Special Issue: Multiculturalism in Europe

Original Articles and Reviews

The Integrative Role of Sport

in Multicultural Societies
Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis,1 Eleftheria Morela,1 Anne-Marie Elbe,2
Olga Kouli,3 and Xavier Sanchez4
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

1
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece,
2
Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Denmark,
3
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace,
Komotini, Greece, 4Department of Psychology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

Abstract. Sport participation has been recognized as an important socializing agent;

the sport environment is considered a suitable setting for the development of social
and moral values, particularly for youth. Therefore, it can be argued that participation
in sport may reinforce understanding and respect of cultural diversity and foster the
integration of migrants. In this paper, we review the existing literature on the
integrative role of sport among individuals and groups with differing cultural
backgrounds. The existing findings support the role sport may have in promoting
integration; nonetheless, some controversy exists. On the one side, there is evidence
suggesting that sport can promote interaction among people from different cultures,
while also helping individuals maintain ties with their own cultural groups, thus
facilitating the maintenance of their cultural heritage. On the other side, there are
also indications that sport participation may accentuate cultural differences, thus
evoking tensions. Therefore, it appears that sport participation per se may not have
the strength to achieve the anticipated integration; rather, sport would provide a
common ground where integration can be cultivated. Future directions are discussed
to encourage the development of research that enhances further our understanding
on the integrative role of sport in multicultural societies.

Keywords: migrants, physical activity, cultural interaction, cultural maintenance,

review

Migration is a timeless phenomenon related to seasonal or
permanent movement of people. In the light of advances in
communication technologies and the current era of global-
ization, migration represents both a major challenge for
many societies and a highly debated subject involving
legal, economic, demographic, educational, societal, and
psychological facets. The subject of migration is a priority
in the social-political agenda in most European countries,
as most have faced difficulties dealing with the increased
flow of migrants in recent years. The integration of
migrants is of vital importance for maintaining social cohe-
sion, but also for the economic development of any coun-
try; there is now wide recognition of the contribution of
migrants to the demographic and economic growth. Nowa-
days, the issue of effective integration of migrants in the
European Union (EU) countries is one of the focal points
of public debate, with emphasis on diversity management
under conditions of equality and respect for human rights
(Entzinger & Biezeveld, 2003).
The process of acculturation, the cultural, and psycho-
logical change following intercultural contact (Berry,
2003), and eventually the integration of migrants in their
local communities and in the wider society in general has
always been considered to be of fundamental importance.
Consequently, the challenges associated with the migration
phenomena have been examined from a wide range of
areas, including anthropological, educational, sociological,
and psychological perspectives. Lately, the idea that sport
participation can potentially be a socializing agent that
facilitates the integration of people from different cultural

2013 Hogrefe Publishing European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202

DOI: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000155
 192 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
backgrounds in the communities where they live, has
received some attention (Eitzen & Sage, 2003). Character-
istically, the EU White Paper on Sport attempts to promote
sport as an intervention strategy for the integration of
migrants (European Commission, 2007).
The wider value of sport and exercise is known from
classic times. In ancient Athens, the gymnasium was con-
sidered a crucial place for the socialization of young adults.
It was the place where, according to Plato, the development
of the kalos-kagathos citizen, the ultimate merging of the
body and the soul, took place. In the modern era, the social-
psychological aspects of sport participation are widely rec-
ognized. Among others, it has been argued that sport
participation can influence, at the individual level, the
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development of social skills and competencies (Ct,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
2002) as well as moral development (Bredemeier, Weiss,
Shields, & Shewchuk, 1986). At the community level, sport
participation can help protect against social exclusion, facil-
itating inclusion and promoting integration of various
groups and minorities (Elling & Claringbould, 2005).
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of sport
as a means to promote integration among individuals and
groups with differing cultural backgrounds. To that end,
we begin with a brief overview of the socio-moral dimen-
sion of sport, which has received considerable attention in
the sport psychology literature. This aims at justifying the
potential integrative role of sport in multicultural societies,
that is, to explain why we are led to believe that sport may
facilitate integration, but also at revealing the challenges
that such attempts may encounter. Then, in the main part
of this review, we discuss the, limited, sport-related
research addressing issues of integration in multicultural
societies. Lastly, we address future research directions that
could contribute to enhancing our understanding of the
potential integrative role of sport.
Why Sport: Social and Moral Aspects
Sport has long been considered an effective socializing
agent (Grove & Dodder, 1982). More emphatically, Eitzen
and Sage (2003) stated that sport is among the few social
activities that are globally recognized as a vehicle for bring-
ing people together. Such claims can be attributed to certain
characteristics of sport: (a) the large number of children and
youth involved; (b) that sport participation is, at least for the
vast majority of individuals, a volitional behavior; (c) the
mixed demographic and socioeconomic background of
those participating; and (d) its interactive and highly com-
municative nature. In addition, and in particular with regard
to the integrative role of sport, it has been shown that con-
tact and sharing across members of different groups may
reduce negative intergroup attitudes (Allport, 1954) and
enhance mutual acceptance (Amir, 1969); in particular,
under conditions of equality and the pursuit of shared goals
among members (Brown, Vivian, & Hewstone, 1999), con-
ditions that are accommodated within the context of sport.
Furthermore, according to the Social Identity Theory
(Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament, 1971), within appropriate
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
environments, once people identify themselves as members
of a group, a sense of collective identity develops, which sub-
sequently influences social behavior.
The role of sport in society has been stressed at different
levels. From a social perspective, Seippel (2002) suggested
that sport is an open and inclusive activity where young
people can develop social networks of friends. Moreover,
past literature suggests that sport provides an arena for
the development of social skills such as cooperation and
socialization (Wuest & Lombardo, 1994), intergroup rela-
tions (Wankel & Berger, 1990), and citizenship (Elley &
Kirk, 2002).
From a personal and moral development perspective, it
has been argued that sport participation enhances morality
and leads to positive character building experiences
(Bredemeier & Shields, 2006). There is evidence that sport
can be used as an effective tool for the enhancement and
improvement of moral behaviors in athletes, as well as
for the promotion of moral development in children (for a
review see Shields & Bredemeier, 2007). Nevertheless,
the popular belief that sport builds character does not sit
well with todays criticism of competitive sport. The poten-
tial of sport participation to provide opportunities for social
and moral development is challenged by a considerable
body of literature suggesting that sport participation can
lead to less desired outcomes, such as lower levels of moral
reasoning, endorsement of aggressive acts as legitimate,
and poor moral functioning when this is perceived as
acceptable through the moral atmosphere or the motiva-
tional climate (for a review see Shields & Bredemeier,
2007). Stemming from such contradictory findings, Shields
and Bredemeier (2007) suggested that sport does not guar-
antee moral and social development; however, sport partic-
ipation can help to enhance morality and improve social
skills if the sport structures are organized, and the team
environment is developed to accommodate such objectives.
Recently, there has been a growing policy interest in the
use of sport to attain a wider range of positive social out-
comes, especially for young people, including developing
social interaction and building citizenship in socially
excluded individuals or groups, mostly focusing on disad-
vantaged and underrepresented young people (Kelly,
2011). Sport can play a crucial role in the social inclusion
process by offering individuals and communities a place to
meet (Keller, Lamprocht, & Stamm, 1998), and by giving
individuals a sense of belonging to a team, club, or commu-
nity (Ennis, 1999).
However, not everybody has similar opportunities to
practice sport. In the above-mentioned era of the gymna-
sium, where peoples moral and social values would be
developed through education and sport, only young men
from Athenian families were allowed. Discrimination
against individuals and groups in the world of sport is wide-
spread and well documented in the modern era as well.
Elling and Claringbould (2005), based on research carried
out in Germany, reported that typical profiles of sport par-
ticipants could be characterized as male, with higher educa-
tional levels and high income, of ethnic majority groups,
heterosexual orientation, and without physical and/or men-
tal impairments/disabilities. Among the characteristics that
2013 Hogrefe Publishing
 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
create exclusion in sport, are those related to ethnicity, race,
religion, and cultural background (Collins, 2002); that is,
characteristics predominantly found in migrants and mem-
bers of minorities. Minority groups typically do not have
equal opportunities to participate in sport activities com-
pared to the members of the dominant society. In particular,
migrant children and adolescents are more likely to be
physically inactive than native children and adolescents
(Singh, Yu, Siahpush, & Kogan, 2008). Furthermore, ethnic
minority women and especially Muslim women have the
lowest rates of sport participation compared to ethnic
majority women and men, and minority men in general
(De Knop, Theeboom, Wittock, & De Martelaer, 1996).
Although exclusion exists in the sport arena, sport par-
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ticipation is used as an example in the fighting against
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social exclusion. For instance, the World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO) and the EU Commission have recognized the
potential role of sport by arguing that all individuals should
have access to sport regardless of social, religious, cultural,
and individual differences, and claim that sport can help
promote social integration and multiculturalism.
The evidence discussed so far with regard to the socio-
moral dimension of sport suggests that sport may play a
central role in facilitating integration. Sport has been
described as, among other things, an arena of equal oppor-
tunities and racial equality (Green & Hardman, 2000), and
a field reinforcing understanding and respect of cultural
diversity (Niessen, 2000). Yet, as identified above, many
challenges and barriers still remain. In the following section
we discuss research that has investigated the integrative role
of sport in multicultural societies from the migrants
perspective.
Is Sport an Integrative Tool?
Heckmann and Schnapper (2003) defined social integration
as the inclusion of individuals and groups into an existing
social structure, an interactive mutual process, the outcome
of a conscious and volitional interaction between individu-
als or groups, that brings changes to the settlement of the
society. Accordingly, in line with Berrys (1980, 1997;
see also Berry & Sam, 2013) seminal work, migrants inte-
gration involves the goal of interacting with the host society
and adopting aspects of its culture (cultural interaction),
while maintaining the links with the traditions and the her-
itage of the original culture (cultural maintenance).
To date, research on the integrative role of sport in mul-
ticultural societies is limited, and findings seem equivocal.
A number of studies have supported that sport can facilitate
the relationships between groups (cultural interaction; e.g.,
Rosenberg, Feijgin, & Talmor, 2003); moreover others
indicate that sport is linked to both cultural interaction
and cultural maintenance (e.g., Stodolska & Alexandris,
2004). Finally, some findings suggest that sport may high-
light cultural differences, and even sharpen ethnic contro-
versy and evoke tensions (e.g., Krouwel, Boostra,
Duyvendak, & Veldboer, 2006). In the following sections
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193
the theoretical frameworks that have been used in the sport
context will be briefly presented and the research findings
will be discussed.
Theoretical Frameworks Used in the Sport
Context
Three theoretical approaches relevant to the issues of inte-
gration have been considered in the sport literature:
Gordons (1964) conceptual model of assimilation (e.g.,
in Ito, Nogawa, Kitamura, & Walker, 2011), Berrys
(1980, 1997) model of integration-multiculturalism (e.g.,
in Kouli & Papaioannou, 2009), and Elling, De Knop,
and Knoppers (2001) model of social integration (e.g., in
Walseth & Fasting, 2004).
Gordon (1964), based on the critique of the approaches
of total assimilation, the melting pot, and cultural
pluralism, proposed a model of assimilation including sev-
eral subprocesses: cultural assimilation, secondary struc-
tural assimilation, primary structural assimilation, and
marital assimilation. According to that model, migrants
acculturation ranges across a continuum from maintaining
ones original culture to adopting the culture of the host
society. At the midpoint of that continuum biculturalism
is placed; in which migrants maintain features of their ori-
ginal culture while adopting the key elements of the host
society. However, this phase is considered transitory, as it
is assumed that successful acculturation is achieved through
the full adoption of the host culture (LaFromboise,
Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). Over the last decades, Gordons
model has been criticized for being ethnocentric, because
assimilation is viewed as a one-way process aiming at the
absorption of the acculturating group into the dominant
group of the hosting society (Alba & Nee, 1997). This
might be a reason why this framework is not commonly
used in the relevant, recently evolved, sport literature.
More recently, Berry developed a two-dimensional
model of acculturation for pluralistic societies, based on
the principles of cultural maintenance and contact-partici-
pation (Berry, 1980, 1997; Berry & Sam, 2013). This
model describes different strategies based on the interaction
of (a) individuals wish to maintain their cultural identity
and (b) their desire to interacting with other cultures.
According to this model, integration, which is considered
as the most effective acculturation strategy for migrants,
reflects the desire to maintain cultural heritage while at
the same time interacting with the host culture. A high ten-
dency to adopt the host culture and at the same time relin-
quish ones cultural background is described as
assimilation. Whereas, the opposite, that is avoiding
attempts to interact with the host culture and remaining
attached to ones cultural background, is described as sepa-
ration. Lastly, low interest in both the host and ones origi-
nal culture is described as marginalization. In addition to
the perspective of the incoming ethno-cultural group, this
model identifies the importance of the host societys will-
ingness to accepting such populations, based on a similar
two-dimensional model. Respectively, multiculturalism,
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
 194 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
reflects the tendency of individuals to maintain their cul-
tural identity, while at the same time are sought relation-
ships with members of the incoming groups.
Berrys model has been further developed by Navas
et al. (2005), who aimed to expand its applicability. They
suggested that individuals choice of acculturation strategy
may change as a function of time, but also domain. They
argued that individuals may choose different strategies
depending on the nature of the domain and in relation to
given individual differences, sociopolitical factors, and dif-
ferences between the original and the dominant cultures. In
their relative acculturation extended model Navas and col-
leagues identified seven domains ranging from more
peripheral or less significant to the original culture (politi-
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cal, work, economy), to more important (social), and to
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most central or significant (family, ideological, religion
beliefs, and values). As it stands, sport is not identified as
one of these domains, though future research shall aim at
exploring its potential for inclusion as another relevant
domain.
Finally, Elling et al. (2001) have suggested three inter-
related dimensions to define social integration: structural
integration, sociocultural integration, and socio-affective
integration. Structural integration refers to the degree to
which a person gets involved in activities (e.g., work, edu-
cation, sport) compared to the rest of the population. Socio-
cultural integration refers to the degree to which individuals
acknowledge individual characteristics, accept cultural dif-
ference, and respect values and identity. Lastly, affective
integration refers to the degree to which individuals interact
and develop social relationships with members of other cul-
tural groups.
In the acculturation literature, Berrys model has
attracted the most interest and is considered the most effec-
tive in explaining, from a social-psychological perspective,
the acculturation processes in multicultural societies
(Bourhis, Moise, Perreault, & Senecal, 1997). Accordingly,
the opening sections of the review that examine the rela-
tionship between sport participation and integration are
structured based on Berrys conceptualization of accultura-
tion, involving the cultural maintenance and cultural
interaction dimensions of the acculturation process. Subse-
quently, studies considering the potential role of the sport
environment in regulating the integrative role of sport are
discussed. The last two sections address studies investigat-
ing the frequency of physical activity participation as a
function of acculturation, and studies examining barriers
preventing sport participation among migrants.
Studies Supporting the Cultural Interaction
Role of Sport
Several studies have supported the role of sport in facilitat-
ing and promoting cultural interaction across a diverse
array of contexts, cultures, and participants. In a physical
educational context, Rosenberg et al. (2003) examined per-
ceptions and experiences of former Soviet Union and Ethi-
opian higher education students regarding the integration
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
process in an Israeli sport college. Their study, based on
interviews and focus group discussions, supported that sport
activities facilitated participants integration experiences. In
particular, most of the participants reported that sport activ-
ities helped to overcome social barriers between them and
Israeli peers, made them understand better the Israeli cul-
ture, and affirmed that sport helped them to make friends
with Israeli students.
Walseth and Fasting (2004) reported on findings from
studies investigating the integrative role of sport in Muslim
women in Norway, based on Elling et al.s (2001) frame-
work. They claimed that participation in organized physical
activity indirectly increased structural integration, as these
women were led to participate in other areas of society.
Furthermore, they found that, through sport participation,
minority girls challenged the stereotypes surrounding Asian
girls as passive, and changed existing gender roles among
the minority population, thus achieving sociocultural
integration.
Ito et al. (2011), based on Gordons theoretical
approach, examined how participation in judo affected
the acculturation of Brazilian children living in Japan (first
to fourth generation migrants). The results showed that chil-
dren managed to improve their language skills, grew in
respect for Japanese customs, and reported that their num-
ber of Japanese friends increased thanks to attending judo
classes. Stack and Iwasaki (2009) explored the role of lei-
sure among Afghan refugees who had recently migrated
to Canada. Participants reported that their participation in
sport was an effective way to be introduced, helped them
in adapting well to the stressful acculturation process and
feel included in their new community, thus facilitating cul-
tural interaction.
In an interesting intervention study, Guerin, Diiriye,
Corrigan and Guerin (2003) attempted to provide an attrac-
tive physical activity program, to Somali refugee women
living in New Zealand, through creating culturally appro-
priate conditions of exercising to overcome cultural barri-
ers, such as access and dressing. They reported that the
program helped the development of social relationships
and community cohesion and provided opportunities to
socialize with other women in the community, who were
neither Somali nor Islamic. These findings are particularly
important; identifying and addressing the needs to facilitate
sport and physical activity participation for migrants is an
effective way to produce the desirable results toward cul-
tural communication, and to facilitate integration.
The above studies have supported the role of sport in
facilitating cultural interaction. However, according to
Berrys (1980, 1997) framework, the goal of integration
requires, in addition, the maintenance of cultural heritage.
For individuals or groups who have preserved their cultural
heritage, the cultural interaction provided through sport can
facilitate integration. However, for individuals who have
been absorbed by the dominant culture, integration involves
seeking association with members of their group to initiate
or preserve links with their cultural traditions. In the next
section, the studies that have supported the dual cultural
role of sport, that is both its cultural interaction and cultural
maintenance, are discussed.
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 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
Studies Supporting the Dual Cultural Role
of Sport
In a rather unique study that took place in The Netherlands,
Muller, van Zoonen, and de Roode (2008) investigated the
impact of sport activities on cultural relations and social
integration during the Amsterdam World Cup (AWC), an
annual soccer tournament seeking to contribute to multicul-
tural societal integration. Researchers collected data from
four different sources: the organizers, the municipality sup-
porting the AWC, the participants, and the spectators. Their
findings were very interesting. The organizers and the fund-
ing municipality considered the AWC as a means to
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enhance contact, mutual understanding, and respect across
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cultures. However, findings indicated that, team members
saw their participation in the tournament as an opportunity
to enhance social cohesion within their own community, to
improve interethnic relations, and to establish identification
within the local national community. Regarding the specta-
tors, most of them reported that they went to the tournament
to socialize with friends and to support their own ethnic
community instead of interacting with members of other
ethnic groups. Muller et al.s (2008) study is a representa-
tive example of the diversity on how sport can impact on
individuals and groups integration and multiculturalism.
The findings further stress the significance of the sport
structures, as it appears that the integration goals should
be sought in culturally mixed rather than in culturally
homogeneous teams.
Stodolska and Alexandris (2004) explored the role of
recreational sport in the adaptation process among Korean
and Polish first generation migrants in the US. Participants
choose to use recreational sport activities either to interact
with the dominant culture by taking part in activities with
the mainstream population, or to socialize with their own
community and preserve their ethnic values by participating
in sport activities with individuals coming from the same
ethnic background. Similar findings were reported by Lee
(2005) in a sample of female, first and second generation
Korean American, university students.
In one of the few quantitative studies in this area, Allen,
Drane, Byon, and Mohn (2010) investigated whether sport
participation was used as a vehicle for adapting to a multi-
cultural environment or for cultural maintenance in a sam-
ple of 240 international students from all over the world in
American universities. Findings indicated that both cultural
functions of sport participation were identified; however,
for international students, sport participation was more
important for adapting to a multicultural environment rather
than for retaining their cultural identity. In addition, the
researchers found that students adaptation was influenced
by the frequency of participation; that is, students who par-
ticipated in sports between four and eight times per month
scored higher in the adaptation factor than those who partic-
ipated zero to three times per month, 9 to 15 times per
month, and 16 to 30 times per month. These findings sug-
gest that those participating in sporting activities more
irregularly, and probably in a more recreational fashion,
reported greater adaptation than those not participating in
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195
sport, but also than those participating in a more systematic
and organized way, thus illustrating the complexity of sport
participation as an integrative agent.
The studies supporting the dual cultural role of sport
suggest that individuals, or groups, can possibly find what
they need to achieve integration in sport teams. It is not
entirely clear whether the cultural maintenance and cultural
interaction objectives can be satisfied in the same sport
environment; this would mostly depend on the identity
and the goals of the of team members. However, the evi-
dence suggests that, given the appropriate mixed composi-
tion of a team, the features of the sport environment can
help promote integration through both cultural functions
of sport. Nevertheless, several studies have revealed obsta-
cles for achieving the integration goals, and even have chal-
lenged the facilitating role of sport toward integration. Such
studies are discussed next.
Studies With Contradictory Findings
Within the European literature, Walseth (2008) explored
the integrative role of sport among 15, second generation
migrants, young female athletes. Most of the participants
reported that sport participation helped them to improve
their social networks and integrate easily into the new
social reality by overcoming racial and cultural differences.
However, some participants reported that they often felt
marginalized and failed to develop friendships with their
teammates, especially due to cultural and socioeconomic
class differences; participants also noticed that these barri-
ers did not affect their actual sport participation but their
ability to build social capital within their sport.
Krouwel et al. (2006) argued that sport can also increase
antagonism among individuals and groups through the
fierce rivalry that it may bring. They reported that, in stud-
ies they had conducted in The Netherlands in the context of
football, which was characterized as a sport that may rein-
force one-sidedness and magnify tensions stemming from
societal spheres, members of minority groups preferred to
participate with members of their own group, thus strength-
ening their sense of belonging and reinforcing their ethnic
identity through homogeneous sport activities. They further
reported that, when homogeneous teams of different ethnic
origin met in the field, tension escalated, with members of
teams from the dominant culture using, mostly, verbal vio-
lence and members of the minority teams using, mostly,
physical violence. Krouwel et al.s study highlighted the
role of the sport structures as it identified that having ethni-
cally pure teams competing against each other may not only
fail to promote integration, but even increase hostility and
ethnic controversy.
A number of studies have provided contradictory results
regarding the acculturation of Asians in America. In a study
with first and second generation Korean Americans living
in the US (Lee, Dunlap, & Scott 2011), it was revealed
that participants preferred to participate in sports with
people from their ethnic group, which allowed them to
maintain or even promote their own ethnic values.
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
 196 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
However, numerous participants also reported that they
only liked to have people from the same background as
teammates because of the playing style, and having oppo-
nents from the same background. These results suggest that
for these Korean-American athletes, sport participation was
linked to cultural maintenance, but also tendencies to avoid
interaction with athletes with a dominant background;
strategies that have been linked to separation.
Heo and Lee (2007), in another study with Koreans
studying and playing basketball in the US, noted that ath-
letes experienced social support in their sport environment
that helped them socialize; however, there were also reports
of athletes feeling different and not being able to make non-
Korean friends through their participation in the team. Sim-
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ilar findings were reported by Doherty and Taylor (2007) in
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a study of high school students from various ethnic back-
grounds who had migrated to Canada. The students
reported that participation in sport helped them to improve
their English language skills, learn about Canadian culture,
and make friends. Nevertheless, students also admitted
experiencing social discrimination due to language barriers,
unfamiliarity with the activities, and origin-related
prejudice.
Brunette, Lariviere, Schinke, Xing, and Pickard (2011)
in a study with Chinese studying in Canada, reported that
participants used sport as a vehicle to improve their linguis-
tic skills in English, familiarize themselves with some
aspects of Canadian culture, and make new friends, which
in turn assisted them in integrating into the host society.
Nevertheless, the Chinese students also reported that they
often had difficulties in integrating into sports teams that
were predominantly composed of Canadian players, so they
either separated to a Chinese group or were excluded from
playing, strategies reflective of separation or marginaliza-
tion tendencies.
The above findings challenge, to a degree, the role of
sport with regard to the integration of migrants and the pro-
motion of multiculturalism. Thus, it appears crucial identi-
fying and considering the factors that may deteriorate or
even hamper integration, in addition to exploring how sport
needs to be structured and how the environment needs to be
adapted to promote integration. The section that follows
describes research exploring the factors of the sport envi-
ronment that may regulate the effectiveness of sport partic-
ipation toward the goal of integration.
Studies Examining the Role of the Sport
Environment
The findings reviewed thus far suggest that sport participa-
tion per se does not necessarily promote integration, but
rather that sport can be used as a context for bringing
together individuals with different ethno-cultural back-
ground in a multicultural environment that can promote
integration and multiculturalism. As identified by
Shields and Bredemeier (2007), sport participation may
induce desired sociomoral outcomes, but this depends
on the environment within which sport takes place. The
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
existence of equivocal findings seems to further support this
contention and stresses the need for identifying the factors
of the sport environment that may regulate the integrative
power of sport participation. Studies exploring these factors
do not necessarily support that sport is an appropriate con-
text for promoting integration; rather, they suggest how the
sport environment should be developed to encompass an
integrative role.
Preliminary evidence toward this direction has been
provided in the physical education context. Kouli and
Papaioannou (2009), based on Berrys (1980, 1997) con-
ceptualization of acculturation, explored the relationship
between motivational climate in physical education classes
and ethnic-cultural identity among culturally diverse high
school students in Greece. Findings revealed that task ori-
entation and a mastery oriented motivational climate, which
places emphasis on learning and improving skills on the
basis of self-referenced criteria, was related to cultural
maintenance and cultural interaction, which have been
linked to integration. In contrast, ego orientation and a per-
formance oriented motivational climate, which places
emphasis on outperforming others based on comparative
criteria, related to lack of interaction and feelings of fringe,
which have been linked to marginalization and separation
(Kouli & Papaioannou, 2009). These findings suggest that
the environment where the activity takes place, rather than
the participation in the activity/sport per se, may well be the
key to promote integration through sport.
Based on an initiative by the European Federation of
Sport Psychology (FEPSAC), a research program was
developed to further explore the integrative role of sport,
with particular interest in identifying the factors that may
regulate the integrative power of sport, for both host and
migrant populations (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2012). This
research program has, to date, involved five European
countries (Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, and the
UK), and progressed through a number of stages, from
instrument development and exploratory descriptive data
to the assessment of sporting factors that may contribute
to the promotion of sport as an integrative agent in our mul-
ticultural and multiethnic societies. The research was devel-
oped within the theoretical model provided by Berry (1980,
1997) and the conceptualization of Ethnic-Cultural Identity
Salience questionnaire developed by Ting-Toomey et al.
(2000), as adapted for youth and used in the physical edu-
cation context by Kouli and Papaioannou (2009). Within
this conceptualization, ethnic identity is described as the
importance attached to ones own ethnic background, its
values and practices, and reflects the cultural maintenance
dimension of Berrys model; whereas cultural identity is
described as the importance attached to the broader cultural
context and reflects the cultural interaction dimension of
Berrys model. The key findings of this project are dis-
cussed below.
Sanchez, Hatzigeorgiadis, Elbe, and Ries (2010)
reported on differences in ethnic and cultural identity
dimensions between children who were participating in
sport and children who did not. The results showed no sig-
nificant differences in any of the ethnic and cultural identity
dimensions. Nonetheless, preliminary data regarding the
2013 Hogrefe Publishing
 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
role of the sport environment showed that perceptions of
discrimination against children from either the dominant
or non-dominant background were positively related to lack
of interaction and feelings of fringe, whereas perceptions of
equal treatment were negatively related to lack of interac-
tion and feelings of fringe, and positively related to tenden-
cies toward cultural interaction.
Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2010) presented some prelimin-
ary results regarding young athletes ethnic and cultural
identity in relation to demographic characteristics. Partici-
pants (n = 626), representing both the host and the
migrants population, were young athletes from Denmark,
Germany, Greece, Spain, and the UK. Findings showed
that: (a) females scored higher on cultural identity than
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
males; (b) athletes older than 15 years scored higher on cul-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tural identity than younger ones; and (c) athletes competing
at local or regional level scored higher on ethnic identity
than athletes competing at national or international level.
Lastly, a significant effect was identified for country with
several differences emerging across them on ethnic and cul-
tural identity, suggesting that the structures of the different
countries, and the tradition in receiving migrants should be
considered for the interpretation of the findings. Further
descriptive evidence has been provided by Elbe, Sanchez,
Ries, Kouli, and Hatzigeorgiadis (2011), who showed dif-
ferences among migrants in ethnic and cultural identity
dimensions as a function of sex, type of sport, and level
of participation, with females, team sport athletes, and ath-
letes competing at higher levels displaying more adaptive
integration patterns. The superiority of females over males
on integrative patterns can be attributed to the greater
importance female athletes place on the social aspects of
sport participation (Flood, & Hellstedt, 1991). Team sport
athletes experience greater interaction through their sport,
due to the nature of the sport, and may develop more
socially adaptive attitudes. Finally, athletes competing at
higher levels have more international experiences and more
contact with players from different cultural backgrounds,
which may facilitate the development of a multicultural
friendly profile.
Morela, Hatzigeorgiadis, Kouli, Elbe, and Sanchez (in
press) reported on the relationship between team cohesion
and ethnic-cultural identity in young migrant athletes (aged
1318) living, but not born, in Greece. Findings showed
that cohesion negatively predicted feelings of fringe and
lack of interaction, which suggest that sport participation,
particularly in cohesive teams, can facilitate the develop-
ment of adaptive identity toward the goal of social integra-
tion in migrant adolescents, thus stressing the important
role structures of the sport environment play in promoting
participants integration.
Finally, Elbe et al. (2013) examined the role of the team
motivational environment in predicting ethnic and cultural
identity in two heterogeneous samples: one from Spain
including South American young athletes playing in teams
consisting of South Americans only, and one from Greece
including migrants, mostly from Eastern Europe and the
Balkans, participating in mixed teams. Considerable differ-
ences in the dimensions of ethnic and cultural identity were
identified between the subsamples from the two countries.
2013 Hogrefe Publishing
197
In particular, the sample from Greece scored higher on
fringe and assimilation, and lower on lack of interaction
than the sample from Spain. These findings suggest that
the sample from Greece was more confused with their eth-
nic identity and was seeking contact with the host culture,
possibly through sport, whereas the sample from Spain had
stronger ethnic identity and was interested in maintaining or
strengthening this identity through sport participation. Sub-
sequently, separate regression analyses were conducted. For
the sample from Greece, findings showed that mastery ori-
ented climate was negatively related to lack of interaction,
whereas autonomy support predicted ethnic belonging. The
analysis for the sample from Spain showed that the predic-
tor variables could not significantly explain any of the eth-
nic-cultural identity dimensions. For the sample from
Greece, findings supported that appropriate sport environ-
ments can promote integrative patterns of cultural identity.
The lack of significant findings for the sample from Spain
was attributed to the South American identity of the teams,
which possibly strengthened ethnic belonging and weak-
ened tendencies for interaction with the larger (Spanish)
culture. These findings, once again, stress the need to con-
sider the structures of the team in addition to the environ-
ment that can be shaped from the coach in promoting the
integrative role of sport.
Exercise and Sport Participation as
an Outcome of Acculturation
A different line of research has also been developed in rela-
tion to leisure time physical activity (whether exercise or
sport) participation and acculturation. In particular, from a
health perspective, several studies have examined whether
the progress of the acculturation process influences partici-
pation in leisure time physical activity. The focus of these
studies is on the migrants level of physical activity and
not on the integration process. In these studies, accultura-
tion has been conceptualized as years of residency, lan-
guage use, and generation level. Findings have not been
consistent, though.
In the few studies conducted in Europe the results par-
tially supported the relationship between acculturation and
sport. Hosper, Klazinga, and Stronks (2007), in a study with
first and second generation Turks in The Netherlands,
found that acculturation, measured through a scale assess-
ing language use with family and friends, use of media, dif-
ficulties with reading Dutch, shopping preferences, and
emancipation as examples of Western norms and values,
related to leisure time physical activity; however, the rela-
tionship was not present or was weaker among people who
had children, or who were living in a less attractive neigh-
borhood. In a similar study with women from minority
groups, Hosper and colleagues found that acculturation
was strongly associated with participation in sport among
Turkish women, but not among Moroccan women in the
Netherlands (Hosper, Nierkens, van Valkengoed, &
Stronks, 2008). Finally, Dawson, Sundquist, and Johansson
(2005) reported that time living in the country had a
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
 198 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
positive influence on frequency of leisure time physical
activity for women but not for men. Mejean, Traissac,
Eymard-Duvernay, Delpeuch, and Maire (2009), in a study
with Tunisian migrants in France, found that years of resi-
dence and age at migration were not related to levels of lei-
sure time physical activity.
Among the studies, most carried out in the US, that have
supported the relationship between acculturation and leisure
time physical activity, greater levels of exercise and sport
participation have been reported for individuals and groups
with higher language proficiency (e.g., Crespo, Smit,
Carter-Pokras, & Andersen, 2001; Evenson, Sarmiento, &
Ayala, 2004). However, in many studies no such relation-
ships have been identified (e.g., Chen, 2009; Masel,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Rudkin, & Peek, 2006). Importantly, in the only prospec-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tive study, Unger, Reynolds, Shakib, Spruijt-Metz, and
Johnson (2004) found that acculturation in 6th grade was
significantly associated with a lower frequency of physical
activity participation in 7th grade.
In a recent systematic review of the literature investigat-
ing levels of leisure time physical activity in migrants,
Gerber, Barker, and Phse (2012) reported that 57% of
the studies had provided support for a positive relationship
between leisure time physical activity and acculturation,
which was conceptualized through indices like length of
residence, use of language, and adoption of values. From
a methodological perspective, it should be stressed that
the vast majority of the studies were correlational. There-
fore, it is possible (for the studies supporting the relation-
ship) that it is not only acculturation that influences
levels of physical activity but also that is the level of phys-
ical activity that influences acculturation. As the methodol-
ogy adopted in these studies cannot provide support for the
causality of the relationship, a reciprocal relationship can be
speculated and thus it should be considered in future
research.
Barriers Preventing Sport Participation
for Migrants
One of the issues that should be taken into consideration is
that different ethnic and migrant groups have quite different
beliefs about what constitutes appropriate leisure time phys-
ical activity for different ages and genders, but also about
where such activity should take place. Several barriers have
been identified as causes of low participation in sporting
activities among people from ethnic minority communities,
thus affecting their assimilation and acculturation levels
(Rublee & Shaw, 1991). In particular, it has been reported
that sport participation can be hindered by language and
communication difficulties, social isolation and lack of
social interactions (Rublee & Shaw, 1991), cultural or reli-
gious constraints (Taylor & Toohey, 1998), unfamiliarity
with the activities (Doherty & Taylor, 2007), and racial dis-
crimination (Carrington, Chivers, & Williams, 1987).
Particularly disadvantaged in terms of sport participa-
tion are minority women and girls (Taylor & Toohey,
1998), due to constraints such as lack of parental approval
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
(Carrington, et al., 1987), strict dress codes (Benn, 1996),
and exercising in mixed-sex environment (Dagkas & Benn,
2006). Especially, Muslim girls and women are less likely
to engage in sport activities than boys and men, due to cul-
tural constraints (Dagkas, Benn, & Jaward, 2011).
These constraints should be thoroughly considered and
the needs of individuals from different backgrounds should
be addressed if effective programs and interventions are to
be developed, but also if sport authorities and associations
are willing to develop frameworks to facilitate the partici-
pation of disadvantaged populations in sport, aiming at
improving social integration and multiculturalism. Further-
more, these barriers should be taken into consideration in
the development of future research on the integrative poten-
tial of sport.
Critical Overview
A critical view on the discussed literature can reveal several
aspects that require careful consideration. Most impor-
tantly, research on the potential integrative role of sport
has not been systematic, particularly in Europe. Despite
its research appeal, but also its political significance, a lim-
ited number of studies have been conducted to enhance our
understanding of the role of sport. This observation
becomes even more striking in the light of the attempts that
have been made through international organizations and
governing bodies, such as the WHO and the EU, to promote
sport as an intervention strategy for the integration of
migrants and minorities worldwide.
For the research that has been conducted, an important
drawback is that it has mostly been atheoretical. Despite the
frameworks that have been developed to enhance the
understanding of issues pertaining to migrants integration,
the majority of research considering the role of sport and
exercise has neglected to develop research questions, con-
ceptualize constructs, and use or develop instruments based
on a sound theoretical background. Thus, the conceptuali-
zation and assessment of the involved variables is rather
limited.
A further remark that could be made is that the field has
been, until recently at least, dominated by qualitative meth-
odologies. A possible reason may be the limited popula-
tions, the difficulty of gaining access, and the resistance
of the particular groups to be exposed. Additionally, barri-
ers related to the use of the language may make the person-
to-person flexible interaction more suitable than the
sometimes rigid questionnaires. The use of such methodol-
ogies has provided great insight into the experiences of
individuals and can lead to further research developments;
nonetheless the addition of quantitative research could
increase our knowledge for the role of sport.
With regard to the quantitative methodologies, it was
noticed that limited information regarding the instruments
and the measures developed to assess the constructs of
assimilation and acculturation were provided in a relatively
large number of studies. Moreover, the use of indices such
2013 Hogrefe Publishing
 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
as the years of residence and the use of language to assess
acculturation provide limited insight into the social-psycho-
logical aspects of the phenomenon. In addition, most of the
quantitative studies were basically descriptive, rather than
hypothesis testing.
A further consequence evolving from the limited vol-
ume of research concerns the role of the societal context
within which acculturation occurs, that might influence
individuals integration. Thus, first, second, or third gener-
ation migrants, refugees, or even individuals with different
demographic characteristics within such groups, such as
women and children, probably face different challenges.
Furthermore, the cultural environment of the host society
and its background in receiving incoming individuals
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
(e.g., differences between or within continents, such as
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
the US, Northern Europe, Southern Europe) is an important
determinant of the integration processes (Bourhis et al.,
1997). Finally, as van Osch and Breugelmans (2012) have
recently suggested, perceived differences by the members
of the involved groups may be an important determinant
of intergroup relations in culturally diverse societies.
Accordingly, the role of sport may differ from group to
group, given individual differences, and depending on the
dominant cultural environment. Due to the limited existing
literature on the integrative role of sport, such distinctions
are not yet possible though they seem crucial to a better
understanding of sport as an integrative means. The nature
(e.g., contact vs. non-contact) and the type of sport (e.g.,
team vs. individual) may also play an influential role in
the integrative power of sport participation. Future research
should consider such factors as they may regulate the rela-
tionship between sport participation and social integration.
Lastly, two more characteristics of the research above
discussed are worth noting. Firstly, that the biggest volume
of research has been conducted in North-America (the US
and Canada). Secondly, that in certain instances, organized
sport was not differentiated from other leisure activities
such as non-organized sport, physical education and exer-
cise, or physical activity. Considering the importance of
the topic and the identified limitations, it can be argued that
there is still much room for development in this field. Some
of the most salient future research directions are discussed
below.
Future Directions and Conclusions
To better understand the role of sport in the promotion of
integration and multiculturalism, a more systematic investi-
gation of the ethnic and cultural attributes of the relevant
populations should be sought in relation to the structures
of sport. Most importantly, future research should be
designed and developed on solid theoretical foundations.
The framework provided by Berry and colleagues (Berry,
1980, 1997; Berry & Sam, 2013) may greatly contribute
to the development of future research questions within
the area of sport and multiculturalism. With regard to this
framework, the role of sport for the multiculturalism per-
spective of the model, that is, the part involving the strate-
2013 Hogrefe Publishing
199
gies from the host society should be investigated. To our
knowledge, there is no published empirical evidence on
this. With regard to Navas model, which claims that inte-
gration may be domain specific, future research could
include the sport context to the already identified contexts,
and further examine how integration within sport teams
relates to social integration in general. Furthermore, the
use of validated instruments and the development of
sport-specific instruments are warranted. The cross-cultural
validation of such instruments is a way of producing psy-
chometrically robust evidence regarding our research ques-
tions. Toward this direction, the objective difficulties that
are encountered in the application of research instruments
in non-native populations (e.g., length and language) should
be considered and simplicity should be endorsed to facili-
tate the understanding and the usefulness of such
instruments.
The use of appropriate theories and methods can then
facilitate the exploration of the sport factors that may influ-
ence the effectiveness of sport as an integrative tool. Two
of these factors that require attention are: (a) the structures
of sport teams, such as team composition, team size, homo-
geneity and heterogeneity of members, the level and the
objectives of sport teams; and (b) the attributes of the sport
environment, such as team dynamics, motivational orienta-
tions, and leadership behavior.
Particular attention should be paid to the individual dif-
ferences and the characteristics of the populations that are
involved, with emphasis on the perspectives the different
social-cultural groups have regarding sport and the barriers
that may prevent or hinder participation in sport teams.
Considering the lack of fieldwork in the area, it may
seem premature to suggest that interventions should be
developed and administered to assess the strength of sport
in promoting integration and multiculturalism. Neverthe-
less, such interventions based on the preliminary findings
that are available in the field of sport, but also on findings
borrowed from the wider multicultural integration litera-
ture, would enhance our understanding of the potential role
of sport and the ways to advance research and practice in
this domain. Finally, the development of a European per-
spective that considers the dynamics of the different real-
ities that exist across Europe is needed to boost the
significance, both theoretical and applied, of the research
outputs further.
We must be cautious when concluding. The social inte-
gration within, and throughout the social practice of sport is
a complex process. Further, the connection between sport
and migration, in particular with regard to the potential of
sport as an integrative agent, remains a scantly explored
field. Just as for the studies investigating socio-moral
aspects of sport, the existing evidence on sport and integra-
tion seems to suggest that sport participation per se may not
have the strength to achieve the desired outcomes. Rather,
participation in sport teams where personal development is
valued, the social needs of individuals are appreciated,
socio-moral values are fostered, and appropriate practices
toward these objectives are endorsed, can be a powerful
tool toward the goals of integration and multiculturalism.
To fully understand and exploit sport, systematic research
European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202
 200 A. Hatzigeorgiadis et al.: The Integrative Role of Sport
should be initiated, encouraged, and funded, as migration in
Europe is among the high priorities in both political and
economical agendas.
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Taylor, T., & Toohey, K. (1998). Negotiating cultural diversity Anne-Marie Elbe is Associate Professor
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1361332980010106 of Copenhagen, Denmark, and Vice-
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Wright, T. J., & Oetzel, J. G. (2000). Ethnic/cultural identity Sport Psychology (FEPSAC). Her re-
salience and conflict styles in four US ethnic groups. search interests are motivation, talent
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difference as an organizing principle of intercultural Science at Democritus University of
attitudes and acculturation attitudes. Journal of Cross- Thrace in Komotini, Greece. Her research
Cultural Psychology, 43, 801821. focuses on multicultural and cross-cultural
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Walseth, K. (2008). Bridging and bonding social capital in issues in pedagogy and psychology for
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

sport-experiences of young women with an immigrant physical education and sports.

background. Sport, Education & Society, 13, 117. doi:
10.1080/13573320701780498
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integrating minority women. Sport & Society, 7, 109129.
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Wankel, L. M., & Berger, B. G. (1990). The psychological and Xavier Sanchez, PhD, Cpsychol, is
social benefits of sport and physical activity. Journal of Assistant Professor in the Department of
Leisure Research, 18, 167182. Psychology at the University of Gronin-
Wuest, D., & Lombardo, B. (1994). Curriculum and instruction: gen, The Netherlands. He is currently the
The secondary school physical education experience. St. Secretary General of the European Fed-
Louis, MO: Mosby. eration of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC).
His research interests revolve around the
study of the psychological aspects of sport
Received August 1, 2012 performance.
Accepted May 21, 2013
Published online October 9, 2013

About the authors

Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis is Associate Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis

Professor in the Department of Physical
Education and Sport Science, University Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences
of Thessaly, Greece. His research focuses University of Thessaly
on athletes cognitive processes, with Karies
emphasis on self-talk, and the sociomoral 42100 Trikala
perspectives of sport participation. Greece
Tel. + 30 24310 47009
Fax + 30 24310 47042
E-mail ahatzi@pe.uth.gr

Eleftheria Morela is a PhD student in the

Department of Physical Education and
Sport Science, University of Thessaly,
Greece. Her research interests mostly fo-
cus on issues of cultural change and
adaptation among minority groups, and
ethnic-cultural identity in school and
sports settings.

European Psychologist 2013; Vol. 18(3):191202 2013 Hogrefe Publishing