, it will probably be benign, there may
for all new homes and major
also reduces air exchange. Consider be a small proportion that, if
renovations. The choice of
what security products can be inhaled or swallowed, could trigger
insulation will depend on the level
installed that allow you to feel a health response. As most dusts
of noise control, energy efficiency
secure, but also allow you to are best removed with a damp
and comfort required, and the cost.
regulate the amount of air cloth, it makes sense to design and
You should discuss the options
exchanged between indoors and out. furnish your room(s) with easy to
available with a qualified builder.
clean and washable surfaces and/or
You should also insist on being
Is mechanical ventilation a good fabrics.
provided with an MSDS (material
idea? safety data sheet) and other
product specifications from the Carpeted floors?
Few Australian homes use supplier of your preferred insulation Nearly all residential carpets are
mechanical means to move air into material. laid using gripper strip but underlay
and around the home. We mostly and any adhesives can be sources
rely on windows and doors that can Does your home ‘design out’ of VOCs.
be opened (and in older homes termites?
fixed wall vents) to provide Carpets come in a variety of
ventilation into homes. The ducted Termites (or white ants) are a very weaves, pile heights and fibre
air systems we typically use may important part of Australia’s ecology. types. Ask for assistance from a
heat or cool recirculated indoor air, Unfortunately, our homes are often salesperson in relation to any
but don’t introduce fresh air from built close to theirs, and in ways individual sensitivities and family
outdoors or attempt to remove that provide them with both food needs. eg. long pile can hold more
pollutants. Mechanical ventilation and shelter. In the past, environ- dust. It is a good idea to ventilate
systems for homes are starting to mentally persistent chemicals the home well when carpets or
appear on the Australian market — (organochlorines) were used to kill other materials are introduced.
seek advice from a specialist termites, but these have now been
The process of removing old
mechanical engineer about what banned due to health and environ-
carpets can release trapped dust
system meets your needs. mental concerns. They have been
into the air.
Evaporative cooling systems replaced with other chemicals
increase indoor humidity and may (organophosphates) that pose less
of an ecological hazard and have What about tiled, vinyl (plastic) or
increase levels of mould or dust
less potential for long-term health polished floors?
mites within your home. Once
installed, make sure the unit is risks. Ask your designer or building Smooth floor surfaces, like ceramic
regularly maintained according to inspector whether your home is tiles, vinyl or polished wood, can
the manufacturers’ instructions. designed to prevent termite entry make it easier for you to clean.
— specially designed physical However, before specifying such
Is your home adequately barriers, like mesh or crushed rock products, think about whether there
insulated? to reduce the need for extensive are likely to be any VOCs present,
The installation of adequate and and repeated application of termite- either in the product itself or in
appropriate insulation in your home killing chemicals. other products used to lay (like
will result in greater energy adhesives) and seal the floor
efficiency with significant savings in covering (like varnishes and paints)
and for maintenance products,
such as cleaning fluids and
polishes.
26
Is a wood-burning heater your best operate them in confined spaces for
option? long periods of time. Also, make
sure the heated area is permanently
Wood-burning heaters and stoves
ventilated by installing fixed wall
are a popular way of providing
vents (compulsory in some States).
warmth. But, if poorly installed
Make sure the heaters are well
and/or badly maintained, they can
maintained by regular servicing by
be a major source of fine
a licensed gasfitter.
combustion particles and gases
from leaks and from opening of the Older heaters (pre-1990) are more
door for refuelling. If you really want likely to produce higher NOx values
to install a wood-burning heater or than new heaters. Consider
stove, first check that your local replacing your old model with a
government allows you to do so. new, flued (vented) model. There
Compare the safety and efficiency are many rules and regulations
claims of competing manufacturers. covering the different appliances —
There are minimum Australian your local gas supplier, gas
Standards that heaters and stoves appliance fitter or appliance vendor
must achieve. Make sure the flue or should be able to explain which
vent is properly designed and rules apply to which appliances.
installed, and is regularly
maintained and that only well- Is there a sealable door between
seasoned wood is burnt. the garage and the rest of your
home?
Are gas appliances vented to the
The exhaust from conventional
outside?
petrol and diesel engines contains
Gas is a popular way of cooking, many pollutants, including millions
and space and water heating, with of very fine particles and a variety of
appliances coming in many shapes toxic gases. Such engines should
and sizes. Where you have a not be run in confined spaces (like
choice, always buy appliances that a garage) for more than a few
vent their combustion products to seconds, unless there is good
the outside (gas cookers should be ventilation. It is not wise to allow
vented to the outside by an exhaust contaminated air from the garage to
fan or a range hood). circulate through your home. If you
have a choice, choose a garage that
Unvented mobile gas heaters,
stands apart from your home. If the
although cheap and convenient to
garage is attached to your home,
use, are considered by some
make sure the linking door is well
researchers to pose a health risk
fitted and able to be securely sealed
and have been associated with
against leaks.
more frequent respiratory
symptoms. If use of unvented
heaters is unavoidable, buy only
low-NOx appliances, and don’t
27
When was the kitchen exhaust fan How well does your vacuum
or range hood last cleaned? cleaner capture fine particles?
While a well-sited kitchen exhaust Most modern mobile vacuum
fan and/or range hood that vents to cleaners are good at picking up and
Doormats can the outside may remove many of retaining visible dusts. However,
the particles and gases that arise many struggle to remove all the
reduce the when cooking on gas stoves, fat particles trapped in carpets, and
droplets settle within the vent. nearly all machines let very fine
amount of These deposits build up over time particles pass through the filter/bag,
and can become both a fire hazard back into the room’s air.
materials and a home for fungi and bacteria.
If your health or that of your family
Kitchen exhaust fans and range
brought into hoods should be washed regularly.
seems to suffer after floors have
been vacuumed, you may need to
your home Is the floor properly cleaned?
consider a central vacuum system
which expels exhaust air outdoors.
All floors have the capacity to Alternatively, you should consider
accumulate fluff, dust and other purchasing a specialised high filter
matter such as grass seeds brought efficiency (HEPA) vacuum cleaner,
into the house on shoes. Dust preferably with mechanical pile
carries mircrobiological materials agitation (they cost more than
such as bacteria and spores. conventional vacuums). If you are
Cleaning frequency will depend on particularly sensitive to allergens,
the traffic and the type of use. Avoid you should consider wearing a face
In-use/maintenance cleaners that use fragranced mask during vacuuming and for a
products as they include VOCs. short period afterwards.
28
Think about better food hygiene Thinking of buying an Ozone Is that fragrant product such a
(deny them anything to eat) and generator? good idea?
plugging all those tiny gaps
Ozone is a lung irritant and can Most liquid cleaning agents, many
between the kitchen unit, the wall
increase the health risk from other personal hygiene products, air
and the floor. Ask your local
airborne pollutants. fresheners and perfumed toiletries
hardware supplier about the types
Thinking of buying new fixtures contain VOCs of one sort or another.
of non-toxic ‘gap sealants’ available.
made of pressed wood products? While some people show no ill-
effects from inhaling the fragrances,
The wood you intend to burn: has Before you buy, check to see if the there are those whose health
it been chemically treated? new lounge suite, table, chair or rapidly deteriorates after smelling or
When burning wood, either indoors cupboard is made, wholly or partly, coming into contact with one or
or out, make sure it has not been from plywood, particleboard or more of these types of product,
chemically treated. Do not burn medium-density fibreboard (MDF). even for just a few seconds.
wood with varnish, paint or any Such products often use
other visible chemical treatment, formaldehyde resins which can Are you looking after your compost
like creosote. Avoid burning ‘CCA- release (off-gas) formaldehyde gas heap properly?
treated’ wood (CCA refers to for many years. While some
Australian manufacturers try to Although compost heaps are an
chromated copper arsenate preser-
produce ‘low-emission’ products, excellent way of recycling vegetable
vative). CCA timber — it often has a
there is no guarantee that the scraps and organic matter from the
green tinge, but there is no simple
amount of formaldehyde released garden, they need regular
way to be sure. If in doubt, don’t
will be low (some imported maintenance, and should be
burn it. The best type of wood to
products may be more likely to located well away from living areas.
burn in heaters and stoves is well-
have high emission levels). Unless the heap is managed
seasoned, clean wood.
correctly, not only will it attract
Do the new soft furnishings have unwanted vermin, such as rats,
Thinking of installing an electronic mice and cockroaches, but it may
‘fly zapper’? low gas emissions?
also increase the numbers of fungal
Be careful when deciding where to Many soft furnishings contain foams spores in the air close to your
place an electronic ‘fly zapper’. or other synthetic materials. These home. Most gardening books will
When flies strike some models their materials can release various provide good information on how to
bodies explode, creating small unhealthy gases over time. Some look after your compost heap or you
particles of fly — along with any manufacturers are working to can ask your local nursery.
bacteria or viruses they may be reduce off-gassing from their
carrying — which then float in the products. Ask the supplier for Has the potting mix been stored in
surrounding area. If you must have details about the chemicals used in a cool place?
a ‘fly zapper’, place it some the product and for their advice on
possible health effects. Especially Sealed bags of soil potting mix
distance from food preparation and
ask about VOCs. Try to find have, on occasions, been known to
eating areas. Zappers are also
products that meet low-emission contain high levels of the bacteria
indiscriminate — they attract and
labels if they’re available (see also responsible for legionnaire disease
kill beneficial insects too. Consider
<www.aela.org.au> for relevant (see also Bacteria). It is a good idea
installing flyscreens on doors and
information). to store unopened bags in a cool,
windows instead.
dark place. When opening a bag for
the first time, do so in a well-
ventilated area and avoid breathing
the dust. Wearing a face mask may
also help.
29
What precautions are needed
Renovation when removing or replacing
existing insulation?
Does the paint you intend to The ceiling spaces, walls and some
remove contain lead?
Do you think
floors of many Australian homes are
Lead paint is most likely to be found insulated at the time of building or
your home is in homes built before 1970. Paints as part of home improvements. The
containing up to 50 per cent lead materials used have mostly been
making you or were commonly used on the inside glass wool and rock wool, but more
and outside of houses built before recent insulation materials include
your family ill? If, 1950. Even up to the late 1960s cellulose fibre, sheep wool,
paint with more than 1 per cent lead polyester, reflective foil membranes
after reading this was still being used. Recent and rigid foams. Whilst most of
regulations have reduced the levels these materials have been shown to
booklet and of lead in paint to 0.1 per cent. be stable and remain intact for the
life of the home, some materials
Commercial home test kits are
related web
may be prone to deteriorate or
available from some hardware break down over time. Before
stores. For more reliable results,
sites, you believe
removing or replacing the existing
use the services of an analytical insulation, where available, check
laboratory. If you do find lead in or
something in
the insulation packaging material
around your home, phone your for handling instructions as some
state or territory public health unit
your home may
insulation materials are more
for advice (see also Further unstable than others and more
information — Lead).
be making either
prone to be dusty when disturbed.
you or your
What precautions are you or your
painting contractor taking when
30
If you can identify the product, you
could also ask for an MSDS
(material safety data sheet) and
other product specifications from
the supplier of the material.
Regardless of the type of insulation
originally installed in your home, all
insulation products will gather dust
from inside the house and be blown
in by the wind. Using a reflective
foil sarking under roof tiles should
significantly reduce dust from
entering the attic space and also
provide incremental insulation
benefits. Always take care when
removing any insulation, and
prevent skin, eye and respiratory
discomfort by wearing loose
comfortable clothing, gloves, and a
disposable dust mask. If dusty, and
whenever working overhead, also
wear eye goggles. When removing
insulation from the ceiling space, it
is best to remove it from the roof
rather than through the house. You
should discuss the options available
for removal and disposal of
damaged or unwanted insulation
with a qualified builder, or qualified
professional insulation installer.
31
further
information
Multi-topic texts
Book Indoor Air Quality: A Report on Health Impacts and Management Options by the
Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care, 2000. ISBN 0 6424 4667 9.
Web above text available at http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/publicat/document/
metadata/env_indoorair.htm
Book Indoor Air Quality by S. Brown. A State of the Environment Technical Paper for
Environment Australia, 1997. ISBN 0 6422 5279 3.
Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/soe/techpapers/12indora.html
Info Indoor Air Quality Information Clearing House (IAQ INFO), Address: PO Box 37133,
Washington, DC 20013-7133, Phone: (800) 438-4318 or (709) 356-4020, Fax: (703)
356-5386, Email: iaqinfo@aol.com
Book State of Knowledge Report: Air Toxics and Indoor Air Quality in Australia by
Environment Australia, 2001.
Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airtoxics/
Booklet Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 1994. US Gov# 1994–523–217/81322.
Web above text available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.html
Book Indoor Air: A Health Perspective by J. Samet and J. Spengler (Eds), John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 1991. ISBN 0 8018 4125 9.
Book Indoor Air Quality Handbook, J. Spengler, J. McCarthy and J. Samet (Eds), McGraw-
Hill, NY 2000, ISBN 0 0744 5549 4
Book Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards by J. Harte, C. Holdren, R.
Schneider and C. Shirley. Elsevier Science Ltd., 1991. ISBN 0 5200 7224 3.
Book The Low Allergy Garden by M Ragg, Hodder Headline Australia Pty Limited, NSW,
1996.
Info Pamphlet on types of plants — The NSW Asthma Foundation, Unit 1, Garden Mews,
82–86 Pacific Highway, St Leonards NSW 2065 http://www.asthmansw.org.au/
Allergies
33
Analytical laboratories
Book For locally-based testers, check your Yellow Pages under LABORATORIES.
Web Main page for National Association of Testing Authorities. http://www.nata.asn.au/
Asbestos
Asthma
Carpets
Chemical databases
Web http://dino.wiz.uni-kassel.de/dain/index.html
Web http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/
Web http://www.health.usyd.edu.au/tobacco/
Web http://www.health.gov.au/nhmrc/advice/nhmrc/execsum.htm
Web http://www.quit.org.au
34
Fungi
Gases of combustion
Web http://www.lungusa.org/air/envcombusti.html
Web http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/combust.html
Web http://www.epa.gov/iedweb00/asthma/triggers/combust.html
Web http://www.jlconline.com/jlc/archive/energy/vent/
Health in context
Booklet Australia’s Health 2000 by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
ISBN 1 7402 4054 5.
Web above text available at http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/health
Health — psychology
Web Environmental Health Risk Assessment by Department of Health and Aged Care and
enHealth, 2000. http://enhealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/envhazards.pdf
35
Home design
Lead
Booklet Lead Alert: the six step guide to painting your home by Environment Australia, 1999.
ISBN 0 6425 4627 4.
Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airquality/lead/pubs/
leadpaint.pdf
Web http://www.msds.com.au/
Web http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/
Ozone
Web Ozone generators that are sold as air cleaners by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 1998. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/ozonegen.html
36
Particles
Book Particles in our air: concentrations and health effects by R. Wilson and J. Spengler
(Eds). Harvard University Press, 1996. ISBN 0 6742 4077 4.
Pets
Radon
Web Radon in Homes. An information sheet from the Australian Radiation Protection and
Nuclear Safety Agency. http://www.health.gov.au/arpansa/is_radon.htm
Safety
Book Designing Out Crime: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by S. Geason
and P. Wilson. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. 1989.
ISBN 0 6421 4307 2.
Standards
Wood heaters
37
glossary of terms
Allergen: Almost any substance (for example, pollen, house dust mites and some food) which
stimulates the immune system into producing antibodies.
Alveoli: Millions of microscopic thin-walled cells located at the end of the airways within the lungs
where gases from the atmosphere are exchanged with gases carried by the blood stream.
Antibodies: Proteins produced by specialist cells in the body which are designed to bind to
substances recognised as foreign agents (allergens).
Analytical laboratory: A laboratory, which contains specialist staff and equipment, devoted to
analysing chemicals. Laboratories vary greatly in the scope of the work they undertake. Commercial
labs work to special rules to ensure the quality of their work — they are accredited by the National
Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).
Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells play a role.
In susceptible individuals this inflammation causes symptoms which are usually associated with
widespread but variable airflow obstruction that is often reversible either spontaneously or with
treatment, and also causes an associated increase in airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli.
Australian Standards: A large number of published documents which set out specifications and
procedures designed to ensure that a material, product, method or service is fit for its purpose and
consistently performs in the way it was intended (see Further information — Standards).
CCA: Chromated copper arsenate preservative used to treat some timber products – particularly
those to be used outdoors. Treated timber often has a green hue.
Damp-proof course: (or dampcourse) A horizontal layer of impervious material laid in a wall to stop
moisture rising into the wall.
Dander: Minute scales that fall from the hair, feather and skin of all warm blooded animals.
Eczema: An itchy inflammation of the upper layers of the skin, occurring on the face or body
especially where the skin creases.
38
ETS: Environmental tobacco smoke
Flashing: A protective sheet of metal (often lead or copper) covering a joint or surface on a roof or
wall that may be exposed to rain.
Formaldehyde: A component of many glues and resins, produced and used in the chemical and
plastics industries and used in manufacture of pressed wood products such as particleboard or
chipboard.
Fungi: A group of related organisms that are neither plant nor animal, for example mushrooms are
a type of fungi, as are yeasts, moulds and mildews.
Genetic predisposition: The inherited information that determines physical characteristics of each
individual that is encoded in the genes at conception (heredity).
Hazard: When doctors, building designers, engineers, chemists and researchers talk about ‘hazard’
they are referring to something that has a potential to cause harm. Fire, for example, is a hazard —
everyone knows fire has the potential to cause harm.
HEPA: High efficiency particulate arresting is a term used in association with filters, being a
reference to a specific type of filter capable of preventing 99.97 per cent of particles from passing
through it.
Igneous: One of three broad terms (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic) used to categorise
rock types.
Low-NOx: A shorthand technical term used to describe the output of a combustion process
containing comparatively low levels of the gases nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Lung cancer: A non-specific term for various conditions characterised by abnormal growth of cells
in or around the lungs, leading to the formation of tumours.
39
Macrophages: Large, white blood cells, capable of ingesting and or destroying substances foreign
to the human body. There are many different types of macrophage, each performing specific tasks,
often in close association with particular tissues or organs.
MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet. Australian manufacturers are required to provide specific
details about the composition and use of their products. You are entitled to ask the product’s
retailer for a copy of the any product’s MSDS.
Mycotoxins: A range of chemical compounds, variously produced by different fungi, which are
toxic to humans.
Organochlorine: A large group of organic compounds containing chlorine which in the past were
widely used as insecticides, such as DDT, lindane and chlordane.
Passive smoke: The mixture of gases and fine particles that comes from the ends of burning
cigarettes and the smoke that smokers breathe out.
PVC: Polyvinyl chloride, a light, durable and widely used form of plastic.
Radon: A naturally occurring radioactive gas produced from radioactive decay of radium.
Relative humidity: A ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the amount of water present in
the air relative to the amount that would be present if the air were saturated. Since the latter
depends on temperature, relative humidity is a function of both moisture content and temperature.
Risk: When doctors, building designers, engineers, chemists and researchers talk about ‘risk’ they
mean the likelihood of harm occurring from exposure to a hazardous agent.
VOCs: Volatile organic compounds are chemicals (containing carbon) that evaporate into the
atmosphere at room temperature.
40
Membership
enHealth Council Chair
The enHealth Council, a
subcommittee of the National Members
Public Health Partnership, brings
State and Territory Health Department representatives:
together top Environmental
Health officials at the Federal New South Wales Director Environmental Health
and State/Territory level along Victoria Manager Environmental Health
with representation from the
Queensland Manager Environmental Health Unit
Australian Institute of Environmental
Health, the environment and Western Australia Acting Director Environmental Health Service
public health sectors, the South Australia Director Environmental Health
Indigenous community and the
Tasmania Senior Medical Officer Occupational Health
wider community. The Council
has responsibility for providing Northern Territory Program Director Environmental Health
national leadership, implementation Australian Capital Territory Manager Health Protection Service
of the National Environmental
New Zealand New Zealand Health Ministry
Health Strategy, forging
partnerships with key players,
Commonwealth Department of Director, Environmental Health
and the development and coordi- Health and Ageing
nation of advice on environ-
mental health matters at a Australian Institute of National President
national level. The advice Environmental Health
development process is strongly
based on collaboration and Environment Australia
consultation.
Public Health Association of Australia
41
7. Provide a pivotal link between Air series
Terms of reference international fora and environ- 1. Ozone (1997)
mental health stakeholders in
2. Benzene (1997)
1. Provide national leadership on Australia and strengthening
Australia’s collaboration with 3. Nitrogen Dioxide (1997)
environmental health issues by:
countries in the Asia–Pacific 4. Sulfur dioxide (1999)
i) coordinating and facilitating
region.
environmental health policies General series
and programs 1. Pesticide use in schools and
ii) establishing strategic school grounds (1997)
partnerships between Publications 2. Paint film components (1998)
environmental health 3. Guidelines for the control of
stakeholders (This list includes monographs public health pests – Lice, fleas,
iii) setting priorities for national produced by the National scabies, bird mites, bedbugs
environmental health policies Environmental Health Forum which and ticks (1999)
and programs the enHealth Council has replaced).
Exposure series
iv) providing an open consul-
1. Child activity patterns for
tative system for policy Foundation documents
environmental exposure
development The National Environmental Health assessment in the home (1999)
v) facilitating cost effective use Strategy
of environmental health Counter disaster series
The National Environmental Health
resources. 1. Floods: An environmental health
Strategy Implementation Plan 2000
practitioner’s emergency
2. Drive the implementation of
management guide (1999)
National Environmental Health Human environment interface
Strategy.
Water series Environmental health justice
3. Advise the Commonwealth,
1. Guidance for the control of Indigenous environmental health
States and Territories, Local
Legionella (1996) series
government and other
stakeholders on national 2. Guidance on water quality for
1. Indigenous Environmental
environmental health issues. heated spas (1996)
Health No. 1 (1999)
4. Coordinate the development of 3. Guidance on the use of
2. Indigenous Environmental
environmental health action rainwater tanks (1998)
Health No. 2 (2000)
plans at local, state and national Soil series 3. Indigenous Environmental
levels.
1. Health-based soil investigation Health No. 3 (2001)
5. Promote and develop model levels, 3rd edition (2001)
environmental health legislation, Environmental health systems
2. Exposure scenarios and
standards, codes of practice, 1. National standard for licensing
exposure settings, 3rd edition
guidelines and publications. pest management technicians
(2001)
6. Strengthen the national capacity (1999)
3. Composite sampling (1996)
to meet current and emerging 2. Environmental Health Risk
environmental health Metal series Perception in Australia (2000)
challenges. 1. Aluminium, 2nd edition (1998) 3. Health Impact Assessment
2. Zinc (1997) Guidelines (2001)
3. Copper (1997) 4. Environmental Health Risk
Assessment Guidelines For
Assessing Human Health Risks
From Envirnmental Hazards
42