Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Explosive Ayarza Caldera Eruptions
Explosive Ayarza Caldera Eruptions
ABSTRACT
Peterson, P.S. and Rose, W.I., Jr., 1985. Explosive eruptions of the Ayarza calderas,
southeastern Guatemala. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 25: 289--307.
INTRODUCTION
S t o i b e r a n d C a r r ( 1 9 7 3 ; C a r r e t al., 1 9 8 2 ) r e c o g n i z e d t w o t r a n s v e r s e
structures that define the southeastern-Guatemala tectonic segment of the
M i d d l e A m e r i c a n A r c ( F i g . 1; inset}. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a n d e s i t i c c o m p o s i t e
*Present address: BLM Elko District Office, 3900 Idaho Street, Elko, NV 89801, U.S.A.
cones of the active volcanic front that lie within this tectonic segment,
some 200 olivine-bearing basaltic cinder cones and small shield volcanoes
occur in clusters elongate northeast--southwest, delineating fault-bound
margins of the segment. Chemically classified by Cart (1976) as alkalic
and high-alumina basalts after Kuno (1966), these rocks are in intimate
spatial and temporal association with extensive Quaternary obsidian flows,
some of the largest such flows on the continent (Williams et al., 1964).
Volcanic complexes near segment borders are c o m m o n l y associated
with large Krakatauan-type calderas (Stoiber and Cart, 1973). Inward
from the margins, equally violent pyroclastic, caldera-forming eruptions may
occur but with less frequency. Mid-segment volcanoes characteristically
lack the complexities, the domes and secondary vents, of their marginal
counterparts (Stoiber and Carr, 1973).
The Ayarza calderas lie some 40 km northeast of the active volcanic
front and slightly inward from the western margin of the southeastern-
Guatemala tectonic segment as defined by Stoiber and Cart (1973; Fig. 1,
inset). The two calderas coalesce to form a figure "8"-shaped depression,
now occupied by Laguna de Ayarza (Fig. 1). Dozy (1949) first recognized
the depression as a double caldera; Williams (1960) attributed the origin
of the calderas to the explosive eruptions of two overlapping pyroxene-
bearing andesitic stratocones. Neither the bathymetric investigation of
Poppe et al. (1985) nor our stratigraphic study indicates any post-collapse
activity at Ayarza, an observation first made by Williams (1960).
::Tt /t },5?7 : m
Fig. 1. Location map of the Laguna de Ayarza calderas. Inset: black circles = stratocones
of the active volcanic front; letters indicate rhyolitic centers o f northern Central America:
A = Atitlan; B = Amatitlan; C = Ayarza; D = Coatepeque; E = Ilopongo; dashed lines =
transverse zones delineating southeastern-Guatemala tectonic segment o f the Middle
American Arc (modified after Carr et al., 1982). Black bars = exposures of the Mixta
unit. Topographic contours in meters.
291
STRATIGRAPHY
Introduction
- 7 Pl_n k_. _
\
\
SABANA REDONDA
AIR FALL
\
TAPALAPA
,ASH
1
7 0
I5m
I
0
.
RHYOLITICQ
ASH-FLOW
DEPOSIT
. 0
BA,SALT c
,eior
HYBRID . I
JIIXIIJ,,II, I
a 0
RHYiTIC
0 0
;SH / WMldi
Fig. 2. Correlation of Ayarzan pyroclastic sections from north and south sides of Laguna
de Ayarza.
292
2 3 4 5
observed calculated observed calculated observed calculated
Rb (ppm) 17 42 36 44 48 68 66 128
Sr 610 550 510 510 450 470 370 64
Ba 290 330 340 360 380 390 440 620
La II 13 12 19 13 15 15 20
Sc 26 21 21 19 19 14 15 0.7
Zr 194 190 175 187 167 184 155 106
1. M i x t a b a s a l t .
2. D a r k m a t e r i a l f r o m b a n d e d p u m i c e .
3. H o m o g e n e o u s g r e y p u m i c e .
4. H o m o g e n e o u s g r e y p u m i c e .
5. M i x t a r h y o l i t e ( p u m i c e b l o c k s ) ; t r a c e - e l e m e n t content is t h e m e a n o f 3 a n a l y s e s .
Whole-rock analyses by XRF.
* T o t a l i r o n as F e O .
**Analyses recalculated to 100%.
~Applicable only to major-element chemistry.
293
Petrology~petrography
The silicic end member of the Mixta unit is phenocryst-poor, contain-
ing about 5 or less volume percent total phenocrysts consisting of subequal
amounts of oligoclase and biotite with trace magnetite and ilmenite in a
matrix of vesiculated, hydrated glass. Vesicle morphologies range from
equant to elongate.
Subrounded masses of the vesiculated aphanitic basalt contain at most
two or three volume percent of subequal amounts of euhedral phenocrysts
of labradorite and calcic hornblende, as much as 0.5 cm in diameter, in a
hyalopilitic matrix. Incluson of grains of one phenocryst species within
another suggests simultaneous crystallization of plagioclase, amphibole
and opaque oxides.
The hyalopilitic matrix consists of approximately 40 and 30 vol.%,
respectively, of slender, unzoned crystallites of labradorite and amphibole
as felty and fan-shaped intergrowths in approximately 30 vol.% interstitial,
hydrated glass; a small quantity of Fe-Ti oxides is also present. The am-
phibole laths have been identified as composites of calcic hornblende
(Table 2) intergrown with an optically distinct amphibole tentatively identi-
fied on the basis of optical properties as cummingtonite. Synneusitic clusters
of forsteritic olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase are also present. Their
appearance is fresh and unresorbed, suggesting equilibrium with the horn-
blende and remaining melt.
The compositions of both plagioclase phenocrysts and crystallites are
labradorite (Ans0+s) as determined by refractive index and extinction angles;
similarly the compositions of phenocrysts and crystallites of amphibole are
very much alike although that of the matrix population is more variable
(Table 2). The compositional similarity of the phenocryst and matrix grains
of these phases suggests that intratelluric crystallization and subsequent
294
'FABLE 2
] '2
Structural formulae* *
Si 6.62 6.40-- 5.64
AI TM 1.38 1.60- 2.36
8.00 8.00 8.00
A1VI 0.92 1.02- 0.57
Ti 0.28 0.35
Mg+ Fe 3.8 3.63- 4.08
5.00 5.00 5.00
Mg+Fe 0.76 0.97-- 0.38
Ca 1.89 1.83-- 1.74
2.65 2.80 2.12
Na 0.92 0.81-- 0.78
K ().]0 0.09-- 0.08
Geothermometry ~
Mg/(Mg+Fe) 0.60 0.64- 0.62
Xz/XNa 0.11 0 . 1 1 - 0.10
T (-+50C) 850 835 800
1. Amphibole phenocryst from Mixta basalt; calcic hornblende after Hawthorne (1983).
2. Amphibole crystallites from Mixta-basalt matrix; calcic hornblende after Hawthorne
(1983).
*Total iron as FeO.
**Based on 23 oxygen.
VEquilibrium temperature of co-existing melt and hornblende calculated with the alkali-
exchange geothermometer of Helz (1979) under the assumptions discussed in Peterson
et al. (in prep.).
quenching of the remaining melt took place under similar conditions. The
skeletal or hollow morphology commonly exhibited by plagioclase crystal-
l i t e s also i n d i c a t e s r a p i d g r o w t h , p e r h a p s a c c e l e r a t e d as t h e b a s a l t " c h i l l e d "
against the rhyolite magma.
Hybrid pumices resulted from physical mixing of the rhyolite and basaltic
295
Geochemistry
The Mixta rhyolite is chemically very similar to other Quaternary biotite-
bearing rhyolites from Guatemala (Rose et al., 1979, 1981); indeed, major-
oxide geochemistry of all Quaternary rhyolites in northern Central America
exhibits far less variation than minor- and trace-element geochemistry and
the former has been shown inadequate as a correlation tool of widely dis-
persed tephra (Drexler, 1978; Peterson, 1980). The variation diagrams of
Fig. 3 express the minor differences observed within rhyolitic material at
Ayarza yet also permit its geochemical distinction from other rhyolitic
centers in northern Central America.
The Mixta basalt, a high-alumina basalt as defined by Kuno (1966), is
chemically similar to basalt from other parts of Guatemala (Carr, 1974;
Rose et al., 1978, 1981). However, the Mixta basalt contains pristine pheno-
crysts and matrix grains of amphibole in contrast to the majority of Quater-
nary high-alumina basalts of Guatemala that commonly contain phenocrysts
and groundmass crystallites of olivine and clinopyroxene as the dominant
mafic minerals. The low MgO content (3.9 wt.%) and Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio
4. o: .Oo oo
4 t "" "
o 20.0
zo xx r
g 012
SO00
% , o ".
.
o ~ tO0 "~
o
40 1 x x
C~ 20 . 00. 0
3
..... Zr
o 3 o o | iooo O0
4 " 2 1"o'o OoO
00
oo 4OO.O
21
IO oo oo
65 70 75 8o 65 70 7,5 oL ioo 2o0 3oo
SiO 2 S i0 2 Zr
F i g . 3. Variation diagrams contrasting major-, minor- and trace-element contents o f
s o m e rhyolitic tephra from northern Central America. A y a r z a n units: 1 = Mixta; 2 =
Pinos Altos; 3 = Tapalapa; 4 = 8abana R e d o n d a . Open circles = Atitlan; solid circles =
A m a t i t l a n ; crosses = I l o p o n g o . Only use o f minor- and trace-element c o n t e n t s permits
g e o c h e m i c a l correlation o f these tephra units to their respective source areas.
296
TABLE 3
Electron microprobe analyses of Fe-Ti oxide phenocrysts from rhyolitic pumice blocks
of the Mixta airfall
AI~O.~ 0.98
FeO* 83.46 44.08
MgO 0.08 0.19
TiO~ 7.71 49.01
MnO 2.18 4.4
Total 94.41 97.68
*Totaliron as FeO.
Discussion
Detailed discussion of the Mixta unit and its genesis will be presented
by Peterson et al. (in prep.), who have proposed coexistence of the end-
members in a compositionally and thermally stratified magma body similar
to those envisioned by Smith (1979), McBirney (1980) or Hildreth (1981).
Mixta hybrid material probably represents a pre-emption thermal and
compositional buffer that separated the two end-member melts. If the
volume of hybrid material and the compositional gap between end mem-
bers from these mixed eruptions can indeed be translated into "time"
(Smith, 1979), then coexistence of the Ayarzan melts was short-lived and of
a duration too short to permit significant isotopic contamination of the
rhyolite by older radiogenic crust (Table 4).
Assuming coexistence of the melts, rhyolite overlying basalt, the mini-
mum total pressure at which mixing could have occurred is 1--2 kbar (~ 3--
6 km depth) as limited by the Mixta rhyolite from extrapolation of mini-
mum melting behavior in the pure "granite" system. Both the rhyolite and
basaltic magmas were probably undersaturated with respect to water al-
though, in view of the dominant mafic phases in each, both were water-
bearing. Hypothetical separation of the Mixta basalt from a parent magma
through fractionation of olivine and pyroxene took place at some greater
depth under hotter, drier conditions.
Eruption of the Mixta unit was more likely triggered by local tectonism
than by abrupt intrusion of the rhyolite by the basalt. Local tectonic activ-
ity may have jostled and disrupted the stratified magma body, ultimately
initiating an eruption that fortuitously preserved petrographic evidence of
amphibole fractionation from the basaltic melt. Preservation of pristine,
euhedral phenocrysts and quench-crystallites of hornblende in the Mixta
basalt is testimony to amphibole fractionation within the crust, a mecha-
298
TABLE 4
Introduction
A meter-thick paleosol separates the upper pyroclastic sequence at Ayarza
fr o m the older Mixta unit {Fig. 2). The you nger rhyolitic sequence consists
of a major air-fall unit t hat is immediately overlain by exceptionally fine-
grained ash-flow material; these units have been informally named the
Pinos Altos air fall and Tapalapa ash. Locally, to the nort h and northwest,
a thin horizon of air-fall tephra, called the Sabana R e d o n d a air fall, lies
within the ash. A log from the Tapalapa ash unit has been C14-dated at
23,100 + 500 y.B.P., which represents the age of the last recognized activ-
ity at Ayarza.
Description. To the south, two sets of well sorted, normally graded rhyolitic
(Table 5) tephra f or m the Pinos Altos air fall; on the n o r t h e r n flank o f the
western caldera, only one poor l y sorted set is observed. The upper set
ranges between 2 and 5 meters in thickness. T he lower set contains larger
and mo r e abundant lithic fragments although the largest pumice block ob-
served in it was only 5 cm in diameter; pumice of 10--15 cm in diameter
(25 cm the m a x i m u m diameter observed) are c o m m o n in the upper set.
F r o m its greater thickness and larger-sized pumice population, we inter-
p r e t the upper set, or second pulse, to represent a m ore intense phase of
activity. A few of Pinos Altos t ephr a exhibit faint, wispy grey streaks t hat
are vaguely reminiscent of Mixta banded hybrids.
299
TABLE 5
Major- and available minor- and trace-element composition of pumice blocks from the
Ayarzan rhyolitic units
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pinos Altos tephra contain all of the phenocryst species observed in the
Mixta rhyolite but in slightly greater quantity. Three or 4 volume percent
each of biotite and oligoclase are present with about a percent. of Fe-Ti
oxides, An important mineralogical difference between Pinos Altos and
Mixta rhyolites is the additional presence of a percent or two of amphibole
in the former, not unlike, in composition, the calcic hornblende observed
in the Mixta basalt (Table 6). All the Ayarzan amphiboles are a low-silica,
high-alumina type in which there is a significant amount. of tetrahedral
alumina substituting for silica.
Tapalapa ash
TABLE 6
Electron microprobe analyses of amphibole phenocrysts from the Pinos Altos and Sabana
Redonda air-fall units
l '2 3 4 5
Structural formulae* *
Si 6.37 6.36 6.30 6.53 6.62
A1IV 1.63 1.64 1.70 1.47 1.38
8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8,00
A1vI 0.18 0.27 0.19 0.18 0.92
Ti 0.28 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.28
Mn 0.07 .... 0.04 0.07 n.d.
(Mg + Fe) 4.47 4.50 4.47 4.48 3.80
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
(Mg + Fe) 0.57 0.58 0.55 0.68 0.76
Ca 1.81 1.82 1.85 1.63 1.89
2.38 2.40 2.40 2.31 2.65
Na n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.92
K 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.10
P u m i c e " b l o c k s " a r e o f 2 - - 4 c m in d i a m e t e r ( t h e m a x i m u m o b s e r v e d )
a n d f o u n d o n l y in t h e b a s a l o r m i d - s e c t i o n o f t h e u n i t . O n l y t h e b asal
p o r t i o n o f t h e u n i t c o n t a i n s an a p p r e c i a b l e v o l u m e o f l i t h i c f r a g m e n t s ,
w h i c h i n c l u d e f r a g m e n t s o f M i x t a b a s a l t a n d h y b r i d p u m i c e as m u c h as 6 c m
in d i a m e t e r .
T h e f i n e - g r a i n e d ash o f t h e T a p a l a p a u n i t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y b l o c k y
morphology, suggestive of a phreatomagmatic o r i g i n ( H e i k e n , 1 9 7 2 ) in
301
l' \
Zo no De orza
....
SAN JUAN
- !
f L
,i
%
Fig. 4. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T a p a l a p a a s h - f l o w d e p o s i t .
t - I ~P N P8 5.6 1.61
I LOG (23,100 r 5 0 0 Y B P )
the Tapalapa ash to the north have greatly augmented volume estimates
originally presented by Peterson (1980), these estimates remain conserva-
tive minimums limited to near-source exposures. As Rose et al. (1981)
caution, near-source thicknesses do not necessarily provide an accurate
assessment of a unit's total volume. The volume of the Mixta unit (air-
fall plus ash-flow material) has been increased to at least 0.1 km 3 (DRE);
collectively, the units erupted from the western cone -- the Pinos Altos air
fall and the Tapalapa ash unit (including Sabana Redonda tephra) -- are
credited a minimum 2.0 km ~ (DRE; Rose et al., 1981).
I ! ~. I0
92 W "' 9
-16ON /" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
/
/'
/ GUATEMALA
\
/
Fig. 6. Distribution of Pinos Altos air fall based upon geochemical correlation with distal
sites (after Peterson, 1980).
SUMMARY
(3) The presence of wispy grey streaks through Pinos Altos tephra has
been noted and the bimodal~ty of the Mixta unit is obvious. Rose et al.
(1981) indicate that basaltic material comprises a significant portion of
the total volumes erupted from the five major silicic centers in northern
Central America (Fig. 1; inset). Whether this basaltic association is wholly
predetermined, as primary source material (e.g., Hildreth, 1981) or for-
tuitous, as a triggering mechanism (e.g., Sparks et al., 1977), remains sub-
ject to debate. Clearly, however~ the basalt/rhyolite association pervades
northern Central America.
(4) Virtually identical Sr-isotope ratios determined for the Mixta end-
m e m b e r components (Table 4) suggest a single magmatic source. The Ayar-
zan ratios reaffirm that petrogenesis of rhyolites in northern Central America
has not involved old radiogenic crustal rocks.
(5) Although we are unable to assess the importance of amphibole frac-
tionation from basaltic material in the magmatic arc environment, pristine
phenocrysts of calcic hornblende preserved in the chilled Mixta basalt are
testimony to its occurrence.
(6) Hydrous mafic phases (biotite and hornblende) of Ayarzan rhyolitic
tephra may reflect elevated water pressures that permitted phenocryst
crystallization at relatively low magmatic temperatures (<<800C). Perhaps
assisted by high Plinian columns and prolonged atmospheric admixture,
these low temperatures prohibited welding within either of the ash-flow
deposits identified at Ayarza. Although other thicker and more extensive
ash units in northern Central America are also unwelded (e.g., the Los
Chocoyos ash; Hahn et al., 1979; Rose et al., 1981), the Fe-Ti oxide tem-
peratures derived from Ayarzan tephra are among the lowest noted for
the region.
(7) No evidence of resurgence is observed at Ayarza (Williams, 1960;
Peterson, 1980; Poppe et al., 1985), indicating that each of the respective
systems culminated its volcanic activity with a single, violent eruptive phase.
The Ayarzan units are among the youngest tephra erupted from the major
silicic centers in northern Central America; the Los Chocoyos ash, a volu-
metrically and stratigraphically significant silicic unit widely dispersed
throughout the highlands of Guatemala (Hahn et al., 1979; Rose et al.,
1981) has been assigned an age of 85,000 -+ 5,000 y.B.P. (Hahn et al.,
1979; Drexler et al., 1980). The historically active mafic volcanic front is
younger than 50,000 years old and in general lies trench-ward of all of
the silicic centers. Thus, silicic volcanism in northern Central America
preceeded the advent of the mafic front but also continued as activity
shifted trench-ward. Silicic eruptions that overlap with activity of the
front probably represent a magmatic "lag t i m e " in response to the adjust-
ment of subduction angle or speed or plate arrangement that induced migra-
tion of volcanism trench-ward. Although the Ayarzan systems may literally
have run out of steam, Ilopongo (El Salvador) erupted dacitic to rhyo-
dacitic tephra as late as 300 A.D. and fumarolic activity continues. Ilopongo
306
is essentially in line with the mafic stratocones of the volcanic front; Ayarza
of the five silicic centers, is furthest removed from the active front (Fig. 1;
inset).
REFERENCES
Allen, J.C. and Boettcher, A.L., 1971. The stability of amphiboles in basalts and andesites
at high pressures. Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr. with Programs, 3: 490.
Allen, J.C., Modreski, P.J., Haygood, C. and Boettcher, A.L., 1971. The role of water
in the mantle of the earth: The stability of amphiboles and micas, In: Proc. 24th
Int. Geol. Congr., 2: 231--240.
Anderson, A.T., Jr., 1980. Significance of hornblende in calc-alkaline andesites and
basalts. Am. Mineral., 65: 837--851.
Boettcher, A.L., 1973. Volcanism and orogenic belts - - t h e origin of andesites. Tectono-
physics, 17: 223--240.
Cart, M.J., 1974. Tectonics of the Pacific margin of northern Central America. Ph.D.
thesis, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H., 159 pp.
Cart, M.J., 1976. Underthrusting and Quaternary faulting in northern Central America.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 87 : 825--829.
Carr, M.J., Rose, W.I., Jr. and Stoiber, R.E., 1982. Volcanism in Central America. In:
R.S. Thorpe (Editor), Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks. Wiley and Sons, New
York, N.Y., pp. 149--166.
Cawthorne, R.G. and O'Hara, M.J., 1976. Amphibole fractionation in calc-alkaline
magma genesis. Am. J. Sci., 276: 309--329.
Dozy, J.J., 1949. Some notes on the volcanoes of Guatemala. Z. Vulkanol., 8: 47--67.
Drexler, J.W., 1978. Geochemical correlations of Pleistocene rhyolitic ashes in Guate-
mala with deep-sea ash layers of the Gulf of Mexico and equatorial Pacific. M.S. thesis,
Michigan Technological University, Houghton.
Drexler, J.W., Rose, W.I., Jr., Sparks, R.S.J. and Ledbetter, M.T., 1980. Geochemical
correlations of Pleistocene rhyolitic ashes in Guatemala with deep-sea ash layers of
the Gulf of Mexico and equatorial Pacific. Quat. Res., 1 3 : 3 7 3 - - 3 9 1 .
Hahn, G.A., Rose, W.I., Jr. and Meyers, T., 1979. Geochemical correlation of genetically
related rhyolitic ash-flow and air-fall ashes, central and western Guatemala and the
equatorial Pacific. In: C. Chapin and W. Elston (Editors), Ash-flow Tuffs. Geol. Soc.
Am., Spec. Pap. 180.
Hawthorne, F.C., 1983. The crystal chemistry of the amphiboles. Can. Mineral., 21:
173--480.
Heiken, G., 1972. Morphology and petrology of volcanic ashes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.,
83: 1961--1988.
Helz, R., 1976. Phase relations of basalts in their melting ranges at PH,O = 5 kbar: Part II.
Melt compositions. J. Petrol., 17: 139--193.
Helz, R., 1979. Alkali exchange between hornblende and melt: a temperature-sensitive
reaction. Am. Mineral., 64: 953--965.
Hildreth, E.W., 1979. The Bishop Tuff: Evidence for the origin of compositional zona-
tion in silicic magma chambers. In: C. Chapin and W. Elston (Editors), Ash-flow
Tuffs. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 180: 43--75.
Hildret,h, E.W., 1981. Gradients in silicic magma chambers. Implications for lithospheric
magmatism. J. Geophys. Res., 8 6 ( B l l ) : 10153--10192.
Inman, D.L., 1952. Measures for describing the size distribution of sediments. J. Sedi-
ment. Petrol., 22: 125--145.
Kuno, H., 1966. Lateral variation of basalt magmas across continental margins and is-
land arcs, Can. Geol. Surv. Pap., 66-15: 317--335.
307
Lindsley, D.H. and Spencer, K.J., 1982. Fe-Ti oxide geothermometry: reducing analyses
of coexisting Ti-magnetite (Mt) and ilmenite (Ilm) (abs.) EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys.
Union, 63: 471.
McBirney, A.R., 1980. Mixing and unmixing of magmas. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
7: 357--371.
Peterson, P.S., 1980. Tephra of the Laguna de Ayarza calderas of southeastern Guatemala
and its correlation to units of the Guatemalan Highlands. M.S. thesis, Michigan Tech-
nological University, Houghton, 108 pp.
Peterson, P.S., Rose, W.I., Jr., Bornhurst, T.J., Noble, D.C. and Grant, N.K., in prep.
Mixing of cogenetic basaltic and rhyolitic magmas and evidence for the stability of
amphibole within the crust at Ayarza, Guatemala.
Poppe, L.J., Paull, C.K., Bradbury, J.P. and Newhall, C.G., 1985. A geophysical, sedi-
mentological, paleontological and mineralogical study of Laguna de Ayarza, a Guate-
malan caldera lake. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 25: 125--144.
Rose, W.I., Jr., Bonis, S., Stoiber, R.E., Keller, M. and Bickford, R., 1973. Studies of
volcanic ash from two recent Central American eruptions. Bull. Volcanol., 37: 338--
354.
Rose, W.I., Jr., Anderson, A.T., Bonis, S. and Woodruff, L., 1978. The October 1974
basaltic tephra from Fuego volcano, Guatemala: description and history of the magma
body. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 4: 3--53.
Rose, W.I., Jr., Grant, N.K. and Easter, J., 1979. Geochemistry of the Los Vhocoyos
Ash, Quezaltenango Valley, Guatemala. In: C. Chapin and W. Elston (Editors), Ash-
flow Tuffs. Geol. Soc. Am., Spec. Pap., 180: 87--100.
Rose, W.I., Jr., Hahn, G.A., Drexler, J.W., Malinconico, M.L., Peterson, P.S. and Wunder-
man, R.L., 1981. Quaternary tephra of northern Central America. In: S. Self and
R.S.J. Sparks (Editors), Tephra Studies. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 193--211.
Shaw, H.R., Smith, R.L. and Hildreth, E.W., 1976. Thermogravitational mechanisms
for chemical variations in zoned magma chambers (abstr.) Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr. with
Programs, 8: 1102.
Smith, R.L., 1979. Ash-flow magmatism. In: C. Chapin and W. Elston (Editors), Ash-
flow Turfs. Geol. Soc. Am., Spec. Pap., 180: 5--27.
Sparks, R.S.J., Sigurdsson, H. and Wilson, L., 1977. Magma mixing. A mechanism for
triggering acid explosive eruptions. Nature, 267 : 315--318.
Spencer, K.J. and Lindsley, D.H., 1981. A solution model for coexisting iron-titanium
oxides. Am. Mineral., 66: 1189--1201.
Stoiber, R.E. and Carr, M.J., 1973. Quaternary volcanic and tectonic segmentation of
Central America. Bull. Volcanol., 37: 304--325.
Stormer, J.C., Jr., 1983. The effects of recalculation on estimates of temperature and
oxygen fugacity from analysis of multi-component iron-titanium oxides. Am. Mineral.,
68: 586--594.
Tuttle, O.F. and Bowen, N.L., 1958. Origin of granite in the light of experimental studies
in the system NaA1Si3Os-KA1Si3Os-SiO2-H20. Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir 74, 153 p.
Walker, G.P.L., 1973. Explosive volcanic eruptions - - a new classification scheme. Geol.
Rundsch., 62: 431--446.
Williams, H., 1960. Volcanic history of the Guatemalan Highlands. Univ. Calif. (Berke-
ley), Publ. Geol. Sci., 38: 1--86.
Williams, H., McBirney, A.R. and Dengo, G., 1964. Geologic reconnaissance of southern
Guatemala. Univ. Calif. (Berkeley)Publ. Geol. Sci., 50: 1--56.
Wunderman, R.L., 1983. Amatitlan, an active resurgent caldera immediately south of
Guatemala City, Guatemala. M.S. thesis. Michigan Technological University, Hough-
ton, 192 pp.
Yoder, H.S., Jr., 1969. Calc-alkaline andesites: Experimental data bearing on the origin
of their assumed characteristics. In: A.R. McBirney (Editor), Proc. Andesite Con-
ference. Oreg. Dep. Geol. and Min. Ind. Bull., 65: 77--89.