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Dynamic Strain Aging
Dynamic Strain Aging
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Inuence of dynamic strain aging (DSA) under sequential low cycle fatigue (LCF) and high cycle fatigue (HCF)
Dynamic strain aging loading was investigated by conducting HCF tests on specimens subjected to prior LCF cycling over a wide range
Low cycle fatigue of temperature from 573 to 973 K. DSA was found to be pronounced at 823873 K depending on the magnitude
High cycle fatigue of the stress employed under HCF cycling. DSA was seen to have contrasting implications under LCF and HCF
Low cycle fatigue-high cycle fatigue interaction
deformation resulting in an anomalous fatigue behavior in terms of remnant HCF life under LCF-HCF interaction.
316LN SS
LCF-HCF interaction was found to be pronounced at intermediate levels of prior LCF exposure, where the
remnant HCF life is dictated by competitive damage mechanism resulting from the inuence of DSA under LCF
as well as HCF. Detailed fracture surface examination revealed that extensive hardening associated with DSA
leads to an extended zone of faceted appearance with river markings (Stage-I crack) under HCF cycling (with or
without LCF exposure). This reduces the crack growth rate, delaying the transition of crack from Stage-I to Stage-
II, thereby leading to an extension of life in such cases. On the other hand, a highly striated fracture surface
indicating a quick transition in crack from Stage-I to Stage-II, was observed for loading conditions with minimal
or no inuence of DSA, thus leading to lower life compared to the previous case.
1. Introduction pinning of mobile dislocations by the solute atoms [911] (Cr in the
present case [11]) during the dislocation glide motion or their tem-
Present investigations on fatigue behavior of structural materials are porary arrest at local obstacles in their glide plane under LCF de-
limited mostly to isolated cases of low cycle fatigue (LCF) or high cycle formation. Even though extensive literature on the manifestations of
fatigue (HCF) even though engineering components experience a DSA on LCF is available [1014], the same is very limited on HCF [15]
varying load history throughout their service life. In sodium cooled fast or LCF-HCF interaction [16]. The authors have examined the inuence
reactors (SFRs), components of main vessel, inner vessel and inter- of DSA under LCF and HCF cycling by undertaking a detailed study in
mediate heat exchanger are exposed to LCF damage during the start- the temperature range, 573973 K [7]. The investigation indicated that
stop operation of the reactor [1,2]. Besides, they are also subjected to DSA is pronounced at 823 and 873 K under pure LCF and HCF cycling
HCF loading owing to thermal striping, stratication, ow induced vi- [7]. However, the manifestations of DSA under LCF and HCF were
bration etc. during the steady state reactor operation [35]. Therefore, found to be entirely contrasting with a signicant reduction in the
it is pertinent and essential to examine the material behavior under cyclic life under LCF and a huge increase in life under HCF [7]. Since
combined cycling where strong LCF-HCF interaction is taking place, so HCF tests were carried out under engineering stress-control, extensive
that adequate safety can be ensured in the design. hardening of the matrix resulting from DSA will lower the possibility of
The mechanistic aspects of such damage evolution under high localized plastic deformation thereby delaying the crack initiation to a
temperature LCF-HCF interactions in type 316LN austenitic stainless great extent, leading to an increase in life with temperature, in the
steel (the main structural material for inner vessel components in SFRs) range where DSA is operative [7]. This may result in an anomalous
have been investigated through sequential application of LCF and HCF fatigue behavior in terms of cyclic life, under LCF-HCF interaction, as a
loads [68]. DSA is a commonly observed phenomenon at high tem- function of prior LCF exposure and temperature. However, even at a
peratures, in austenitic stainless steels [9,10] which is caused by temperature where DSA is highly active, the inuence of the same on
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aritra@igcar.gov.in (A. Sarkar).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.09.057
Received 21 July 2017; Received in revised form 13 September 2017; Accepted 14 September 2017
Available online 18 September 2017
0921-5093/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Sarkar et al. Materials Science & Engineering A 708 (2017) 91103
2. Experimental
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Fig. 2. Variation of dierence in remnant fatigue lives between dierent levels of prior
LCF exposure with degree of prior LCF exposure at dierent normalized stresses (823 K). Fig. 4. Variation of dierence in remnant fatigue life between 823 and 923 K with degree
of prior LCF exposure (%), at normalized stress of 1.44.
interaction was strongest for the above LCF pre-exposures. This suggests
that there is a critical damage (occurring at 40% LCF pre-exposure for (Fig. 3) with LCF pre-exposure was found to be almost identical at all
N: 1.36% and 50% LCF pre-exposure for N: 1.44) for which the LCF- temperatures. Even though the remnant HCF life is expected to decrease
HCF interaction is the most eective. The maximum dierence in with increase in temperature for the same N, in the present case, the
remnant HCF life was noted at a higher LCF exposure of 50% at N: 1.36 life variation with temperature did not follow such a trend. The
compared to 40% observed at N: 1.44, indicating a delayed attainment remnant HCF life seems to be very close in the temperature range
of the critical damage in the case of a lower N (Fig. 2). Similar concept 823923 K, as indicated in Fig. 3. However, careful observation reveals
of critical damage has been brought out in the earlier investigations on that it is slightly higher at 823/873 K compared to 923 K, barring the
LCF-HCF interactions by the authors, at 923 K [6,8]. The dierence in LCF life-fractions of 50% and 60% where the same was found to be
reductions in the remnant HCF lives started decreasing beyond 40%, lower at 823/873 K compared to 923 K. To further elucidate these
with a saturating trend from 60% LCF exposure onwards, at N: 1.44. observations, dierence in remnant HCF lives between 823 K and 923 K
However, such saturation was not observed until 80% at a lower N of is plotted against the prior LCF exposure in Fig. 4. It is important to note
1.36. The above observations indicate that at a N of 1.36, DSA mainly that dierence in remnant lives between 823 and 873 K is very small and
results in a delay in attaining critical damage, under LCF-HCF interac- within the range of usual scatter (5%). Hence, the dierence in the remnant
tion (as seen from Fig. 2). HCF lives between 823 K (Nf823K) and 923 K (Nf923K) was considered in the
plot. The plot showed that Nf823K - Nf923K decreased as the LCF pre-
exposure is increased, with a maximum dip at 50% pre-exposure
3.1.2. Eect of temperature beyond which it again increases at 60% pre-exposure. Further, while
3.1.2.1. Prior LCF cycling followed by HCF at N: 1.44. Fig. 3 shows the Nf823K - Nf923K is positive up to 40% of prior LCF exposure, the same
variation in remnant HCF life (N: 1.44) with LCF pre-exposure at turned negative from 50% LCF life-fraction onwards (~ 3 105)
temperatures, 823923 K. The specimens pre-cycled in LCF showed a upto 60% LCF life-fraction (~ 4 104) (Fig. 7c). Beyond 60% LCF
decrease in the residual HCF life which became more prominent with pre-exposure, the Nf823K - Nf923K again turns positive; the dierence too
an increase in the LCF exposure. Initiation of microcracks under LCF is very small and within the usual range of scatter (Fig. 4). The reverse
cycling could serve to bring down the HCF life by shortening the crack trend in remnant HCF life at 50% and 60% of prior LCF exposure
initiation phase under HCF. The decreasing trend in remnant HCF life (change in Nf823K - Nf923K from positive to negative) may therefore be
attributed to the DSA eects from LCF. This is because, under LCF,
active presence of DSA leads to a higher stress response [7,11] resulting
in early initiation of cracks. Consequently, the eective crack length is
expected to be more at 50% and 60% of prior LCF exposure at 823 K
compared to 923 K where the DSA eects are minimal. The relatively
advanced crack formed at 823 K propagated quickly during the HCF
cycling resulting in a lower remnant life at that temperature compared
to 923 K for those prior LCF exposures. At higher levels of LCF
exposures (80%), the crack-initiation phase might be completed
irrespective of temperature and hence, no appreciable dierence in
remnant lives with respect to temperature is observed. At lower levels
of LCF pre-exposure (20/40%), the eective crack may not be large
enough to signicantly reduce the initiation phase under HCF. In such
case, the remnant life becomes more a function of the HCF cycling,
resulting in a higher value of Nf823K - Nf923K at those pre-exposures.
However, DSA eects under LCF gain signicance as the LCF pre-
exposure is increased, resulting in an increase in the eective crack
length under LCF cycling, thereby narrowing down Nf823K - Nf923K with
Fig. 3. Variation of remnant HCF life with prior LCF exposure (%) for dierent tem- increase in LCF pre-exposure.
peratures ranging from 823 to 923 K, at normalized stress of 1.44.
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Fig. 7. Fracture surface of specimens failed under LCF (a)(b) 823 K [7] with (a) multiple crack initiation sites and (b) extensive secondary cracking and striations (c)(d) 573 K with (c)
less number of crack initiation sites (d) striations without secondary cracking.
implying that fracture manifestations at this loading conditions possibly observed that temporary crack retardation can manifest itself in the
result from the DSA eects occurring mainly during HCF cycling . The zones form of a band-like region on the fracture surface, adjacent to the
are marked in Fig. 10 as Zones 15 viz. (1) fatigue crack initiation (2) overload zone containing an intense smeared area denoting premature
transient crack arrest (3) faceted appearance with parallel river contact of the crack faces. Similar features were observed in zone-2 of
markings (4) fatigue striations superimposed within the river- Fig. 11a in the form of a dark semi-circular band (width of ~ 100 m)
markings on the facets and (5) highly striated region. Each zone ahead of the crack front initiated under LCF (zone-1). This constitutes
shown in Fig. 10 is represented separately in Fig. 11(ad) to reveal almost 7% of the fracture area shown in Fig. 10. However, such features
the intricate features. For better understanding, a schematic illustration were found to be absent at 573 K (Fig. 9) in spite of change in load
of dierent zones is provided in Fig. 12(ac). Zone-1 & Zone-2 shown in taking place during LCF-HCF interaction. This can be explained on the
Fig. 10 are magnied in Fig. 11a. Zone-1 marks the initiation of the basis that crack retardation under application of overload during
crack which presumably occurred during the LCF stage (Fig. 12a). The fatigue cycling is a strong function of the overload ratio (ratio of the
crack initiation was followed by a transient crack arrest regime (zone-2) magnitude of overload to constant load) [20,26]. In the present case, it
which signies a change in load from LCF to HCF (Fig. 10, also shown is the ratio of the load corresponding to LCF cycling (higher load-
in Fig. 12b). This is analogous to the crack retardation observed during amplitude) to that corresponding to HCF cycling (lower load-
fatigue crack growth experiments due to periodic or spike overloading amplitude). The cyclic stress response at 823 K is much higher
(sudden application of a higher load) over a constant amplitude loading compared to 573 K, owing to strong DSA in the former case [7],
[20,21]. Such a phenomenon is explained in literature based on crack which would have essentially caused a distinct LCF overload eect at
tip blunting [22], strain hardening [23], crack branching [24] etc. the former temperature. Once the residual compressive stress arising
However, the retardation eects are generally attributed to the eect of out of the overload eect gets relaxed, the crack front ahead of the band
residual plasticity that leads to compressive stresses ahead of the crack propagates further with progressive cycling under HCF. This is shown
tip and raises the crack opening load for subsequent crack growth, as zone-3 in Fig. 10 (also seen from Fig. 12c). Marked portion of zone-3
eventually leading to crack arrest [21,24,25]. Borrego et al. [20] have (Fig. 10) is again magnied in Fig. 11b. This region basically shows a
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Fig. 8. Fracture surface of specimens failed under HCF (N: 1.36) (a) 573 K (b)(d) 823 K (a)(b) few crack initiation sites (c) extended faceted appearance after crack initiation (d) Stage
II cracking indicated by striations (shown through dotted arrows). Black arrow in (d) shows the direction of the major crack.
faceted appearance accompanied by river markings indicative of Fig. 10 (~ 15% of the fracture area) is presented in Fig. 11c where a
crystallographic crack growth along the favorably oriented slip planes transition from crystallographic facets to striations is found to take
(shown schematically in Fig. 12c). The river markings are found in place. The width of the river markings gradually increases in this zone
dierent orientations indicating that several Stage-I cracks are present, with striations starting to appear inside the region between these
many of which are arrested at microstructural barriers such as grain parallel markings, presenting a uted appearance (referred in
boundary (marked in the gure). Most of the surface area of the Fig. 12d). This is indicative of the transition in crack from Stage-I to
fractograph shown in Fig. 10 comprises of zone-3 (~ 1000 m which Stage-II where deformation through slip becomes more homogeneous
amounts to almost 70% of the fracture area shown in the gure) which with activation of multiple slip systems. The river patterns ultimately
can be attributed to the eect of DSA under HCF cycling. This is further make way for a highly striated appearance which is indicated as Zone-5
substantiated by the fact that similar features were observed also under in Fig. 10 (~ 8% of the fracture area). This highly striated region is also
pure HCF cycling at 823 K (Fig. 8c). It was reported by Ritchie et al. shown in detail in Fig. 11d (referred in Fig. 12e). In this case, the crack
[27] that when the local plasticity ahead of the crack tip approaches propagates along dierent slip-planes as a result of multiple slip. In
microstructural size-scales, crystallographic crack growth in the form of absence of DSA at 573 K, the transition of Stage-I (zone-1) to Stage-II
faceted appearance is facilitated. A similar situation arises in the (zone-5) crack takes place very fast, evading zones 24. This has
present case due to DSA-induced hardening under HCF cycling which resulted in a fracture surface fully dominated by striations, at the
reduces the plastic zone size associated with the crack, thus promoting above temperature (Fig. 9b). Consequently, a wide dierence in
the above fractograhic features. Marked portion of Zone-4 shown in remnant lives was found between the temperatures 573 and 823 K,
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Fig. 11. (a): Magnied image of the marked portion in zone-1 & 2 from Fig. 10. (b): Magnied image of the marked portion in zone-3 from Fig. 10 showing faceted appearance with river
markings.(c): Magnied image of the selected portion in zone-4 from Fig. 10 showing uted appearance marked by white arrows. Thick white arrow indicates the direction of crack
propagation. (d): Fracture surface of zone-5 depicted in Fig. 10 showing typical Stage-II striations. Thick white arrow indicates the direction of crack propagation.
subjected to HCF cycling at a N of 1.36 (823 K), both zones 3 and 4 was other minor zone-4 cracks (indicated by ute-like appearance with
seen to coexist, with no well-dened boundary between them dierent orientations and striation spacings) are found (marked by
(Fig. 15a). This was further corroborated from the magnied image dotted white arrows). Since zone 4 is reached in the LCF stage itself.
of the marked portion of Fig. 15a (Fig. 15b) showing characteristics of Hence, signicant LCF-HCF interaction occurred at this pre-exposure
both zone-3 and zone-4 i.e. sharp facets with river markings as well as resulting in a large drop in residual HCF life (Fig. 1). This is also
ill-dened facets with striations superimposed on the river-markings. A reected as attainment of the critical damage at 50% LCF pre-exposure
higher prior LCF cycling to 50% would have allowed most of the (Fig. 2).
initiated cracks (zone-1) to advance signicantly to zone-4, wherein 3.2.2.3.2. Prior LCF cycling (50)% followed by HCF (N: 1.44,
striations started appearing. However, for the same LCF exposure, there 823 K). The fracture morphology pertaining to a higher N with
may be some minute cracks which are still in zone-1. Occurrence of minimal inuence from DSA (N: 1.44, 823 K, 50% LCF pre-exposure)
DSA under HCF cycling will hinder fast advancement of these cracks was shown in Fig. 16. In this case, zone-3 ceased to appear. The image
and they will propagate to zone-3 through crystallographic crack- which was taken at the same distance from the initiation zone as in
growth. Hence, characteristic features of both zones 3 and 4 were Fig. 15, represent mostly zone-5 of the fracture surface. This indicates
observed together in the same region of the fracture surface for the that transition from zone-4 to zone-5 is faster in this case, compared to a
above loading condition. Nonetheless, this phenomenon is very local lower N of 1.36. Even though the major crack (zone-5) (marked by
since majority of the cracks have grown to Stage-II (zone-4) under LCF white arrow) was found to propagate further to failure, several other
cycling, limiting such features only to a small area of the fracture smaller cracks (marked by black arrows) were present as indicated by
surface, close to the initiation zone. As cycling proceeds under HCF, dierent orientations and sizes of striations. The striation spacing was
transition of zone-4 to zone-5 will gain prominence rather than zone-1 found to be continually increasing for the major crack (marked by white
to zone-3. However, only the biggest of the Stage-II crack in zone-4 will arrow) leading to failure while the other Stage-II cracks (marked by
further advance to zone-5 at the expense of other minor zone-4 cracks, black arrows) gradually became non-propagating which is clear from
ultimately causing failure. This is shown in Fig. 15c (taken from a the decreasing size of striation spacing in the direction of their growth.
region close to the overload failure in the fracture surface) where apart These cracks thus manifest themselves as isolated pockets of striations
from the major Stage-II crack (zone-5, marked by white arrow), several on the fracture surface. Similar features were also reported by the
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Crack Arrest
Faceted appearance
Fluted appearance
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Fig. 14. (a): Depiction of zone 35 in the fracture surface of specimens failed under HCF cycling (N: 1.44) with prior LCF exposure of 20%, 823 K. (b): Magnied image of the Marked
portion A from Fig. 9(a) showing the transition from zone-3 to zone-4. (c): Magnied image of the Marked portion B from Fig. 9(a) showing the transition from zone-4 to zone-5. (d):
Fracture surface of zone-5 showing typical Stage-II striations. Loading condition: HCF cycling (N: 1.44) with prior LCF exposure of 20%, 823 K. Thick white arrow indicates the direction
of crack propagation.
LCF (evident from Fig. 7b). Hence, there is almost no dierence in initiation. This reinforces the statements made in Section 3.1 implying
residual HCF lives post LCF exposure of 80% between the two dierent that DSA strongly prohibits localized plastic deformation under HCF,
N at this LCF pre-exposure, as depicted from Figs. 1 and 2 (N: 1.36 and leading to suppression of crack initiation. Fig. 20(ac) denotes the
N: 1.44) indicating that no signicant LCF-HCF interaction is taking surface features of the specimens failed under HCF cycling (N: 1.44 and
place. The above observations also explain the absence of the 1.36) with prior LCF exposure of 50%. Signicant surface relief was
aforementioned striation pockets in this case, which originate in the observed adjacent to the primary crack front for N: 1.44 (Fig. 20a).
HCF stage due to lack of coalescence among the smaller Stage-II cracks Marked-up portion from Fig. 20(a) showed formation of ne slip lines
developed during LCF cycling. It may be noted that crack coalescence and slip-bands along with formation of small secondary cracks around
will be lacking even under LCF cycling when the prior LCF exposure is the primary crack (Fig. 20b). It may be recalled that DSA eects under
50%. Hence, under such cases, when the specimen is subjected to HCF cycling are negligible at N: 1.44 (823 K). Under such situations, at
HCF loading, distinct appearance of zone-3 and zone-4/striation a high N > 1, slip activities near the major crack formed during LCF
pockets will be found, leading to a delay in the onset of zone-5 crack. exposure will be highly accentuated during the course of HCF cycling.
Fig. 20(c) shows the surface features for the specimen failed under HCF
cycling at N: 1.36 with LCF pre-exposure of 50%. In this case, no de-
3.3. Microstructural investigations in terms of surface replica and TEM
tectable surface relief was observed, even in the vicinity of the major
crack. This suggests that the plastic deformation in terms of slip activity
3.3.1. Surface replica
is minimized for N: 1.36. This correlates well with the arguments made
Surface features pertaining to the specimen failed under pure LCF at
previously that under HCF cycling, DSA suppresses the localized plastic
823 K is presented in Fig. 18(a, b). Apart from the major crack
deformation near the crack, thereby delaying its propagation.
(Fig. 18a) [7], extensive secondary cracking is observed (Fig. 18b).
Fig. 19 shows the surface feature of a specimen which went for run-out
at 823 K (N: 1.36) [7]. Although the stress is well above the YS, the 3.3.2. TEM investigations
surface damage in terms of slip activity is seen to be negligible as in- TEM images for specimens failed under pure LCF and HCF as well as
dicated by the absence of any slip lines or bands. Further, no evidence under LCF-HCF interaction are shown in Fig. 21. The specimen that
of surface crack initiation was found. Some small oxide scales were went for run-out under HCF at N: 1.36 shows minimal dislocation
observed on the surface which however, did not contribute to crack activity (Fig. 21a). Some isolated dislocations were found spread
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Fig. 16. Fracture surface pertaining to loading condition: HCF cycling (N: 1.44) with
prior LCF exposure of 50%, 823 K showing Stage-II crack propagation in zone-5. Major
crack in zone-5 (marked by white arrow) is propagating at the expense of minor cracks
(marked by black arrows) which too are in zone-5.
Fig. 17. Fracture surface pertaining to loading condition: HCF cycling (N: 1.36) with
prior LCF exposure of 80%, 823 K showing Stage-II crack propagation (propagation of the
major crack is marked by black arrow) with continually increasing striation spacing.
[11] showing traces of planar and mixed slip mode at 823 K, depending
on the strain amplitude applied. TEM image of the specimen failed
Fig. 15. Fracture surface pertaining to loading condition: HCF cycling (N: 1.36) with under HCF cycling (N: 1.36) with prior LCF exposure of 50% (Fig. 21c)
prior LCF exposure of 50%, 823 K. (a) Co-existence of zone-3 and zone-4 (b) magnied also does not show any major development in substructure. Only some
image of marked portion of (a) showing facets with river-markings (zone-3) and uted planar arrays of dislocations were noticed interspersed with small dis-
appearance (zone-4) together (c) Stage-II crack propagation with major crack (zone-5,
location loops indicating a strong inuence of DSA. It is important to
marked by white arrow) propagating at the cost of other minor Stage-II non-propagating
cracks of uted appearance (zone-4, marked by dotted white arrows).
note that development of substructure under LCF-HCF interaction is
entirely dierent at 923 K where inuence of DSA is minimal [8]. Ex-
tensive formation of microtwins was noticed at that temperature on
randomly in the substructure which well-correlate with the replica attaining the critical damage. [8]
image of the run-out sample under HCF cycling shown in Fig. 19. In
contrast, the specimen undergoes gross plastic deformation resulting in 4. Summary
the formation of specic dislocation substructure under LCF at 823 K
(Fig. 21b). However, cross-slip does not seem to be predominant due to DSA was found to be operative in the temperature range of
presence of strong DSA present at 823 K, resulting in a highly non- 823923 K with a peak in the range 823873 K. Remnant HCF life was
uniform cell structure. This was further corroborated by Reddy et al. found to decrease with increase in LCF pre-exposure irrespective of
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Fig. 18. Replica image of specimen failed under LCF at t/2: 0.6% showing (a) plastic
deformation in terms of slip bands (marked by white arrows) in the vicinity of primary
crack [7] (b) secondary cracking.
Fig. 19. Replica image showing the surface feature of the specimen went for run-out at Fig. 20. Replica image of specimens failed under HCF cycling (N: 1.44) at 823 K with
N: 1.36 showing negligible slip activity [7]. prior LCF exposure of 50% with (a)-(b) N: 1.44 and (c) N: 1.36 showing (a) primary
crack (marked by black arrow) and short secondary cracks (marked by white arrows) (b)
temperature (823923 K). Inuence of DSA was found to be weaker at a magnied view of the surface relief developed in the vicinity of primary crack; dotted
white arrow indicates a short secondary crack and white arrows denote ne slip bands (c)
higher applied stress in HCF, wherein the DSA eects from LCF were
primary crack with no detectable surface damage.
predominant, resulting in lower remnant HCF lives at 823 K compared
to 923 K. At a lower value of the HCF stress, the DSA eects from HCF
were more pronounced leading to a strong competitive damage be-
tween DSA eects from both LCF and HCF. The remnant HCF lives were
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ultimately pushed up since the DSA eects from HCF proved more
decisive compared to that of LCF at lower stress. The above eects were
more prominent at intermediate levels of prior LCF exposure. At a
temperature in the range of DSA (823 K), fracture surface of a specimen
under HCF cycling (with or without LCF pre-exposure) was found to
contain an extended zone of facets with parallel river markings before
the transition to striated appearance. In contrast, at a temperature
outside the DSA regime (573 K), the transition from Stage-I to Stage-II
crack took place very fast, resulting in a vast dierence in lives between
the above temperatures. In the LCF exposures where strong LCF-HCF
interaction is taking place or critical damage is reached, the inuence of
DSA is neutralized to some extent on the account of Stage-II crack
formation in the LCF stage itself. The Stage-II cracking gets delayed at
an applied stress where the inuence of DSA is very high (N: 1.36),
resulting in a delayed attainment of the critical damage or a rightward
shift in the zone of eective LCF-HCF interaction.
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Fig. 21. Substructures of specimens (a) run-out under pure HCF cycling (N: 1.36)
showing isolated dislocations (b) failed under LCF showing non-uniform cell structure
and (c) failed under HCF (N: 1.36) with prior LCF exposure of 50% planar arrays of
dislocations (marked by black arrows) along with dislocation loops (marked by red
arrow), at 823 K.
103