Logical equivalence

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In logic, statements p and q are logically equivalent if they have the same logical content. This is a semantic concept;
two statements are equivalent if they have the same truth value in every model (Mendelson 1979:56). The logical
equivalence of p and q is sometimes expressed as p q , Epq , or p q . However, these symbols are also
used for material equivalence; the proper interpretation depends on the context. Logical equivalence is dierent from
material equivalence, although the two concepts are closely related.

1 Logical equivalences
Logical equivalences involving conditional statements:

1. p = q p q
2. p = q q = p
3. p q p = q
4. p q (p = q)
5. (p = q) p q
6. (p = q) (p = r) p = (q r)
7. (p = q) (p = r) p = (q r)
8. (p = r) (q = r) (p q) = r
9. (p = r) (q = r) (p q) = r

Logical equivalences involving biconditionals:

1. p q (p = q) (q = p)
2. p q p q
3. p q (p q) (p q)
4. (p q) p q

2 Example
The following statements are logically equivalent:

1. If Lisa is in France, then she is in Europe. (In symbols, f = e .)

2. If Lisa is not in Europe, then she is not in France. (In symbols, e = f .)

Syntactically, (1) and (2) are derivable from each other via the rules of contraposition and double negation. Semanti-
cally, (1) and (2) are true in exactly the same models (interpretations, valuations); namely, those in which either Lisa
is in France is false or Lisa is in Europe is true.
(Note that in this example classical logic is assumed. Some non-classical logics do not deem (1) and (2) logically
equivalent.)

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3 Relation to material equivalence

Logical equivalence is dierent from material equivalence. The material equivalence of p and q (often written p
q ) is itself another statement, call it r , in the same object language as p and q . r expresses the idea "' p if and only
if q '". In particular, the truth value of p q can change from one model to another.
The claim that two formulas are logically equivalent is a statement in the metalanguage, expressing a relationship
between two statements p and q . The claim that p and q are semantically equivalent does not depend on any particular
model; it says that in every possible model, p will have the same truth value as q . The claim that p and q are
syntactically equivalent does not depend on models at all; it states that there is a deduction of q from p and a deduction
of p from q .
There is a close relationship between material equivalence and logical equivalence. Formulas p and q are syntactically
equivalent if and only if p q is a theorem, while p and q are semantically equivalent if and only if p q
is true in every model (that is, p q is logically valid).

4 See also
Entailment

Equisatisability
If and only if

Logical biconditional
Logical equality

5 References
Elliot Mendelson, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, second edition, 1979.
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