Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering Mathematics 1 PDF
Engineering Mathematics 1 PDF
MATHEMATICS -I
SECOND EDITION
BSP BS Publications
4-4-309, Giriraj Lane, Sultan Bazar,
Hyderabad - 500 095 A.P.
Phone: 040 - 23445688
e-mail: contactus@bspublications.net
Copyright 2008, by Publisher
Published by :
BSP BS Publications
=:;;;;= 4-4-309, Giriraj Lane, Syltan Bazar,
Hyderabad - 500 095 - A. P.
Phone: 040-23445688
e-mail: contactus@bspublications.net
www.bspublications.net
Printed at
Adithya Art Printers
Hyderabad.
ISBN: 978-81-7800-151-7
Contents
CHAPTER -1
Ordinary Differential Equations of
First Order and First Degree ..................................................... 1
CHAPTER -2
Linear Differential Equations with
Constant Coefficients and Laplace Transforms ...................... 69
CHAPTER-3
Mean Value Theorems and
Functions of Several Variables .............................................. 111
CHAPTER-4
Curvature and Curve Tracing ................................................ 213
CHAPTER-5
Application of Integration to
Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface areas ........................ 313
CHAPTER-6
Sequences of Series .............................................................. 385 _
CHAPTER-7
Vector Differentiation ............................................................. 475
CHAPTER-8
Laplace Transforms ............................................................... 623
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
1
Ordinary Differential Equations of
First Order and First Degree
1.1 Introduction
Differential euqtions play an important role in many applications in the field of
science and engineering, such as (i) problems relating to motion of particles
(ii) problems involving bending of beams (iii) stability of electric system, etc. For
example, Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of change of temperature of
a body varies as the excess temperature of the body to that of its surroundings. If
8(t) is the temperature of the body at time 't' and 8 0 is the temperature of the room
de
in which the body is kept, then dt gives the rate of change of temperature with
time.
de
dt = K(8 - 8 0) ; K is constant
d3y dy
4 +3x _ y=e( .... (a)
3
dx dx
.... (c)
.... (d)
.... (e)
.... (t)
.... (g)
The first four equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) are ordinary differential equations and
the remaining three are partial differential equations.
Order 0/ a differential equation: The order of a differential equation is the order
of the highest ordered derivative appearing in the equation.
Degree 0/ a differential equation: The degree of a differential equation is the
power to which the highest ordered derivative appears in the equation after clearing
the radicals if any.
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 3
1.2 Example
Formation of an ordinary D.E :
The differential equations ar~ formed by eliminating all the arbitrary constants
th~t areinvolved in the functional relationship between the dependent and independent
variables.
For example:
y = cx2 + c 2 where c is an arbitrary constant. .... (I)
To eliminate 'c': (only one constant)
dv
From(l) _0 = c.2x+ 0
dx
I (~V
c= -
2x dx
Substitution of c in (I) gives
y = _I dy x2+ _1_(dy )2
2x d\: 4x 2 d);
d
~ )2 + 2x 3 2d - 4x2y = 0
( dx dx
is the required D.E and y = cx2 + c 2 is called the solution of the D.E.
Note:
Depending on the number of constants in the given equation differentiate it as
many number oftimes successively. Then the elimination of the arbitrary constants
from the resulting equations and the given equation gives the required differential
equation whose order is equal to the number of constants.
1.3 Example
Eliminate the arbitrary constants a, b from xy + x 2 = aeX + be-X and form the
differential equation.
4 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
The given equation is
xy + .x2 = ae-'" + be-x ..... ( I)
The number of arbitrary constants is two. Differentiating (I) w.r., to 'x' two
times successively.
dy _
x dx + Y + 2x = ae-' - be-x .....(2)
d2y ely dy
X ---2 + - + - + 2.1 = aex + be-x .... (3)
d-c dx dx
From (I), (2) and (3) el imination of a, b gives the D.E.
from (I) and (3) we get
d l )' 2dy . .
x --? + - - + 2 = xy + x 2 IS the requIred D_E.
dx- dx
1.4 Example
Form the differential equation by eliminating the constants a and b from
a.x2 + by =
1
Solution:
Differentiating
ax2 + by = I w.r.t 'x' .... (I)
dy
2ax+ 2by- = 0 .... (2)
d-c
Again differentiating wr.t., 'x'
d 2y dy dy
2a+2by - ? +2b-.- =0 .... (3)
dx- dx dx
Elimination of a, b from (I), (2) and (3) gives
x-? i -I
x yYl 0 =0
(Y.h + yl2 0
1.5 Example
Form the differential equation by eliminating the constants from
y = a secx + b tan x
Solution
Given equation is
y= asecx + btanx .... (I)
Differentiating w.r. to 'x'
dy
= asecx tanx + bsec 2x .... (2)
dx
dy
= secx[a tan x + b sec xl .... (3)
dx
d 2y
-,
2 = a sec x tan 2x + a sec3 x + h2sec 2x tan x
(X
2
I.e., d Y
--1 = asecx tan x
2 1
+ bsec-xtanx + bsec 2xtanx + asec 3x
dx-
d 2y
I.e., dx 2 = secx t'lnx(atanx + bsecx) + sec 2x(btanx + asecx) ..... (4)
Substituting
asecx + btanx =y from (I)
atanx + bsecx = --
(~) from (2)
and
secx
in (3) we get
dY)
[-f)
d2
=
(
secx tanx ~ + sec x(y)
--
2
dx secx
d 2y dy
i.e., - -2 - tanx - - ysec2x = 0
dx dx
6 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.6 Example
Form the differential equation of all circles passing through the origin and having <
, x
x
y'
Fig. 1.1
1.7 Example
Form the differential equation of all central conics whose axes coincide with the
axes of coordinates.
Solution
The equation of all central conics whose axes coincide with the axes is
ax2 + bl = 1 .... (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t., x
dy
2ax+ 2by - = 0 .... (2)
dx
Differentiating (2) w.r.t., 'x' again
2
d y
a+by - 2 +b -
y )2 (d
=0 .... (3)
dx dx
Eliminating a, b from (1), (2)(3)
x2 y2
dy
X y- o =0
2
y~+ ~
d 2 (d
dx
dx
dx
r 0
y
=> Xyd2; +x(d )2 _y(dY)=O is the required D.E.
dx dx dx
Exercise - 1(a)
1. Eliminate the arbitrary constants from the following and find the
corresponding differential equation :
(i) y = mx + c (m, c arbitrary constants)
d2
[ Ans : ~ - 4y - 0]
dx 2
8 Engineering Mathematics - I
d2 dy
[ADS: x 2 ----?
dx
- 2x -d + 2y
x
= 0]
d 2y 2dy
[ Ans: - 2 + - +Y = OJ
dx dx
(vi) y = a sin x + b cosx (a, b arb. constants)
d 2y
[ADS: - l
2 + Y = 0]
(X
2. Find the differential equation of all circles with centre on the line y = x and having
radius' I '.
3. Form the differential equation of all the circles with centre on the line y = -x and
passing through the origin.
5. Find the differential equation of all parabolas with the origin as focus and axis along
x-axis.
?
dy dy -
[ADS: 2x dx + Y ( dx) -Y = 0]
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 9
Methods to Solve
1.8 The differential equations of the first order and of the First
Degree:
1.8.1 Separation of Variables
Sometimes the differential equation
/
dy
dx = q(x, y)
can be written as
f(x) dx + g(y)dy = 0 .... (I)
1.8.2 Example
Solve et"tany dx + (1-~sec2ydy = 0
Solution
The given equation
e-'"tany dx + (1-e-'")sec 2ydy =0
can be rearranged as
e( sec 2 y
- - d x + - - dy=O
I-eX tany
2
eX Jsec y
Integrating --dx+ - - dy=c
J I_eX tany
tany
i.e., -X-I = c or tan y = c(e X -I)
e -
10 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.8.3 Example
dy
Solve - = 1 + xl +
dx
Y + xly
Solution
The given differential equation can be written as
dy = (1 +xl) (1 + y)
dx
dy x3
-1- 2 = (1+xl)dx => tan-I y = x + - + C
+y 3
1.8.4 Example
dy
Solve dx - 2xy = x, where YCO) = 1
Solution
dy
- =x(1+2y)
dx
dy
I+2y =xdx
On integration
I x2
"2 Iog(1+2y) = 2 +c .... (1)
Giveny= 1 when x = 0
Substituting in (1)
1
"2 Iog(3) = 0 + C
C= ~ log3 = log(v'J)
Hence the solution is
2
"21 Iog(I +2y)= 2x + Iogv'J (i.e.,) log (1+2Y)
- 3 - =xl
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 11
1.8.5 Example
dy
Solve - =(4x+y+ If
dx
Solution
dy
-= (4x + y + 1)2 .... (I)
dx
Substituting 4x + y + I = t in (I)
dy dt
4+- =-
dx dx
i.e.,
dy = dt -4
dx dx
dt
- -4 = t 2
dx
Integrating
I t
i.e., -tan-I-=x+c
2 2
Exercise -1(b)
[ ADs: yc = (a + x) (I - ay) ]
dy
6. (x-y)2 dx = a2 [ADs: (x - y) + log ( x- y-a) = x + c]
x-y+a
dy
7. - =(3x+4y+ 1)2 [ADs: 2(3x+4y+ 1)= .J3tan- 1 2.J3x+c]
dx
dy
9. dx = tan (x + y) [ADs: log[sin(x + y) + cos(x + y)] = x - y + c]
10 dy = 2 [ADs: (x + 2y - 3) - 410g (x + 2y + I) =x + c ]
. dx (x+2y-3)
.... (I)
Substitutingy = vx
dy dv
- =v+x-
dx dx
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 13
dv \11 (v)
v + x dx = ~(v)
dx ~(v)dv
-; + v~(v)-\lf(v) = 0
J-
dx
+
J"'()~(v)dv( ) = c where v = -y
X v'" v - \11 v x
\
1.9.2 Example
dy
Solve (xl + I) -dx =xy
Solution
. dy dv
S U bstltuttngy = vx, -d = v + x -
x dx
dv xvx
v + x- = 2 2 2
dx x +v x
dv v
v+ x - =--
dx 1+ v 2
dv v
x- = - -2- v
dx 1+ v
dv _v 3
x-=--
dx 1+ v 2
dx JI
~+ JI-dv=c
J-+
X v3 v
14 Engineering Mathematics - I
v-2
logx + - + logv = e
-2
1
logxv- - = e
2V2
(y)
logx - ~
x 2y
X2
= e ~ 2ylogy - xl = 2ey
1.9.3 Example
dy y2
Solve x-+-=y
dx x
Solution
dy
xl-+y=xy
dx
i.e.,
Substitutingy = vx,
dy dv
-=v+x-
dx dx
dv
v+x - =v-vl
dx
dv
x - =-vl
dx
dx dv
-+- =0
X v2
Integration yields
V-2+1 1
logx+ - - =e ~logx-- =c
-2+1 v
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 15
x
logx - - = c
y
ylogx -x = cy or ylogx = x + cy
1.9.4 Example
Solution
The given differential equation can be written as
dy x+ ysin(X)
= __ --,---.0.-,.-----.:-
dx xSin(j~)
dy dy
Substitutingy = vx ~ - = v + x. -
dx dx
dv x+ vxsinv
v+x - = ----
dx xsinsin(v)
dv l+vsin
v+x- = - - -
dx sinv
dv l+vsinv 1
x-= -v=-.-
dx sin v SI11 v
dx
sin v dv = -
x
Integrating
-cosv = logx + c
logx + cos(Yx) = c
16 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 1 (c)
dy y2
l. dx - xy-x2 [ADS : y = ceix ]
3. 2xy + ~ - r) dy = 0 [ADS: r + y = cy ]
dx
5. xdy - ydx = ~ x 2 + y2 dx
y
[ ADS: cos - = logcx ]
x
7. xcos(Yx) (ydx + xdy) = ysin (Yx) (xdy - ydx) [ADS: sec (Yx) = yxc]
-I(YI)
y~ x + y = cx.e
2 2 tan Ix
8. (ry - x 3 )dy - ~ + xy) dx = 0 [ ADS: ]
9. (r + y) dx = 2xydy ( ADS: (r - y) = xc ]
dy
10. X dx = y[logy - logx + 1] ( ADS : y = xecx ]
Case (i)
a b
If --::;:.-
A B
Substituting x = X + h, Y = y + K
where h, k are (constants) to be chosen so as to satisfy.
ah + bk + c = 0, Ah + Bk + C = 0
Solving these equations, values of h, k are obtained.
The given D.E then reduces to a homogeneous D.E.
dY aX +bY
dX AX +BY
which is then solved taking Y = VX and then
substitute X = x - hand Y = y - k in the solution.
Case (ii)
a b
If
A B
Then the differential equation will be of the fonn
dy _ (ax + by)+c
dx - m(ax+by)+C .... (2)
a+bdy=dt
dx dx
dt
--a
i.e., dy dx
-=--
dx b
D.E (2) then reduces to
dt
--a t+c
~=---
b mt+C
18 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.10.2 Example
dy x+2y-3
Solve
dx 2x+ y-3
Solution
dy x+2y-3
= ... - (I)
dx 2x+ y-3
Substituting
x = X + h, y = Y + k
where h, k are chosen to satisfY h + 2k - 3 = 0 and 2h + k - 3 = 0
solving we get
h=I,k=I .... (2)
i.e., we take x = X + I, Y= Y + I
The D.E (I) reduces to
dY X-2Y
=---
dX 2X+Y
dY dV
Substituting Y = VX, dX = V + X dX
dV X+2VX
V+X-=---
dX 2X+VX
~
2
V+XdV =1+2V XdV =1-V
dX 2+V dX 2+V
2+v dv=dX
I-v X
dX +(1 +_3_) dv = 0
X v-I
~-X
3
Y V-x
X +10 )
X=loge
1.10.3 Example
Solve (2x + 3y + \) dx + (2y- 3x + 5)dy = 0
Solution
dy 2x+3y+ 1
dx 2y-3x+5
Substituting x = X + h, y = Y = k, : = :
Choosing h, k so that 2h + 3k + 1 = 0, 3h - 3k - 5 = 0
we get h = 1, k = -1
The given differential equation reduces to
dV 2X+3Y
dX 3X-2Y
Substituting
Y=YX
dV dV
- =Y+X-
dX dX
dV 2X+3YX
Y + X dX = 3X -2YX
Y+X dV =2+3Y
dX 3-2Y
X dV = 2(1 + y2 )
dX 3-2Y
20 Engineering Mathematics - I
3-2V)dV= 2dX
( 1+ V2 X
Integrating
3 -dv
f 2v
- - --dv=2 f-+c fdX
1+ v 2 1+ v 2 X
3tan- 1(V) - log( I + v2) = 210gX + c
dy =x-y+l
Solve dx 2x-2y
Solution
-dy = --'------'-'--
(x- y)+1
dx 2(x- y)
Substituting x - y = V
dY=I_ dV
dx dx
l_dV=V+I
dx 2V
dV_ V+l_V-1
-- I------
dx 2V 2V
2V
- dV=dx
V-I
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 21
Integrating
2 JV-I+I
dV=x+c
V-I
1.10.5 Example
dy 4x+6y+1
Solve
dx 2x+3y -5
Solution
(~V 2(2x+3y)+ I
-=-
d'( (2x+3y)-5
Substituting
2x + 3y = V
dy (N
2+3-=-
dx dx
dy
dx
=~[dV
3 Ix
-2]
The differential equation reduces to
dV
-
6V+3
=2+ - -
IO-2V+6V+3
= ------
13+4V
dx 5-V 5-v 5-V
5-V
4V+13 dV=dx
22 Engineering Mathematics - I
3
Integrating fl 1-
J~
3
4V + 13
) dv = _ 4 Idx + e
33
v- -log(4V+ 13)=-4x+e
4
33
(2x + 3y) - - log[4(2x + 3y) + 13] = - 4xm + C
4
i.e., 4(6x+3y-e)=33Iog[4(2x+3y)+ 13]
Exercise -1(d)
dy y-x+5
\. - + -=-------
dx y+x+3
[Ans:tan- J (
y+4 1 y+4
1
x-I ) +"2 log[ ( x-I ) 2 +1 =log(x-I)+loge]
dy x+2y-3
2. dx - 2x+3y-5
3 _dy = _2y'------_x_-_4
. dx y-3x+3
[ Ans : (x + y) 7 = e ( x - y - ~ r]
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 23
dy y-x+ 1
5.
dx y+x+5
y-2) I
2
[ADS : tan~l ( x _ 3 + log [(y - 2)2 + (x - 3)2] = loge]
dy _ 3y+2x+4
6. dx 4x+6y+5
dy x-y+3
8. dx = 2x -2y + 5
x
[ ADS: (x - y) + log[2 + x - y ] = - + C]
2
Integrating
Note:
In some cases a differential equation can be reduced to the linear form by taking 'y'
as independent variable and x as the dependent variable.
The D.E is written as
eJ
Pldy
Now the I.F =
Solution is
x.e
JPldy
=
fqle Jpl"Y
+c
1.12.1 Example
dy
Solve (I + x 2 ) - + 2yx - 6x2 = 0
dx
Solution
Rearranging the given differential equation to the form
dy
dx + py = q
We have
dy 2x 6x 2
-+--y=--
dx I +X2 1+X2
2x 6x 2
Here p= I+X2 ,q= I+X2
Jpdx =e J I+x2
~dx
I.F= e
log(I+X2 )
I.F = e = (1 + x 2 )
Solution is given by
y(1. F) = fp(I.F)dx + c
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 25
1.12.2 Example
dy
Solve xlogx - +y=2Iogx
dx
Solution
dy y 2
-+--=-
dx xlogx x
I 2
Here p= - - andq=-
xlogx x
Solution is
ylogx = J~ logxdx + c
(IogX)2
ylogx=2 +c
2
1.12.3 Example
dy Y (xsmx+cosx
xcosx -+ . ) =I
Solve
dx
Solution
dy xsin+ cosx
-+y.----
dx xcosx xcosx
xsin x + cosx I
p= ,q=--
xcosx xcosx
26 Engineering Mathematics - I
J ~Slll X~.COS~ dx
I.F = e XCDSX
= e(log(xsecx)
I. F = e1og(x sec x)
= xsecx
Solution is
2
xysec x = Jsec xdx E c
xysecx = tanx+c
1.12.5 Example
Solution
dy + 2ytanx = sinx
dx
p = 2tanx
q = sinx
ef
2 tan xd!:
IF =
~ = e210gsecx
ylF= JqxIF.dx+c
2
ysec 2x = Jsecx.sec xdx + c
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 27
Substituting c = -2 in (I)
ysec 2x = secx - 2
is the required solution
1.12.6 Example
dy
Solve (x + 2.v) -, = y
(X
Solution
X + 2.v = yd
y
dx
dx
--- =
dy
x
y
2.v
is in the form of
-1
P = - q = 2,1
I ' 1 Y
Y
y
28 Engineering Mathematics - I
x-1
y
= f2y 2 1
x-dy+c
y
x
- =y+C
Y
1.13.7 Example
dy
Solve (x + y+ I) - = 1
dx
Solution
dy
dx- X =y+l
PI=-lq\,=y+1
IF = e f-1dy
= e- Y
Solution is given by
x(IF) = fql(/F)dy+c
i.e., or x +y + 2 = ce Y
Exercise 1(e)
dy
3. x - +2y-x2 1og=0
dx
c I .r2
(ADS: y = -? +- x210gx --I
x- 4 16
dy n/
4. dx + ycot x = 4x cosec.x, if y = 0, when x = ~2
n2
(ADS: ysinx = 2x2 - -
2
5. yeYdx = (y + 2x&)dy
( ADS : xy~2 =c- e~Y I
6. (x + 31) dy = y
dx
3
( ADS : x = 21 + cy ]
dy
7. (xy -I ) 3 + y3 = 0
dx+ y
I
. I
I ADS: x = ce Y + - + II
Y
dy
8. - = x 3 - 2xy if y = 2 when x = I
dx
[ADS: 2y - x 2 + 1 = 4 el~~ ]
dy x+ ycosx
10. dx =
I +sinx
x2
[ADS: y(l+sinx) = c - -]
2
30 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.13.2 Example
dy 1
y-2 -d - - tan x = sec x
x Y
Substituting
--
y =v,
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 31
1 dy dv
+--=-
/ dx dx
(1) reduces to
dv
dx + vtan x = sec x
is linear in v.
Here p = tanx, q = secx
IF = e
fpd<
flanXd<
= e
= elogsec x
= secx
SolutIon of th [) E (I) IS therefore
v(lF) = Jq(IF}dx + c
v. secx = Jsecx.secxdx + C
2
vsecx.= J sec xdx + c
Substituting
1
v=--
Y
1
- - sec x = tan x + c
y
1.13.3 Example
Solve (3xy + .0) dx - 3i2dy = 0
Solution
dy
3x2 - - 3xy
dx
= .0
32 Engineering Mathematics - I
is in Bernoulli's fonn
1 dy _
"7 dx - xy - 3x 2
Substituting
-1
=v
y
D.E reduces to
dv I 1
---v=- .... (1)
dx xy 3x 2
which is linear in v
1 1
Here p=~, q= 3x 2
Jpdx
IF = e
= J!d\
e x
=x
Solution of the D.E (1) is
v(lF) = fq(lF)dx+c
x 1
--=-Iogx+c
Y 3
i.e., y(110g x + c) + x = 0
1.13.4 Example
dy
Solve dx + (2xtan- 1y -.x3) (1 + y) = 0
Solution
dy dv
1+ y2 dx = dx
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 33
IF = e J
2xdx
=e
x2
v(lF) = Jq(IF}dx+ c
Writing x2 = t
1
xdx = 2dt
2
v.e x = {e 2+c
r I dt
1.14.5 Example
dy
Solve tany dx + tanx = cosy cos3x
Solution
dy
tany d'C + tanx = cosy cos 3x
dv
dx + v . tal1.X = cos3x .... (I)
is linear in v
Here p = tal1.X, q = cos3x
v(IF) = fq(IF)dx + c
3
v. secx = fcos xxsecxdx+c
2
secy secx = fcos xdx + c
I +cos2x
secx secy =
I 2 +c
x sin2x
secx secy = -+--+c
2 4
1.13.6 Example
dy . . cosx
Solve -d = (SII1.X - smy) - -
x cosy
Solution
dy. ."
cosy dx + smycosx = SII1.XCOSX
Substituting siny = v
dy dv
cosy-=-
dx dx
dv .
dx + vcosx = SII1.XCOSX .. .. (I)
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 35
is linear in v
Here p = COSX, q = SIl1 X cos X
IF
~
= e
fpdr = e feo') '(tl\ =e
~1Il X
v.e SlIlt =
J. xcosx.e m"'. I + c
SII1 (X
Exercise - 4(f)
1
(Ans: - = 1 + logx + ex )
y
2.
dy .
- cosx + YSlnx =
r.::::::::
...; ysecx
dx
dy tany
4. ---- = (I+x) ~secy
Ix l+x
[Ans: siny = (1 + x) (eX + c) )
36 Engineering Mathematics - I
dy
5. x - + ylogy = xyeX
dx
I ADs : xlogy = (x - I)e" +c J
dy 2 x3
6. 3-+--y=-)
dx x+ I y
x6 2x 5 X4
I ADs: (x + Iii = -
6
+-
5
+- +C
4
dy
7. + ytanx = isecx
dx
I ADs: cos2x = y(c + 2sin x) J
dy
8. 2 1
dx X Y +xy
au N= au
M= ax' ay
aM
-=--
a2u
Now and -ax- - -ax-ay-
ay ayax
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 37
aM
-
oN.IS tIle con d
= - ItlOn ..lor exactness.
oy AX
:. The differential equation Mdx + N~v = 0
fMdx = e
1.14.2 Example
Solve (x + 2y - 3) dy - (2x - Y + \ )dx = 0
Solution
(x+2y - 3)dy - (2x - Y + I) dx = 0
M = -(2x - Y+ \)
N = (x + 2y - 3)
aM
-=\
oy
aN
-=\
ax
The given differential equation is exact
The solution is
=> I - x 2 + xy - x - 3y = e
38 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.14.3 Example
Solve (x 2+ y.)dr: + 2xy dy = 0
Solution
(x 2 + .V) dx + 2xy dy = 0
M=x2+y. N = 2xy
aM
-=2y
aM
- =2y
av ax
The given differential equation is exact
2
Solution is f(x + y2 }h + f2xydy = c
1.14.4 Example
Solution
(I + e'x Y ) dx + e x'Y (
J -;;, ) dy = 0
x'y
M = J + e:t Y , N = e,i [
J- Y x)
aM
-=-
-x ,y'
e'Y
~ i
oM oN
oy ox
The given differential equation is exact
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 39
Solution is
x
X + e Y (y) = c
Exercise - 4(g)
I ADs.
ax
2
- 2 + (liy + g)x +
hi':' + fy = c I
.!.
Example
Solve x dy- ydx = 0
Solution
xdy- ydx = 0
40 Engineering Mathematics - I
Dividing by x2
xdy- ydx
---'-,=-=--
2
= 0
x
On integration
Yx =c
First method /0 find an integrating jac/or :
If the differential equation Mdx + Ndy is not exact, but is homogenous and
(
X2Y -2X
y2
2 2
)d _(X2 -3X3Y )dY
X 2 2
= 0 .... (2)
X Y X Y
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 41
1 2 -x 3
write M = --- N =-+-
I Y X I y2 Y
aMI aNI
--=-=--
then ry ax y2
DE (2) is exact
Solution is
x
- - 210gx + 3logy + c
y
i.e.,
x
or
1.15.4 Example
Solve (x 2y2 + xy + 1)ydx + (x2y2 - xy + 1)xdy =0
Solution
(x2y2 + xy + 1)ydx + (x2y2 - xy + 1)xdy = 0 .... (1)
M = x2j3 + xy2 + y, N = x2y2 - x2y + x
Mx - Ny = 2x2y2 *- 0
1 1
Hence the IF- =--
- Mx- Ny 2x 2y2
42 Engineering Mathematics - I
Multiplying (I) by IF
2
(X y 2 +xy+ 1)+ (X 2
y 2 -xy+ I) = 0
2x 2y2 2x 2y2
2
I{ I 2} I{ II}
- y+-+-
x x 2y
dx+- x - - + -1
2 y xy-
dy=O .... (2)
DE (2) is exact
Solution of the DE (I) is
1[
2 xy
I] I
- xy + log x - - - -logy = c
2
1.15.5 Example
Solve (xysin xy + cos xy)ydx + (xysin xy - cos xy)xdy = 0
Solutiou
(xysin xy + cos xy)dx + (xysinxy - cosxy)xdy = 0 .... (1)
M = (xysin xy + cos x,v)y, N = (xysin xy - cos xy)x
Mx - Ny = 2xycosxy =F- 0
IF=---
Mx- NY 2xycosxy
Multiplyingthe DE by 2xycosxy
The DE reduces to
1 1 1
-Iogsecxy + -Iogx - - log y = c
2 2 2
Exercise - 4(h)
If Mdx + Ndy = 0 is not exact and _a-=-~_ _ax_ is a function of x alone say fix),
N
then the IF =e
J
j (x)dr
44 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.16.2 Example
Solve (x 2 + y + 6x )dx + yxdy = 0
Solution
(x 2 + Y + 6x)dx + yxdy = 0 ..... (1 )
M = x2 + Y + 6x N = yx
aM aN
ay= 3y, fu = y2
aM aN
ay-ili 3y2 - y2 2
2
N y x X
is a function of x alone
IF = e f~
2tJx
= x2
Multiplying the given DE by x2
x2(x2 + y + 6x)dx + yi3dy = 0 ..... (2)
aMI
- =3x2y
ay
DE (2) is exact
Solutionis
4 2 2 2
f(x + x / + 6x 3 }tx + fy x dY = c
1.16.3 Example
Solve (x2 + y) dx - 2xydy = 0
Solution
(x2 + y)dx - 2xydy = 0 ..... (1 )
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 45
aM aN
ax ax 2y+2y -2
N -2xy x
is a function of x alone
IF = e
f -~dx
x
1
=-
x2
MuItiplyingthe DE by
1
IF= -
x2
[ l)
1+-
2
x
2y
dx,.--dy=O
x
..... (2)
aM, _ 2y oN, 2y
-a
y
--2'
X
-=-
(2) is exact
Solution of (1) is
y2 2y
Jl+-dx+
x
J--dy=c
2
x
y2
x- - =c
x
Then IF =
e
f t(y)<ly
1.16.5 Example
Solve (xy + y) dx + 2(.x2.0 + x + y4)dy = 0
Solution
(xy + y)dx + 2(.x2.0 + x + y4)dy = 0
M = .xy3 + y N = 2(.x2.0 + x + y4)
oM
--- = 3xy + 1
oN
- =4xy2+2
8y ox
oN -8;
-a; OM] = (4xy2 + 2)-(3xy2 + I)
( M xi+y
f~d)'
F=e Y =y
1.16.5 Example
Solve (3x 2y4 + 2xy)dx + (2x 3_Y' - x2)(~V = 0
Solution
aN _ aM _ (6x /
2 -2x)-(12x 2y 3 +2xL 6x 2/ -4x -_3.
ax ay - l
3x 2 oJ- 2x - y{3x 2/ + 2x ) - Y
is a function of y alone
-J~ dy I
IF = e Y =-?
Y
2X) dx+ (3
(3x 2y 2+-y x2) dy= 0
2x y-7
aNI =6xy- 2x
ax i
:. DE (I) is exact
Solution of the DE is
2
x3 2 2 x
3-y+--=c
3 y 2
48 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 4(i)
2. (x 2 + Y + 2x)dx + 2ydy = 0
3. 2xydy - (x 2 + Y + I)dr = 0
I ADs: y - x 2 + I = ex I
1.17.2 Example
Solve xy\ydx + 2xdy) + 3ydx + 5xdy) = 0
Solution
xy3(ydx + 2xdy) + (3ydx + 5xdy) = 0 ..... (1 )
The IF = x"1
Multiplying (I) by IF = xhl it must become exact
(xh+1 1+1 + 3x" 1+1)dx + (2x ilj .? + 1+3 + 5xil f-/ I){~Y = 0 ..... (2)
is exact if
aM
- ay = (4 + k)xH1 .1+3 + 3x\k + 1)1
.
aN
- = 2(h + 2) xh+I /+ 3+5(h + 1)x"1
ax
For DE (2) to be exact
aM aN
ax ax
Solving h = 2, k= 4
.. Solution is
50 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.17.3 Example
Solution
(3x + 2y)ydx + 2x(2x + 3y)dy = 0 .... (1)
IF = 0/,
MUltiplying (1) by IF
(0/,+2 + 30+2 /,+I)dx + (2x h+3/, - 0+ 1/,+I)dy = 0 .... (2)
oM
- = 3(k + 2)0/,+1 + 2(k + 1) 0+2yK
ox
oN
- = 2(h + 3) x h+2/, ---(h + 1)0/,+ 1
ox
The DE(1) is to be exact
oM ON
ox ox
2(k + 1) = 2(h + 3) => h = - %k = -/i
Comparing the coefficients
k + 2 = - (h + J)
(
-5/
X /2 y/2
3/
+ 2x -1/
I II) ( II -II
12 yl2 dx + 2X 72 Y 12
-3/ II) dy = 0
_ X /2 y72 .... (3)
(3) is an exact DE
2 -2/ 3/ II II
Solutionis --x 13 yl2 + 4X 72 y72 = c
3
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 51
Exercise - 4(j)
I Solve the following differential equations
4 2 10 +1
3x 3+l y 3 X 1 7
I Ans: ---y 3 =c]
4 10
- +1 - - +I
3 3
't', say, then its rate of change with time is ~ . Under ideal condrtions the rate of
change of the population will be proportional to the total population at any given time
and is called the law of natural growth.
The growth of the population satisfies the differential equation
dp
- =kp
dt
where k > 0 is a constant
Solving the differential equation we have
p = cekl
dx
The rate at which a quantity x is decreasing is given by dt and this is negative.
52 Engineering Mathematics - I
de
Using Newton's law ofcooling - - oc(O - 0 )
dt 0
-dO
or dt = k(O - 00 ) where k> 0 is a constant of proportionality
dO
- = -k (0 - 0 )
dt 0
f~=-k
0-0
fdt+c
0
dm=k' dm
-=dt
dt ' km
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 53
on integration
log m = kt + c .... (I)
initially when t = 0, m = 5
(1) => log5 = 0 - c
c=-log5
SubstitutilllJ; c value in (1)
log m = kt-log5
t= "21 (hours), m =6
Substituting in (2)
6)20
m = 5"5 ( grams
54 Engineering Mathematics - I
1.17.5 Example
The rate at whi~h a certain substance decomposes in a certain solution at any
instant is proportional to the amount of it present in the solution at that instant.
Initially, there are 27 grams and three hours later, it is found that 8 grams are lett.
How much substance will be left after one more hour.
Solution
If m grams is the amount of the substance left in the solution at time 't', then the rate
f~ =-k fdt+c
8
-k= log ( 27 )X
2
-k=log-
3
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 55
when t = 4
4
III 2
log 27 = log ( "3 )
16
m= 3 grams.
1.17.6 Example
The number x of bacteria in a culture grow at a rate proportional to x. The value
ofx was initially 50 and increased to 150 in one hour what will be the value ofx after
1
12" hour.
Solution
dx
-=/0:
dt
dx
- =kdt
x
x
log- =kl
50
x = 150, when 1= 1
150
.. log 50 = k.I
or k= log3
(2) then gives
x
log ( 5O) = flog3
3
we want to find x when I = "2
X 3
50 = (3)2
3
X = 50 (3)2 grams
1.17.7 Example
The rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the difference between the temperature
of the body and the surrounding air. If the air temperature is 20C and the body
cools for 20 minutes from 140C to 80C, find when the temperature will be 35C.
Solution
If 8 is the temperature of the body at time '1' then from Newton's law of cooling
-d8 de
-a(8-20) ~ - =-k(8-20)
dl dl
f~
8-20
= - k rldl + c
J'
log(8 -20) = - kt + c .... (I)
Initially when
t = 0, 8 = 140
log(8 - 20) = 0 + c,
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 57
I (120)
k= 20 log 60
I
k= -log2
20
Substituting in (2)
1
(2 0 IOg2)t= logI20-log(S-20)
0
20 10g( \25 )
logI20-log(35 - 20)
t=
I log2
-log2
20
Exercise - 4(k)
I. In a certain reaction, the rate of conversion of a substance at time "t' is proportional
to the quantity of the substance still untransformed at that instant. At the end of one
hour 60 grams while at the end offour hours 21 grams remain. How many grams of
the first substance was there initially?
( ADs: 85 grams approximately I
2. The rate of growth of a bacteria is proportional to the number present. If initially
there were 100 bacteria and the amount doubles in '1' hour, how many bacteria will
1
be there after 2"2 hours.
(ADs: 564 I
58 Engineering Mathematics - I
3. Under certain conditions cane sugar in water is converted into dextrose at a rate
which is proportional to the amount unconverted at any time. 1f75 grams was there
at time t = 0.0 and 8 grams are converted during the first 30 minutes find the amount
I
converted in 12 hour.
4. The rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the difference between the temperature
of the body and the surrounding air. If the surrounding air is kept at 30c and the
body cools from 80c to 60c in 20 minutes. Find the temperature ofthe body after
40 minutes.
[ADS: 48c J
5. If the air is maintained at 30c and the temperature of the body cools from 80c to
60c in 20 minutes. Find the temperature of the body after 40 minutes.
[ ADS: 48c]
6. The rate at which a heated body cools in air is proportional to the difference between
the temperature of the body and that of the surrounding air. A body originally at 80
cools down to 60c in 20 minutes the temperature of the air being 40c what will be
the temperature of the body after 40 minutes from the original temperature.
[ADS: 50c J
[ ADS: 210g3 J
log2
Orthogonal Trajectories
Suppose (x, y) is the point of intersection of the curve (I) and its orthogonal
trajectory .
60 Engineering Mathematics - I
At this point slope of the tangent to the curve (I) is dy and -dx is the slope of
dx dy.
the tangent to the orthogonal trajectory. Therefore on replacing dy by - dx in (2)
dx dy
, the equation thus obtained is the differential equation of the family of orthogonal
trajectories of the family(l) .
is the differential equation of the system of orthogonal trajectories, and its solution
is the fami Iy of orthogonal trajectories of (I) .
Then tan;/,
dBI
= r,1 _
Y'I dr, ..... (4)
I
1.18.3 Example
Find the orthogonal trajectory of the family of curves a/ = x 3 , where a is variable
parameter.
Solution:
Given family of curves is a/ = x 3
..... ( I)
. (X3) .y dy
.. 2 /
_
dx -3x
2
dy
2x =3y ..... (3)
dx
1.18.4 Example
Find the orthogonal trajectory of the family of parabolas y2 = 4ax where 'a' is the
parameter.
Solution:
y2 =4ax ..... (1)
dy
.. y=2x ..... (3)
dx
is the differential equation of the family (1)
Replacing dy by _ dx in(3)
dx dy
..... (2)
Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 63
)
x- xy
Eliminating A from (I) and (2) -2- - - = 1
a a 2 --dy
dx
2
:. ( x - a 2 ) : = xy ..... (3) ---
S ub stltutmg -dx
- fOor -dy.111 (3) ; (2
X -a 2)( -d- ) = xy
Y .
I.e,
dy dx dx
dY~-( x' x a
2
y )dx
is the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectory to (1)
2 2
Y
-=a logx---
2 X
Integrating we get
2 2+c
x +l
2
= 2a 2
log x + C is the orthogonal trajectory of the family of curves( 1)
1.18.6 Example
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of coaxial circles
x + l + 2gx + C = 0 where g is the parameter.
2
Solution:
Given x 2 + y2 + 2gx + C = 0 ..... (1 )
dy -
Differentiating (I) w.r.t. 'x' ; 2x+2y-+2g+0=O ..... (2)
dx
2
Eliminating 'g' from (I) and (2) x + y2 - 2x ( x + y : ) + c = 0
Substituting x 2 = t, 2x dx = dt in (5)
dy dy
dt t (c+ / )
---= ..... (6)
dy y y
is linear in t.
I
I --dy
:.I.F=e Y =-
1
Y
General solution of(6) is
t.! = -
y
f +yy2 .!dy+k
C
y
t C
-=-y+-+k.
y y
x 2 + Y - ky - C =0 ( since t = x 2 )
is the equation of the orthogonal trajectory of (I)
1.18.7 Example
Find the equation of the system of orthogonal trajectories of the parabolas
~ a = rcos 0/2
2
2a = 2r cos 2 0/2
log a = logr + 21ogcosO/2
.Differentiating w.r .to '0 '
1 dr
---tanB/2 = 0 ..... (2)
r dB
2 10 elr.
Substituting -r - for - m (2) we get
dr dB
1(
- -r-?dB)
r
-
dr
-tanB/ 2 =0
dr
- = -cotB/2dB ..... (3)
r
is the differential equation of the 0I1hogonai trajectory .
Integrating (3)
log r = -2 log sin B/2 + log c
log(~) = logsin 2
B/2
c . 2 / ( 1- cos B)
-=sm B 2=--'--------'-
r 2
:. 2c = r (1 - cos D) is the equation of orthogonal trajectory of the fami Iy of ( I )
1.18.8 Example
Find the orthogonal trajectory of rill = alii cosmB where 'a' is the parameter.
Solution:
Given rill = a cosmB
ln
..... (1)
mlogr = mloga+ log cos mB
family (I)
Exercise 4 (s)
xy=a 2
2
(ii) [ADS: x - y-
?
=e ]
(iii) x 2 -xy+ l =a 2 [ADs: (x-y)=e(x+y)2]
2X2 + y2 = kx 2
(iv) [ ADs: x = - y2 log ( ; )]
(v) x 2 _ y2 = a2 [ADs: xy = e]
2.1.1 Let
Integration yields logy= fp(x)dx => y =Ce -fp(x)dx + logc ..... (3)
C C
y.e-rn\x= e(rnrrn\)x dx + CI' Call as C 2 .
m 2 -m! m 2 -m!
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 71
(I) is the solution of f(O)y = 0 where C" C 2, ........... , C n are arbitrary constants.
Example 2.1.9
d2 y dy
Solve - 2 +5-+6y=O
dx dx
Sol. A.E is m2 + 5m + 6 => (m + 2) (m + 3) = 0
:.m=-2,m=-3.
Solution is y = Ae-2x -I- B e-3x
72 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 2.1.10
d2y dy
Solve dx 2 -11 dx +30y = 0
3
:. Solution is y = C 1 e2x + c 2 e--4x
Example 2.1.12
d 3y d2y
Solve -+4--6y=0
dx3 dx 2
Sol. m3 + 4m2 + m - 6 = 0
(m - I) (m + 2) (m + 3) = 0
:. Solution is y = cl~ + c 2 e-2x + C 3 e-3x
Exercise - 2(a)
Solve the following differences:
d 2y dy
1. -+2--3y=0
2
Ans : y = A~ + Be-3x
dx dx
2
d y _ 3y = 0 Ans: y = A~ + Be-X
2.
dx 2
d 3y d2y dy
3. -+2--5--6y=0
3 2
Ans : y = Ae-X + Be2x + Ce-3x
dx dx dx
d2 y dy
4. 9 -+18--16y=0
2
dx dx
d2y dy
5. -+3-+2y=O
2
Ans : y = Ae-X + Be-2x
dx dx
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 73
Solved Examples
Example 2.1.13
dZy dy
Solve -z +6-+9y=0
dx dX'
Sol. A.E is mZ + 6m + 9 =
i.e. (m + 3)z = 0, m = -3,-3
:. Solution is y = e-3x (A + Bx)
Example 2.1.14
d3 dZ
Solve~+~=O
3 2
dx dx
Sol. A.E is m + mZ =
3
=> m (m
Z
+ I) =
:. m=O,O,-1
Solution is y = (A + Bx)e oX + C e-x = (A + Bx) + Ce-X
Example 2.1.15
d4y dZy
Solve - 4 + 18-
1 + 81y=0
dx dx~
4. Ans : y = (M + Bx + C) e-t
74 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solved Examples
Example 2.1.16
d2 y dy
Solve -2 +4- +9y=0
dx dx
Sol. A.E. is m2 + 4m + 9 =0
m=-2i/5
a = -2 and f3 = /5
:. Solution is y = e-2x (Acos x /5 + Bsin /5 x)
Example 2.1.17
d 3y
Solve dx 3 + y= 0
Sol. A.E. is m3 + 1 = 0
:. (m + 1)( m2 - m + I) = 0
1+J3i
:.m=-I,m=--
2
Example 2.1.18
d4 y d3 y d2 y dy
Solve -+2-+3-+2-+y=0
dx 4 dx' dx 2 dx
Sol: A.E. is m4 + 2m 3 + 3m 2 + 2m + 1 = 0
(m 2 + m + 1)2 = 0
-1J3i -1J3i
:. m=
2 2
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 75
Exercise 2 (c)
3.
d4 y
4. Solve dx4 -64y = 0
+ ~(C3cos.J3x+C6sinfix)
1 I
we have f(O) [f(O)]y = f(O) R
I
or y = f(O) R
Which shows thatYI + Y2 is also a solution of(l)'Yl + Y2 (i.e.) C.F. + P.I is called the
most general solution of(l).
I
2.2.2 Calculation of R
D-I11,
D _ nl, R = y, say, Operating both sides with (0-m 1), we get (0-m 1) Y = R
dy
(i.e.) dx - m1y= R
f-mjtU
I.F.lse =e-ml x
:. Solution is given by
y.e-mf = fRe-lIl/ dx+c
P.I.=e mI X fHlIllx dx
If m
I
=O~
'0
R= fRdx
I
Thus the operator 0 stands for integration
I
Example 2.2.3 Find the value of - D x
-5
Example 2.2.4
1 I
Sol. eX
02 _50+6 = (D-2){D-3) .(eX)
I I
= (0-2) . (0-3)
(eX) I 3x -3x x dx
= (0-2) e e.e
f =
I
(0-2) . e
3x
2
I -- r -2x .exdx = -e
I - (eX) = - -I e 2x Je f
I 2 x e-xdx=-e
I 2 x.e- t
2 (0-2) 2 2 2 2
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 77
Example 2.2.5
Solve (02+a 2) y = tan ax
P.I =
I
tan ax = -
I
- I- - -I - J tanax
(0+ ai)(O- ai) 2ai [ O-ai D+ ai
r alX
Je - tanaxdx =
J. . sinax
(cos ax -Ismax) - - dx = JSin ax- i
(l-cos ax)
dx
2
cos ax cos ax
cosax i isin ax
= - -- - -\og(sec at' + tan ax) + - -
a a a
an dx cosax i isinax
lilly
Je tanax = - - - + - \og(sec ax + tan ax) - - -
a a a
\
:. P.l. = - 2
? [-2icos ax log(sec ax + tan ax)]
a-,
cos ax
- - - - log(sec ax + tan ax)
a
. cos ax
y = C 1 cos ax + C 2 SIl1 ax - - - 2- log(sec ax + tan ax)
a
78 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 2.2.6
Solve (02-50+6)y = ~
Sol. A.E. is m2-5m+6 = 0
C.F. is y = C)e 2x + C2 e3x
I eX
P.1. isy= 0 2 -50+6 (eX) = 2 (from 5.2.4)
Exercise 2 (d)
I I
I. 0 cosx 3. 0 (x 2 )
I
4. 0-2 sinx
x3 (2sinx+ cos x)
Ans: (I)+sillx (2) e-x (3) 3 (4)
5
d2y dy
6. dx 2 - 4 dx + 3y = e2x
d2 y
7. -2 +y=5x+3
dx
d2 y dy
8. dx 2 - 3 dx + 2y = e-2x
9.
10.
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 79
xsin ax
II. Ans : y = C I cos ax + C 2sin ax + C 2sin ax + - - -
a
cos ax
+ -2- log cos ax
a
12. (D 2 + 9) Y = tan 3x Ans : y = C1cos 3x + C 2sin 3x
cos3x
- - - log(sec 3x + tan 3x)
9
1 a, 1 at
(or) --e = --e
feD) f(a)
1 1 1
Note: If K is a constant then feD) (K) = feD) K.eax = f(m)K
3x I 3 I 3
for example -D-:02-_-2-D-+-l e 9 _ 6 + I = e x = "4 e x
80 Engineering Mathematics - I
2.3.2 Case ii) If./{a) = 0 then it is possible to write./{O) as <1>(0) (O-ay where <I>(a) i:- 0
Suppose r = 1 then
1 I 1
P.1. = - - eax = - - - - e(lX
f(O) O-a <1>(0)
1 1 1
- - eax = - - - - eax
O-a $(a) $(a) O-a
= <l>(la) eax Je~a\ .eaxdx = <I>~a) ea\dx = <I>~a) ell<.x .... (I)
1 ax 1 I ax 1
ifr=2then f(O) e = (0-a)2 <1>(0) e = <I>(a) (0-a)2 ea~
1 1
- - [xeax]
$(a) O-a
1 1 2
e ax- = - - e ax- -X
P.1. = f(O) <I>( a) . L2
In general, if (O-a) is repeated 'r' times then
1 I x2
P.1. = f ( D) eax = $( a) ea~. --;:!
Solved Examples
Example 2.3.3
d 2y dy
Solve - + 4 - + 5y = 13e3x
d~2 dx
Sol: (0 2 + 40 + 5) = 13e3x
A.E. is m2 + 4m + 5 = 0, giving m = -2 i
C.F. is y = e-2x (Acosx + Bsinx)
I
PI (13e3x)
.. = 0 2 +40+5
h
e
:. Complete solution is y = C.F. + P.1. = e-2X(Acosx + Bsinx) + 2
Example 2.3.4
d2 y dy J. dy
Solve dx 2 + 4 dx + 5y = 2e-- x , gIven that x = 0, y = I and dx =-2
d3 y d2 y dy
Solve - 3 + 2 -2 + - =e 2x
dx dx dx
I 2x
e 2x
P.l. = 03 + 202 + 0 e = 18
82 Engineering Mathematics - I
Example 2.3.6_
d2 y dy
Solve - , -3 - +2y=e-~
dx- dx
I I I I I
.. (0-1) (0-2) eX= (0-1) (1-2) e = (0-1) eX=-eX
X
~ (using 5.3.2.(3)
1 2' _ 1 2 .
j(O ) SIl1 ax - (,)j(-a )SIl1 ax
1 (0 ) 2
1 0-
2
Qr sin ax = 1(02 ) j(-a ) sin ax
I. sinax
1(02 ) SIl1 ax = f(-a 2 )
I 1 .
1ar
j(O) [sin ax] = j(O) [Imaginary part of e ]
1 .
= I.P of - - e 1ar
j(D)
1 1 .
Similarly j(O) [cosar] = R.P. of j(O) e 'ar
Solved Examples
Example 2.4.2
d2 y dy .
Solve - 2
-3 - + 2y = sm3x
dx dx
I. 1 . -1. (3 D - 7) .
P.I., (sm3x)= 9 30 2 (sm3x)= (3 7 (sm3x)= 9D 2 49 (sm3x)
0- - 3D + 2 - - + D + .) +
Example 2.4.3
Solve (D3 -D) Y = sillX
Sol. A.E. is m 3 -m =0
m=O, m =1
C.F. is C1e.x + c2eX + C3e-x = C 1 + C2e x + C3e-x
I.Sit1X I I
P.1. = D3 _ D = D2 _ 1 . D (sitlX)
I -cosx x
= - - - . cosx= = --SillX
D2_1 -1-1 2
y = C + C eX + C e-x -~SillX
I 2 3 2
Example 2.4.4
Solve (D2 - D + 1) y = cos2x
1J3i
Sol. A.E. is m2 - m + 1 = 0 ~ m = 2
~~ fi fi
:. C.F. = e 2 (Acos-x + B sin- x)
2 2
I I 1 (3-D)
P.I. = D2 _ D + 1 cos2x = cos2x = cos2x = - cos2x
- 4- D+1 -3 - D 9 - D2
(3 - D )cos2x I
13 =- 13 (2sin2x + 3cos2x)
C.F. + P.1. = e 2
x
fi BSIl1-x
( Acos-x+
2
. fi
2
1 _-1 (2sin2x + 3cos2x)
13
Example 2.4.5
Solve D2(D2+9) = sin2x + 5
Sol. A.E. is m2(m 2+9) = 0 ~ m = 0, 0, + 3i
C.F. = (C I + C2x) + C3 cos3x + C4sin3x
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 85
+ ~._I_(I)
2
sin 2x = _ sin 2x + 5x
-4(-4+9z) 9 D2 20 18
Example 2.4.6
Solve (D 4 -2D 3 + 2D2 - 2D + 1 ) y = eX + sin2(x/2)
Sol. A.E. is f(D) = D4 - 2D 3 + 2D2 - 2D + 1
m4 -2m 3 + 2m2 - 2m + 1 = 0
= (m-l )2 (m2+1) = 0
:. m= I, I,m=i,-i
C.F. is (C t +C 2x)eX + (C 3cosx + C 4sinx)
1 1
P.1. = - - eX + - - sin2(x/2)
f(D) f(D)
_1_ . 2 _ 1 . 2 _ 1
f(D)
Sin (x/2) - (? ) Sin (x/2) -
0
(D-It D-+l
?
(D-It D +1
(2 )
= ~+~._l_.~(-sinx)
2 4 D2 + 1 (-I)
1 1 1
= "2 + "4 . D2 + 1 . sinx
86 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 1 1
[)2 + 1 sinx = I.P of 02 + 1 ex = I.P of (D +-i)---:(-D----:-i) ex
I x
= I.P of 2i XCiX = "2 I.P. of -i[cosx + isinx] = -~COSX
1 1
:. P.1. = "2 - "8 x cos.\"
2
1 x r 1 x
Y =(C +C I 2
x)~+C cosx+C sinx+ -.-e +---cosx
3' 4 2 2! 2 8
Exercise 2(e)
Solve the following
(1)
Ans: J3
e"r ( C,cos-x+ Co'S IJj - ('J
/ 1 - X -1 SIll '....
.... cos 2x+ 3' J X )]
2 - 2 13
3 x
(3) (D6 + 1) y = sin"2 x.sin "2
jj-, x . x .fh x . x
Ans. (C1COSX + C 2sinx) + e- 2 (C3cos"2 +C 4 SIIl"2)+ e2- (Cscos"2 +C 6SIIl"2)
x 1
+ -sinx+ -cos2x
12 126
(4) (D3 + 4Di y = Sin2x
xsinx cos2x
Ans. y = C 1 + C2 cos2x + C]sin2x --8- -16
I
2.5.1 P.1. is of form feD) xm
I
- - xm = [f(D)rl.x m
feD)
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 87
Now expand [f(0)r 1 in ascending powers of 0 and retain as far as 0 111 and then
operate on xl11
Solved Examples
Example 2.5.2
Solve (0 2 + 50 + 6) y = x
Sol. A.E. is m2 + 5m + 6 = 0 => m = -2,-3
C.F. is C 1e- 2x + C 2e- 3x
2
1 1 (I 0 + 50)_1
P.1. = 0 2 + 5D + 6 x ="6 + 8 x
I 50 I 5 x 5
= - [1--] x= - [x--] = - ---
6 6 6 6 6 36
x 5
Solution is therefore)' = C e- 2x + C e-3x + - - -
I 2 6 36
Example 2.5.3
d3 v dy
Solve _ . - 3 - -2y=x2
dx' dx
Sol. A.E is m3 - 3m -2 = 0 => (m-2) (m+ 1)2 = 0
C.F. is C 1e 2x + (C 2 + C3x)e-X
2 3
P.1. = ,
x (1_(D -3D1,.2
2 .,
0- -30-2 2
1 0 3 -3D 02 -30 , .,
=-- [1+ +( t+ ....... ]x-
222
_ -I 3D 9 2 2 _ 1 2 6x 9 _ I 2
- - [ I - - + - D ] x ---[x --+-] - - [2x -6x+9]
224 2 224
2.6.1
I
To find - - (e<txy) where Y is a function of x
feD)
Dn(elU"Y I) = ea\"(D+a)nYI
feD) (ea\v I) = e<tt"f(D+a)Y I
I I I
feD) rea, Y] = elU"Y or elU" Y - - - elU"Y
f(D+a) f(D+a) - feD)
1. While finding _1- elU" when f(a) = 0 we can employ the above method for
feD)
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 000 89
1 \
= f(02) [R.P. or I.P of eaT] = R.P. or I.P. of e1a\". f(O + ia)2 .\
Solved Examples
2
dy dy
2.6.3 Solve: -2 - 2 - - 4y = tfcosx
dx dx
Sol. A.E. is m2 - 2m + 4 = 0
m= \ fJi
C.F. is eX(C I cosfJx+CzSinfJx)
1 1
P.1. = tf cosx = eX? cosx
0 2 -20+4 (0+\)"-2(0+\)+4
\
= tf 02 + 20 + 1- 20 _ 2 + 4 (cosx)
Example 2.6.4
Solve (02-2)y = tfcosx
Sol. A.E. is m2 - 2 =0 m= J2
C .F, is C Ie.fix + C 2 e~.fix
1 1
P.1. = (0 2 _ 2) tf cosx = tf. (0 + 1/ _ 2 cosx = tf. 0 2 + 20-1 . cosx
= tf. . cosx
20-2
(20+2) eX(-2sinx+2cosx) eX .
= tf . cosx = = -(Sin X - cosx)
40 2 -4 -4-4 4
90 Engineering Mathematics - I
eX
Y = CeJ2x +C e-- J2 + -(sinx-cosx)
I 2 4
Example 2.6.5
3
d d
Solve ---.E.
3
_7~ - 6y = e 2x + xe 2x
dx dx
Sol. A.E.ism 3 -7m-6=O:. m=-1,3,-2
:.C.F. = Cle-x + C2e3x + C3e-2 t"
(1+x) 2x
P.1. = 3 e
o -70-6
1
=e2x (I+x)
(0+2)3 -7(0+2)-6
= e2x ~------
3 2
0 -60 +50-12
_e2x 50 _e 2x 5
(1+-)(1 +x)= - [I+x+-]
12 12 12 12
_e 2x 17
= - [x+-]
12 12
x 3x 2x
e 2x 17
Y = C I e- + C2e + C3 e- - -
12
[x + - ]
12
Example 2.6.6
d3y d2y dy
Solve - -3 3 - +
2
3 - - y = eX(1 +x)
dx dx dx
Sol. A.E. is m3 - 3m 2 + 3m - 1 = 0 or (m - 1)3 = 0 or m = I, I, I.
C.F. - (C I xl + C2 x + C3 )eX
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 91
P.1. = (0 _ 1)3 . (x + I) ~
e'.(x+l) 1 .1 x2
= (0+1-1)3 =~. D3 (x+ 1)=tf. 02 (T+ X
)
x3
X4
Complete solution is y = (C 1 x + C~ + C3)2
~ + ~ (24 + (;)
Example 2.6.7
d~y dy
Solve - , - 4- +y = e2x sin2x
de dx
Sol. A.E. is m2 - 4m + I = 0, m = 2 J3
c.F. = C,e(2+J3)( + C e(2 ,)1)(
z
I eh
PI - e2x sin2x = sin2x
.. - OZ-40+1 (D+2)2-4(0+2)+1
e 2x e 2x sin2x 1"
= -2
- sin2x = = -- eX sin2x
0 -3 -4-3 7
Complete solution is
Exercise 2(g)
I.
3x
4.
5.
13 C3sm-x
Ans.y= C le- x +e7i (C 2COS-X+ ' 13) - - 1 e 2x.(11cosx-3slnx)
.
2 2 130
1 1
From(1) j(0) [x'/(D) v]=xv + fl(O)[/(O) v]
2.7.2. Note: For finding [xlll.(sinax or cosax)] when m > 1 the above method becomes very
lengthy. Hence we can take it as [Xlll. (R.P or I.P of e/a,"] and apply the method
(2.6.1 ).
Solved Examples
Example 2.7.3
Solve (D 2 + 9) y = xsinx
Sol. A.E. is m2 + 9 = 0 =>m = 3;
1 .) 1 I .
P. I. -2-(XSIllX = {x--,-.2D}.-,-.sll1x
="
D +9 D-+9 D-+9
[using the result of2.7.1. v = sitlX]
1 I. x. 1 2
= {x--,-2D} . - Stox= -Stox- - - - cosx
D" + 9 8 8 D2 + 9 8
x. 2 1 x. 1
= 8"
Stox - 8" . 8" . cosx = 8"
SltlX - 32 cosx
d2 y
Find the solution of - , + 9y = xcos2x
dx-
1
and P.1. = D2 + 9 (xcos2x)
1
= Real part of D2 +9 x(cos2x + isin2x)
2lX
e 4iO 0 2
= R.P. of -5- [I ----+----]x
. 5 5
e 2lX 4i
= R.P. of -5- [x- 5]
I 4
= 5 [xcos2x + 5 sin2xJ
Most general solution is
I -- (0 -8 2)2 e2x . x-
')s,n2x - 8e2x 1 x2sin2x = 8e2x _1_ ') sin2x
P.. - (0 + 2 _ 2i 0 2 x-
- 8 2x[I P f 2ix 1 x2 ]
- e . 0 e -4+4iO+02
-1 4iO+02
= 8e2x [I.P of e 2IX (4) [1 - 4 r I,)
x-
. 4iO+ 0 2
= -2e2x[I.P. of e 21x 1- 4 r l
x2
2 2
= -2e2x [J.P. of e 2ix [1 + 4iD + 0 + (4iO + 0 )2]x2
4 4
2
=_2e2x [J.P ofe2 ix [x 2 + 8ix+2 + 16i 02 (x 2 )]
4 4
2.<
= - ~ [J.P. of (cos2x + isin2x) (4x 2 + 8ix - 30)
2
-e 2.<
= -2- .J.P. of [4x2cos2x + 8ixcos2x - 30cos2x + i4x2sin2x - 8xsin2x - 30isin2x]
.
= -e2x[4xcos2x + 2x2sin2x - ISsin2x]
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 95
Exercise 2(h)
1. Solve (0 2 -1) Y = x 2eos3x
1 26 6
Ans. y = Cle-' + C2e- x - 10 (x 2eos3x - 50 eos3x - "5 xsin3x)
X I
Ans. y = Cleos2x + C 2sin2x + "4 ["2 + sin2x]
I I 3
Ans. y = (Clx + C 2 )eosx + (C 3x + C 4 ) sinx - 48 (x 4-9x2) cosx + x sinx 12
4. Solve (0 2 - 20 + 1)y = xe-'"sinx
I 4
Ans. Clcos3x + C 2sin3x + "5 (xcos2x + "5 sin2x)J
5. Solve (0 2 - 60 + 13)y = 8e3xsin2x
Ans. y = e3x[Clcos2x + C 2sin2x] - 2e3x xcos2x
-:::: xfj
6. Solve (04 + 0 2 + 1)y = e 2 cos (--)
2
-x
1 e2 1 1 1
+ C4 sin(-xfj)] + - [xcos(-xfj) + r::; xsin(-x.J3)]
2 4 2 -..13 2
d2 y
7. Solve - , + Y = e-'"sinx
dx-
I
Ans. Clcosx + C 2sinx - "5 e-'" (2cosx - sinx)
96 Engineering Mathematics - I
Where kl' k2' ........ kn are constants and 'X' is either a constant or a function of x
To solve such equations it is convenient to transform them into linear equations with
constant coefficients with the substitution x = eZ i.e. z = logx.
dy = dy dz = ~ dy .... (2)
d\: dz' dr x dz
I 'dy 1 d 2 y dy
= -l----t----] ( .: dz = x)
x x dz X dz2
__, d2y dy
- 2(d 2 - d ) ..... (3 )
x z z
..... (4)
d
By taking '0' to stand for dz'
dy dy
(2), (3), (4) ~ x dx = dz = Oy
..... (5)
dn
Xll -Z = 0(0-1) (D-2) ......... (O-n+l)y
dx"
By substituting (5) in the given equation (') it transforms into a linear differential
equation with constant coefficients.
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 97
Solved Examples
2
d y dy
2.8.2 Solve x 2 m"2 -x d~" + 4y = 0
Sol. Writing x = el. (i) reduces to
d
[D(D-I) -D + 4tv = 0, where D = -
dz
(D2_2D+4)y=00
A.E. is m2 - 2m + 4 = 0 :::) m = 1 fi i
substituting z = logt,
Y= Clcos (J3logx) + C~sin (J310gx) e logx
y = [C ICOS (fi log x) + C 2 sin (fi logx )lx
d 2y dv
2.8.3 Solve x2_~ - 3x-
" - 4y = 2x2 ..... (i)
dx- dx
Sol. Writing x = e Z (i) reduces to
[D(D-I) + 3D - 4lY = 2e 2/ ,
(D 2 - D + 3D - 4)y = 2e 21.
2 ")_ 2 2_ 2e 2z e 2z
P.1. = -D-2-+-2-D - 4 (e--) = 4 + 4 _ 4 e - = -4- = 2
Most general solution is
y = ( C e-(Il /"S)Z
1
+C
2
e (I JS)7 + e~z 1
98 Engineering Mathematics - I
2
2.8.4 Solve.xl --?-
d
d\'
2y = x 2 +-
X
1
1 I 1 1
P.1. = e2z + e--Z = e2z + e- Z
(D-2)(D+l) (D-2)(D+l) (D-2)(2+1) (-1-2)(D+I)
1 ~_ I __
---e-- - e-
3(D-2) 3(D+I)
I
Y = C1 + C e-Iogx + - (e2logx
e210gx 2 - e-1ogX)logx
3
1 1 1
Y = C x 2 + C - + - (x 2 - - )Iogx
I 2 x 3 x
= 5e-'z + 10 e -L = 5e -L + 2e -L . - -I - - I
5( D + I) (D - I) + 1
1
= 5e-z + 2e-z D (I) = 5e-z + 2e-z . z
C1
= - + x(C 2cos(logx) + C3sm(logx)) + 5x + 2
x
d 2y dy .
2.8.6 Solve x 2 dx 2 + x dx + Y = logx sm(logx)
1
= I.P. of e'z ---:-,----z
0- -1+20i+l
100 Engineering Mathematics - I
= I.P. of e= I Z
D2 +2Di
= I P of e1z -
1 (
1+ -
0)'-1 Z
. 2Di 2i
Z2 I. z.
= - - cosz -- ZSInZ = - - (SInZ + 2zcosz)
2 4 4
Hence complete solution is
Example 2.8.7
Solve(x2 02-xO+4)y = cos(logx) + xsin(logx)
Sol. Taking x = eZ or Z = logx the equation reduces to
[0(0-1) -0 + 4lY = cosz + eZ sinz.
L
1 e
= --.cosz+ 1 smz
3-20 (D+I)--2(0+1)+4
. ~ 1 . xsin{logx)
= x[C1cos J3 (Iogx) + C2Slll v(logx) ] + 13 [3cos(logx) -2sll1(1ogx)] + 3
Example 2.8.8
Legendre's Linear equation:
An equation of the form
d ll dll-1y
(ax+b)11 dx~ + K1(ax+b)n-l dx n - I + ...... + koY = X
Where K's are constants and X is either a constant or a function of x is called
Legendre's linear equation. To solve such an equation we transform it into linear equation
with constant coeficients by the substitution.
ax + b = eZ or z = log (ax +b)
dy = dy dz = _a_ dy
Now
dx dz'dx ax+b'dz
dy dy d
(ax + b)2 - = a- = aOy where 0 = dz
dx dz
3
d
I
by substituting these values the given equation reduces to linear equation with constant
coefficients.
102 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solved Examples
Example 2.8.9
d 2y dy .
Solve (J+x)2 dx 2 + (I +x) dx + Y = sm2[log(l +x)] .... (I)
IS = C .F + PIC
C omp Iete so IutlOn . = lCOSZ + C' sin32z
2Sll1Z - - -
Example 2.8.10
d 2y dy
Solve (2x+3)2 dx 2 +6(2x+3) dx + 6y= log(2x+3)
d
i.e. (4D 2+8D+6)y = z where D = -
dz
I 1 1 I 40 :m 2
Pol. = 1 z = - 40 2D2'Z = -6 [1+- +-3-rl z
40- +80+6 6 3
1+-- + ----
3 3
1 z
= -
6
r1--40
3
]z=
1 4
- [z- - ] = - --
6 3 6
2
9
I 1 1 1 ')
= -2
x+..;2..;2
e
3 [Acos( r;:: log(2x+3+ Bsin( log(2x+3))] + -6 log (2x+3)- ::..
9
Exercise 2(h)
Solve the following differential equations
I. (x 202 - 3xO + 4) Y = 2x2
Ans. (C I + C2logx~ + x 2 (Iogx)2
2. (x 2D2 - 3xD + 5)y = sin(log(x
Ans. x 2(C Icoslogx + C2sinlogx) + (coslogx + sinlogx)
3. (x 2D2 - xD +2)y = xlogx
Ans. x(Clcoslogx + C 2sinlogx) + xlogx
4. (x 2D2-3xD+5)y = x 2 sinlogx
2 2 (_,-s_in_l--,og~x-.:.)_+_1
5. (x D -3xD+l)y
= -
x
Ans.
104 Engineering Mathematics - I
d2 dy
10. (5+2x)2 dx; - 6 (5+2x) dx + 8y = 6x
d 2y dy
The general form is dx 2 + P dx + Qy = R
be y = Au + Bv .... (2)
where A and B are constants and u, v are two independent solutions of
d 2y dy
- 2 +P-+QllJ= 0 .... (3)
dx dx .J'
In order to obtain the solution of the equation (I) the arbitrary constants A and Bare
treated as arbitrary functions of x and are chosen in such a way that
y = A(x)u + B(x)v satisfies (1) .... (4)
Differentiation of(2) gives
= All, + lIAI + BVI + vB, (suffixes indicating the order of the derivative)
Now we chose A and B such that Alu + BI V = 0 .... (5)
So,
Again differentiating
d2y
dx 2 = (Au 2 + lIIAI) + (Bv2 + vIB,) .... (6)
integrating we obtain
Working Rule: First find two independent solutions 1I and v of(3). Then C.F. is given by
y = Au+Bv where A and B are arbitrary constants. Treating A and B as functions of x, we
have the solution of (1) as y = AI(x) 1I + BI(x) u where A(x) and B(x) are given by (8)
Solved Examples
Example 2.9.2
d2 2
Solve by the method of variation of parameters ~- y = --x
dx 2 1+c
dy dA dB
= AcX - Be-x + ~-+e-x- = A~ - Be--x .... (I)
dx dx- dx
dA dB
Choosing A and B so that ~~ + e--x dx = 0 .... (2)
.... (3)
dA dB 2
~- +e-x - =-- .... (4)
dx dx l+c x
dA -x
Solving (2) and (4) we get -dx = _c_ .... (5)
eX + I
X
dB C
and - =--- .... (6)
dx eX + I
d 3y d
- \ + (I - cOlt") ~ - cotx = sin 2x .... (I)
(ix" dx
3
d y dv
Sol: dx 3 + (I - cotx) dx - cotx = 0 .... (2)
d 2 w dw 2 -x
-+-(l-cotx--e )=0
dx 2 dr c- x
or
d2w dw
- 2 = (l+cotx)- ~
i(~)
dw = I + cou
dx dx
dX
dw dw
log - = x + logsinx or - =eTsinx
dx dx
:. w= JeXsinxdx=- e; (cosx-sinx)
eX . I .
u = e-x [--(cosx-smx)] = - - (cosx - Slnx)
2 2
The second independent solution can be taken as cosx - sinx
108 Engineering Mathematics - I
A = - -I f'slflxdx+C 1 =--+C
cosx
1 .... (6)
2 2
Example 2.9.4
Solve by the method of variation of parameters
2
(I - x) d y + x dy _ Y = (I _ x)2
dx 2 dx
The given equation can be written as
d 2y x dy I
dx 2 + I-x dx - l-x Y = I-x .... (I)
x I
p= _ . Q= - andX= I-x
I-x' I-x
Clearly P + Qx = 0
. . d2y X dy I
Hence y = x IS a-solutIon of - 2 + -I- dx - --y = 0 .... (2)
dx -x I-x
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ... 109
d 2v dv x 2
Then (2) reduces to -'} + dx (-+-.1) = 0
dx- I-x x
d . dv dv x 2
- [-]+- [-+-] = 0
dx dx dx I-x x
d dv
~~ x 2 I-x-I 2 1 2
- - =- - - - =+( ) -- =+1----
d,,- 1- x x I- x x I- x x
dx
dv x-I 1 (-I)
- = -.e-t=
2
e-t [-+-, ]
dx x X x-
1
:. v = e"'" .-
x
dA dB
and, e"'" - + x - = I -x .... (5)
dx dx
dA dB
Solving (4) and (5) we get d; = -xe-X and dx = I
Exercise (i)
Solve the following by the method of variation of parameters
d 2y
I. - + a2y = sec ax
dx 2
I
Ans. y = C,cos a:r + C'2sm x .
ax + -SIl1 ax + -cos ax Iog(cos a,)
a a
d2 y
2. dx 2 + Y = tanx
d2 y
3. --T
dx-
+ 4y = cosec 2x
d2 dy
4. x2~-2x(l+x)
2
-+2(1 +x)y=x3
dx dx
2
x x
Ans. y = C, xe 2x + C r - 4-"4
3
Mean Value Theorems and
Functions of Several Variables
f (c) 7:- f (d) and at least one of them is different from f ((l) == f (b)
Suppose f( c) 7:- f( a) and 'c + h' be a point in the neighborhood of 'c' ,.
/(c+II)- /(c)
then $; 0 when II> O. .... ( 1)
h
/(c+I1)- /(c)
and ;::: 0 when h < O. .... (2)
Iz
Further f(x) is differentiable in (a, h).
y
x=a y=a
P Q
f(a) .i(b)
x' 0 A B x
y'
x=c
y
Q
f(a) f(b)
f(d)
o A B x
y'
x=c
y x=a x=b
o A B x
y'
x=a x=b
y
x=d
f(a) f(b)
f(d)
x' 0 A B x
y'
3.1.3 Verify Rolle's theorem for / (x) = log { :;a:a:) }in ( a,b )
Solution:
2
J(x+h)- J(x) I[ (x+h)2 +llh I x +abj
Lt = Lt
- log - og---
h~O h + h~O h ( a + b) ( x + h) ( a + b) x
1
= Lt -1 [ log {'1+ 2xh + h 7 } -log {h}]
1+- = Lt [2X 1
--+O(h) ]
r"~O h x- + ab x +h~O x 2 + ab x
where O(h) indicates terms of order h and higher powers of h.
- ~
2x
I I( X) = 2
x +ab x
which indicates that I (x) is differentiable in ( a,b ) and hence continuous also.
2
(a +ab)
Further I (a ) = log ( ) = log 1 = 0
a a+b
2
(b +ab)
I (b) = log ( ) = 0. Thus I (a ) = 0 = I (b)
b a+b
All the conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied. Hence 3c( a < c < b) such
that I I( C) =0
. 2c 1 2
II ()
C =0 gIves 2 --=O~c =ab or c=ab
c +ab c
Clearly c = +ab is the G.M of a and b and so E (a, 1)
The theorem is thus verified.
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 115
Solution:
Lt
f(x+h)- f(x)
= Lt -1 [Sin(x+h) -Sinx]
-
h-... O h h--.O h e( ail) e'
2
Sin(x+h)-Sinx{l+ h + h + .. ..1
= LI -
1 I! 2!
-----------X+-il~x--------~
f
}HO h e .f!
~ ~
1 2 cos ( x + ). sin ( ) - h {sin x + 0 ( h )}
=h--.O
Lt -
h
----~--~--~------------
ext-II
S1l1. (h)
Lt !h 2COS(X+!!').
=II--.O 2
( h ) -{sinx+O(h)}
2
f' ( x ) = cos x ~ S1l1 x
e
Thus f (x) is differentiable in (0, Tl) and hence continuous there.
Further f (0) = 0 = f (Tl) .AIl the conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied.
:. 3e( 0 < e < Tl) f'( e) = 0
such that
(i.e.,)
cose-sine
------ = 0 => e = -Tl (pnnclpal
.. value)
eC 4
and clearly e = Tl E (0, Tl) . Hence the theorem is verified.
4
116 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.1.5 Example
Verify Rolle's theorem for the function.f{x) = Ixl in (-1, I).
Solution
Here .f{x) = - x for -I < x < 0
= 0 for x = 0
=x for 0 <x < I
}(-I) = 1,.f{I)= I;
Hence .f{-I)=.f{I)
/'{x} = 1 for
y
y = f(x) = Ixl
------------------~~------------------x
y'
Exercise - 3(A)
{mb+ na}
5. fix) = (x- a)m (x- b)n in (a, b), m > 0, 11 > 0 [Ans : c = ]
{m+ 11}
(3), (4), (5) show that ~(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem.
... h . PdQ
SI ope on t he Ime JOll1lng t e pomts an IS
f{b)-
b_a
f{a) ' RIS a pomt
. h
on t e
p
f(c) f(b)
f(a)
y'
Fig. 3.2
Hence this theorem tells that there is at least one point R on the curve PQ
where the tangent to the curve is parallel to the chord PQ.
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 119
3.2.3 Example
Verity Lagrange's theorem for the functionf(x) = (x - I) (x- 2) (x- 3) in (0, 4).
Solution
j(x) = (x - I)(x - 2)(x - 3) and a = 0, b = 4
j(x) = x 3 - 6 Xl + II x - 6 is an algebric polynomial and (0, 4) is a finite interval.
Hencej(x) is differentiable in (0, 4) and is continuous in [0,4] showing that the
conditions of Lagrange's Mean Value theorem are satisfied.
:3 atleast one value 'c' in (0,4), such that
f'{c) f{b)- f{a)
=
..... ( I)
b-a
j(0) = - 6, f(4) = 6
f'{x) = 3 x2 - 12 x + II
f'{c) = 3c2 - 12 c + 11
3.2.4 Example
Verify Langrange's Mean Value theorem for the functionj(x) = ~ in (0, I) :
Solution
j(x) = ~ is differentiable in (0, I) and continuous in [0, I]
.. :3 atleast one value 'c' in (0, 1) such that
3 l'{c) = f{b)- f{a) ..... ( I)
b-a
j(0) = eO = I, f(l) = e
e-I '
From (I) eC = -
1-0
3.2.5 Example
Verify Langrange's Mean Value theorem for the functionj(x) = 5x2 + 7x + 6
in (3,4).
Solution
j(x) is an algebraic polynomial and the interval (3,4) is finite, j(x) is differentiable
in (3,4) and continuous in [3,4].
. . 3 atleast one value c r.(3, 4) such that
j'(e) = f(ll) - f(3)
..... (1 )
4-3
3 f'{c} = f{h}- f{a}
b-a
114-72
IOc+7=
4-3
c = 3, 5 E, (3, 4)
Exercise - 3(8)
3. j(x) = x 2 _ 3x _ I in ( -~ 1, I;)
4. j(x) = a2 - 7x + lOin (2, 5)
3.3.1 Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem
If two functionsj(x) and g(x) are (i) continuous in [a, b] (ii) differential in (a, b)
and (iii) g'(x) =F- 0 in (a, b) then 3 atleast one value 'c' in (a, b) 3
f'{c} f{b}- f{a}
g'{c} = g{b}-g{a}
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 121
Proof:
Define a new functionj(x) = j(x) + A g (x) .....( I)
[j{b}- j{a}]
..... (3)
A=- [g{b}-g{a}]
(4), (5), (6) show that 4>(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem
/'{c}
=> A= - g'{c} ..... (7)
3.3.2 Example
1 1
Verify Cauchy's Mean Value theorem for j(x) = -? and g(x) = - in (0, h)
x- x
Solution
Here f'{x) = ~
X3
-I
g'{x) =7
-2
C 3
=--IT = 1
//c 2
b a
2 a+b
c ab
2ab
c = --b which is the Harmonic Mean of , a' and 'b'
a+
c E(a, b)
3.3.3 Example
Verify Cauchy's Mea~ Valve Theorem for fix) = e, g(x) = e-X in (3, 7)
Solution
fix), g(x) are differentiable in (3, 7) and continuous in [3, 7]
c = 5 E (3, 7)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 123
Exercise - 3(C)
I. Considering the functionsj{x):::: x 2 , g (x):::: (x) in Cauchy's Mean value theorem for
(a, b) prove that 'c' is the arithmetic mean between a and b.
2. Verify Cauchy's Mean Value theorem for j{x):::: sin x, g(x):::: cos x in (a, b)
I
3. Verify Cauchy's Mean Value theorem for j{x):::: fx, &>(x):::: fx in (a, b)
(ii) fW{x} exists in (a, a + h), then :3 at least one number '8' between '0' and' I'
h hn - ' h"
3j{a + h):::: j{a) + ,f'{a} + ..... + - ( \"f(n-I)(a) + -F (ll + 9h)
1. n -I,. n!
hn - I hn
..... + - (
I",,r-I(a) + - A ..... (2)
n- J! n!
and cp (a + h) :::: j{a + h) ..... (3)
h h2
j(a + h) = lea) + - j(a) + - I" (a) + ..... .
J! 2!
..... (5)
Hence ~(x) is continuous in ra, a + 17] and differentiable in (a, a + 17) ..... (6)
(4) and (6) show that ~(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem.
2 J
+ [(a+h-x)"J I" (x)- (n-IXa+h-xt- In-J/(x)j_ n(a+h-xt-
.,. (n-I) (n-I) F;'n! A ..... (8)
(h - eh),,-J
~' (0 + e 17) = [rea + eh] =0
(n-I)
..... (9)
From (5) and (9) it follows that
2
j(a + h) =
hi' (a) + -,
j(a) + -1' h I "
(a) + ...
. 2.
(0 < e < 1)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 125
If a functionf{x) is such that (i)f(x), f'{x) , r{x) ..... fll(X) arc continuous in
[a, a + 11] and (ii),f'1(x) exists in (a, a + h) then 3 atleast one number '0' between
'0' and' 1' such that
2
f(a + h) = I!
.f{a) + h f' () h '" (I) + ...
a + j!f
(a + h - x)" I
+ {n-l}! fll-l(x)+(a+h-x)A ..... (1)
.
{a} + -
2!
f {a} + ... + -(-1)'.1 11-1 (a) + II
n- .
A ..... (4)
.. ... (5)
f(x), f'{x) , r(x) ..... jil- I (X) and (a + h - x), (a + h - x)2 ...... are continuous
in [a, a + h] and differentiable in (a, a + 1/)
126 Engineering Mathematics - I
:. 3 atleast one number '0' in between '0' and' I' 3 <1>' (a + 0 h) = 0 ..... (8)
llu1
+ [(a+h-x ) F(x)_{n_I){a+h-x)"2 f"'{X)] -A)
(11-1). (n -I).
(a+h-x)"-'
I.e., <I>'{x) = {n-I}. f"(x)-A ..... (9)
{h-Oh)"-I
<1>' (a + 0 h) = {n -I}. fll (a + 0 h) - A=0
h,,-I (I - 0),,-1
.. A = (n-I)' fll(a+Oh) ..... (10)
h"{I-OY--1
The last term ( ) fll (a + 0 h) is called Cauchy's form of remainder.
n-I!
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 127
such that
f'(c) = f(a+h)- f(a) ....... ( I)
a+h-a
writing c = a + Bh we have 0 < B < 1 and (I) becomes
in the open interval ( a . a+ h ) and (iii) g' ( x) *- 0 at any point in the open interval
( a, a+ h ) , then there exists at least one number B , 0 < B < 1, such that
f'(a+Bh) f(a+h)- f(a)
g'(a+Bh) - g(a+h)-g(a)
Note: Lagrange's Mean Value theorem can be deduced from C . M . V theorem by
replacing g (x) with x in the interval ( a, b )
128 Engineering Mathematics - I
= b , g ( a ) = a and g X ) = 1
We get g ( b) I(
f'(C) f(b)-l(a)
-- = . which is L. M. V. theorem.
1 b-a
Example: Using Cauchy's Mean Value theorem, show that
3e such that
sinb-sina
= cos e where 0 < a < c < b < -
Jr
b-a 2
.
Furt her cose < ] 111 (0 Jr)2
;- :. sin b - sin a <
b-a
l' .(I.e.,) Sin b '
-SIna < (b
-a)
3.5.5 Example:
I f f '( x) is continuous in [ a, b] and fll (x) exists in ( a, b ) then show that
I
Choose a function g( x)
g( x) = h( x) _(b - X)2 h( a) where
such that
b-a
h(x) = f(b)- f(a) -(b -X)f'(X) ........(1)
Now g(a)=h(a)-h(a)=O and g(b)=h(b)-O=O from (I) and L.M.V
theorem.
g(a)=O=g(b) .
It is given that f'ex) is continuous in [ a, b] and differentiable inC I, b) .
Hence, so areh(x) and g (x) . :. g (x) satisfies all the conditions of
Rolle'stheorem.Hence 3e (a<e<b) 3g '(C)=0 ........(2)
g I ( X) = h' ( X ) + 2 (b - C! h ( a) from (I )
(b-a)
=-(b-X)f'1 (x)+ 2(b-X![f(b)_ f(a)-(b-a)/(a)]
(b-a)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 129
-C!
(b-c )f"( c) = 2( b [f(b) - f(a) -(b - a)f'( a)]
(b-a)
(b - a)2
or f(b)=f(a)+(b-a)f'(a)+ 2! f"(c) ........(3)
Taking (' = a + Biz where h = b - a and 0 <B<1
(3) gives f(a + h) = f( a)+ Jif'(a) + ~2! f'(a +Oh) where 0 < (1 < I
3.5.6 Example:
f (x), g (x) and h(x) are three functions derivable in ( a , b ), show that there
exists c in ( 'I, b ) such that
f'(c) g'(c) h'(c)
f(a) g(a) h(a) =0
f(b) g(b) h(b)
deduce L. M . V and C . M . V theorems.
Solution:
f'(x) g'(c) h'(c)
Consider the function ( x) = f (a) g ( a) h(a) =0 ........ ( I )
f(b) g(b) h(b)
Clearly (a) = 0 = (b)
Also f( x),g( x) and h( x) are all derivable in (a, b),
:. All the conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied. Hence 3c E (a,b) such
that ' ( c ) = 0
f'(c) g'(c) h'(c)
(i.e.,) f (a) g ( a) h(a) = 0 ........ (2)
f'(e) I 0
f(a) a 1 =O=>f'(c)(a-h)-[f(a)-f(h)J=O
f(h) b 1
f(h)- f(a)
(i.e.,) f'(e) = where e E (a,b) ........ (3)
h-a
(3) shows that L . M . V theorem can be deduced from (I) Taking only h (x) =I
f'(e) g'(c) 0
we have, f (a ) g ( a ) 1 = 0 where c E ( a, b)
j(b) g(b)
=> f'(e)[g(a)-g(b)J-g'(c)[f(a)- f(b)J=O
f'(c) f(b)- f(a) . .
=> -(-) = () () where c E (a,b) which IS C. M . V theorem.
g' e g h - g a
3.5.7 Example:
Apply Maclaurin's theorem with Lagrange's from of remainder for the function
2 2
f (x) = eX and show that 1 + x + ~ ~ e ~ 1 + x + ~ eX for every x ~ 0 .
t
2 2
Solution:
Maclaurin's theorem with L form of remainder is
2 n-I n
f(X) = f(o)+~r'(o)+~ f"(O)+ ... +1~_1 in-I) (0)+ ~~ f" (Ox)
~ ~ ~
2 3 n-I n
X + -X
eX = 1+ X + T=) + ...... + IX X Ox (SInCe
~ _ 1 +- e
. Dn ( eX) = eX)
~ lJ ~ ~
........ (1)
where 0 < (} < 1
Taking n = 2 in (1) we get
X2
eX = 1+ X + ~ eOx ........ (2)
1 1
x- Ox 1 x- x
1+x+-e S +x+-e
II ~
........ (3)
Further e
Ox
> 1 whenever x ~ 0 and 0 < 0 < 1
2 2
X X fh
l+x+-sl+x+-e
II II
........ (4)
From (2), (3) and (4) it follows that
2 2 2
1 X x Ox x x,
l+x+-s +x+-e =e sl+x+-e
II II II
3.5.8 Example
2 3
. Taylor's theorem to prove that loge ( 1 + x ) < 1- x + x
Apply 2 3 whenever x> 0 .
Solution:
According to Taylor's theorem
h h2 h"- I
I( a+h) = l(a)+11 1'( a)+ ~ f"(a) + ... + In-l f"- (a)+ R"
I
h" (1-0),,-"
where Rn = ~ I" (a+Oh) , 0<0<1
n- .p
h"
RII with Lagrange's form (n = p)is Rn = ~ f" (a+Oh)
1(1 + x) = 1(1)+ ~f'(I)+ ~ 1"(1)+ ... + 1:-1 in-I) (1) + ~ I" (1 +Ox)
(_1)"-1 In-l
Taking I (x ) = log x, I" (x ) = n
X
3
x2 x
.. 10g(l+x)=O+x--+ 30<O<I(Takingonlyupto3terms)
II 3(l+Bx)
Foranyx>O, (1+0x1
132 Engineering Mathematics - I
If ::3 0 > 0 such that Ij(x, y) -II < E, V Ix - al < 0, Iy - bl < 0, thenj(x, y) is said to
tend to I.
y~b
or as Lt I(x, y) = I
(x,y)~(a,b)
3.6.3 Example
Lt x2 + y2
Consider x-~2 ---'--, it can be seen that if E = 0.01 (say) then
y->!
4xy
x2 + y2 5
4 xy
- -8 < E whenever Ix - 21 < 0.02, lv - II < 0.02 thus 0 = 0.02
satisfies
) )
x- +,v- 5 5
4xy -"8 < 0.0 I. Hence the desired limit is "8 .
Note: 1
Let Lt
,y)-->(a,b) .
f(x, y) = I and Lt
(X,Y)-'(a,b)'
g("(, v) = m
then (i) Lt [f g] = Im
(x,y)->(a,b)
(ii) Lt [fg] = /m
(x,y)->(a,b)
Lt I 1
and (iii) (x,y)->(a,h) g III
Note: 2
(x,y) LI
~ (a, b) exists iff LI
(x-~a) y~b
[ LI 1
I(x,b) == Lt [
(y~b) x~a
Lt f(x,h) 1
134 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.6.4 Example
~
x- + V
f(x, y) = . 2 ' find Lt as (x, v) ~ (2, I)
2x+ y .
Solution
LI [Lt
y~ x~2
2
x +y LI 1 [4
+ 5
2X+;2 . = y~ 4+ y2 =5=1
y]
..... (i)
2
x~2 y~l
Lt [Lt x
2x+ y2
+y ]
= x~2
Lt [X2 + I] 5
2x+1 =5=1 ..... (ii)
'J
Lt x' + Y
Henee ---=-;;-=1
(x,y) ~ (2,1) 2x + y2
3.6.5 Example
J )
x- - Y'
f(x, v) = ? J find whether the limit exits as (x, y) ~ (0, 0)
. x- + y-
Solution
I,I L/ 2 2]
x - Y LI I[""' I,/ x] - Y 2]
Thus
X ~ 0 [Y ~ 0 J
x- + y-
') 7:-
y ~ 0 ly ~ 0 x- + y ? )
3.6.6 Example
Lt ~
xy
')
Solution
Puty = 11/X
2
Lt xy Lt mx
(X,y)~(O,O) / __ X2 X~O m 2 x 2 __ X2
It is clear that limits will be different for different values of m i.e., the limit depends
upon the slope of the path along which (x. y) approaches (0,0). Hence the limit does not
exist.
Exercise - 3(0)
I. Examine whether the following limits exist. Find them if they exist.
Lt x 2 ~ y2 + 4 Lt x 2 + 4y2
(i) (ii) ~ 2X2
(x.y) ~ (2,1) 3xy2 (x, J~ -~ (0,0) y2
4
Lt yx~2y Lt Y4
X ~
(iii) (iv)
(x.y) ~(2,2) xy~2x (x,y) ~ (0,0 ) x-J ~ y-J
J J
Lt x-y-
(v)
(x,y) ~ (0,0) x 2 + y2
3.7.2 Example
Consider the function/ex, y) = x 2 + Y - 2x when (x, y) 7= (0, 0) and.l( I, I) =0
Lt f(x,y) = Lt [Lt (x 2 + y-J -- 2x) ]
(x,y) ~(I,I) x~ 1 y ~ I
=/(I, I)
Hence the function is continuolls at (1, 1)
3.7.3 Example
2 2
Consider the function f(x, y) = ~ y J when (x, y) 7= (0,0) and.l(O, 0) = 0
. . x + y-
Let (x, y) ~ (0, 0) along the path y = mx
Lt Lt 2 2
f(x,y) = ~y 2
(.Y,y) ~ (0,0) (x, y) ~ (0,0) x- + y
Lt x 2 m 2 y2
(x, y) ~ (0,0) x 2 + 1112 x 2
Ltm2x 2
(.r, y) ~ (0,0) I + m
--2 =
=.1(0 0)
,
3.7.4 Example
= - - 7=
1-JIl
III
2
.1(0, 0) except when III =
Hence the given function is discontinuous at (0, 0)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 137
3.7.5 Example
2 2
X Y
Consider the functionj(x, y) = (x, y) cf. (0, 0)
~X2 _ y2
= at (x, y) = (0, 0)
In this case it is convenient to introduce (polar co-ordinates). Substitutions x = rcosB,
y = rsinO.
x 2 y2 r4cos20sin2B
l"(2 + y2 - Jr2 (cos 2
0 + sin 20)
r'
-(sin 2 20)
4
= {x2 + y2 y2
4
Now
(x-, +y-, )3 2 ~ -E . I
provided /x/ < E 3
4 2
I I
thus when /x - 0/ < E
i3
and lY - 0/ < E3
..... (i)
Hence
Lt
(x,y)~(0,0)~X2 + y2
x 2 y2
---;===== =
frol11 (i)
=j(O, 0)
2 2
j(x, y) = Jxx Y+ y2
2- is continuous at (0, 0)
138 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 3(E)
az Lt j(x+Jx,y)- j(x,y)
So =
ax ax~o bx
Note: 1
z = j(x, y) represents a surface in the cartesian co-ordinates (x, y, z) system.
The section of the surface z = jex, y) with the plane x = k (parallel to yz plane) is a
curve. (Similarly the sections with planes parallel to xy - plane and zx - planes also
will be curves).
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of-Several Variables 139
Note: 2
az)
( Ox gives the slope of the tangent at (x, y, z) to that curve
x=k
[
~z 1 gives the slope of the tangent at (x. y. z) to the curve obtained as
~ y=k
3.8.2 Example
z = x3 + x2y + I
3.8.5 Example
y
Iff= x-2 , Find af and aj
x+y ax ay
Solution
Applying the Quotient rule
aj (x+ y)(I-O)-(x-2y)(I+O) 3y
ax (x + y)2 (x+ y)2
3.8.6 Example
aj
- = cos(ax + by) x -
a (ax + by) = acos(ax + by)
ax ax
a a
ay = cos(ax + by) x ay (ax + by) = bcos(ax + by)
3.8.7 Example
Consider f = ax2 + hxy - by
Then
aj
-
at
= 2ax + hy - ' = 2by + hx
ax ' ay
a
ax-
2
a I]
[- , = - (2ax + hy) = 2a
ax
This is called the second partial derivative of 'f \V.r. to 'x'.
Thus
al
- = 2ay + hy, -8f = hx - 2by
ax ay
Similar steps can be carried out with the expression for 8fay
a~ ~
2
ay
= (8f)
~ ay
= -2b
aI
axay
2
= al
ax
(8f)
~
= h
142 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.8.8 Example
2 2 2 2
al 8f a 1 a f a 1 a 1
Iff= ax3 + hx2y + bl, find - ' - ' - 2 ' - 2 , - - , - -
ax ay ax ay ayox axay
Solution
-
af =3ax2+2hxy~ -
8j ')
=hx2+3by
ax ay
a21 a2 f
In this example also, we see that - - = - ' -
ayax axay
3.8.9 Example
Iff= log(x2 + y), prove that
a21 a21
axay ayax
Solution
8j = 2x
) au au
Ifu(x + y) =x2 + y~ then prove that ( - - - ) 2 =4( 1 - - - -)
au au
ax ay ax ay
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 143
Solution
Since u=
x+y
2
au x 2 +2xy- y2 . _au = _X +2xy+ y2
ax (X+y)2 'ay (X+y)2
au _ au 2 =[7
x- +2xy- y 2 +x-7-2xy- y-7]2
( ax ay ) (x+ y)2
..... (i)
..... (ii)
3.8.11 Example
a2 z
- = 4a2 -')~
ax 2
az
ay = 4(ax + by) . b - 2y
144 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.8.12 Example
If z = f ( -Xl] aZ az
then prove that x - + 2y- = 0
y 8.:r Oy
Solution
2
2 a z az a2z ::.2
u Z
a'Z ::.)
2 u- Z
x -+x-+2xy--+xy--+2y-+2y -=0
ax 2 ax axOy Oyax Oy ~l
az az
But x-+2y-=0
ax Oy
) 2 ::.)
2 a-z a z 2 u-Z
x -+3xy--+2y -=0
ax 2 axay Oy2
3.8.13 Example
If u = log(x3 + T + z3 - 3xyz) then prove tllat
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 145
Solution
...... (i)
au -3- - - - - - ( 3 x 1 - 3 yz)
Now ax x + y3 + Z3_ 3xyz
all
3 3 3 (3y2-3xz)
~y x + y +z -3xyz
au 1 ~
-3- - - - - - ( 3 z - -3xv)
az x + y3 + Z3 --3xyz .
au
- +- +-
au au 3x 2 +3yz-3 y 2 -3xz+3z 2 -3xy
= -----'--,-----'-------,.-------'-
ax ay OZ Xl +./ +Z3 -3xyz
3
(.: (x + y + z) (Xl + y2 + Z2 - xy - yz - zx)
x+y+z
= x 3 + y' + Z3 - 3xyz)
Hence from (i)
LHS = (! + ~ + ! J( x + : + z 1
=3(- 1
{x + y + Z )2
_ 1
{x + Y + Z )2
- 1
{x + Y + z f
1
-9
=--------:-
{x+ y+ Z)2
146 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.8.14 Example
r'
If II = en e 40 then find 'n' so that -au = -
1-a (r? au
-)
ao ,.2 ar a,.
Solution
au -_ nen 1
e
-r'
-40
+
On -40--
--I' (
.e .
~?
2
1
ae 4e
..... (i)
also
-1[4lt
== 2e r 20 + 3r-u
?]
..... (ii)
n -3
e 2e
-3
Hence n==-
2
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 147
Alternative method :
I au 11 r2 au ( r2)1l
- = 11+- -
--=-+- ..... (2)
u ae 8 u0 2 ae 40 8
Diff.( I) partially w.r.to 'r'
I au - r
--=-=:)-=--
au - u. r
u ar 20 or 28
) au -11.,.3
r--=---
ar 28
- a( au) _-I [ u. 3r
I .2 - -- 2 +r .1(--1/1")]
-
ar ar 28 20
..... (3)
3.8.15 Example
?
If x- yY zZ = k then prove that at x = y =
a2 z
z, - - = [x log exr I
axBy
J48 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution
Applying logarithms to.r y zZ = k, we get xlog x + ylog)' + zlog z = log k.
Differentiating this implicit function partially w.r., to 'x'.
x
1
x-+logx+ z.-+Iogz )az
z
-=0
ax
(I
az
(I + logx) + (1 + logz). ax = 0 ..... (i)
az (I + logy)
ax l+logz
az (I + logy)
/Illy =
ay 1+ logz
Differentiating (i) partially w.r., to 'y'
{1+logz )-a2Z
- +aZ[1
- - .az]
- =0
ayax ax.z oy
Substituting x = y = z, we get
a I =0
(I + logx)_z_+-
2
axay x
I I
-axay- - - x{1 + logx) - x{loge + logx)
or - (xlogex) I
xlogex
Exercise - 3(F)
az az
2. If z = ax2 + bxy + by/inti ax' ay (ADS: 2q.x + ~y, bx + 2by]
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 149
. OZ {)z
3. Ifz = (ax + by)(a\" - by), tind -ax '-0y
oz oz
4. Ifz=tan(ax+ by), find ox'ay [ADS: asec 2(a," + by), bsec 2(ax + by)
sin(ax + by) oz OZ
5. Ifz=
xy
find ox' OU.J'
) )
x- - y-
2
ayax X + y-J
I XY
8. If u = tan . then prove that
~X2 + y2 + I
au ) a2u
-=c---
at ax 2
10. If 11 = .I(x + Ky) + g(x - Ky) then show that
a2u = K2 a2u
ay2 ax 2
150 Engineering Mathematics - I
V z
II. If 1I =~ + - prove that
z x
x au + y ay + z au =: 0
ax . uy oz
12. I f II = log(x3 t- y3 -f :;3 ~3xyz), prove that
all au
-+-t----=:~--
UII 3
ax ~)I az x+y t- :;
I,,) I
13. I f 1I =.I(r) W Ilere r = .jx" + y + z- prove t HIt
x y z
14. [1' 11 = ~- + _.- -+ - - then prove that
y+z z+x y+z
lADs: -I)
au
x-- + y-- = 211
all
Dx . ~v
17. If x = rcosO, y = rsin0, then prove that
0 20 0 1 0
- , +-) =0
ox- ay
18. If 1-1 = logr, r = x + );J - x 2y - xy2, prove that
3
(-au)2
ax
+ (au)2
-
0;
+ (au)2
-
az
- -2( allax au au)
x-+ y-+z-
By az
3.9.1 Composite Functions
If u is a function of two variables x and yare themselves functions of an
independent variable I.
au au ax au av
-=-.-+-.-'
then ..... (i)
at ax at ay al
Suppose now that 'u' is a function of the variables x and y, and x and yare
themselves functions of two other variables rand s.
au au ax au ay
-=-.-+-.-
then ..... (A)
ar ax ar ay ar
all au ax au 0;
-=-.-+-.- ..... (8)
'as ax as 0; as
II Ily if u is a function of rand s, where rand s are themselves functions of x and
ythen
au au or ax as
-=-.-+-.- ..... (C)
ax ar ax as ax
au au or au as
-=-.-+-.-
0; ar ay as ay
The second and higher-order partial derivatives of'u' can be obtained by repeated
application of the above formulae. Also, the formulae can be extended to functions
of three and more variabl~s.
152 Engineering Mathematics - I
3.9.2 Example
If z = fix, y), x = ell + e- v, y = e-l/ eV then show that
az az az az
---=x--y-
au av ax ay
Solution
az GZaX azOy az u az
-=--+--=-e --e
u
au ax .au Oy .ax ax . av .
az az ax az Oy
-=--+--=--e
az v az
--e
v
az - az)_( v)aZ
- - ("
e -e v)aZ
(- - - e +e -
11
au av ax ay
az y--
=x--- az
ax ay
3.9.3 Example
If u = j(x, y), x = rcos(J, y = sinO prove that
Solution
we know that
rae ax axOy
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 153
. ~ au 2 .
SIIl-O(- ) +SIIl 2
au -~
0(-) . au au
-2cosOsIIlO-.-+ COS 2 0(-au )2
c3y ax ax ay c3y
3.9.4 Example
If u = j{x - y, y - z, z - x) prove that
au + au + al~ = 0
ax c3y az
Solution
Let X = x - y, y = y - z, Z = z -x then u = f(x, Y, Z)
all all ax au ay au az au au
-=-.-+-.-+-.-=---
ax ax ax ay ax az ax ax az
au au all au au az
lilly ay = ay - ax' az az ay
Adding all these gives
au + au + au =0
ax c3y az
3.9.5 Example
If z = j{u, v) Whereu x2 -y and v = 2xy
=< prove that
az y-=2(x
x-- az - y)az?
)-
(a) ax ay au
(b)
Solution
u = x2 - y, v = 2xy
au
ax =2x
- 'c3y au =-2y, av
ax =2y, av
c3y =2x
154 Engineering Mathematics - I
..... (i)
..... (ii)
(-Jaz -
ax
7
az
+( -
By
)2 = {[ az az - az az-
4 x-+y- J? + [-y-+x- J? }
au av all av
3.9.6 Example
If x = reos Bandy = rsill B, prove the following:
ax ax . e.
-=-rsll1 ay = sine By = rsinE>
1. -=eose
as ' as ' ar 'as
ar x
,
ar y
,
as y as x
- =- -
2.
~X2 + y2 ~X2 + y2 x2 + y2
?
ax By ax x- + y-? '
By
3. (:r +(: r =1
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 155
Solution
I. We have x = reos O. Differentiating this relation partially w.r.t., rand w.r.t., '0,
we get
ox = cosO -o=r .
-
or ' ao -rsl110 ..... (i)
which gives
-ao = - -,
y = cos " 0 = --,
y =, y ,
..... (vi)
ox x r- x- + y
00 cos" 0 x x
-=--=- .... (vii)
oy x ,.2
(::l\(:r~1
156 Engineering Mathematics - I
..... (ix)
..... (x)
-+
a2 ,. a2r I
2 -=-
ax ay2 r ..... (xi)
..... (xii)
..... (xiv)
..... (xvi)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 157
Note:
I. The variables (I', 0) related to (x, y) through the relations x = rcosO, y = rsinA are the
polar co-ordinates of the point whose cal1esian co-ordinates are (x. y).
2. In obtaining the resllits in (i) rand 0 are regarded as independent variables and
x and yare regarded as dependent variables.
3. In obtaining the results (ii) - (vi), x andy are regarded as independent variable~ and
rand 0 are taken as dependent variables.
4. After partial differentiation is carried out, the final expression for the partial derivatives
are to be expressed in terms of the independent variables.
. or ax ax ao . ar
5. From the expressIOn for - , - ; - , - , It may be observed that - is not the
ax ar as ax ax
.
reclproca I 0
fax ax.IS not the reclproca
or an d ae . I 0f ao
ox' I n Clact we note IJere
Exercise - 3(G)
ox - /1
2+V ~v -
1/ + v
x V
7. Ifu = -;V=-'-- and w =zandf=}(u, v, ll~ show that
z z
Of Of Of Of
x-+y-+z-=w-
ox oy oz ow
8. If z = }(x, y), x = 11 cosh v, y = 1I sinh v prove that
a-J +
- z 0 2z (/ 2
ox ~2
2
- = +111 2)(2
0 Z+0-
- 2Z
0,,2 ov 2
1
10. If z =f(u, v), U = x2 -I, v = 1- x 2 show lhat
OZ oz
x-+ y-=O
~v ox
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 159
(
. II == 2
Ilmt I Iog(y-? -. x-)
) an d v::= Sill
. I( yx II
12. If w = .f(x2 - y, )~ .. z2, 22 -- x 2) prove that
-.!. ow + _~_ ow + _~ all' == 0
x ax )' ~y z Dz
13. If w = j(x, y), 11 0= e\ v ~ eY show that
D2 w 3 2 \1'
--:= ---.(111')
3x~v ouvv
14. If x::= -!vw,y::= j;;,z = -J;;;, Prove that
o<p 0(1) o<jl o<jl o<jl o<jl
x-+ v---+z--=u-+v--+w-
ax . ~Y oZ all ov all'
where <jl is a function of x, y, z.
Z=xO[sin-I(~J+tan I:]
2 + 2
2 Z = x y .
IS IlOmogeneous an d'IS 0 f'd egree Isll1ce
'
x-y
160 Engineering Mathematics - I .
Proof :
Since Z is a homogeneous function of degree '11' we can write 'z' in the form.
z= xllf(~)
= nxlllf(~)_xll 2y/(~)
and
= nxllf(:Ix)
=nz [.:Z=Xllf(;)]
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables
uz
x-+ V-=IIZ
oz
Thus oX . ~V
3.10.3
Ir z is a homogeneous functions of x and y with degree 'n' then
2 J )
]OZ o-z 20-Z ( )
X - , + 2xy - - + y -i = 11 II - 1z ..... (ii)
ax - uxoy uy
Pr(}(l:
Diflerentiating (i) pUl1iaily w.r., to x, we obtain
02 Z OZ 02 Z OZ
x--+-+
2
y--=ll--
ox ox oxoy ax
02 Z 02 z UZ
I.e., x-) + yx--=(n-I)- .... (iii)
ox' oxoy ax
Differentiating (i) par1ially w.r., to 'y', we obtain
02 Z 02 Z oz
y-+x--=(n-1)- ..... (iv)
oyJ oyox oy
Multiplying (iii) by 'x' and (iv) by 'y' and adding we get
02 Z
? 02 Z ) 02 Z (OZ Oz)
x--? +2xy--+ y-? =(n-I) x-+y- =n(n-l)z
ox' oxuy oy' ox ry
x oj + y OJ + Z oj = nj
ax ry oz ..... (v)
3.10.4 Example
.
1/ 1I :~. cosec
-[;-;+JY]
I if;: + if;; ,thcn prove that x au au __ ~
ax + y ay - 6 tanu
Solution
We note that from the given cxpression for' u' we can write
cosecll
;-;+JY
= "il
.
;1.: f (say)=: ..... (i)
'Y.\" +vY
Then
W WI. I
x-+ y-=- j =-cosecu ..... (ii)
ax Oy 6 6
a a I
x-(cosecu) + y-(cosecl~ =: -cosecli
I.e.,
ax ay 6
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 163
I
--cosecu 1
au a 6 II
x-+ y-=-=----=--tanu
ax ~v - cosec II. cot u 6
x-
au + yau- = - -1 tanlt
ax ry 6
3.10.5 Example
Ifu= j o( -,-,-
x y z J prove that x-+y-+z-=O
au au au
yzx ax ry az
Solution
11= o(xy
j -,-,- z)
y z x
all au au
x-+y-+z-=j 0'( -----+---+-
x z x y y z J
ax ry az y x y z z x
=0
3.10.6 Example
au all
If u = sin 1; + tan -1 ~ prove that x ax + Y ry = 0
Solution
au ali
x-+ y-=o.u=o
ax 0'
. ,x ,y
Sill - = v, tan - - =w
Alter:
y x
u=v+w
au avow -::::-+-
-=-+-
au av Ow
ax ax ax' ay 0' 0'
x . 1 av
-:::: Sill V, - = cosv-
y y ax
y - y ? aw
- = tan w, -} = sec- w.-
x x- ax
-x av I
--:::: cosv- - = sec"w.-
) aw
y2 0" x 0'
=0
3.10.7 Example
If ZI =
X3 + 1'3)
tan' - __ prove that
( x+y 0 -
au au .
x - + y - = s1112u
(i)
ax oy
2 a-u a-u? au. .
J 2 ?
By Euler's thcorem
at" of
.\"-'
Ox +-
Oy .1' 7f'
= 1l.J =~ --:
?
:"\
vII ?
all
xsec-II-;-~ + ysecII - 2tanll
vx ~v
au
x - + y~~~
all 2 tan 11
= --,,- ceo
.
S1l1211 ..... (i)
aX (~y sec ~ u
Next dirterentialing bL)th sides of the resull (i) partially \Y.r., to 'x' and 'J" wc get
alII all alII
x ~-, + ~- + v .~-- =-- 2 cos 211 -
Ou
..... (ii)
ax- D.\ . axD)' Dx
Multiplying the result (ii) by x, the result (iii), by 'y' and adding the results we get
a~1I + y'
x', ~-,- ,a"II +
~-:,~
'1
~xy-- =
a"II (2cos211 ~-l (all all)
x - + y---
(1.\'- ay OXG)' Dx ~v
3.10.8 Example
Solution
Let and
166 Engineering Mathematics - I
Then
v and ware hOl1logeneous./llllclioll.\' (!ldegree '2 '. Applying 3.10.3 to 'v' and
'w' we get
..... (i)
Note:
Letj(z) be a homogeneous function ofx and y of degree Il ; then from Euler's
theorem
('JI"
x_:'l
a" =I/f
+ y_:'l
ax Dy
a'z aZ }I--=Il
J
\'-+-+
. ax 2
a'z [j")
Dx . oxoy
'
J
--JJ'fj'" aZ
/2 -ax
j ..... (ii)
a z
2
a z az
x--+y-+-=n
. axay ay2 ry
2
[/2/2-jt' 1-az
ay ..... (iii)
..... (v)
llere
3.10.9 Example
If z = log(,3 + .vI __ x 2y __xy2), prove that
a=
x-+ v- =3
oz
(i) ax . ry
Note: (i) and (iv) can be llsed as formula in such cases
Hence f = t!, f' = c=, f" = e= and 1/ =3
1 ) ,
lO-Z az 2a'z "
Form (v) on. 10.8 note x - , +2xv--+y -,=3.2--9=-_,
ax' . axoy ~v'
3.10.10 Example
..... (i)
uu ,
2u- = -z(x- + v-) . . 2x
, _,
So that 0;'" .
168 Engineering Mathematics - I
au ) ).)
2u~=-z(x- + y) - .2y
oy
gives au y~+z-=-
x--+ au ou
ax oy oz
-z[
211
) I )
x- + y-
1
2
U I
= - - - -:;: ----1/ by (i)
211 2
Hence the result
3.10.11 Example
J J 3
X +Y - Z of Df of
If f = cos I I then show that x - + }'- + z-'- = -cotf
"X 1 -t )'4 - Z4 AX . ~v oz
Solution
..... (i)
So that coif= 11
-Sill .f[ x~
ox
of + z-'-
Of + y-'-
ay
Of) = cos j'
oz
Of Of Of
x-- + y - + z~ = -cotf
ax ~v oz
Mean Value Th.eorems and Functions of Several Variables 169
3.10.12 Example
,
. 2
1all au2 2
,all ...
' ,]1
x' + y3
Fmd x- - , + 2xy-- + y- - , ,If u = sm-- I
ax' axoy ~~!. [Xl + y2
, ,
Solution
,
x3~ + y31 ]~
Taking z = , , then z = sinu =.f(u) say z is a homogeneous function or
[
Xl + y2
I
degree - - = n
12
From Euler's theorem
au all j(u) I sin II 1
x - + y - = 11-,- = - - - - = --tan II
ax ay f (ll) 12 cosu 12
, 2 1 . 1 ) ,"
a'u .... a 11
2 2 a-lI ( I) f 11- f -I
Again x -+.ay--+y -,=1111- - , - ,
a.'/ axay ay' f f 3
= (-~)(-
12
~
12
-I)tanu - _I_(-tan u).tan
144
2
1I
tanu 1
= --(13 + tan-u)
144
3.10.13 Example
2
_ Y )a u a 2II 1
1 a-lI
If u = tan' ( -=--- ) ,find x' --+ 2xy--+ y--2
X ax axay ay
Solution
..... (i)
x 02~ + au + y 02U = 0
..... (ii)
. uxoy oy ~l
) 0\' OlU
x--+2xv--+ y-=- x-+ y - =0
, 0\. (au au)
0'(2 . ax~y oy' ax oy
Exercise - 3(E)
I. Verify Euler's theorem for the following functions:
xy
(a) z=-- (b)
x+y
1 X} - Y1 )
(d) z = SIl1
( x-y
( e) _. --I X
3})
Y 2
+ y-?+ z-?) 1
Z-SIl1
(
X
3
+Y
3
(I) Z = (x 2
x 3 + y3 OZ OZ
(b) Ifz= log ,then x-+ y-=2
x+ y ax oy
x-y 3 3)
87 OZ
( x-y
(c) Ifz=sin- I - - - - then x--=' + y - == 2 tan z
ax ~y
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 171
4. If z = tan-I ( x + /
J
lx+y
l' then x uz + y OZ = sin 2u
8x '~y
6. If z is a homogeneous function of x and y with degree' 11' and z = f(u), prove that
x-+
all au
y-=n-'--
(u)
ux . ~ /(11)
7. If z = x 3
. (y)
1 SIll-1 - ,show that
a 2
x 2 --T a 2
z + 2xy--
11 fiz
+ y2 -2- = 20z
x ax- axay ~y
az oz
(i) x - + y - = sm2z
.
ax oy
ii)
,a
x- -
2
)
z
+ 2xy
0 2z
- - + v-
, 2z . a .
-) = s1I14::: - Sill 2z
(
ax' ax~v' ~v'
az 8z I
(i) x-- + y - = -tanz
ax ay 2
1
10.lfz=tal1- 1 [;l+YSin- [.:l show that
\ \-
x2 + y2
II. If z = cosec-I then show that
172 Engineering Mathematics - 1
a2 z 0-" z 2 0-" Z
X
2
-2
ax
+ 2xy - - + y ---:;-
aX~Y ay
tan zll31 J
= - - -+-tan- z
]
12 12 12
2 2 2
"a z a z )a z
13. If z = log rand ,2 = x 2 + y then show that x- - 2 + 2xy-- + y - " + 1 == ()
ax axay ay
14. If z = sin-I
X4I
!
+ y4I
!
j then show that
r x5 _ y5
') 2 2
2 a-za z )a z 1 2
X - - 2 +2xy--+ y - , =--tanz(tan z-19)
ax ax~ ay 400
~ x 2+ y2] ;\2;\
2uZ uZ2 ; \2UZ
2
15. If z = log ( x+y find the value of x GX2 + 2xy axay + y ay2
3.11.1 Jacobian
Ifu and v are functions of two independent variables x and y then the determinant
au au
ax ~ i.e.,
ux uy
Ov Ov v, vy is called the Jacobian of u, v with respect to x and y
ax au
and is denoted by
a(u, v)
a(x,y) or .J(~)
x,y
V( vI' Vz
W( Wy lV,
a{/I, v, w)
or )(U,\" w)
a{x,y,=) x,y,z
Similarly
aUI uU I (J/I~
a{U p 1l2uJ _ aX I aX 2 ax"
a{X I'X 2.....x,,) - all" OU" au"
oX I aX2 ax"
3.11.2 Property
a(u,v) a{x'Y)_1
a(x,y)' a{u, v) -
I := au . ax + all . 0'
ax all ay au
174 Engineering Mathematics - I
av ax av ay
O= - . - + - . -
ax au ay au
1= av .ax + av .ry
ax av ay av
au all ax ax
Now
a(lI, v) a(x,y) ax oy x all av
a(x,y)' a(u, v) av av ry ay
ax ay au av
au -au
-
ax ry
-
ax ay x au all
av av ax ry
ax ay av av
(Interchanging rows and columns in 2 nd determinant)
ali ax au oy au ax au ay
-.-+-.- --+--
ax au oy au ax' av ay' au
av ax av ry av ax av ay
-.-+-.-- --+--'
au au ry au ax' av ~v' av
3.11.3 Property
a{u,v) _ a{u,v) a{r,s)
a{x,y) - a{r,s)' a(x,y)
where u, v are functions of r, sand r, s are functions of x, y.
Proof
By differentiation offunction ofa functions, partially; we get
au au ar au as
-=-.-+-.-;
ax ar ax as ax
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Vanables 175
ou
-=-
or oy OS
au -+--'---_.
~ or .~ as oy , ..... (i)
oval'
01'
-=~- - + avos
-_.
ox or .ox os ox '
Ov 01' or 01' as
-=- -+--_.
and ~y or .oy os ~y ,
all au (lr (Is
=?----=
o(u, v) a{r,s) (lr os (Ix (Iy
(1(r,s) a(x,y) uv elv x us us
i"lr us (!y. ilyl
Oll or as
all
or os x ax ax
ov -oV (II' as
or as oy oy
(Interchanging rows and columns of the second determinant)
allor ou os
-.-+-.- -.-+-.-
ouor Oll as
or ox os ox or oy os oy
Ov or OV os ov or ov as
-.-+-.-- -.-+-.-
or ox os ox or oy as ~
ou -ou
ox ~ _ o(lI,v) using (i)
ov Ov - o(x,y)
- -
ox ~
3.11.4 Property
If u, v are functions of two independent variables x and y thell u, v, are
independent if
oo((U,V))oFO.
x,y
Otherwise they are dependent. Similarly if II, v, W
. . . . o(u, v, w) 0
(functions of x, v, z) are II1dependent If and only If ( ) oF
a x,y,Z
176 Englneenng Mathematics - I
Theorem
If the functions 11 1, 1I::...... 1I11 of the variables xI' x 2 .... xn be defined by the
relations Il, ==.ll'",), 112 =flx ,. x 2), 113 = .li x ,. x 2 x 3 ) ..... 1/11 .I;,<x,. x 2 ..... x). cc
Then
O(lI p 1/2 .....U,,} OU, UU] OU 3 OU II
o(x"x2.....x,,) - ox, . oX1 'a~~ OXII
We know that
Similarly lor
Oil, Oil 2
ox, ox,
Oil, 0111
o o
3.11.5 Example
_ o(x,y)
If x = 112 -vl . Y = 2uv ,. tllld --(--)
0 1l,V
Solution
ox
We have x = u2 - v2 ~ -ox =
2lI. --=-2v
all OV
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 177
cYv 0)1
v = 2uv => --- = 2 v -"-- = 211
- V I I ' 01'
ox AX
V{X,y) _ or ()I~ ~ 1211 - 21'1 := 4(u-
+)1'- )
O(II.~) - VI' ~F 21' 211
au VV
3.11.6 Example
(It
~ = cos()o
=> (1,.
ax ax
o(x,y) _ or ao _Icoso -rsinol
Then ~v
. = r(cos 2 0 + sin 20) = r
0(1',0) - ~v - sinO r Sill 0
or ao
Again 12 = x 2 + y2 ; 0 = tal1- 1 ~
x
or
2r-- = 2x
ox
(l() -- y -y
ax r+y
0 0 0
r-
or +x
- = -
ax I'
Dr y (1() -y -y
ay ,. ilx x2 +)'2 r
)
178 Engineering Mathematics - I
x x
lar ar x
a(,., 0) ~ ax ~}! Y
aCy,y) ~ ao ao -- ~ y
lay vy
3.11.7 Example
11
If x = uv, y = - then show that .1./ ::.: I
v
Solution
We have
ax
-=V,
at
-=11
all al'
~F ay
---
11
= )
VII v aI' v
VU DII
But
')
xy 2u- = )I, 2u-=x
lr = ax . ay
v
, x
=-, 2v
av =!... 21'-=
aI' x
and y ax y' ay
--?
y.
y x
II" lly 2u 211
J =
Vr v)' I ~x
2vy 21:J!
X X X
I? V
=---v-
211v 2u
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 179
- 3.11.8 Example
Yv I I'
e sec-
)
II e" tan 11
eVtanu Y
e2v = x 2 - y, also ---
e" secll x
. y
SlIlli = -
X
U
-1
= Sill -;
(Y) an d v '21 Iog(x = 2
- Y-))
Du y all
,
i1x X~X2 - /
(Jy X~X2 -y 2
av x Dv y
1 ? ?
ax x- - y ? '
i1y x- - y-
Y
lIx lIy X~X2 _ y2 ~X2 _ y2
J
Vt VI' X Y
x2 _ y2 x-1 - 1
y-
180 Engineering Mathematics - I
, \' I
JJ =xe ,-=1\'
xe
3.11.9 Example
VIV Wlt lIV I I I O(X, y, z)
If x=-,y=--,z=-- t Jen SlOW tlat - ( - '-)=4
II v W 01l,V,\I'
Solution
ax ox oX VI\' lI' v
2
Oll ov all' u It 1/
o(x,y,z) _ oy oy oy 11' Wit II
2
0(1/, V,-H') Oil ov ow V V v
OZ oz oz V II uv
011 OV ow IV IV
-I
-I
-I
=-1(1-1)-1(-1-1)+ 1(1+1)=4
Exercise - 3(1)
o(u, v, w)
2. If II = x+ 2/ - Z2, V = x2yz, W = 2X2 -xy find at the point (1,-1,0)
o(x,y,z)
Ans:19
3. If x==rcosB,}J==rsinB, find ~(x,Y) and !JS!~~~ and show that
. 8(r,0) 8(x,y)
o(x,y) o(r,O)
--'--. = 1 (Hint :relcr 3.6.6)
o(r,O) o(x,y)
XOXI X X, XIX)
I ,y, = - - - ,show that ----'----'--== 4 o(YI,VnY,)
4. If YI = - --- ,Y) = ---
XI - x2 - x, 0(X I ,X2,X3)
O(YI' Y), y, )
5. If YI ==1-XI'Y2 =xl (l-x2 ),y] ==xlxl(l-x,),provcthat - = (1)3
- XI 2 x"
0(X I ,X2 ,X,)
6. If x=a(coshu)cosv,y=a(sinhll)sinv, then show that
2
o(x, v) a
--,-'- = - (cosh 211 - cosh 2v)
0(11, v) 2
7. If II = /(x l ), v = (x l , x 2 ), W = If/(x!, X 2' Xl) then show that
Oell, v, w)
=---
011 Ov uw
0(X I ,X2 ,X3 ) i
ox
' oX ox}
2
8. If X
. 1')
= r S1l1 r.
do
cos 'I', 0 . do
Y = r Slll 0 I oC X, y, z) ). 0
S1l1 or, Z = r cos - S lOW that - - - = ,.- S1I1
o(r,a,)
ox ox uy
or 00 o sinOcos reosOcos - r sin Osin
o(x,y, z) ay oy uy
Solution: = -- = sin Osin r cos Osin rsinO eos
o(r,O,) or UO tJ
cosO -rsine o
OZ OZ oz
--
or oe o
= sin ecos[ 0 +,.2 sin 2 Oeos ] + r coseeos.r sineeosecos +
+( -r sin esin )[ -r sin 2 Osin - r cos 2 esin ]
== r2 sin 3 Oeos 2 + r2 sin Ocos] Oeos 2 +,.2 sin 3 Bsin 2 + r2 cos 2 Osinesin 2
== r2 sin 3 0 + r1 sin () cos 2 () = ,.2 sin O.
182 Engineering Mathematics - I
8(x,y) 8(1l, v)
Exercise - 3(G)
) 1 C(ll, v) 3
I. Ifu=2xy,v=x--y, whcrex=rcosO,y=rsmO show that ---=-4,..
o(r,O)
2. If x = ;;;;,y = Jwu,z =-r;;;;
where II = r sin OcosrjJ, v =,. sin Osin rjJ, W = rcosO,
v(x,y,z) 1 2 0
show that = --,. Slll
a(r,O,rjJ) 4
ll+V _ v(u,\') (1I-V)2)
3. If x = ltV )' = -- fll1d - - - (A liS : --'------'-
, 1I-V' o(x,y) 411v
yz zx xy 8(x,y,z)
4. II II = - V = - HI = - prove that =
x ' y , z 8( ll, V, lV) 4
x +Y I D( ll, 0)
5. 1I1I=--,O=tan-l(x)-tan-- (y) show that =0.
1- .xy v( x, y)
1 v(u,V,lI')
6. If lI=x--2y,v=x+y+z,w=x-2y+3z show that ----=1Ox+4
8(x,y,z)
_ aJ; W, _ ~t;
ax, aX2 ax)
_ ~f2 _ aj~ - aj~
au, QU 1 au)
0f, aj; 0f,
ax, aX2 ax)
= (_ I)' a(J;,j2''/;)
a(x"X2 ,X3 )
aCt; ,j~,f,)
Hence
a(u" 112' uJ _(_1)3 a(;;~-x~~~,"J
a(x, x2 ,xJ - ~V;,fI,lj)
, a(U"l/2,lIJ
(The result if obvious)
3.12.3 Example
x y z
If u = r:--:;' v = r:--:;' W = r:--:; prove that
v'1-r2 v'1-r2 v'1-r2
a(u, v, w) _ 1
a(x,y,z) - (l-r2 y;
where -? = x2 + r+ z2
Solution
we have II (1-/ 2 ) =x2
=> II(u, v, W, x, y, z) = u2 (I _x2 - r _z2) - x2 = 0
Similarly ./; == v2 (1 - x 2 ~ r - z2) - r = 0
13 == w2 (1 - x 2 ~ r- z2) - z2 = 0
.... (i)
(see 3.13.2)
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 185
J
- 2u 2 x- 2x - 211-Y - 2112 z
aCt; ,.I~ ,.I;) _ -2v 2 x -2v 2 y-2y - 2v 2 z
8(x,y,z)
-2w 2 x - 2w 2 z -2z
)
- 211'- y
?
u2 + 1
)
u- 11-
= (-2x) (-2y)(-2z) v-
) 2 2
v +1 V
w2 +1
) )
w- 11'-
0 u-?
)
-8xyz -I v-
0 -I w2 +1
by C 1 -C 2
C2 -C 3
= -8xyz(u2 + v2 + w2 + I)
X2 y2 Z2 ]
= -8xyz --J +--- 2 +--? + 1
[ I-r- I-r l-r-
? ') ') ,.,
x- + y + z- + 1- 1'-
=-8xyz J
1-r-
-8xyz
=--2 ;also.
I-r
2u(l-x2 - / _Z2) o o
8U;,.I;, .I;) o 2u(l_x2 - 0
= y2 _Z2)
8(ui' v2 , w3 )
o o 2u( 1- Xl _ yl _ Z2 )
8l1vw(l- Xl _ y2 _ Z2 )3
8 x . Y . z (l_r2)3=8~yz(l_r2)112
~ JI-? .J1-r 1
_. 8(11, V, w) 1)3 -8xyz ~ I
Hence trom (I), we have - - - - = (- - - , 8 (I 2)1/2 = r:-?
8(x,y,z) I-r- xyz -r ',"1_1'2
X Y Z
Cor: Given U=- V=- W=-
k' k' k
where k = VII - X
2
-
' f iIn d ,(x,y,z)
Y, - Z-, in terms ofk. lAns: k
S
]
(u, v, w)
186 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 3(H)
8(x,y,z) 2
I. Ifx+y+z = u ,y+z = uv, z = uvw, then prove that ----'----=--~ =- II V
8(u, v, w)
~)
8(u,v) x--y-
2. Ifx + l + u _v = O,uv + xy = 0, prove that
2 2 2
8(x,y) u 2 + v 2
3. If u1 =x1 +X2 +x3 + x,pU 1U 2 =x2 +X3 +X4 ,1lIU2113 =x4 then prove that
8(X p X2 ,X3,X4 ) 3 2
=1I1 .il2 113
8(u l , 112 , u3' 114)
4. If u 3 +V3 +W3 =X+ y+z,u 2 +V2 +W2 =X3 + / +Z3,
8(1I,v,w) (y-z)(z-x)(x-y)
t Ilen SlOW
I t Ilat = ---"'----'---'..-----'-----'-----'----"--
8(x,y,z) (v- w)(w-u)(u - v)
3.7.4 Use of Jacobians in determining functional dependence and independence of
functions.
Let u and v be two functions of x and y connected by the relation v = f(u), then
we say that u and v are functionally dependent. We shall prove that the condition for
functional dependence is
o(u, v) = 0
o(x,y)
Consider w = v - feu) = 0
Ow
i.e., -=0
ax '
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 187
all aI'
ax ax =0
all -av
Oy ~v
au au
--
ax ay
ou au =0
ax Oy
a(u,11=o
=> a(x,y)
The concept of functional dependence can be extended to any number of
variables. Thus if u, 1\ 11' are functions of x. y, z the 1I, v, w will be functionally
dependent (i.e., there will exist a relation between ll. 1\ 11') if
Q~!_,V, w) = 0
a(x,y,z)
3.14.5 Example
\
o(U, v, w) = \
-\ -\
Then o(x,y,z)
2x 2y-2z 2z-2y
= -\ -\ =0
2x 2y-2z 2y-2z
Solution
.. ti c: . Id d . o(u, v, w) 0
CondItIOn or lunctlOna epen ence IS ( ) =
o x,y,z
Now o(U, v, w) 2x 2y 2z
o(x,y,z) - ? ? 2
3x- -3yz 3y- -3zx 3z -3xy
=6 X
2
x - yz
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 189
0 0
=6 x-y y-z z
)
(x- y)x+ y+z y - z(x + y + z) z- -xy
o o
= 6(x - y) (y - z) I z
x+ y+z x+ y+z z -xy
=0
11, V, IV are functionally dependent. We shall now find the relation between them
W=U
[v -U-V]
--
2
Thus
3.14.7 Example
x+ y xy
Test whether u = - - , v = ( )2 are functionally dependent and if so, find
x-y x-y
the relation between them.
Solution
Treating'lI, vas functions of x, y the condition for functional dependence is
a(u,v) =0
a(x,y)
x+y xy
11=--, V=-~-c-
{x-y)'I-{x+y)'1 -2y
We have ux = (X_y)2 = {X_y)2
y (X_y)2 {x-yf
_ {(X- y)y-2xy)
- (x- y)
xy - y2 - 2xy _ - y{y + x)
{x- y)3 - (X- YY
X(X+ y)
lilly Vy={
x-y )3
=UV - v v
x y x y
x-y
x+ y u
o X x 1+11
Y
Now
xy
v = (x - y)' = (;
V
1 r y l-lt
by (A)
'V=C~:~2 J
u2(4v+ 1) = I
The required relation of functional depedence between lI, v.
3.14.8 Example
Examine for functional dependence of
u = sin-I x + sin-1y
v=x~l-y2 +y,JI-x 2
and find the relation between them, if it exists.
Solution
We have u =-===
, ~1_x2
lilly
a{u, v) 1I ( It )'
a{x,y) Vx Vy
192 Engineering Mathematics - I
:. ll, V are functionally dependent we shall now determine the relation between u and v
au au
-
X X
a(u, v) ax ay e smy e cosy
Solution: The Jacobian = _ex * o.
a(x,y) av av eX cos y _ex sin y
ax ay
:. x, v are functionally independent.
. x-y x+z
3.14.9 VerifY whether u = - - , v = - - are functionally dependent, and if so find
x+z y+z
the relation.
a(u, v) =0
a(x,y) ,
au
Now - =
y + z au 1 av 1 av =
- = - - - and -=~-,
x +z
ax (x+z/' ay x+z ax y+z ay (Y+Z)2
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 193
y+z
---
B(u,v) (x + Z)2 X+Z
= =0
B(x,y) 1 x+z
y+z (y + Z)2
u, v are functionally dependent.To lind the relation between u and v, we eliminate 'x'
between the given relation viz:
x-y x+z
u = ------------- (A), v = ---------------(B)
X+Z y+z
liZ+Y
from(A) ux+vy = x-yo =>(I-u)x=uz+y => x = - -
1-11
liZ +Y
+z
(y+Z)
Substituting for 'x' in 'B', v = 1-11 =
y+z I-l/' y+z I-u
Hence the required functional relation between 'u' and 'v' is v( I -u) = I.
Exercise - 3(1)
I. Verify whether the following are functionally dependent and if so, lind the relation
between them.
x- y x+ y
(a) II = - - , V = - - (Ans: u( I+v) = 2)
x+y x
x-y
( b) u = - - , v = tan -\ x + tan -\ y (Ans: v = tan
-\
II)
I-xy
(c)u=x-y,v= xy (Ans: 4v + 1I
2
=1)
x+y (X+y)2
2. Prove that the following functions are not independent.
(a) II = X + 2y + Z, v = x- 2y + 3z, W = 2xy - 2z + 4yz - 2Z2
(b) II = x+ y- z, v = x- y+ z, w= x + l + Z2 - 2yz
2
3
(c) u = x + y + z, v = xy + yz + zx, w = x + l + Z3 - 3xyz
x-y
4. Examine for functional dependence between u = - - , v = tan-I x - tan -I y.1f
l-xy
dependent, find the relation. ( Ans: u=tan v)
ax 2! ax-
Keeping 'x' constant and by applying (I), we get
a. ea
f(x+h,y+k) = f(x,y)+k-j(x'Y)+---2 f(x,y)+ ...... .
2
ay 2! ay
.... (3)
Substituting (3) in(2) we get
f(x+h,y+k) = [
. a. ea
j(x,y)+k a;f(x'Y)+2T ay2 f(x,y)+ ...... .
2
]
2
+ h- a. e a f(x,y)+ ...... .]
a [ f(x,y)+k-j(x,y)+---)
ax ay 2! ay
2
112 a [ aj. a
2
e
+ 2T al f(x,y)+k iY (x,y)+2T al f(x,y)+ ....... +..... .
]
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 195
2
a [ f(x,y)+k-f(x'Y)+---2
+h- a a f(x,y)+ .....] e
ax ay 2! ay
2 2 2
h a [ f(x,y)+k-f(X'Y)+---2
+---2 a a f(x,y)+ .....] e
<2 ax ay < 2 ay
+ .....
[ aj 2 2
k a f + .....] + h-+hk--+
= f(x,y)+k-+--2
a f .....] [aj 2
ay < 2 ay ax axay
+[~ a
<2 ax
2
{ +. . .]
Thus f(x + h. y + k) = f(x, y) + (h! + k ~ )f
1
+~hax+kay
(a a)2 f+ ..... (iv)
a a)2
If(a+h,b+k)=f(a,b)+ ( hax +kay ira,b)
[a a
1 h-+k- ]2 i((jb)+ .....
+-
1! ax ay ,
Now if we call h = x - a, y - b = k
a a )2 fiab) + ..... .
1 ( (x-a)-+{y-b)-
+-
2! ax ay'
..... (v)
Writing a = 0 = b, we have
3.15.3 Example
Solution
2+ 2 2
Ix (x, y) = 2xe x Y => Ix (I, I) = 2e
X2 + y2 2 2 7
fyy (x, y) = e + 4Y eX +Y- => fyy (I, I) = 6e2
Hence putting these values in second form of Taylor's theorem, we get
1
e,2+y2 =e2[l +2(x-I)+2(y-I)]+ 2! [6(x-I)2+8(x-I)(y---I)+6(y---If+ .... ]
3.15.4 Example
Expand ~ siny in powers of x and y as far as terms of third degree
Solution
f(x, y) = ~siny => j(0, 0) = 0
Ix(x, y) = ~siny ,=>Ix(O, 0) = 0
J;,(x, y) = ~co,';y =>J;,(O, 0) = 1
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 197
I
+ 21 2 .2
[xfxx (0,0) + 2xylxy (0,0) + yjXy(O, 0) ] + ......
J J J
x- y- x-
= 0 + x(O) + y( 1) + - (0) + xy( 1) + - (0) + - (0) + .....
226
x y
=y+xy+---+ .....
2
i
2 6
3.15.5 Example
j(x. y) = x 2y + 3y - 2 in powers of (x-I) and (y + 2) by Taylor's theorem
Solution
j(x, y) = f(a, b) + [(x-- a)lx (a, b) + (y - b)fy (a, b)]
I
+ 21 (x - a)2 fxx(a, b) + 2(x -a) (y - b)j~ (ab)
11)=0
Jrxx.\ (x'J/ --- Jrxxx (I ' -2)=0
---,I'
' /x Y')/
j xxy\" = 2 => j'xx)'(I , -2) = 2
f' /x y,)/ = 0
, AYY\"
=> j'XJ'}'(I , -2) = 0
' /x Y')/ = () => j')')'(I , -2) = 0
j .Y.ly\"
Substituting a = -1, b = 2 and above values in (i) we have
x 2y + 3y - 2 = - 10 -4(x -I) + 4(y + 2) - 2(x-l;2
+ 2(x- -1) (y + 2) + (x - 1)2 Cv + 2)
3.15.6 Example
Solution
I 2
3 1 --3/4
of -x of -y
3 4
1 I I
ox oy - -
x 3 + y4 _I x 3 + y4 -1
= F(x, y) + h (OF)
ox + k [OF) .
oy approximately
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 199
~O.03 ll+I-IJ
r j to.oJ ~ 1~O.005
ll+I-IJ
approximately
(-: F(l,I) = 0)
Exercise - 3(J)
3
. ( x+ y)
5. Prove that sm(x +y) =x +Y- + .....
<3
2
6. Show that eY 10g(1 + x) = x + xy - ~ approximately
2
2 2 2
-f -2-(h2 a F +2hk a F +k2 a F)
+ 21 ax 2 axay 0'2 + ..... ..... (iii)
Assuming h, kto be sufficiently small; the sign of the expression on the left can
aF aF
be made to depend on that of h ax + k 0'
of of
- = 0 and - = 0
ox oy
of of
I.e., p = 0 and q = 0 where p = ox' q = oy
2 2 2
then (iii) ~ f(x + h y -I- k) - j(x y) = -
I[ ,0 F 0 F , 0 F]
11- --) + 2hk-- + K- --) + .....
. '2! or ox8y oy-
I
= -
2!
r rh 2 + 2shk + tk2 ]
~l
02F 2
s=-- z= 0
ox8y' ~y-
=r- [ h-, s t ,]
+ 2hk-+-K-
2! r r
=-
r
2!
s -
r )
[( h+-k )+ (2
- s )
,
k-
-,-k- +1-)
r- r-
II
=~[(h+~k)2
2! r
+(rt-.~.2)k:l
r-
It has the same sign for all h, k if and only if (rt - s2) is positive.
When (i) (rt - s2) positive,j(x, y) is maximum for negative 'r' and minimum
for positive 'r'.
(ii) (rt - s2) is negative, we have neither a maximum nor minimum and
such stationary points are called saddle points.
Solvingp = 0, q = 0, we get the extreme points
Extreme value :
.I(a, b) is said to be an extreme value ofJ(x, y) if it is either maximum or minimum.
3.16.8 Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of x 3 + 3xl- 31 + 4.
Solution
We have J(x, y) = x 3 + 3xl- 3x2 - 31 + 4
fx = 3x2 + 31- 6x, fy = 6xy - 6y, f)y = 6x- 6, 1;)' = 6y
202 Engineering Mathematics - I
We now solve
Ix = o,f;, = 0 simultaneously
I.C., x2+y~2x=0 ..... (i)
j(x, y) is stationary at x = 0, y = 0
But r=/xx = ~6 <0
fix, y) is maximum at x = O,y = 0 and the maximum valuej{O, 0)
=4
(b) Por x = 2 , .y = 0, r =/xx = 6 ' s =/.xy = 0 , t =j'n' = 6
Again rt ~s2 > 0
j(x, y) is stationary at x = 2, Y = 0
But r =/xx = 6 > 0
j{x, y) is minimum at x = 2, y = 0 and minimum value j(2, 0) = 0
(c) At x = I, Y = I or at x = I, Y = ~ I
rt ~ s2 > 0 and we can reject these points as they are not stationary points.
3.16.9 Example
Discuss the maximum and minimum of
f('(,y) = x2 ~ Y + 6x -- 12
P = 2x + 6, q = ~2y, r = 2, s = 0, t = ~2
p = 0 gives x = ~3, q = 0 ~ y =0
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 203
Exercise -3(k)
3.17.0Theorem: Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x"X 2'X3' ......xlI )
where x" x2 ' x 3 ' XII are connected by the following m equutions.
, (x, ,x2 ' x,J= 0
2(X"X2' ....... .xJ = 0
The maximum and minimum values ofu can be found by the method of Lagrange's
method of undetermined Multipliers .For u to be max or min of u , du = 0
au au au
i.e. -dx, +-dx2 + ........ +-dxn =0
ax, aX2 aXil
au a, a2 am ) ( au a, al am )
( -+~-+~-+ ........ +AI/I- dx, + -+~-+~-+ ........ +AI/I- dx2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
+.................................... .
au a, ~ a2 1 am) _
+ ( -+~-+"'2-+ ........ +AI/I-- dxn -0. . .... (2)
ax" aXil aXil Ox ll
The values ~,~, .... Am are at our choice .We can, therefore choose them so as to
satisty 'm 'linear equations .
.. .. (3)
Let these bexl/I+"x"H2' .......x".Then since the n - m quantities dxm+"dxm+2, .......dx" are
all independent, their coefficient must be separately zero. This gives additional equations.
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 205
..... (4)
~ 01;
o +:1/11 ()I; + /l, = 0 .... (4)
oy oy - ~v
then equation (2) becomes
o +:1/11 ~/~ + /L1) ~/; =0 . (5)
()z oz - oz
These equations (3) ,(4), (5) and given 1;<'t,y,z)=0, .I;(x,y,z)=O are
sufficient to find ~, ~ ,x,y,z which give maximum and minimum values of u ..
Exercise - 3(1)
3.17.1 Example
Find the point upon the plane ax + by + cz = p at which the function
$ = x 2 +1+ z2 has a minimum value and find this minimum $.
Solution
p-ax-hy
ax+by+:::=p ~:::= ~---~ ..... (i)
e
)
Again $= x~
') . .2
+ .V"" + z-
J
= r
') J
+ ), +
( 17 - axc- bV)-
Then for min./max., we have
ox = 2.x -
0$ 2a (p _ ax - by) = 0
e2
..... (ii)
x p-ax-hy
From (8) ~-= )
a c-
y p-lLr-hy
~-= .
h c2
x bx y
~-=-'--~ y=-
a . (lb
Now, substituting this value ofy in (ii) we obtain
2
X) =0
x- 2a ( P - l I Xb- -
e 1I
Then,
and
208 Engineering Mathematics - I
-x =-y =----:---=-::----c-
2
p
2 2
a b a +b +c
=~[p_
2
Also Z = p-ax-by a p
c c a2 + b2 + c2
I.e., Z P
=
Hence 3 a min. at
xy Z P
-==-
-
abc 2
a +b 2 +c 2
a 2 p2 + b 2 + p2 +C2p2
(a 2 + b2 + c2 r
4> . =.xl + y2 + z2 = ----'---,---...:...--.---:'--
mm
3.17.2 Example
Divide 24 into the three parts such that the continued product of the first, square
of the second and cube of third is maximum.
Solution
Let 24 be divided into parts x, y, z then x + y + z = 24 ..... (i)
Given 4>(x, y, z) = x 2 y2z
then 4>(x, y) =.xl;? (24 .- x - y) from (i)
or 4>(x, y) = 24x3y2 - x4y2 - x 3y3
Differentiating, we get
a 4>
r =-?
2
= 144xy2 - 12x2y2 - 6xy3
ax-
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 209
- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
and S =-02~
- = - (o~
oxoy oX ~Y
- a 1 = 144x2y-? - 8x3y - 9x 2y-?
.
== (12)4.8 2 .242> 0;
Since rl - s2 > 0 and r < 0, therefore ~ (x, y) is maximum at (12, 8).
Putting x == 12, and y == 8 in (i), we get z == 4
The values of x, y, z are 12, 8, 4 respectively. This is the division of 24 for
maximum ~(x, y, z).
3.17.3 Example
A rectangular box, open at the top, is to have a volume of 32 c.c. Find the
dimensions of the box requiring least material for its construction.
210 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution
Let I, band h be the length, breadth and height of the box respectively. Then,
wc have
v = Ihh = 32 ; surface = 2(1 + h) h + Ih = S (say)
32
S = 2(1 I- b)h + Ih and b = - .....(i)
III
32) h + I (32)
s = 2 ( 1+- - = 2111 + -64 +-
32
III liz I h
Now ~~ = 2/-(:;)
as =0= as
al ah
as = 0 ~ 2h _ 642 = 0 h = 32
0/ 1 ' 12
and as = 0 ~ 2/- 32 = 0
ah h2
and 82~ = +2
8h-
so 'S' is minimum for 1= 4,b = 4,h = 2.
Mean Value Theorems and Functions of Several Variables 211
I 1 1
3.17.4 Example: If u=a'x"+h'/+c3z1 where -+-+-=1 show that the
x y z
a+h+c a+h+c a+h+c
stationary point of u is given hy x =- - - , y = ,,"" - - - -
a h c
Solution: For a stationary value of 'u', du =0
1
I.e. a ' 2xdx+h'-2ydy+c 2:::dz =0 ..... ( I )
..... (2)
Equating the coefficients of dx , dy ,dz from (1)+ A(2) separately to zero
I A I A 1 A
We get a x + -) = 0, h x + -) = 0, c x + -, = 0 .
x- y --
1
:. a x ' =h ' /=c ' z'-=(-A)
or ax = by = cz = (-At] = k(say)
x = k I a; y = k I h; z = k I c
..... (3)
. j'or x, y, Z
SU hstltutll1g .
In -
1 + -1 + ~~1 = I
X Y z
abc
-+-+-= 1
k k k
:. k = a+h+c
..... (4)
Exercise 3(M)
I. Find the maximum and minimum distances from the ongll1 to the curve
5x" + 6xy + 5 y2 - 8 = O. [Ans : max. 4, min .16,6,3]
2. Fin~the dimensions of the rectangular box, with out a top of maximum capacity
whose surface is 108 Sq. inches. rAns:6",6",3" J
212 Engineering Mathematics - I
3J3
8. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in
, , ) h
d x- Y z- 1 8a c]
t I1e e II IpSo! - 2 +-) +-) = . [Ans: 3 (:;3
a b- c- -V j
aa./3II.rY.k<at/l+Yl 1
[Ans:
[ (a+/3+rt l /l+ Y J
10. If r2 = x
2
+ l + Z2 and x+y+z =30 find the values of x,y,z for which r IS a
mll111nUm [Ans: x = y = z = 10]
11. Find the dimensions of a rectangular box without a top of maximum capacity
whose surface area is 108 square inches. [Ans: 6,6,3 inches]
12. Find the dimensions of a rectangular box with open top, so that the total surface
area S of the box is a minimum, given that the volume 'V' of the box is constant.
fAns: x = y = 2z = (2\,)1/3]
13. Show that the rectangular solid of maximum volume of that can be inscribed in a
sphere is a cube
14. I f the total surface area of a closed rectangular box is 108 sq.cm. Find the
dimensions of the box having maximum capacity [Ans: .Ji8,.Ji8,.Ji8]
15. Perimeter of a triangle is constant, prove that the area of this triangle is maximum
when the triangle is equilateral.
16. If u=(x,y)where/(x,y)=O, find the maximum and minimul.1 values of 11
using Lagrange's multipliers Method
4
Curvature and Curve Tracing
4.1.1 Curvature
The curvature of a curve (bending of a curve) varies from point to point on the
curve.
Let P be a point on the curve and Q be c.l point nearer to P, are OQ = 0 s
Let tangents at P and Q make angles, \.11, and \.11 + 0\.11 with the X- axis.
LT R T' = d\jJ is the angle through which the tangent at P turns as a point moves
along the curve form P to Q through a distance os along the curve and hence 0\.11
depends on the arc length os.
0\.11 is defined as the total bending or total curvature of the arc P Q.
0\.11
8s is defined as the average curvature of the arc P Q.
Now os ~ 0 as Q ~ P
Lt ~\.11
&s~O uS
= dd\.l1 is defined as curvature of the curve at the point P and is denoted
S
by K.
d\.l1
Thus K=-
ds
214 Engineering Mathematics - I
x' 0 T
Fig. 4.1
Radius of Curvature
The reciprocal of the curvature of a curve at any point' P' is called the radius
(?f curvature at that point and is denoted by 'p'.
ds
Thus p = -d is called the radius of curvature of the curve at the point P.
\1' .
4.1.2 Theorem
If 'r' is the radius of a circle then the radius of curvature of the circle is same as
its radius.
Proof:
Let 'c' be the centre and 'r' be the radius ofa circle. P be any point on it and Q
be a neighbouring point, arc PQ = ds.
The tangents at P and Q make angles \If and \If + 8~, respectively.
From the figure
LT R T' = 8 \If
8s
~ = r and as Q ~ P, 8s ~ 0
u ~,
Curvature and Curve Tracing 215
Lt 8 \1' = ~
8s
01->0 r
1
I.e.,
P r
p=r
x' o x
y'
Fig. 4.2
We know that
ds
dx
216 Engineering Mathematics - I
... ,.. ,
1+(ddxy )2
[I+(~~)' I+(~)' 1
p=
3/
. _I[ + y( ) '2 dy d 2Y
I.e.,p- whereYI = -d 'Y2=-2
y~ X dx
is the radius of curvature of the curve (Cartesian form).
dy
dy
-=-
dl
dx dx
dt
'., -,
dy y'
- = -I .
dx X
Curvature and Curve Tracing 217
,{2y " .- yx
X 'Y '"
--=
{X')3
3/
dy d'y
2 values in p =
Substituting -d ' - I
[l+(~)T
d2
X ex . Y
dx 2
p=
[l+(Hr
x'y" - y'x"
-
'----'..,..
{X')3
[(XI)2 + {y')2 y~
P= x'y" - y'x"
I dx I dy
where x =- y=-
dt ' dt
LXOP =0
The tangent at P makes an angle \I' with the initial line.
$ is the angle between the radius vector OP and tangent PT.
218 Engineering Mathematics - I
d\lf de d<l>
-=-+-
ds ds ds
1 de d<l> de
-=- +-.-
p ds de ds
!
p ds
[1
= de + d<l>]
de
..... (1 )
Fig. 4.3
We know
ds
r2+ (dr)2
- ..... (2)
de de
de
and tan = r-
<I>
dr
r
i.e., tan cj>-=-
dr
de
2 d~
(1 + tan <1 de =
d~
de
d<l>
de
The value of
I+ ~~
de
I + r' + t~
r2 + -
r-~~
(dr)2
r
de
r2 +2(_dr)2 _rtl_2_r 2
d,h de de
1+ = --'-----'------:---
+(-:r ..... (3)
-'I'
de r2
ds , d~
Substituting the value of de' I+ de from (2), (3) in (I)
220 Engineering Mathematics - I
I I de d~ dr
- = -.r- + - -
p r ds dr cis
I I d~
- = - (sin~) + - cos~,
p r dr
We have sin~=r-, -
de I = -
d~] ,cos~=-
I [ sm~+rcos~-
. dr
~ p r ~ ~
I d(r sin ~)
p = r sin ~
p r dr
_ = ~dp :. p =
dr
r-
p r dr dp
4.1.7 Examples
2
Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve y = a cosh (x/a) is L
a
Solution
y = a cosh (x/a)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 221
dy I
- = a sinh(x/a)-
dx a
d 2y I
-2 = cosh (x/a)-
dx a
dy d 2 y ( dy)2l~2
[ I + ~j;
Substituting the values of - , - - ? in p = d2
dx dx- Y
dx 2
?
P =1[ + sinh - x / a
]3 2
cosh{x / a ).~
p = aeos h2(x/a)
p ~ a( ~:), as y ~ cosh(x/a)
p~ ( : )
4.1.8 Example
Prove that for the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 the radius of curvature at any point
r3
is given by p = -2 where 'r' is the distance of the point from the origin.
2c
Solution
Differentiating xy = e 2 w.r. to 'x'
dy
x - +y=O
dx
222 Engineering Mathematics - I
.. dy y .
d 1+
2 [ ( ~b:dy)2l~~
Substltutmg for -d ,--? m P = /2
X dx- ( Y
dx 2
p=
as ,.2 = x 2 + rand xy = c 2
4.1.9 Example
Prove that the square of the radius of curvature at any point on the parabola
y = 4 ax varies as the cube of the focal distance of the point.
Solution
From y=4ax ..... (1 )
dy = ~
dx f~
d 2y I -3/
- = - lax /2
dx 2 2 -va.
Curvature and Curve Tracing 223
Hence p=
x' o x
y'
Fig. 4.4
p=
-1 r -~~
-~"a x
2
sp= ~(x+aY
SP = focal distance = (x + a) ..... (3)
224 Engineering Mathematics - I
-2
P = ~ [Focal distance]3/2
4
p2 = - [Focal distance]3
a
p2 00 = cube of the focal distance.
4.1.10 Example
Show that the radius of curvature at an end of the major axis of the ellipse
Xl y2
a2 +---;;: = 1 is equal to the semi latu~-rectum of the ellipse.
Solution
i ..e., ..... (1 )
Differentiating (1) w.r. to 'x'
dy
dx
d y 2 b 2fy-xdyl
dx
dx 2 = - --;; y2
/
Curvature and Curve Tracing 225
y I
y'
Fig. 4.5
d 2y
--
2 ----
dx a
b2
2
i
( using ax'2 + b2 1
y' = I
p=
[1+(:)']"
d 2y
dx 2
Hence p=
[ l+---~
h"
4
a i
r; (a 4i+b 4x2)
..... (2)
_b 4 a 4b 4
2
a i
The coordinates of the ends of the major axis are
b2
pl(a,o) = -;; = Semi latus-rectum of the ellipse.
226 Engineering Mathematics - I
4.1.11 Example
J J' 5<
Prove that p at any point of the curve x;; 3 + y/3 =a 3 is three times the
length of the perpendicular from origin to the tangent at that point.
Solution
The parametric equations of the curve are
x = acos 3e, y = asin3e
dy
dy de 3a sin 2 e cose dy
-------,,---- - - = - tan e
dx = dx - 3a cos 2 e sin e dx
de
d 2y de
and --
2
= -sec2e-
dx dx
= - sec2e / (-3acos 2 e sin e)
3a cos 4 e sin e
Hence gives
p=
(I + tan 2e f2
I
4
3a cos e sin e
p = 3a cos e sin e ..... ( I)
The perpendicular distance from the origin to the tangent
dy
y-x- 2
a sin 2e - cos e(- tan e)
p = ---;===dx==
I+(:J 2
JI + tan e
4.1.12 Example
Find p at any point for the cycloid
x = a (8 - sin 8)
y = a(1- cos 8) and also find p at 8 = 90
Solution
dy
dy _ de _ a(sin8) dy 8
- = cot-
dx - dx - a(l-cos8)' dx 2
de
2
d y 2 8 1 d8
and - 2
= cosec - - -
dx 2 2 dx
1 28
d 2y -2cosec 2 -1
2
dx = a(1-cos8) ,
.. p=
[1+(:)'r
d 2y
p=
( at
1+cot
-1
2
2
4a sin4 ~
2
dx
2
8
p = - 4a sin
2
at 8 = 90, P = - 4a sin 45 i.e., p = - 212 a
4.1.13 Example
Find p at (r, 8) for the curve r = a (1 + cos 8) and also find at 8 = ~.
Solution
r = a (1 + cos 8)
dr
de = r) = a(- sin 8)
d 2r
- 2 =r =acos8
de 2
228 Engineering Mathematics - I
[2a 2 (1 +cose)7i]
2
[2a .2cos
2
~~]7i
= .iacos e/
3a .2cos ~~
2 2 2 2 2 3 /2
a + 2a + 3a cose
at e=~
4 2 r;:;
P = -acos 45 = -,,2a
3 3
4.1.14 Example
Find p for the curve r'" = if! cos me
Solution
r'" = if! cos me
mlog r = m log a + log (cos m e)
1 dr 1
m -- = (- m sin m e)
. r de cos me
r) = -r tan me ..... ( I)
ar
r2 = -r m sec2 me - tan m e. de
3
= {r 2+ r2 tan 2me)2
r2 + 2r2 tan 2me + mr2 sec 2me - r2 tan 2me
Curvature and Curve Tracing 229
r
{m + J)cos me
r am
m
{m+J( m
a
For the curve ,-In = d" cos m e
P= (m + J)r m- 1
4.1.15 Example
Find the radius of curvature of the curve p2 = ar
Solution
p2 = ar ..... ( 1)
Differentiating w.r. to 'r'
2p dp = a
dr
dp a
dr 2p
p = r dr = r. 2p
dp a
From(l)
2r
p=-j;;;
a
4.1.16 Example
1 J J r2
Find the radius ofcurvature at the point (p, r) on the ellipse -2 = -2 + -b2 - ~b2
P a a
230 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution
Differentiating
2 dp -2r
p3 dr a 2b 2
2
dr a 2b
=> r-=--
dp p3
4.1.17 Example
Find the radius of curvature p of the curve ,2 cos28 = if
Solution
,2 = cos28 = a2 ..... ( I)
Taking logarithms on both sides we get
2 log r + log cos 2 8 = 2 log a
Differentiating w.r.to '8'
1 dr
2 -;: d8 - 2 tan 28 = 0
d8
r-=cot28
dr
d8
tan <\> = r dr = cot 28
dp = ~
dr ,.2
dp ,.
p=r-=---)
dr -(r
y = px + -
qxl
+.... then p = -
dyl d2y
q = --)
2! dx x=O dx- x=o
y=o y=o
3
.. (I + p).i
p (at ongll1) = --'----~
q
(ii) Newtonian Method: If a curve passes through (0, 0) and the tangent at (0,0)
Taking upto terms of (x 2 )
Y= + . + x
x2
q - +...
2!
Dividing each term by x 2 and taking limits
2y
q= L t -
x->o x 2
232 Engineering Mathel\latics - I
3
., (I + p)2
We have P = (at ongln) = -'-------=--<--
q
as p = 0 at (0,0)
2y
and Lt 2
q = x~Ox
I
and P (at origin) =
q
p (at origin) = Lt
x~o
(~)
2y
(iii) Similarly, if a curve passes through (0, 0) and the tangent at (0, 0) is Y-axis
2
then p (at origin) = Lt (Y2 )
x~o X
(iv) Curvature at pole: If the initial line is the tangent to the curve at the pole
2
X2 ) r2 cos 8 (.: x = r c.os 8)
then p= Lt - = Lt
x~o ( 2y x~o 2rsin8 y=rsm8
r 8 2
P = Lt ---cos 8
e~o 28 sin8
8
- Lt - r )
p - e~o ( 28
(as Lt - .- ~ 1.cos28 ~ I)
e~osm8
4.1.19 Example
Find p at the origin of the curve y4 + xl + a (xl + y) - a2y = 0 by Newtonian
method.
Solution
Equating to zero the terms of the lowest degree in the equation of the curve
- a2y = 0
=? y= 0
i.e., x - axis is the only tangent at origin
Then 'p' at (0,0) when X - axis is the tangent is given by
x2
p= Lt- ..... (1)
e~o2y
Curvature and Curve Tracing 233
Let x~O
So that y~O
2
x
and - =2p
y
a
From (1) o + 0.2p + a2p + a.O = a2 => 2 a p = a2 => p = "2
4.1.20 Example
Find p at the origin for the curve x = a (8 + sin 8), y = a (I - cos 8) by Newtonian
method.
Solution
x = a (8 + sin 8), y = a( 1 - cos8) is a cycloid
X-axis is the tangent to the curve at (0, 0)
p at (0, 0) = Lt (~l
x---+o 2y
2
Lt a (8 + sin 8)2
0---+0 2a(1- cos 8)
a (8 + sin 8)2
L t - -'-----'-- (Of the form %)
0---+02 l-cos8 '
a 8
= -2 (1 + 1)2 (I + 1) using Lt - = I
0---+0 sin8
a
p= - [8]
2
P = 4a
234 Engineering Mathematics - I
4.1.21 Example
Find pat (0, 0) for the curve 2x4 + 31 + 4x2y + x Y - y2 + 2x = 0 by Newtonian
method.
Solution
Equating to zero the terms of the lowest degree in the given equation of the
curve 2 x = 0 => x = 0
y-axis is the tangent to the curve at (0, 0)
2
P at (0, 0) = Lt L
x->o2x
So that ..... ( I)
Exercise - 4(A)
(Ans:
515 ..
-I
4
3J2a
[Ans: - - ]
16
Curvature and Curve Tracing 235
a2
[ADS: );]
an
lADs: {n + 1)rn-1 1
x' o
y'
Fig. 4.6
I
(I + tan 2 \jJ2 )2"
..... ( I)
dy
dx ..... (2)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 237
x = 0 A = 0 B - A B = OB - PR
(i.e.,) x = x - P C sin \jJ (From ~ P R C, PR = PC sin \jJ)
X = x - p sin \jl
X=
d~[1 +(tfl)2]
dx dx
X=x-
d 2y
dx 2
Y=CA=RA+RC=Y+PCcoo\jJ
From (I) and (3)
238 Engineering Mathematics - ,
x' o x
y'
at p (x, y) is C
2 2 2
_ dy _ d Y . [ _ Yl (I + Yl ) 1+ Yl ] ,
Denoting Yl - d 'Y2 - - - 2 we can WrIte C x ,Y +
x dx Y2 Y2
dy _
--6
dX(I,I)
=-6
dX2 (1,_1)
X= X -
YI (I +
2
yn I+ YI2
and Y = Y + - -
Y Y2
(-6XI+36) 1+36
X= I- and Y = I + - -
-6 -6
-43
X = - 36 and Y = -
6
-43)
The coordinates of the centre of curvature are ( - 36, -6-
4.2.3 Example
Find the centre of curvature for the cycloid
x = ace - sine), Y = a(1 - cos e)
Solution
dy = a sin e _ cot e/
dx a(l-cose) - 12
d 2y 2 e 1 de 1 1
-=cosec -.--=- x---,------,-
dx 2 2 dx 2 2 e
Sin -
a(l - cos e)
2
. 4
4aSIn
e
--
2
240 Engineering Mathematics - I
4
4a SIO
e
-
2
. 4e e
4 aslO -cot--
X= ace - sine) + _ _-'2"'--------=-2
. e
SIO-
2
X= ace - sine) + 2a sin e
X = ace - sine)
2
1+ YI
Y=y+--
Y2
(l+cot2E!)
Y=a(l-cose)- 12
. 4
- 4 a SIO
e
-
2
4.2.4 Example
Find the centre ofthe curvature at any point (x, y) on the eIlipse.
Solution
..... (1 )
Curvature and Curve Tracing 241
2b 2x + 2Q2y dy = 0
dx
..... (2)
..... (3)
X= x _ YI (1 + yO
Y2
4.2.5 Example
..... (1)
242 Engineering Mathematics - I
and
:10/ ai
14' /4
= ~1 ..... (3)
, I ~-I ----..jy-x
..;x-y dy C 1 ~-I]
d 2y [ 2 dx 2
dx 2 = X
d 2y 4
..... (4)
dx 0/ (// a
/4' )14
a a
is the radius curvature of the curve at ("4'"4 )
X= x _ YI (1 + YI2 )
Y2
a 1(1+1) 3a
X=-+--=-
4 4 4
a
(1 + y2)
Y=y+ 1
Y2
a (I + 1) 3a
Y="4 + -4- = 4
a
3a 3a)
Coordinates of the centre of curvature ( 4' 4
Curvature and Curve Tracing 243
3a)2 ( 3a)2 _
( X -4- + y -4- -
(~)2
Ji
Exercise - 48
I. Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve y = x J at the point
7 31
IAns: - - )
64' 38
y=bSllltlS
. .
[( a2 , )cos-I,- ()
a - b- a- - b 2) .
1
b Slll-'
1
1
4. Find the centre of curvature at (
3;1, 3;1) of the folium x 3 +I = 3a xy
21(1 21a
IAns: - - --I
16 ' 16
5. Find the centre of curvature at the point '0' of the curve
x = (I - aO) cos 0 + a sin 0
y = (I - aO) sin 0 + a cos 0
IAns : a sin 0, - a cos 01
6. Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature of the cycloid x = a (0 + sinO),
y = a( I - cos 0)
(Ans: a (0 -sin 0), a (I + cos 0)
2
7. For the curve y = 111X + ~ show that the circle of curvature at the origin is
a
x2 +I = a 2 (I + 1112) (v - I1lx).
244 Engineering Mathematics - I
4.3
4.3.1 Evolutes
Definition .' Corresponding to each point on a curve we can find the curvature of
the curve at that point. Drawing the normal at these points we can find
centre of curvature corresponding to each of these points. Since the
curvature varies from point to point, centres of curvature also differ.
The totality of all such centres of curvature of a given curve will define
another curve and this curve is called the evolute of the curve.
Thus the locus of centres of curvature of a given curve is called the
evolute of that curve.
Notes:
(i) Elimination of x, y from the coordinates of the centre of curvature (X, Y)
gives an equation in terms of X, Y which is called evo/ute of the given
curve y = fix).
(ii) When the equation of the curve is given in the parametric form (say t)
elimination of '1' from the coordinates of the centre of curvature (X, Y)
gives an equation in terms of X, Y which is called evo/ute of the curve
x = fit), y = get).
4.3.2 Example
Find the evolute of the parabolay = 4 a x
Solution
Differentiating y = 4ax w.r. to 'x'
2ydy = 4a
dx
dy Fa ..... (1)
dx = Fx
d y
2
-Fa
dx2 =-3- ..... (2)
2x2
X= X _ YI (1 + yl2 )
Y2
X=x
-~(1
Fx
+~)
x
-Fa
3
2x 2
Curvature and Curve Tracing 245
1 + y2
I + Cl )
X
Y = Y+ _ _I = Y+ ~----=c'-
y)
I-Fa
,
2x 2
..... (4\
Squaring
4
y2 = -.x3
a
X-2a
From (3) substituting x = --3- in (5)
y2= _ 4(X-2a)'
a 3
4.3.3 Example
Solution
..... ( I)
_b 2 a 2b2
= a 2 y2 a 2;.
d 2y _b 4
dx2 = a 2y 3 ..... (3)
X = (I
x _ YI + yl2 )
Y2
x
X = x - -4 -2
(a4y2 + b4;x2)
a b
Substituting c?y2 = a 2b2 - b2x 2 from( I)
..... (4)
b4 x 2
1+4""2
ay
=y+
_b 4
a
2
i
Curvature and Curve Tracing 247
Y = y - ~ (0 4; + b4x 2 )
a 2b 4
Substituting b2x 2 = 02b 2 - a 2; from (I)
Y = y -+ a b4
[a 4; + b
2 2
a (a 2 -;)]
a 2 _b 2
Y = y3 ..... (5)
b4
Eliminating x, y from (4) (5)
4.3.4 Example
Show that the evolute of the curve
2 2 2 2 2 ~
X3 +y3 +a 3 = is(X+Y)3 +(x-Y)l =2a 3
Solution
The parametric equation of the curve is x = acos 3S, y = a sin 3S
dy
dy = de 3 a sin 2 ScosS
dx dx - 3a cos 2Ssin S
de
dy
- =-tan S
dx
d2y de
- 2 =-sec 2 S -
dx dx
248 Engineering Mathematics - I
30 cos 4 esin e
..... ( I)
(I + tan 2
e)
1
..... (2)
From (1) and (2)
(X + Y) = a(cose + sine)3 and X - Y = a(cose - sine)3
') I '), ~ /
{X+yt3 +{X-Y)"'3 = 2a 3
J J 2
(x + y)~ + (x - y)~ == 2a:1 is the evolute of the given curve.
4.3.5 Example
Show that the evolute of the curve
x = a(cose + sine), y = a(sin e - e cose) is
x 2 +y=a2
Solution
x = a(cose + sine) and y = a(sin e - e cose)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 249
Differentiating w.r.t 0
dx .. dy .
-;-0 = a(- Sll10 + Sll10 + OcosO), -'- = {{(cosO - cosO + 0 SIIIO)
a 10
dx dy.
dO = aO cosO, dO = aO SII10
dy aOsinO
dx (JOcosO
ely
-, = tan 0 ..... ( I)
(X
d 2y
..... (2)
dx 2 - (l0 cos'O
X = x- .
y{l+y2)
1 . 1 =
. tan{l+tan 2
a(cosO + 0 S1l10) _ ----"-------:-----"--
0)
Y2 I
aOcos 1 e
X = a cos 0 ..... (3)
I+ y2 (I + tan 2 0 )
y = y + --'_I = a(sin 0 - 0 cosO) + I
Y2
aOcos '0
Y = (I sin 0
Eliminating '0' from (3) & (4)
X2 + y2 = (/2
4.3.6 Example
Show that the evolute of the curve x a( cos t + log tan ~) ,y asin
= = t is
x
y = a cos h
a
Solution
dy t
1
-dx =a -smt+--.sec
t
r. t 1 -dy =acost
2 -.-
2 2 ' dt
j
an-
2
-dx = a -smt+
dt r
. t1cos-t
2 sm--
=a -smt+-.-
IJ
sm t
2 2
j [.
dx acos 2 t dy
. and -d = a cost
dt SIn t t
dy
dy .J!L acost
= tan t
dx dx
--
acos 2 t
dt sin t
t t
X = a( cos t + log tan "2) - a cos t = a log tan "2 ..... ( 1)
1+ yf
Y2
1+ tan 2 t
y = a sin t+
sin t
a
y=- ..... (2)
sin t
t
From (1) tan - = eX/a
2
. a
From (2) SIn t= Y
Curvature and Curve Tracing 251
2
2 tan t 2 a
(i.e.,)
1+ tan 2 t . y
2
x
2e a ([
2X
I+e a Y
c
I. Find the evolllte of the curve x = c t and y = -
t
2. Prove that the equation to the evolute of the parabola x 2 = 4ay is 4(y - 2(/)3 =
27 a x 2
x2
3. Show that the evolute of the hyperbola I is (ax)2/3 - (by)213 =
(a 2 + b2 )2/3
4.4
4.4.1 Envelopes
Family of curves:
Let us consider the equation of a straight line x cosa + y sina = p. Where a is
a parameter. For different values of a, x cosa + y sina = p gives different straight
lines but all of them are at a constant distance 'p' from the origin. The set of all of
these straight lines is said to form a family of straight lines and 'a' is called the
parameter of the family. For a given p, different values of'a' give different straight
lines which touch the circle x2 + .Y = p2. The circle x2 + 1 = p2 is called the
envelope of the family of straight lines.
252 Engineering Mathematics - I
A curve, which touches each member ofa given family of curves and each point
is the point of contact of some member of the family is called the envelope of the
family of curves.
Letj(x, y, a) = 0 be the given family of curves and a is the parameter.
4.4.2 Example
Find the envelope of the family of straight lines y = mx + ~ where 'm' is the
m
parameter.
Solution
a
y=mx+ - ..... ( I)
m
y = 2.[;;;
Squaring we gety = 4 ax is the envelope of the family of curves
Curvature and Curve Tracing 253
a
Aliter: y = mx + -
III
m2x - 111 Y +a= 0
is quadratic in parameter '/11' (A = x, B = - y, C = a)
8 2 - 4 AC = 0 then gives the required envelop.
.. Envelope of the family of curves is i - 4(a)(x) = 0
i = 4 ax is envelope.
4.4.3 Example
Find the envelope of the family of curves
I J J J
y=mx+ va-nr+b- w here'm'ist heparameter.
Solution
I J J J
y=mx+ vlrm-+b-
(y - I1lx)2 = ([2m 2 + b 2
4.4.4 Example
Find the envelope of the family of curves x cos 38 + y sin 3 8 = c when 8 is the
parameter.
Solution
Given x cos 3 8 + y sin 3 8 = c (8 is parameter) ..... ( I)
Diff. (I) partially w.r. to '8'
- 3 x cos 2 8 sin 8 + 3y sin 2 8 cos 8 = 0
Hence tan8= y
x
254 Engineering Mathematics - I
3 [ 13
X
[ ~ X2 Y+ y2 ] +y x
~ X2 + y2
j=c
x 21 = C(X2 + I) is the envelope of the family curves.
4.4.5 Example
2 2
Find the envelope of the ellipse -;- +
a b
4 = I where
x 2 da y2 db
-3 - + -3 - =0 ..... (3)
a dt b dt
Diff. a2 + b2 = c2 w.r. to '1'
da db
2a- +2b- =0
dt dt
da db
(i.e.,) a- + b- = 0 ..... (4)
dt dt
=~=-2
a b c
(i.e.,) [/4 c2
(14 =x2c2
(12= XC
/
-=-
x 2c2 + Ic 2 = c2
xl + J,z = I is the envelope of the family of curves.
4.4.6 Example
Find the envelope of the family of curves ~ + Eh = I where (I, b are parameters
{/
Solution
- I-) +
x( - da y.-( -I -) =
db O
a 2 dt h 2 dt
x da y db
- - - + 2- - =0 ..... (3)
(/2 II h dl
db da
a-+b-=O ..... (4)
dt dt
256 Engineering Mathematics - I
da db
Eliminating dt ' dt from (3), (4)
x y x y x y
2 2 -+- - -
!L.=lL~-.!L=JL=~
b a ab ab 2ab
Using (I) and (2) we get
x y
=~=-2
b a 2c
x
a = 2c 2
ab
Using (2)
X c2
..... (5)
~= 2c 2
a=2x
y ab
-=--
b 2c 2
Using (2)
Exercise - 4 (0)
2 2 2
(Ans : x 3 + y3 =c 3 ]
In m
(g) Find the envelope of the family of curves ~ + L = I when dnb n = elll + n
ani bill
(h) Find the envelope of the family of straight lines ~+~ = 1 where a & bare
The points to be observed for tracing of plane algebraic curves are given below.
1. Whether the curve is passing through the origin, if so the equations of the
tangents to the curve at the origin.
The equations of the tangents to the curve are obtained by equating the
lowest degree terms in F(x,y) to zero.
2. Whether the curve is symmetric about an axis or about other any line. If
y
y
----+-----------~~x
--------~~~----------.. x
y' =4ax
(i) (ii)
y
y
----~~~----------------~x ------~~~----~x
~~V
3
x +y'
(iii) (iv)
y
-----..;:::.~"'-------~x
(v)
3. Weather the curve intersects the axes, if so the tangents to the curve at these points.
4. Find the region in which the curve exists (i.e.) the curve is defined. The values of x
for which y is defined gives the extent parallel to x-axis and the values of y for
which x is defined gives the extent in a direction parallel to y-axis.
If y is imaginary for values of x in a certain region then the curve does not exist in
that region.
260 Engineering Mathematics - I
$ (m)x
n +$ l(m)x
n-I + .... +$ =0
n n- n
The slopes of the asymptotes are given by $I/(m) = O. Let the slopes be
The values of'c' can be obtained trom $I/-I(m) = 0,$1/_2(m) = 0 (if necessary).
Note: if $1/ (m) is a constant then there are no oblique asymptotes to the curve.
.
7. TIle po liltS 0f
maxima an dminima
.
are given by -dy = 0.
dx
Curvature and Curve Tracing 261
~o+-------------------~X
dy
- =
o.gIves XI,X)
dx -
If in an interval for x
2
(i) el
~-
~ > 0 then the curve is concave upwards (X), X 4 ' .... in
-
the figure) and has
~
2
(ii) el < 0 the curve is concave downward (XI' xw .... in the figure) and has a
llx- -
maxima in that interval.
~
2
(iii) If at a point X) (say) in the interval d = 0 then that point is called a point
- dx-
of inflection and at that point the curve changes it concavity to the opposite
direction.
4.5.1 Example
X2 +2x
Trace the curve y = .... ( 1)
x+ 1
Solution:
Substitution of X =0 in (1) gives y = 0:. origin lies on the curve.
F(x,-y):f:- F(x,-y):f:- F( -x, y) etc :. The curve is not symmetric about any line
can be written as y (x + 1) - x
2
1. - 2x = 0 .... (2)
2
(ie) x - xy - (y - 2x) = 0 Lowest degree term is y - 2x = 0
1 2
Fig. 4.7
4.5.2 Example
2
x +1
Trace the curve y-
- Xl -1
Solution:
....... ( I)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 263
x= in (I) gives y
y intercept is -I.
= -I :. Hence curve does not pass through (0,0), and
y= gives x
2
+ 1= => x = i curve does not cross x -axis.
Coefficient of highest degree term in x is y-I (from( I
llence y = I is the asymptote parallel to x -axis
dy = Hence y
I
=0 .
gives x =0 II
and Yx=o = -34 < 0 and =I:- 0
dx
:. The maximum point on the curve is (0,-1) and there are no points of inflection.
y ~
l~Y.,
I'J
~
Ix
I
I
I
I
I
--------1---_
I
----r---------
I
I I
I I
I I X
I
I 0 I
I
I
I __ ..JI ________
(0,-1) _
Y=-1
--------1--- I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
Fig. 4.8
The curve is decreasing in the interval < Ixl < ] and I< x < 00 as dy is -ve there
dx
an d ..
IS IIlcreaslllg 111 -00 < X < 1 as -dy.IS +ve III
. t I"
l1S mterva
i
dx
4.5.3 Example:
3
Trace the Folium x + / == 3axy .... ( I)
264 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
Clearly (0,0) lies on the curve .No intercepts on y-axis.
y = x in (I) gives 2x' - 3ax 2 = 0 x = 0, 3;1 (ie) the line y = x meets the curve
, , , x+y=3a
,
VI
Fig. 4.9
2(m)=0 gives 3m(cm-a)=0 => cm-(l=o (e) c=-a(-:m=-l)
2
dy=
From (I) - ay-x
~ - )
:. (dY =-1
dx y -ax dx e~/,32")
Equation of the tangent to the curve at this point is y + x = 31 which is parallel to (2)
4.5.4 Example:
Solution:
x =0 in (I) gives y = 0,0 (ie) double point on the curve
F (-x, y) = F (x, -y) = F (x, y) curve is symmetric about both the axes.
a
Tangents at the points x = J2 to the curve are parallel to x-axis .Further
ddx2y ) at x a .
= J2 .
IS negative. :. x
a .IS a maxImum
= J2 . . d" .
POlllt an Y IS IIlcreaslIlg
( 2
in 0< x <.i2 while decreasing in .i2 < x < a .Thus after tracing the curve in
the first quadrant, the symmetry about both the areas can be utilized for tracing the
complete curve.
4 (m) = 1 which is a constant. Hence there are no oblique asymptotes to the curve.
y
~(_-a~,O~)~--------~----------+-~~X
Fig. 4.10
4.5.5 Example:
Trace the curve y2 ( x 2 - a 2) + a 2x 2 = 0 ..... (1)
Solution:
x = Oin (1) gives y = 0 :. (0,0) lies on the curve.
F (x,-y) =F (x,y) =F (x,-y) :. curve is symmetric about both the areas.
Equating lowest degree terms to zero we get a 2(y2 - x 2) = 0 => y x are tangents at
(0, 0) writing y = mx + c in (1) and rearranging in terms of I x I
2
a 2x
( 1) can be written as l = -2 - -
x _a 2
which indicates that curve does not exist
when Ixl > a :. The curve exists only in the region -a < x < a.
Fig. 4.11
dy a4 x
= and y> 0 in first quadrant. Hence curve is increasing in 0 < x < a .
dn y
4.5.6 Example:
Trace the curve l (2 - x) - x2 (1 + x) = 0 ....... ( 1)
Solution:
x=Oin (1) gives y=O :.(0,0) lies on the curve F(x,-y) = F(x,y) :.curve is
symmetric about x-axis . Lowest degree terms equated to zero gives
--~----~~--------~----~x
I (2,0)
... -x
~..., y=- I
'" J2 I
"'",. I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 4.12
2
From (I) Y1 = y2 + (2x + 3x h' h h O 0 < X < 2 were
) . T IS sows t at YI > 111
h t he curve
2y 2-x
is increasing and x = 2 is an asymptote.
5J5j
YI = 0 => x = 0, x = .
4
..
In the secon d quadrant y IS maxImum at x
5-1
=- -- where the tangent IS
4
parallel to x-axis
It can be seen that the curve forms a loop in [-1,0] due to symmetry about x-axis.
4.5.7 Example
Trace the curve / -(x-2)(x-4)2 =0 .. , .. (1)
Solution:
y = O. (I) gives x = 2, 4
Curve intersects the x-axis at (2,0) and (4,0)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 269
--~--~----~~~~~x
(2,0)
,,
Fig. 4.13
dy =
dx
gives x = 8/3. Thus the tangents at x = 8/3 are parallel to x-axis. For the
region.
x -axis.
:. the curve forms a loop in 2 ~ x ~ 4
270 Engineering Mathematics - I
4.5.8 Example
2
2
Trace the curve y ( x + 4a ) - 8a 3 =0 .... (1)
Solution:
y * 0 when x = O. :. origin does not lie on the curve.
m3 + cx 2 + 4a 2 mx + 4a 2 c - 8a 3 =0
3 ( m ) = 0 => m = 0 and 2 ( m ) = 0 gives c = 0
dy 16a 3 x
(ie) y = 0 is an asymptote to the curve From (I) -
dx
= - ----
(X2 + 4a2 t
In first quadrant dy < 0 and hence y IS decreasing. dy o at (0, 2a). y s
dx dx
maximum at (0, 2a) .
----------~--------------~x
Fig. 4.14
4.5.9 Example:
Trace the curve y- c cosh x / c = 0 .... (1)
Solution:
x= 0 in (1) gives y = (c/2)[e O +e-D] = r
Curvature and Curve Tracing 271
:. Curve does not pass through (0,0) and intersects y-axis at (0, c).
. h
dy= Sill
- ( x /) e -x -Xlc]
C = -1 [x/c
dx 2
which is >0 for x >0 and < for x <0.
y
Y=c
(D,c)
------~~------------~x
o
Fig. 4.15
When x = we have dy = 0. Further y = c for x = 0.
dx
(i.e.) The tangent to the curve at (0, c) is parallel to x-axis.
4.5.10 Example
Trace the curve (x / a )2/3 + (y /a )2/3 -1 = 0 .... ( 1)
Solution:
y :I; 0 when x = :. (0,0) does not lie on the curve.
--~---------+----------~----~x
(0, - b)
-
Fig. 4.16
For Ixl> a or \YI >b (x/a) 2/3 +(y/b)2/3 -1> 0 Equation is not satisfied.
From (I) dy
dx
-!!..(
a bx
y
a )I/3. In the first quadrant y is decreasing as dy < 0 for
dx
O<x<a.
4.5.11 Example
Trace the curve y2 (a -x) _x 3 = O,a > 0 .... (1)
Solution:
Clearly y = 0, 0 when x = O. Origin is a double point on the curve.
For x < 0 and x> a curve does not exist (as y2 is negative)
m 2 + 1) + x 2 ( 2mc - am 2 ) + x ( c 2 - 2ame ) - ac 2 =0
3
x (
fA (m) = m 2 + 1=> m = i .
I
I x=a
PI
I
I
I
--~~--------.---------~x
(a,O)
Fig. 4.17
. 4.5.12 Example
Trace the curve x
2
(a - x) = l (b + x) .. .,(\ )
274 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
Clearly curve passes through origin
F ( x, - y ) = F (x, y) .'. Curve is symmetric about x-axis.
Equating lowest degree terms to zero
I
I
I
I
--~I~--------~~--~~~~----~x
I
I
I
X=-b
l
I
Fig. 4.18
Solution:
x = 0 in (1) gives only y = O. Curve passes through origin.only and
does not intersect either of the axes:
F(-X,y)= F (x,y) = F (x, -y) :. Curve is symmetric about both the axes.
Similarly for Ixl < b, y is imaginary. Hence curve does not exist for Ixl < b,
Iyl<a.
Since the curve is symmetric about both the axes, it is enough to study the curve in
the first quadrant.
J y=a
"-
(0,0) x=b
x =-b
y=-a
(
From (I) Y = /
"
"x
ax
2
-b
2
Fig. 4.19
..... (2)
4.5.14 Example
Trace the curve y2 (x - a) - x2 ( X + a) = 0 .... (1)
Solution:
x = 0 gives y = 0 :. (0,0) lies on the curve.
Curvature and Curve Tracing 277
~~+a=o
If""
Fig. 4.20
:. The oblique asymptotes are y =x + a and y + x + a =0
2 2
From (I) 2d = x -ax-a
dx (x -a).J x 2 - a 2
-dy = o.
gIves x 2 - ax - a 2 1f5
= 0 => x =- -a
dx 2
278 Engineering Mathematics - I
1-Fs
For x = - - a there is no tangent to the curve (since the curve itself is not
2
defined there).
4.5.15 Example
Trace the curve /(a 2 _x 2)_x 2(a 2 +X2) = 0 .... ( 1)
Solution:
x =0 in (1) gives y = 0,0 :. origin is a double pt on the curve.
The curve is symmetric about both the axes sinceF(-x,y) = F(x,y) = F(x,-y).
Lowest degree terms equated to zero gives y = x as the tangents at the origin.
2(2 2)
(i)
can be written as y 2 = X a2 +x2 Th"IS III d'Icates that y +
~ _00 as x ~ a.
a -x
Hence the curve lies only in Ixl < a.
x = a are asymptotes parallel to y-axis.
Substitution of y = mx + c in (l) gives X4 (m 2 +1) + ... = 0
4 (m ) = m 2 + 1 = 0 gives m = i
There are no oblique asymptotes
4 2 2 4
From (1) dy = a +2a x -x
dx (a 2 _x 2)3/2(a 2 +X2yl2
Fig. 4.21
4.1.16 Example
Trace the curve l (a 2 + x 2 ) - x2 ( a
2
- x
2
) =0 .... ( I)
Solution:
x = 0 gives y = 0,0 :. origin is a double point on the curve.
F(-x,y) = F(x,y) = F(x,-y) shows that the curve is symmetric about both the
axes.
there are no asymptotes parallel to x-axis, since
coefficient of highest degree terms in x ((ie) of X4 )is constant.
a 2 -x 2
From (1) y = x 2 2
a +x
For Ixl > a, y IS Imaginary
:. y values are extreme at x=a~J2 -1 ,where the tangents to the curve are
parallel to x-axes.
4 2 2 4
dy = + a -2a x _x
..... (2)
dx - (2a +x 2)3/2 (2
a -x 2)1/2
(-a,O)
Fig. 4.22
4.1.17 Example
Trace the curve a/ - 4 x2 ( a - x) = 0 ..... ( t)
Solution:
F (x, - y) = F (x, y) :. curve is symmetric about x-axis
F (0,0) = 0 curve passes through origin.
Curvature and Curve Tracing 281
y= in (1) gives x = 0, a (i.e.) the curve cuts the x-axis at (0,0) and (a ,0)
2
Equating the terms of lowest degree to zero we get al- 4ax = O::::? Y = 2x
dx 3ay dx (up)
(ie) the line x = a is a tangent to the curve at (a ,0)
substituting y = mx + c in (1) and rearranging the terms
________ ~~--------~~~x
Fig. 4.23
4.1.18 Example:
Trace the curve a
21 = x 2( 2a - x) ( x - a)
Solution:
F (+ x, - y) = F curve is symmetric about x-axis.
Further dy ~ 00 as x ~ aor x ~ 2a
dx
:. x =a and x = 2a are tangents to the curve parallel to y-axis.
y
x
(0,0) 0
I I
x=a x = 2a
Fig. 4.24
4.1.19 Example
Trace the curve x( x 2 + y2) = a( x 2 - y2 ),( a> 0) ........... (1) (2001 s)
Solution:
y = 0 in (I) gives x = 0,0, a . The curve meets the x-axis at (0,0) and (a ,0).
Equating lowest degree terms to zero we get
y2 _ x 2 = 0 => y = x which are the tangents at (0,0)
Curvature and Curve Tracing 283
Fig. 4.2~
4.1.20 Example
Trace the curve l (a 2+ x 2) = x 2( a 2- x 2) ..... (1)
Solution:
F(O,O) = 0 curve passes through origin
Lowest terms equated to zero gives a 2y2 - x 2a 2 = 0 => y x which are tangents
to the curve at (0,0)
x
(-a,D)
Fig. 4.26
4.1.21 Example
Yrace the curve
Solution:
2
Let F( x,y)= y( a + x 2 ) - a2x =0
Exercise - 4(E)
Trace the following curves
2 x-2
3. y = 2- - 4. x 3 + / = ax 2 ; x> 0
x -1
5. 9ai = x(x-3a)2
7. y3 =a 2 x-x 3 8. i(a-x)=x 3 ;a>O
8a 3
9. y =2 - - -2 10. i(a+x)=x 2 (b-x)
x +4a
3
11. i = (x-a)(x-b)(x-c) ; a,b,c>O 12. y=x
2
13. i = x (3a-x)
x+a
15. y2 =(X-2)2(X-5)
e = 1[/2
0=0
Pole 0
Fig.4.27(a)
2. (a) Values of 8 for which r =0 gives the equation of the tangents to the curve
at the pole
(b) F(r,O) = 0 gives the points of intersection of the curve with the initial line
J[
(c) F(r, -) = 0 gives the points of intersection of the curve with the line
2
8=J[
2
Curvature and Curve Tracing 287
3. (a) If 'i and r2 are the least and greatest values of r then the curve lies in the
annulus between circles of radii Ii and r2
4. In t Ile region ' h -e1r > 0 I r I mcreases -dr < 0 I r I decreases .111 that regIOn
. .111 wIlIC .
dB dB
() =rr/2 y
__ ~~-..J...
o_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ . --. X
o 0=0
Fig.4.27(b) Fig.4.27(c)
5. Let p(r,B) be a point on the curve and P T is the tangent to the curve at P, OR
radius vector and is the angle T P R. Then
(iii) do
V' = -Jr .
gives tangent to Il1Itla I I'me
1./(/r. ..
2
6. If the curve meets the initial line at two distinct points and curve is symmetric
about the initial line then part of the curve forms a loop between these two points.
7. If for any value of B (sayB ,) such that It r = 00 then B = B1 is an asymptote to
0-->00
the curve
288 Engineering Mathematics - I
8. Sometimes it may be convenient to change the equation of the curve from polar to
Cartesian form by substituting respectively
x = rcosO, y = rsinO
y
9 = 1t/2
--nf~~Y===~)---7X
! 9=0
4.2.1 Example
Trace the cardioid
r -a(l +cosO) = 0----(1)
Solution:
F (r,O) = r -a(l +cosO) = F(r,O) curve is symmetric about the initial live.
When 0 = 1[ we get r = 0 :. curve passes through pole and
o= 1[ is the tangent at the pole
0 0 1[ 21[
1[/4 1[/3 1[/2 21[/3 41[/3 31[/2 51[/2
2a a a 2a
r
a(l + 1/J2) 3a/2 a/2 0 a/2 3a/2
.'. The curve intersects the initial Iine at (2a, 0) and (0, 1[ )
Curvature and Curve Tracing 289
------------------~~--------------------------------------
. b
The tangents to the curve are gIven y tan
AI
'I' = rde
-
dr
Fig. 4.28
4.2.2 Example
Trace the curve r = a(l- eose)
Solution:
8 = n/2
8=0
(+2a,n) J--------..... ~---
(0,0)
........
~
Fig. 4.29
290 Engineering Mathematics - I
:. The curve intersects the initial line at (0, 0), (2a, J[)
a(l-cos()) ()
tan = = tan-
asin() 2
:. tan = 0 when () = J[ (ie) the tangent at (2a, J[) is perpendicular to the initial
line.
(work out remain ing points as in 3.2.1)
4.2.3 Example:
Trace the curve r - a (1 + sin ()) = ..... (1)
Solution: r = a when () = 0, J[
Maxlsin ()I =1 :. Max r = 2a Hence curve completely !ie~ ".'!!hin the region of
the circle r = 2a and there are no asymptotes to the curve.
Curvature and Curve Tracing 291
r a 3(1/2 2a 3(1/2 II
a/2 0 (1/2 a
--------~--~~--~------~.O=O
0= -rr/2
Fig. 4.30
4.2.4 Example:
Trace the curve r - a sin 0 =0
Solution:
a 0
r 0
a
- J3
-a
a
-
2 2 2
When 0 = 0 we have r = 0 :. pole lies on the curve
... curve is symmetric about the lines 8 = ff14 and 8 = 3ff14 ...... (2)
from (1) and (2) it follows that the curve is symmetric in all the four quadrants.
r =0 gives 8 = O,ffI2,ff,3ff/2 these four lines are tangents, to the curve, at the
pole.
Max r = Max la sin 281 = a :. The curve completely lies within the region of
the circle r = a .
o =rc ----.-,;:~~rr_Illll:iiiii:::-----__1~ 0 =0
e =3rc/4
Fig. 4.31
Jr
r =0 gives eos2B = 0 => f) = -
4
Jr
curve passes through the pole and 0 = - are the two tangents at the pole
4
F(r,-fJ) = F(r,fJ) :. curve is symmetric about the initial line.
8=0
~ __ ~ ________ ~~ ______ ~~~~x
Fig. 4.32
dO r ff
tan = r - = r. 2 = -cot20 = tan(-+ 20)
dr _a sin 20 2
When
(i.e.,) the radius vector 0 = %is tangential to the curve at the pole
(': 0 = %gives r = 0)
Similarly the radius vector 0 = 3ff also is tangential to the curve at the pole.
4
4.2.6 Example:
Trace the curve r - a cos 30 = 0 - - - -(1)
Solution:
F (r, -0) = r -acos30 == F (r,O)
(i.e.) curve passes through the pole when 0 = (2n + 1)ff/6( n = O/oS)
These six lines are tangential to the curve at the pole
This has a reflection AA20 in the initial line. Thus AAIO A2A is a loop.
F (r,4n/3 -B) = r -acos( 47l' - 3B) = F (r,B)
The curve is symmetric about B = 27l'/3 OBIB is the part of the curve
0= 1t/2
(a,O)
......... A2
..... ......... () :::
.... ..... 111t/6
....
(-a,1t/3)
Fig. 4.33
4.2.7 Example:
Solution:
The given curve can be written as F(r, 0) = r2 cos 2 f) - a 2 = 0 - - - -(1)
TC TC
l' --) 00 as f) --) - :.0 = - is an asymptote to the curve.
2 2
f) 0 TC TC TC TC
- - - -
6 4 3 2
l' a + 2a J2a 2a 00
-J}
(-a,O) -\---~-~I-
Fig. 4.34
4.2.8 Example
Trace the curve ,.2 - a 2
cos 2(} = 0
Solution:
() = 0 gives r = a :. curve intersects initial line at (a,O)
,. = 0 gives cos 2fJ = 0 ~ B = 7r/4 pole lies on the curve
Icos201 S 1 ~ IrI sa. Curve completely lies within the region of the circle I' =a
Curve does not exist in the regions 7r/4 < B < 3Jr/4 and - 3Jr/4 < 0 < -Jr/4
298 Engineering Mathematics - I
The curve forms a loop bctween (a ,0) and (0,0) and has reflection in B = 1(/2
~ dO ~2
Diffcrentiating (1)2r- = -2a 2 sin20 tan =r- = 2
= -eot20
dO dl' a sip 20
= tan (1(/2 + 20)
0= 0 gives = 1(/2
Thus the tangents at 0 = 0 (ie) (a ,0 ) and ( - ( l ,0) are perpendicular to the initial
line.
y
Fig. 4.35
4.2.9 Example:
Trace the curve r - {a + beosB} = 0
Solution:
F (r, -0) = r - {a + beos ( -B)} = F (r, 0)
Curve is symmetric about the initial line.
Further *- 0 for any value of 0 and hence no tangent to the curve is parallel to
When a =h
l+cosO .
tan = . -cotB/2=tan(n/2+0/2).
smO
When 0 = n we get = n (ie) the initial line is a tangent to the curve at (0, n)
I (a+b,O)
I (2a,0)
I
a>b a=b
a<b
This example illustrates that changing the coordinate system from polar to cartesian
facilitates the tracing.
....(3)
dy 2x ( a - y) . (dY )
dx = 3/ +X2 -4ay .. dx (O,la) = 0
(0,2a) y = 2a
o x
Fig. 4.37
when y < a or when y > 2a ,clearly x is imaginary (i.e.,) The curve exists only
in the region a < y ~ 2a
Exercise 4.2
Trace the following curves
1. r 2 cos20=a
l
2. r=l+J2cosO 3. r=asin 2 0secO
4. r=3+2cosO 5. r=asin30 6. r=a(cosO+secO)
l
7. r=asin40 8. r=a(coso+----) 9. r2 =asin20
cosO
a2
)0. r = a(I-sinO) 11. r2 = - -
cos20
302 Engineering Mathematics - I
where t is the parameter. The study of the following points are useful for tracing the
curve
I. If for some value for I , say I) , .I; (t) = 0 and .t; (I) = (l
then the curve passes through the origin.
2. If.1; (I) is an odd function and .t; (I) is an even function
x-axis.
4.3.1 Example:
Trace the curve x = at 2 ,y = 2at
Curvature and Curve Tracing 303
Solution:
Eliminating t from x and Y
l = 4a 2t 2 = 4a.at 2 = 4ax
y
~~+- __ ~ ______-+x
(0,0)
l = 4ax
---...;..-
Fig. 4.38
This is a parabola with vertex at origin y aXIs is a tangent to the curve at the
origin.
4.3.2 Example:
Trace the curve x = acos/,Y = bsint
Solution:
Eliminating t from both x and Y
y (O,b)
---------+----~~----~--------~.x
(-a,O) (a,O)
(O,-b)
Fig. 4.39
4.3.3 Example:
3
1
Trace the curve x = (2 ,Y = t--
3
304 Engineering Mathematics - I
--------------------------------------
Solution:
Eliminating't'
2
y2 =t (I-t/{f =x(l-73'f =i(3-X)2
(i.e.,) 9i = X(3-X)2 -----(1)
y =0 gives x =O,x =3.
The curve passes through origin and again intersects x - axis at (3,0).
Fig. 4.40
Curvature and Curve Tracing 305
--------=------------------------------------------
dy =![l-X]
Ix 2 ~
elY)
( dx =+ ___ 1
(3,0) - J3
:. J3Y = (x - 3) are tangents to the curve at (3,0)
4.3.4 Example:
Trace the curve x = a(t + sin I), Y = a(l + cos t)
Solution:
For no value of f both x and Y simultaneously vanish
t -TC _5% -~
0
~ 5% TC
X llTC
-a(~+ 5;) -a(; +1) 0 a(I+;) a(~+ 5:) (lTC
a(l+ ~)
y 0 2a a (/(1+~)
306 Engineering Mathematics-I
Fig. 4.41
4.3.5 Example:
Trace the curve x = a(t -sinl);y = a(l-cost)
Solution:
X(I) =0 only when 1=0
The curve is completely above x - axis and lies within the region 0 ~ y ~ 2a
LI x(t)
t~oo
= 00 but LI y(t) is finite
l~cIJ
~------~------~--~--~--------~----~x
-4a1t -2a1t o 2a1t 4a1t
Fig. 4.42
4.3.6 Example:
Trace the curve x = aeos 3 e,y = bsin 3 e
Solution:
x( e) =0 gives e=~ ,
yeO) =0 gives e = O,Jr
308 Engineering Mathematics - I
Since Icos
3
01 s:; 1 and Isin '01 s:; 1 we have Ixl s:; a, Iyl s:; b
e 0 Jr/6 Jr/3 Jr/2 2Jr/3 5Jr/6 Jr
3J3 -2J3a
x a --a -a
8 a/8 0 -a/8 8
y
1
-b 3J3 b ~J3 b b
-
0 8 8 h 8 8 0
dy b
tan = - = - - tan e
dx a
tan =0 when e = (2n+ l)Jr
(i.e.,) The tangent to the curve at these points is parallel to x - axis tan ~ 00
when
e ~
2n+l) Jr
(-2-
:. The tangent to the curve at these points is parallel to y-axis
0= -n12
(O,-b)
Fig. 4.43
Curvature and Curve Tracing 309
4.3.7 Example:
Solution:
Since Isin el S; 1 we have IYI S; a.:. The curve entirely lies in the region
-(I S; Y S; a .
Similarly, x[ -;] = 0
Corresponding y values are y(; ) =a and y( -; ) =-1
Thus the curve intersects the y -axis at (0, a) and (0, -(I)
1 l
tan~ = <!vdx
a -sine+ - .~
=
[
J
sinti = cos' 0
acosO sinOcosO
= cot 0 = tan (1C _
2
e)
:.=1C_ e
2
(i .e.,) The tangents to the curve at e =:= 7r/2 are parallel to x - axis
(O,-a)
Fig. 4.44
4.3.8 Example:
3at 3al 2
Trace the curve x = - - , ,y = - - , a > 0
l+r' l+t'
Solution:
X
3
= (3a)3
- , .I,y
3 3
= (3a)3
-3 .1 6
l+r 1+1
3a )3
3 3
27a t
.". x 3 + y3 = ( __ 1\1 +/
3
) = ?
1+1
3 3
(l+t t
3at 3at 2
=3a'--3 ' - - 3 = 3axy
l+t l+t
Thus the Cartesian form of the curve is x +
3
i = 3axy
4.3.9 Example:
a(l-t 2 ) 2bl
Trace the curve x = y = - -2
1+ t 2 ' 1+ t
Curvature and Curve Tracing 311
Solution:
x
2
(1_12]2 i
a2 = 1+t 2 ' b2
2 2
Thus ~ + L -_ I ( see examp Ie 3.3 .L-'"')
2
a b
Exercise 40
Exercise 3.1
I . An asymptote to the curve i (a + x) = x (3a - x) is
2
I ADS: (ii)
2. The curve a 2y2 =x2 ( a2 - Xl) is symmetric about
(i) x-axis (ii) y-axis (iii) both the axes (iv) none of these
I ADS: (iii) I
3. The curve x + 3
i = 3axy is symmetric about the line .............. .
[ADS: y = x)
4. If the tangents to the curve i = (x - a)( x - b)2 ,( b > a,) at the point x = bare
[ADS: .jb-a )
5. The two tangents to the curve i = x 3 at the origin are real and distinct.
I ADS: false)
312 Engineering Mathematics - I
[Ans: false)
8. x - 2a = 0 is an asymptote to the curve l (2a - x) = x 3
[Ans:true)
5
Application of Integration to
Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface areas
S:ydx= J:f(x)dx
y = f(x)
. x'-~----!--- "'---=--x
o
y'
Fig.5.1.1(a)
Similarly the area bounded by a curve x = fry) the axis of y and the two abscissae
y = c and y = d is given by the definite integral.
S:xdy = S:j(y)dy
314 Engineering Mathematics - I
x' ---:,-+----------------,
o x
y'
Fig.5.1.1(b)
(b) If the equation of the curve is in prametric form,
then the area
=
f ll dx
y - dt or
f l
2 dy
x - dt
I, dt II dt
where tl' t2 are the limits of integration depending on the boundary of the curve.
(c) The area enclosed by the polar form of the curve r = f(B) and two radii vectors
(} = a, (} = f3,, is
o~~----------------
Fig.5.1.1(c)
5.1.2 Example
Find the total area within the curve c?y = c?x2 - x4
,
" Y ,,
Y = - x" " " "",
/ , / 'y =x
...........8
,,
A
x ' ---~---~~~~~~~-~x
,,
,,
,
,,
,
y' ,,
Fig. 5.1.2 --
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 315
Solution:
The curve has two equal loops between the lines x = a and x = -a and is symmetric
about x axis. The total area within the curve
= 4 (the area of the half of the loop i.e., 'OABO')
= 4 Laydx
ax 1~2--2
=4
fo -va
a
-x dx
=~x_l fa~2_x2j2(_2x}lx
a -2 0
3
( 2
_ -2\a -x 2 )-2 4( 2~-
- 3 =--\O-a J2
3
a
2 o
4 2
= 3a Sq.units
5.1.3 Example:
Find the complete area of the curve a 2y2 = :x3(2a - x)
y
x = 2a
B
x' x
0
(0, 0)
A(2a,0)
y'
Fig. 5.1.3
Solution:
The curve is symmetrical about x-axis it cuts the x-axis at the points 0(0,0), A(2a,0).
The curve consists of a loop lying between x = 0, x = 2a
The required area
=20ABO
2
= 2 fo ;dx
2a X 3/ 2.J2a - x
= 2f dx
o a
Substituting x = 2a sin2 ()
316 Engineering Mathematics - I
Area =~
a
Jll
0
2 (2a)12 sin 3eEa cose.4asine cose de
= 32a 2 J: 2 sin
4
e cos 2 e de
= 32 a 23.1.1 /2 2
--Jr = 1111 Sq. units
6.4.2
5.1.4 Example:
Find the area of the segment cutoff from the parabolay = 2x, by the straight line
y = 4x -1.
Solution:
The given curves are y = 2x ..... (i)
Y = 4x - 1 ..... (ii)
x'-----Ib-~_1_-=-------- x
y'
Fig. 5.1.4
Solving (i) and (ii) we get the points of intersection as
J.! -.!}
A(.!2'I}'Lll8' 2
The required area = area AOBA (shaded region)
= area CBEAOOC - area BOADOCB
= J ! {y + 1)dy- J
1
-124
1
-12
y2 dy (from equations (i) and (ii) respectively),
2
5.1.5 Example:
Find the area between the curve.xlY = a2(y - x 2) and its asymptotes.
y
B
x' ---j===::;>+-:;::::=::::f-..!..--- x
'y
Fig. 5.1.5
Solution:
The given equation can be written as
=
4J" 12ax
0 2
dX=-2J" -2ax ,~dx
oi2 2)1/-
va -x ~ -x
12
= - 2a X
~2
1
2
- X ) a
10 = -4a[:2
-J a - x
2 Jl0I
2
= --4a[O - a] = 4a2 Sq.units.
5.1.6 Example:
Find the area bounded by the curves y = 9x, x 2 = 9y,
Solution:
Solving y = 9x and.xl = 9y
The points of intersection of the two curves are 0(0,0) A(9,9)
318 Engineering Mathematics - I
x'----+----~=F=-.:=--~-----x
Fig. 5.1.6
The required area = area OBACD
= area ODACO - area OBACO
= S:=oydX - S:=oydx
(parabola y = 9x) (parabola x 2 = 9y)
X2
= f 93 J";dx- f9 dx = 27 sq. units
009
5.1.7 Example:
asin 3 t .
Find the area bound by the cissoid x = asin 2t, y = and Its asymptote.
cost
Solution:
The equation of the curve is
asin 3 t
x = asin 2t, y = ---
cost
y
x=a
x,-----l..~;;;;;;;~~~--x
o
y'
Fig. 5.1.7
a 2 sin 6 t
y = cos 2 t a-x
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 319
The equation of the given curve is transformed into cartesian form. The curve is
symmetric about x-axis and x = a is the asymptote.
The required area = 2(shaded area)
1/2
=2Jao ydx =2J: _x_
a-x 0 ( )
' dx
= 4a
2fl! 2Sin. 4ede = 4a 2.-.-.-
3 I n
042 2
4
5.1.8 Example:
Find the area included between the cycloid x = a(e - sinO), y = a(1 - cosO) and its
base.
Solution:
The equation ofthe curve is
x = a(B- sinO) y = a(1 - cosO)
= f02;, dx
= J2l! Y dx .dO
o dO
= f ;(1 -
0
2
cose )a(I - cose)de
=
?
8a-.2 f
0
",2
sin 4 tdt
()
(taking -=t)
2
= 371a2 Sq.units
5.1.9 Example:
Find the area between the curve x = a(O + sinO), y = a(1 - cosO) and x-axis.
Solution:
The required area
= 2 area OAB
"/2
=
2
2a .2
f
0 sin 2 0dO
.-------f------. A
x,---=--~~~~~~l--- x
o =-1t 0 0 =0 8
'y
Fig. 5.1.9
2 I 1t
= 4a .-.-
2 2
= mJ Sq. units
5.1.10 Example:
Find the complete area of the curve given by the equations.
x = acos3 fJ, y = bs in 3 ()
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 321
Y
8(0, b)
x'---~?-+=~----x
A(a, 0)
Y'
Fig. 5.1.10
Solution:
The required area
= 4 area OABO
=4Jaydx =4Jo y dx de
1t 2 de
= 4 I:'2bsin3B~3Bcos2BsinB)
1t/2 4 2
= 12ab J sin e cos e de
3 1 1 1f
= 12abx-.-.-.-
642 2
3
= 81fQb Sq. units.
5.1.11 Example:
Find the area of loop of the curve -? = a 2 cos2f)
e =1[/4
x'----~~--------~~------~~~~
e =0
8 x
c
Y'
Fig. 5.1.11
322 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
The required area
= 4 areaOABO
"!4 a2 ,,'4
= fo 2
a cos 29 d9 = -~in29]o
2
a2
2
5.1.12 Example:
Find the area of the curve r = a(l + cosO)
Solution:
B
c
() = 1t
A
Fig. 5.1.12
Required area
=2 . (area OABCO)
r2"
=2
f-d9
o 2
= f: a Q+cos9 )2d9
2
= J: a
2
4(cos %Jd~ 2
= 4a 2 f"o cos ~9
2
4
"/2
= 4a 2 f cos t .2dt
0
4
(where t = 0/2)
2 3 I 1r 3Jlll 2
= 8a ---=-- Sq. umts
422 2
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 323
5.1.13 Example:
Find the area of the portion included between the carbo ids , = a (l + cosB') and
, = a(l - cosB').
Solution:
Required area
= 4(OCBDO)
=4 [I 1t
0
2,2 d8
2
1
4-~-~r::---_~ r = aQ + cas8 )
A 8 =0
Fig. 5.1.13
= 2
I
1t / 2
0 a-V -cas8 )2d8
1 {,
5.1.14 Example:
Find the area afthe curve r2 = a2sin28.
8=~
4
8 =n/4
x
Fig. 5.1.14
324 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
The total area of the curve = 2 area of one loop of the curve
1.
x
2
Find the whole area of the ellipse ~ + [;2 = 1
i
(Ans: 1t ab]
2. Find the whole area of the curve x 2(x 2 + .I) = a 2(x 2 - .I)
[Ans: cl(Jr - 2)J
3. Find the area of the curve a2x 2 = y(2a - y)
(Ans: Jra2 ]
4. Find the area bounded by the curve xy = 4el(2a - x) and its asymptote.
(Ans: 4Jra 2 )
5. Find the area included between .I = 4ax and y = mx
8a 2
(Ans: - 33 )
m
6. Find the area included between the parabolas .I = 4a(x + a) and
.I = 4b (b - x)
2
3JTa
8. Show that the area of the loop of the curve ely = r(2a - x)(x - a) is -8-
9. Find the area of the loop of the curve r = asin2B.
JTa2
[Ans: - ]
8
10. Find the area common to the circles r = aJ2. - 2acosB
[Ans: el(Jr - 1)]
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 325
s=J h (d)2 dx
I+~ or
<J dx
(b) The length of the arc of the curve x = f(y) included between the points whose
ordinates are 'c' and 'd' is
2
d dx
s=J 1+-
( dy )
dy
('
(c) The length of the arc of the curve x = fit), y = g(t) included between two points
whose parametric values are 'a' and '/3' is
(d) The length of the arc of the curve r = j(B) included between two points whose
vectorial angles are 8/ and 82 is
2
s= J- 9??
9,
r- +( r -
dr
de )
dt
(e) The length of the arc of the curve 8 = j(r) from r = r/ to r = r2 is given by
s= J,,-,. , (de )2 dr
1+ r dr
5.2.2 Example:
Find the complete length of the curve
x2(a2 - x 2) = 8a2 y
326 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
y
x'------4--------lIf-------+------ x
A'(a,O) A(a, 0)
'y
Fig. 5.2.2
The curve is symmetrical about both the axis, one loop is formed in between x = 0
and x = a and another loop is formed in between x = 0 and x = - a.
The total length of the curve = 4(1ength OABO)
16a 2y dy =2xa2 _ 4x 3
dx
dy _ x(a 2 _2X2)
dx - 8a 2 y
dy )2
1+ ( dx =1+
x2(a2 _2X2
- -
r
64a 4/
Substituting for y2 from the equation of the curve
8a2y2 = x 2(a 2 - x 2 )
Application of Integration to Area!, Lengths, Volutnes and Surface Areas 327
9a 4 -12a 2 x 2 +4X4
8a 2{a 2 -x2)
.... (2)
8
x'-------*J.U.jtJ.LL~~+_-- X
o
(0,0)
'y
Fit. S.l.3
328 Engineering Mathematics - I
The curve is symmetrical about x - axis, the loop is formed between lines x = 0
and x = a, differentiating 3ay = x(x - a)2 w.r., to x.
dy = (x-aX3x-a)
dx 6ay
dy )2 (x-a)2(3x-a)2
1+ (- = 1 + -'---------''------'::--::-----"-- ... (1)
dx 36a 2y2
Substituting 3ay2 = x(x - a)2 in (I) we get
dy )2 {x-aY{3x-aY
1+ (- = I + -'---------''--'--------'--
dx 12ax{x-a)2
12ax+9x 2 +a 2 -6ax
12ax
=2 r (3x+a) dx
o 2Fa-Fx
s= ~Ja3-Fx+ax-12dx
2,,3a 0
=
1 r:
r::;- L2x
32
+ 2ax
12] a
0
,,3a
= ~ [2a 3/ 2 + 2aFa]= 4~
,,3a ,,3
5.2.4 Example:
Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve 3ay = r(a - x)
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 329
Solution:
x'-------;~t..J.J,.t..J.J,."'f__:__-- x
Fig. 5.2.4
The curve is symmetrical about x-axis and the loop of the curve lies between x = 0
and x = a.
Perimeter of the curve = 20ABO
a (4a-3x)
s= 2
f o 2J3a.Ja-x
dx
= -1-[-2a{a-x) 2 -2{a-x)'2] ~
afj
Solution:
x'-----~!OII"I'!J ...------x
Y'
Fit. ,.2.6
Solving the equations of the J>araboLa anct the fine gives the points of intersections
2ydy =4a
dx
dy 2a
-=-
dx y
1+ (dy)2
dx
=1+L
40 2
s=
. a
2a 2 2.. Jo
= a[~~ + IOg2]
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 331
5.2.6 Example:
Find the length of an arc of the cycloid x = a(t - sin t), y = a( I - cos t).
Solution:
y
------~o~--~a-n--~~a~n----A~------x
(2a1t,0 )
Fig. 5.2.6
= 2 Io" 2asin 7i dt
= 4a[- 2cost/2] ~
= 8a
5.2.7 Example:
Find the total length of the curve
X2/3 y2/3
a 2/ 3 + b 2/ 3 =I
332 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
y
B(O,b)
A(a,O)
x'-----E:-~-~------x
B'(O,-b)
y'
Fig. 5.2.7
The parametric form of the curve is
x = acos 3 (J, y = bsin3 0
The total length of the curve = 4. length OABO
s=4
f1t2[(-3asinecos2e)+~bsin2ecoseJ
0
2 :\2J12
de
Substituting
clcos 2o + b 2sin 2 0 = z2
and (b 2 - a 2) 2sinO cosO dO = 2z dz
h z 12 Z3/ h
s = 12 fz. ( 2
a ,b -a
2) dz = 2 2
b -a 3 a
~ 4 ~ (b
2 2
= 3 _ a3 )= 4(a + b + ab)
b--a- a+b
5.2.8 Example:
Find the length of the arc of the curve given by x = asin21(J + cos21),
y = acos2t(J-cos2t) measured from the origin to any point.
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 333
Solution:
x = asin2t(1 +cos2t)
dx
dt = 2acos2t(1 + cos2t) + asill2t( -2sin2t)
dx
dt = 2a(cos2t + cos4t)
dx
dt = 4acos3tcost .... ( I)
and y = acos2t(1 - cos2t)
dy
dl = - 2asin2t(1 - cos2t) + acos2t(2sin2t)
dy
dl = 2a(sin4t - sin2t) = 4acos3tsint .... (2)
The length of the curve from origin to any point
4a . 3
s= -Sin I
3
5.2.9 Example:
Find the perimeter of the cordioid r = a(1 + cosO).
Solution:
e = 1t 0=0
------~~------~-----------x
Fig. 5.2.9
334 Engineering Mathematics - I
dr
r = a( I + cos 0) :=) dB = -a sin 0
The perimeter of the cordiod
=20ABO
= 2 f"o 4a COS2~2 dO
2
x 0
= 2
f 2a cos-dO
o ,..,
L
= 4a.2.sin-
B/
20
= 8a
5.2.10 Example:
Find the perimeter of the curve r = 2acosB.
Solution:
The equation of the curve is r = 2acosB.
It is a circle passing through pole whose centre is on the initial line at a distance
8/2 from pole.
0=0
Fig. 5.2.10
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 335
= 2 f: ~(211~-;;~OJ ~-(-
12
2asinB)1 dO
J(
= 4a-
2
= 2aJ(
5.2.11 Example
Find the length of the arc of the parabola Ijr = 1 -t cosOcut off by its latus rectum.
Solution:
LSL' = 21 is the latus rectum of the parabola.
Fig. 5.2.11
The length of the arc L' AL = 2AL
n
(dr)2 dB
=2
Io
;2 1
r+ -
(IB
Equations of the curve is Ijr =1 + cosOc
logr = logl + log(l + cosO)
~ dr = 0 _ - sin 0
rdO l+cosO
336 Engineering Mathematics - I
dr
-=rtanB/2
dB
1t/2 ~ 2
The length of the arc = 2
f 0
? ?
r + r- tan-9/2d9
1t/2
= 2
f rsec9j2d9
0
1t2 I
= 2
fo 1+ cos9 .sec9j2d9
1t 2 /
= 2
fo 2cos 9 2 .sec9j2d9 2
1t!29 2
= I
fo 2
sec-.sec 9j2d9
I
sec 2 B/2.-dB = dt
2
= l[ F2 + log(1 + F2)]
Exercise - 5(8)
1. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y = 4ax cut off by its latus rectum.
[ADS: 2a[F2+log(l+F2)]}
2. Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve 9ay = (x - 2a}(x - 5ai
(ADS: 4.fja J
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 337
3. Find the length of the arc of the parabola x2 = 4ay from vertex to one extremity of the
latus rectum.
[Ans: a[ 12 +Iog(l + 12)]J
4. Find the length of an arc of the parabola y = x2 measured from the vertex.
2
e +
[Ans: log ( -e- ]
I)
6. Find the length of the arc of the curve y = x(2 - x) as x varies from 0 to 2.
[Ans: -.!.-log(2 +
2
J5)+ J5 ]
7. Find the length of the curve x = a(B + sinO) y = a(l- cosO)
[Ans: 8a)
8. Find the length of the arc of the curve x = eOsinB, y = eOcosB from B = 0 to
B = 1[/2
y = f(x), the x-axis, the ordinates x == a and x == b about the x-axis is J:1t)12 dx.
(b) Volume of the solid obtained by the revolution of the curve x = fry), the y-axis the
(c) Volume of the solid obtained by the revolution of the curve x = }(t), y = $(t) about
(f) Volume of the solid obtained by the revolutuon of the curve r = j{fJ) about the line
perpendicular to initial line
=
f rrx- dy = 12 n \" cose )2 -"-.de
h?
a 81
dv
dO
f.
82 f. 0)2 d{rsine),lO
=
f
0]
n \" COSo
de
.U'
(g) The volume of the solid generated by the revolution about the initial line (x-axis) of
the area bounded by the curve r = j{ fJ) with the radii vectors B = a, B = {3 is
I
O=~ 2nr 3 SIlIO
'_0 d{\
= - 0
O=a 3
(h) The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area about the line
B = ni2 (y-axis) of the area bounded by the curve r = f(e) with the radii vectors
B=a, B={3is
o=~ 2n
=
I -r3 cos OdO
8=a 3
5.3.2 Example:
Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the loop of the curve
y(a + x) = x 2(a - x) about x-axis.
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 339
Solution:
y = 0 gives x = 0, a
:. The loop is formed between x = 0 and x = a x = - a is the asymptote to the curve.
y
x=-a
Fig. 5.3.2
:. The volume formed by the revolution of the loop about x-axis
(Jr x2 (a-x)l
= 1( ex
o a+x
3
= 2Jra [IOg2-1] cubic units.
5.3.3 Example:
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the curve xy = 4(2 - x) about
y-axis.
340 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution:
y
x' -------,o..-+----f.,-,,;-,~O)r- x
Fig. 5.3.3
The given curve can be written as
xcY+4)=8
The volume of the solid obtained by revolving the given curve about y-axis
64
J y+4 )2
OC!
= 2n (~ dy
o
1t / 2
= 8n f 0 I +cos2e de
1 ] 1t 2
= 8n [ e +2 sin28 0
Solution:
y
L(a,2a)
S
x'------------+-M+--+-------------x
J?--+--4.I L'
y'
Fig. 5.3.4
Volume of the reel generated
=2fo 211
[ '}Y
1[-
y-
4a
Jf Y-1 ]2<l
= 8a 2 [ 5 0
4Jfa 3
= -- cubic units
5
5.3.5 Example:
Find the volume ofa sphere of radius 'a'.
Solution:
Equation of the circle of radius 'a' is x 2 + Y = a2 .
y
x'------------~~~~~~~~---------------x
B A
(-a,O) (-a,D)
y'
Fig 5.3.5
342 Engineering Mathematics - I
f
1
Volume of the sphere = ~"rry-dx
= rr
f ll (2
~11 \q - x-' ) dx
5.3.6 Example:
Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve x = (l em;3 (),
y 3
= bsin () about x-axis.
Solution:
y
B(D,b)
x' x
(a,D)
B'(O,-b)
'y
Fig. 5.3.6
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve x = aeos 3 (),
32JlUh 2
- - - cubic units.
105
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 343
5.3.7 Example:
Find the volume of the solid fonned by the revolution of x = a( e- Sillf/),
y = a(l - cosf/) about its base.
Solution:
y
o = n/2
Fig. 5.3.7
Volume obtained by the revolution of the area OABO about the base (x-axis).
O=21t dx(10.
= n
f
()=o
y2-
dO
3f8=21t1J )~
= na 8=0 ~ - cosB dB
= na"
3
.8 J
0=0
21t
2sin 6 O/2dO
Solution:
O=~
2
o = It
A
Fig. 5.3.8
The volume generated by the curve
= 2n f1t r3 sin8 d8
3 0
3
2na J1t Q-cas8
1- cosO = t
sin OdfJ = dt
1
= --
3 0
ysin8 18 [
and():O~ 2
8Jfa 3
= - - cubic units.
3
5.3.9 Exam'pre:
Find the volume orthe solid formed by the revolution of the curve r = a + hcosO
(a<b) about the initial line.
Solution:
Volume =2n
- f1t r3 sin8d8
3 0
= ~
')n f1t {,a+hcos8 )3 sin8d8
3 0
= 21t
3
J U
u+h
-
h
p(_ dt)
b
=- ~~[,;[
= ~[(a+bt -(a-b)4]
6b
41l'Q(2 2)
= -3-\a + b cubic units.
5.3.10 Example:
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the lemniscate? = a2 c:os2B
tr
about the line B= 2
Solution:
Fig. 5.3.10
The curve is symmetric about q = tr/2
4 1t 3
= ~ S4(a 2COS2e)2 cosede
3 0
= i3 1ta 3
I1t4 (cos2e l2 case de
0
346 Engineering Mathematics - I
- 2.J27lZJ3 [4--I
-- 7C]
4 --3 -
3 4 4-22
.J27C 2a3
- - - cubic units.
8
Exercise - 5(C)
7C 2a3
= a2x, a~out its asymptote is -2-.
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution ofthe curve y(a2 + x2) = a3
about the asymptote
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 347
5. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the loop of the curve
1
a 2 == x 2(2a - x)(2a - x)(x - a) about x-axis.
(Ans:
60
6. Find the vloume generated by the portion of the arc y == JI + x" lying between
x ~ 0 and x = 4 as it revolves about the x-axis.
(Ans: 767[/3)
7. Show that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cycloid
. . . 3 , 1 87['
x == a( 8 + SinO), Y == aU -- cosO) about the y-axIs
IS - 7[" l - -
2 3
8. Find the volume of the solid generated y revolving the cycloid x = a(8 + sinO),
y = aU + cosO) about its base.
IAns: 5~l31
9. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving r = a2cos28about initial line.
(Ans:
7[(1' ( h + 1)-"\/2h] I
Ii rl3log"\/2
12
10. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving r = acos38 between 8 == -7[/6
and e == 7[/6 about the initial line.
197[(1'
(Ans: 968 )
h
21ty Is ==
Ii> ds
21ty - Ix
I X=Q X=U dx
(b) Surface area of the solid generated by the revolution about y-axis of the area bounded
by the curve y = fix), the y-axis and the abscissae y = c, y == I is
I
Y=J 21tX cis == IJ
X=Q Y={
cis
21tX -
dy
(~V
[ d~==
dy
1+(dX)2]
dy
348 Engineering Mathematics - I
f
'=/2
/=/1
ds
.21ty-dt
dt [ d~
dt
== (dX)2 + ({~y)2l
dt dt
5.4.2 Example:
? '0
Find the surface area of solid generated by revolving the curve x-i-' + y'? '3 == a-I?',
about x-axis.
Solution:
The parametric form of the curve is x = acos3 e, y = asin 3 B.
Y
B(O,a)
x' x
A'(-a,O)
8'(0,-a)
Y'
Fig. 5.4.2
The surface area of the solid due to revolution about x-axis
== 2(surface area of the solid generated by revolving an arc in the first
quadrant of the astroid is)
" 21ty-.de
ds
f de
2
= 2
"n
= 12na 2
J
0' - sin-le cosO dO
ffn
2sinSe - 12JlU 2
= 12JlU [ - 5 - j0 = - 5 - Sq. units.
5.4.3 Example:
Find the area of the surface formed by the revolution of the ellipse x2 + 4y = 16
about its:
(a) major axis (b) minor axis
Solution:
2 2
Equation of the ellipse is ~ +L = I
16 4
ely x
dx 4y
16y2 +X2
16/
(a) Surface area formed by the revolution about major axis
-l ds
= 2
o J2ny-dx
dx
350 Engineering Mathematics - I
= .Jl[~(~ r -x' + *
~: Sin-{ )I
=
Jl]
8"[1 + 4"9 Sq. units.
= 41t L2 J Xl + 16yl dy
= 8Jl. s: (1 r + y' dy
o
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 351
5.4.4 Example:
Find the surface area formed by revolving cycloid x = a(B+ sinO),y = a = (/ - cosO)
about the tangent at the vertex.
Solution:
e =-1[
y e =-1[
a1[ a1[
0=0
x' - - -.........-.....;~"""'"--..I---- X
y'
Fig. 5.4.4
Surface area required
= 2(surface area generated by revolving the arc in the first quadrant about OX)
x ds
= 2
Io
21ty- dB
de
= 4 IX (dX)2 +(dy)2 de
II 1t)' de de
o 2 2
32JlU 2
= -- Sq. units.
3
352 Engineering Mathematics - I
5.4.5 Example:
Find the area of the surface of reel thus generated by revolution of the part of the
y
parabola = rax bounded by the latus rectum about the tangent at the vertex.
Solution:
y
x'------+-~-+_------ x
Fig. 5.4.5
y = 4ax
dy 2a
dx y
a ds
Surface area = 2
fo
21tX-dx
dx
d
=2fa 21tX 1+.1:'. )2 dx
o ( dx
= 4n fo" x.J x 2 + ax dx
a
= 4n J:[(x+~r -(~rl2dx
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 353
= 4lT
o
2
= JZa [3J2 -log(J2 + 1)] Sq.units.
5.4.6 Example:
Find the area of the surface of revolution formed by revolving the curve r = 2acosB
about the initialline~
Solution:
Equation of the circle is
r = 2acosB
dr= -2
- ' B
asm
dB
y
x'-------~I-----
o ....--x
y'
Fig. 5.4.6
2
= L lIi2 dr
21trsinO r2 + ( dO )
dO
"/2
= 81ta J sinO cosO dO
2
0
5.4.7 Example:
Find the surface area of the solid formed by the revolution of the cardioid
r= a(J + cosO) about the initial line.
Solution:
Equation of the curve r = a(J + cosO)
dr . B
-=-asm
dB
0=0
Fig. 5.4.7
= 2n I: 2
rSineJa (i +cose y +a 2sin 2e de
= L" a(i + cose)sine .Ja 2(i + cose)2 + a
2n 2
sin 2e de
= [25 2eJ"
16a 2n - - cos 5 -
0
32mi
= -- Sq. units
5
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 355
5.4.8 Example:
Find the surface of the solid generated by revolving the lemniscate,.2 = a 2cos2B
about the initial line.
Solution:
Fig. 5.4.8
1[/4 ~ a4 ~
= 41t
f 0 rsinO r- +-~ sm-20 dO
r-
= 41ta 2 [_ cosO ] ~ 4
356 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 5(0)
? ?
I. Find the total area of the surface obtained by revolving the ellipse x~ + y~ = 1 about
a- b-
its major axis.
5. Find the area of the surface of the solid formed by the revolution of the cardiod
r = a(l - cosO) about the initial line.
32 2
(Ans: SJl"a )
6. The lemniscate? = a2cos2B revolves about a tangent at the pole. Show that the
surface area generated is 47lU2
The limit of this sum as n ~ 00 (i == 1,2, .... ) is defined as the double integral ofj(x,y)
over the region R and is written as
fff(x,y}iA
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 357
Hf(x,y}ixdy
II
= Lt
n~oo ,=\
I f(x" yJ) R,
(a) Suppose the region R is described by the inequalities
c ::::; y ::::; d and g(y) ::::; x ::::; heY)
y
y=d
...--_ _.,....::--....f-
x = g(y) X = h(y)
y-c
x'---------+---------
o x
Y'
Fig. 5.5.1 (a)
Then
t ="
ff f(x,y )dydx=Jff(x,y )dxdy = f fX=II(Y)f(r,y)dXdy
x=g(y)
II II Y~
x ' - - - - -.......
oof----I----""----x
y'
Fig.5.5.1(b)
x=h y=lI\ (.)
5.5.2 Example:
I 2
2
Evaluate I I{x + y2 }Ix dy
o I
Solution:
I
8 2dy
=
03 I I
-+2y 2 ---y
3
3
Y7 7 I
il
2
Y +- dy=-+-yl
o
3 J
3 3 0
1 7 8
= -+-=-
333
5.5.3 Example:
4 K-~
Evaluate I Ixydydx
o
Solution:
4 J4-x 4 I'=J4-x
I fxydydx = f f [xydy] dx
I 0 x=l 0
4 y=K-~
f fxydy.dx
x=l 0
2
= 4f~(4 -X}tx = 4x _~14 9
2 4 6 I 2
x=l
359
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Are."'''
5.5.4 Example:
1 2- r
Evaluate J Jx dXdY
o J~'
2
Solution:
v=1
= -1
3
J8 - -
)'=1
V1 v2
-12)1 + 6- --')
3
V- l IV
~
\'~O
= 1[S-1-6+2-lJ
67
60
5.5.5 Example:
Find the value of Hxy(x+ y}/xdy taken over the region enclosed by the curves
y = x and y = x2.
Solution: y
y=x
x' _ _ _ _ _ ~~:-:.....----- x
y'
Fig. 5.5.5
360 Engineering Mathematics - I
7
R is the rogion bouuded by the curves y = x and J' = x~
1= ff'"y(x + y')dxcly
II
x5 x5 x7 x8 I
= 10+]5-14- 24 10
I I I 1 3
= -+----- =-
10 15 14 24 56
5.5.6 Example:
Evaluate IfR
A 1- Y
dx{1y where A is the area in the positive quadrant of the circle
x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution:
y
x'----------~r-~~~~~~~------x
8(1,0)
y'
Fig. 5.5.6
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 361
_I ~ 1- (2
= - ofx[~ -/'2-~--] () Ix
I I
= -- fX{I[-Q-X 2)]2 -I}dx
o
I
= - f{x x}It
2
-
o
-x 3 X-J ]1
- --+-
- [ 3 2 ()
-I 1 1
= -+-=-
3 2 6
5.5.7 Example:
tlHhY
Evaluate ffe dt dy over the triangle x = 0, y = 0, ax + by = I
Solution:
x:: : Ol----t---"
x'------------~----~~----~~----x
~ AU,a)
Fig. 5.5.7
362 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 = ffea<+hY dx dy
1= I I'"
,=0
lY: '-S-f:/\
y=o
e j
+hI' I
-(Y(X
I
= _
I -;-R~ e ,(I-a<) _e
llX+) -----
h lLt
1dx
+O
bo
= ~[.:.
b a a
-.:. - 0 + ~l
a
ab
5.5.8 Example:
xl = 4y.
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 363
Solution:
y
x'--------~~--~------x
y'
Fig. 5.5.8
Solving the curves i' = 4x, x 2 = -/y
X2 )2
( - 4 =4x
x= O,x= 4
(0,0), (4,4)
1= ffydxdy
11
48
5
364 Engineering Mathematics - I
5.5.9 Example:
Evaluate ff(f; - y2 }iydx where R is a triangle with vertices at (0, 0), (10, )),
II
(I, I).
Solution:
=1
8(1.1) Y
,....-.,------""!:II... A(10.1)
x ____________ ________________---------x
~
0(0.0)
y'
Fig. 5.5.9
I x~IOy
ff(J~ - y dydx) =
II
2
J J(FxY -
y=o x=y
y2)dxdy
JelY ~~~y- /y
I [ 3 ]IOY
=
o y Y
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 365
Exercise -: 5(E)
I. Evaluate the following double integrals:
2 2
1. f f(x 2 + y2 ~xdy
0 0
32
IAns: - I
3
3 x+2
2. f f~vdx
-I x2
8
IAns: -I
3
3.
} Jdxdy
J 4
J
1 3 (x + y)-
25
IAns: log-I
24
II ~1I2_x2
4. f fidydx
o 0
25(/5
(Ans: -15- 1
II h
5. f f(x 2+ y2 )ixdy
o 0
ah (J
IAns: 3\U- + h- ]
J)
3Jru 4
[Ans: --I
4
366 Engineering Mathematics - I
a 2a-x
8. f fxy{O;dx
o );2
3a 4
[Ans: - ]
8
J J
9. Find the value of ffxydxdy taken over the positive quadrant of the ellipse ~: + ;~ = I
a Ja 2 -y2
10. f f ~a2 _x 2 - 2
y dxdy
o 0
3
7fa
(Ans: - ]
6
x=1 y=x y
II. f f eX dxdy
x=o y=O
e-\
[Ans: - )
2
12.
14. Evaluate H-,ydxcZV where R is the quadrant of the circle x 2 + y2 = {/2 when
x~O,y~O.
{/4
[Ans: -I
8
15. Evaluate Hxydx((v whose R is the region bounded by x-axis, ordinatex ~ 2a and the
?
curve x- = .Jay.
a4
[Ans: 3 1
16. Evaluate H(x + )')d'({~}' whose R is the triangular region bounded by y = 2x, y = ~
/I
and y = 3 ~ x.
17. Evaluate Hxydx(~Y where R is the triangular region with vertices A(~6, 2), B(~ 1,3)
and C(9, ~7).
~1025
[Ans: ----:n- 1
18. Evaluate Hxydn'y over the region in the positive quadrant for which x + y ~ 1
I
[Ans: 241
5.5.10 Change of variables:
The variables x, y in Hf(x, y ~/xdy are changed to It, v with the help of the relations
II
dx dx
du elv
where J = dy cZY and 'R' is the region in the uv plane corresponding to the region
du dv
R in the xy plane.
368 Engineering Mathematics - I
= Jff[rcosO,rsinOp'dltlr
/I'
x' --------~I'-.-lo._~-_+-_- X
o A(a,O)
Y'
Fig. 5.5.12
for the upper halfofthe circle, Ovaries form 0 to "27T where as for any intermediatary
value of 0, r varies from 0 to or i.e., () to acmO.
1[
2 acosO,--_ _ _ __
JJ~a2-x2-idx(ZV= f fJa2-r2cos20-r2sin20rdrdO
II I) ~O r~O
1t
3 2
= ~ f~
3 0
-sin 0)dO
2
5.5.13 Example:
{/ I 2 J
\ a - y-
Solution:
From the given limit x = ~ a 2 - i it is clear that one of the boundaries is the circle x 2
+ y = (r, taking x = rcasO, y = rsillO. The given rigion is the first quadrant of the
7T
circle. Here r varies from '0' to '(I' and 0 varies from '0' to "2.
1t
l Ja 2 -y2 2 a
1t
370 Engineering Mathematics - I
(14 1l
=-x-
4 2
8
5.5.14 Example:
00 W (2 2)
Transform the integral I Ie - '+Y dxdy to polar coordinates and evaluate it.
o r=d
Solution:
The limits of x and yare both from 0 and' 00 '. Therefore the region is in the first
1l
quadrant where r varies from '0' to ' 00 ' and B varies from '0' to 2
Substituting x = rcosB, y = rsinB, and dxdy = rdrdB.
1t
1t 1t
1t
2 [2jW
= I --2
e-r
de =-
2
1 ?-
J'
1
rde =-[e]
2 0
2
o 0 0
4
Changing of order of inte8,ration:
The double integration can be integrated with respect to y first and then with respect
to c or it can be integrated with respect to 'x' first and then with respect to y'. In the
former case, the limits of integration are determined for the given region by drawing
strips parallel to y-axis while in the second case by drawing strips parallel to x-axis.
5.5.15 Example:
, a 2a-x
Evaluate by changing the order of integration I Ixydx:v
o "
a
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 371
Solution:
2
The given limits are x:O~a,y:~~2a-x
a
2
i.e., the region is bounded by x = 0, x = a and y = ~ y = 2a - x i.e., x + y = 2a.
a
Y'
Fig. 5.5.15
a 2a-x
J Jxydxdy
o x2/a
=
OA(,O
Hxydxdy + Hxydxdy
('AIl(,
= J Jxydxdy + J Jxydxdy
a 1 2(/
= ~ Ji dY+2" JY(2a- yydy
o (/
5.5.16 Example:
Solution:
x'------------~~-------------x
Y'
Fig. 5.5.16
= f ~3 i
I (
o
3
- a 3 l + ai - ay4 } y
3
a3 a
=-+-
28 20
5.5.17 Example:
a 2&
Evaluate f fx 2dxdy by changing the order of integration.
o 0
Solution:
The given limits are x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = 2.[;;; i.e., y = 4ax.
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 373
y x=a
x' -----...",..jl--""-::-I------ x
y'
Fig. 5.5.17
=
I
3" f
2a [ 3
a -
[')
Y
4a
]3] dy 3"[a y - 64a
=
I 3 I
3 x
Y7]2(1
7 0
5.5.18 Example:
f yfx
4 4
y x=4
x'------..,t"f'---~~--- x
y'
Fig. 5.5.18
374 Engineering Mathematics - I
4 4
r -I dx= I7r-dx=-7r [x ]4 =7r
= ian 0
o 0 4 4
5.5.19 Example:
a '22
vaL _yL
Solution:
x'------------+---~+_~--~-----------x
y'
Fig. 5.5.19
2l~ dx
xL
X
o 2 0
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Vo'lumes and Surface Areas 375
8
Triple integration:
Let u = j(x,y,z) be a single valued function of the independent variables x, y, z defined
through the region V. Divide the region V into 11 subregions t5V I' t5V 2 ... t5V nand
P(x l , YI' z) be any point inside or on the boundary of the subregion t5V /' then the sum
II
II
5.5.20 Example:
\ z x+z
Solution:
\ z x+z
\ z
Jaz fi2z(x + z)+ 4xz}ix
-\ 0
376 Engineering Mathematics - I
JZ 3 + 2z 3 + 2z 3dz
-I
1 [ 4]1
=SJ.::\lz=S 24 =0
-I -I
5.5.21 Example:
2 r x+y
Evaluate J J JeX+Y+ZdXdydz
000
HJe'[J'dZH'LT+[[e'.(e' r
Solution:
t"dy
2 4<
e - 3 7< +e-rdx
J---e--
o 2 2
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 377
5.5.22 Example:
Evaluate
1 1
I= f f[xz t~dnly
\'=0 r::: 1,2
1 ) 1 \=1
f .~ - X3
\'=-0 t:..::y2
dy
y=()
f (I-6
1 y4
_0_+-
2
dy y6l
3
~ [~< +~;I 3~
5.5.23 Example:
Evaluate
Solution:
4[-~+-S'11 ]2.[; dz
f
x 42 2 ~1 X
{-}
z=O 2 2 J4; <=0
4In::dZ [z22rJo
= 1f
=81f
378 Engineering Mathematics - I
5.5.24 Example:
Evaluate HJryzdzdydx over the volume enclosed by three coordinate planes and the
I'
plane x + y + z = I.
Solution:
The plane x + y + z = I meets the coordinate axes in A( I ,0,0),8(0, I ,0) and C(O,O, I).
z
C(O,O,1)
Fig. 5.5.24
= ~ J JXy(I+X2+y2_2X-2y+2Xy~ydx
x=O ),=0
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 379
5.5.25 Example:
Evaluate ff~X2 + i + z2 }Izdydx: where V is the volume of the cube bounded by the
I'
Solution:
z
Fig. 5.5.25
Jra-))
(/ 4 4
a a
+-+-dx
x=o
3 4
5.5.26 Example:
Evaluate by tripple integration the volume of a hemisphere of radius o.
Solution:
Fig. 5.5.26
The volume of the hemisphere
a r;;C;'1- ,----
V=4 J J [z]ga -r 2 2
-1'2 dyd"(
X~O y~O
2 3
V = -1rG
3
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 381
Exercise - 5(F)
1. Evaluate the following integrals by changing the order of integration:
3 [4-:':;'
I. J
0
J(x+ y}lxdy
241
IAns: 60 I
5 x2
2. J fx{x + i }Ixdy
0 0
2
29 56
IAns: 24 I
"
,2,,1,,2_x 2
3.
0
f 0
fy 2dx((V
({~ lW4
IAns: - + - 1
16 32
I 2-x
4. J J!...dxdy
0
v x .
IAns: 2 log2 - II
I j;
5. f
0 I'
fxy(X + y}lxdy
3
IAns: 1
56
41 2\'at
,.
6. f
o x2/4a
Jdydx
2
16a
IAns: -I
3
2 4
7. Jfx 2 2
+ y dxdy
I 3
IAns: 10)
382 Engineering Mathematics - I
I. f f fxyzdxdydz
000
a6
[Ans: 48]
I
[Ans: 20]
, ,
3.
f II' J-XIY~ dydz
() 0
I
[Ans: 3"]
122
2
4. f f fx yzdxdydz
(J U I
[Ans: I]
5.
III
f f f(x + y + z)dxdydz
() () ()
3
[Ans: 2]
I JI-x 2 ~~2_y2
6. f f fxyz dtdydz
o 0 0
I
[Ans: 48]
Application of Integration to Areas, Lengths, Volumes and Surface Areas 383
3 I Fv
7.
JJ
I I 0
Jxyz dxdydz
x
13 1 1og3 )
(Ans:] ( 9-6 ]
I I-x x+y
8. JJ
o 0 0
z
Je dxdydz
1
(Ans: -]
2
4 x !BY
9. JJ
o 0
Jz dxdydz
0
(Ans: 16]
o J 02_x 2 niX
10. J J
o _J02_x2 o
2
Jz dxdydz
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
6
Sequences of Series
6.0 Sequence
A function fN ~ S, where S is any nonempty set is called a Sequence
i.e., for each nE N, ::l a unique elementj{n) E S. The sequence is written asj{I),j{2),
j(3), ..... j{n).... ,and is denoted by (j(n)}, or <j(n, or (/(n. If j{n) =an ,the sequence is
written as ai' a 2 an and denoted by , {an} or < all > or ( all ). Here j{ n) or all are the
d h terms of the Sequence.
6.1.1 Example: 1 ,4,9, 16, ......... n 2 , (or) < n2 >
s
386 Engineering Mathematics - I
N s
2--
1 __
o 2 3 4 5 n
-1 -
From the above figure (see also table) it can be seen that m = -2 and M = l.
2
:. The sequence is bounded.
388 Engineering Mathematics - I
however small, we can always find an integer 'm' such that Ian -II <E, Vn ;:::: m,
and we write Lt all =I or (an ~ I)
n->co
n2 + 1 1
Ex: If an = 2 then <a >~-.
2n +3 n 2
6.1.8 Convergent, Divergent and Oscillatory Sequences
). Convergent Sequence: A sequence which tends to a finite limit, say' I' is called
a Convergent Sequence. We say that the sequence converges to 'I'
2. Divergent Sequence: A sequence which tends to oo is said to be Divergent
(or is said to diverge).
3. Oscillatory Sequence: A sequence which neither converges nor diverges ,is
called an Oscillatory Sequence.
Examples
1
1. Const'der the sequence 2, -,
3 -4 ,-,.....
5 here an =1 +-
234 n
The sequence < all > is convergent and has the limit 1
1 1 1 1
an -1 = 1+ - -1 = - and - < E whenever n > -
nnE n
1
Suppose we choose E= .001, we have - < .001 when n> 1000.
n
1
2. If all =3+(-lr--<a/l > converges to 3.
'n'
2
3. If an =n +(-lr .n,<an > diverges.
4. If an = ..!. + 2 (-1
n
r '< an > oscillates between -2 and 2.
6.2 Infinite Series
6.2.1
If < UII > is a sequence, then the expression u1+ u2 + u3 + ........ + un + ..... is called an
co
infinite series. It is denoted by I Un or simply I Un
11=1
This is also written as III + 1I} + II] + ..... + 11" + .. .1000 = s. (or) I UII = S
11=1
Note: The converse of the above theorem need not be always true. This can be
Observed from the following examples.
Sequences of Series 391
,
1 1 1 1
(i) Consider the series, 1+ - + - + ....... + - + .... ; lin = -, It lin =0
2 3 n n n~oo
2n -1
Ex: 1'" = - 2n ,here Lt Il---Ht)
lin =1
I lin is divergent.
Th e '111f illite
i ' sertes,
. ~1
~- = -1+ 1
- +1
- + ...... , IS
n~1 n" 1" 2" 3"
(i) Convergent when p > I, and (ii) Divergent when p ~ 1. [JNTU Dec 2002, A 2003]
Pro(~r:
Case (i) Let p> I . J) > 1 3" > 2'" => _1 < _1_
, , '3" 2"
1 1 1 1 2
-+-<-+-=-
2" 3" 2" 2" 2"
111111114
Similarly, -+-+-+-<-+-+-+-=-
4" 5" 6" 7" 4" 4" 4" 4" 4"
1 1 1 8
-+-+ .... +-<-, and soon.
8" 9" 16" 8"
Adding we get
1 2 4 8
"-<1+-+-+-+ ....
~ n" 2" 4" 8"
1 1 1 1
I.e., I n" < 1+ 2(,,-1) + 2 2(,,-1) + 2 3(,,-1) + ..... .
392 Engineering Mathematics - I
The RHS of the above inequality is an infinite geometric series with common ratio
1
2,,-1 < 1(since p > 1) The sum of this geometric series is finite.
Hence f ~n
11=1
is also finite.
1 1
Case(iii):Let p<l, I7=1+ + 1 +.....
2P Y
1 1 1 1
Since p < 1,- > - - > - ...... and so on
21' 2' JP 3'
1 1 1 1
I->I+-+-+-+
P
.......
n 2 3 4
From the Case (ii), it follows that the series on the RHS of above inequality is
divergent.
I Jl
n
is divergent, when
P
P< I
Note: This theorem is often helpful in discussing the nature of a given infinite
series.
Sequences of Series 393
3. or un ~ a finite limit> 0
vn
Proof:
1. Let I Vn =I (finite)
Then, u l +u2 + .... +lln + ...... ~VI +v2 + ..... VII + ..... ~l >0
Since I is finite it follows that I UII is convergent
Then I Un diverges,
* 1. If un ~ VII' \:;fn EN
Proof:
1. Let M be a +ve integer however large it may be . Science I VII is divergent,
a number m can be found such that
VI +V2 + ..... +vn > M, \:;fn > m
I 1I" is divergent
2 11, 2:: kv,,\:;In
I v" is divergent ~ I kv" is divergent
I u" is divergent
where k is non- zero and finite, then I u" and I Vn both converge or both
diverge.
Note:
I. The above fonn of comparison tests is mostly used in solving problems.
2. In order to apply the test in problems, we require a certain series Vn whose I
nature is already known i.e., we must know whether I Vn is convergent are
divergent. For this reason, we call I Vn as an 'auxiliary series'.
3. In problems, the geometric series (2.3.) and the p-series (2.7) can be
conveniently used as 'auxiliary series'.
Solved Examples
6.2.9 Example
Test the convergence of the following series:
3456 4567
(a) -+-+-+-+..... (b) -+-+-+-+ .....
1 8 27 64 1 4 9 16
~ (n +1) 1/4 -n ]
00 [ 4
(c)
Sequences of Series 395
Solution
(a) Step 1:
To find "ul/" the d" term of the given series. The numerators 3, 4, 5,
6 ...... ofthe terms, are in AP.
n'" term tl/ = 3 + (11- 1).1 = n+2
n+2
are 1 ,-,
3 2' 33 43
Denomlllators , ..... n ,,, term = n \ ; 111/ = --3-
n
Step 2:
To choose the auxiliary series I VI/ . In 1I11 , the highest degree or 11 in the
numerator is I and that of denominator is 3.
It ~= It n+2xn 2
= Lt n+2 = It (1+~}=1
1/-->00 vl/ I/~OO3
n I/~OO 11 I/~OO 11 '
:. IUI/ and I v" both converge or diverge (by comparison test). But
I VI/ ,,-?1
= ~n- is convergent by p-series test (p = 2 > 1); :. Ill" is
convergent.
4 5 6 7
(b) -+-+-+-+ .....
1 4'-9 16
n+3
Step 1 : 4 , 5, 6, 7, ..... in AP , tn = 4 + (n -1) 1 = n + 3
Step 3: Lt
I/~'"
~
v"
= Lt (11~3)xn = It (1
n- ,,~oo I/~OO
+l) = 1,
n
which is non-zero and
finite.
396 Engineering Mathematics - I
Step 4 : :. By comparison test, both I utI and I v" converge are diverge
together.
divergent.
=n 1+-'4n-.+ ~G-l)~+
2! n
. . _1 =n[-'-.-~+ . . .J
4n 32n
convergent.
6.2.10 Example
{j'--3n-2-+-1
If u
n
=
~hn3 +3n+5
show that I Un- is divergent
Solution
As n increases, utI approximates to
r:::-? II II
~ 3n 2
l 2/
Jl3 n73 3/ 3 1
~2n 3 = 2Y.; x nYt = 2}~ . nX2
Sequences of Series 397
Ii
U )13
If we take vn = - 1-/ , Lt -.-!!.. =-I which is finite.
nl12 n-->""VII 274
1
[(or) Hint: Take vn = ~ , where II and 12 are indices of 'n' of the
n' ,
largest terms in denominator and nominator respectively of ull Here
1 1
VII =-3-2 =-1 ]
n4 3 nl2
6.2.11 Example
Here, un =~ n: 1;
Take
1 1
vn =-1-I =-0=1, Lt u.
---- n n-->"" V
~ Lt )
11-->""
11 = 1 (finite)
n2 2 n 1+-
n
I VII is divergent by p - series test. (p = 0 < 1)
:. By comparison test, I Un is divergent, (Students are advised to follow the
procedure given in ex. 1.2.9(a) and (b) to find" un" of the given series.}
6.2.12 Example
1 1 1
Show that 1 + IT + l2 + ....... + l!:! +..... is convergent.
Solution
1 1 1
- - - - < -----==,--- =
1.2.3 ......n 1.2.2.2 .....n -ltimes (2n-l)
398 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 1 1
"1I" < 1+-+-? +-, + ..... .
~ 2 2- 2'
which is an infinite geometric series with common ratio ~ <1
2
" 2,,-1
:. ~ 1 IS. convergent. (1.2.3(a)). Hence I "/I is convergent.
6.2.13 Example
Test for the convergence of the series, _1_ + _1_ + _1_ + ...... .
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5
Solution
1
u = .
" n(n+1)(n+2)'
1
Take V"=-3
n
3
Lt
,,~ao V
U"
n
= n~ao
Lt 3
( 1
n 1+--
n)(1+-2 )= 1 (finite)
n n
By comparison test, I U" ' and I v" converge or diverge together. But by p-
u" = n2 ( 1+ n1)2
4 - n 2 ( 1- n 4 1)2
~n2[(1+ 2~4 - 8:' + 16~12 - ....)+- 2:4 - 8:' -16~12 - .....)]
=n
2
[-;-
n
+ ~
8n
+ .... J= ~ [1 + ~ + .... J
n 8n
1 u'
Take vn = -2 ' hence Lt -E... =1
n ,,~ao v"
Sequences of Series 399
n~""
Lt (_1_] 1; I X
= VII = I!n is divergent by p-series test (p =1 )
1+-
n
:. By comparison test, I Un is divergent.
6.2.16 Example
Solution
Take
U n
. (1) sint
SIn -
Yn
Lt --E...
n~"" V
= n~""
Lt ( )
1
= Lt -
I~O t
(where t = 1n) = 1
n _
n
Iu I n
, VII .both converge or diverge. But I VII = I ~ is divergent
6.2.17 Example
Solution
_I 1
u =sm _.
n
n'
1
Take vn =-
n
u sin -{~)
( ()) ( . . _ 1
Lt 2..= Lt ( ) ;= Lt - . - =1 Takmgsm '-=()
)
v
/1---*00tHoo
/I
1 8---*0 sm ()
_
n
n
But L v" is divergent .Hence L u" is divergent.
6.2.18 Example
1 22 33
Show that the series 1 + - 2 + - 3 + - 3 + ..... is divergent.
234
Solution
1 22 33
Neglecting the first term, the series is 1 + - 2 + - 3 + - 4 + ..... .Therefore
234
n" nn nn
U - - n-
"~(n+l)"" ~ (n+l)(n+l) ~ n(l+~).n"(I+~J
1 1
Take vn =-
n
1
e
L un is divergent.
Sequences of Series 401
6.2.19 Example
. 1 3 5 .
SIlOW t Ilat t Ile series - - + - - + - - + .......00 IS convergent.
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5
Solution
1 3 5
--+--+--+ .......00
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5
1
Iii 2n-1 ( 2- n )
n term~ u" ~ n(n+l)(n+2) ~ n' (I+~)(I+~)
1
Take Vn = - 2
n
it un = it _I (2-~ ) (_1 ) +
n~oo VII HOO n
2
(1 + ~'~)(1+ 2n) n
2
0
it Un =( 2)( ) =2 which is finite and non-zero
HOO Vn 1 +0 1+0
:. By comparison test Llln and LVII converge or diverge together
6.2.20 Example
1
LII~I J;;n + ,J;;+l
00
J;; +.j;;+1
11=1
1
402 Engineering Mathematics - I
Take
6.2.21 Example
Solution
Let
I = _1_.
liS take v Lt u
n,,-I '11-"') /v
= l:;t: O n/
lI
'
L (?II + 2
7-3J
OCJ 1
Test for convergence
11=13 +1
Solution
Take V -
"
Jf. VII
_.
3"'
U
--'!...-
1+ 3
- [ 1 1,'
2
I )1,-
n -
+ n 3
Lt !!A = 1 :;t: 0; :. By comparison test,
v
1l-7r:iJ
L un and L VII behave the same way.
ll
n2 n
ll= =---:-----:------:-----;----;----;-
II (3n+1)(3n+4)(3n+7) 3n(1+ V ).3n(1+4 ).3n(1+ 7/ )
" 3n 3n 3n
1
27n(1+ 1, )(1+ 413n
/3n
;' )(1+ 7/
/3n
)
Taking vn =! ,we get
n
Lt ~ = _1_:;t: 0; :. By comparison test, both LUn and L vn behave in the
IHOO vII
27
same manner. But by p -series test, L VII is divergent, since p = I. :. Lilli is
divergent.
6.2.25 Example
",hn2 -Sn+1
Test for convergence ~ 3 2
4n -7n +2
Solution
Iii .J2n2 - Sn + 1
n term of the gIVen senes = un = 3 2
4n -7n +2
Let vn =-2
n
~/ ~/?
L lin
nloo ~ = IH~
L
l n 2 - / n + / n- n 2
n3 (4-/~ +~<3) x-I
~/ V J
J
:. By comparison test,
L
nloo
L vn
2 > I] :.
r;;
'112
= 4 :;t:
0
6.2.26 Example
"
Test tI1e senes ~ un ,w hose n Iii term (
IS I .)
4n 2 - I
Sequences of Series 405
Solution
1
Ull = (4n 2 -/.);
=Lt lrn
2
1
Let VII =-\,
n-
Lt
11->00
_llil
VII Il->ao
2
(
n /'n
4- "
o
)1=-4 *0
:. I Ull and I Vn both converge or diverge by comparison test. But I VII IS
6.2.27 Example
Solution
1
Let VII = -? ,so that '" VII is convergent by lJ -series test.
n- ~
ll
Lt _" - LI sin J (1)n - It (-sin I )
11->00 ( V
n
- n->ao (1 n ) - 1l~<X' I
where t = lin, Thus Lt (~J =1 * 0 Jl~<t) VII
6.2.28 Example
6.2.29 Example
Solution
. ?(I) ; Take vn =-?1
(
Let un =sm- -
n n-
l
sin 1/ .
(~)= Lt ')12 =Lt(smt) 2
Lt
I/~Cf) V n~oo 1,
<n t I~O
n ,'n
where t = II ; Lt (lin/v/ ) = 12 = 1 0
In n~oo n
:;t:
6.2.30 Example:
Show that f
n=2/
Vlog (n1/) is divergent.
Solution
U
II
= Inlogn'
II . log 2 < 1 => 2log 2 < 2 => 1/ > II .
12log2 72'
Similarly }jIOg3> X,.Xlogn> Yn,nE N
L In
1/ Iogn > L In
II ; But L II
In
is divergent by p-series test.
n=1
(c + n rr (d + nr' , where c, d, r, s are all
+ve.
Solution
Th e n Ih term 0 ft h
e senes = un = r
1 ,
(c+n) (d+n)
1 U/' _ 1
Let vII = -r+.\- Then --------=------
n Vn
n
r
( 1+ ~ J +~- J (1+~J (1+ ~J
.n" ( 1
Sequences of Series 407
_
Lf 1111 -_ 1 ---
-;-- 0 :.
," L)III and "
~ v" both converge are diverge, by comparison
11-)00 vJl
test.
But by p-series test, L VII converges if (r + .\) > 1 and diverges if (r + s) ~
:. L II" converges if ( r + s ) > I and diverges if (/"1 s) ~ I.
6.2.32 Example
~ -(1+ 1 )
Show that ~n "is divergent.
1
Solution
-(1+ 1 ) 1
11 =n "=--
"
n.n 1n
1 1I 1
Take VII =- ; Lt -" = Lf - = 17:- 0
n 11---)00 V 11-+00 In
" n
1 1 1
For let Lt -v = y say; log y = Lt - - .log n = - Lt -.-!1 = 0
n
Il-)ct) II ,,-too n 1 11-)00
By comparison test both L 1I" and LV" converge or diverge. But p-series
6.2.33 Example
~ (n+ar
Test for convergence the series ~ , a, h, C ,p, q, r, being +ve.
II~I (n + b)" ( n+ c )"
Solution
408 Engineering Mathematics - I
1
Take v
II
=- - . It u = 1"* 0 .'
I1P+lJ-r' II~OO V
_II
II
6.2.34 Example
Test the convergence of the following series whose nl" terms are:
(311+4) 1
(a) (b) tan-;
( 211 + 1)( 211 + 3)( 211 + 5) 11
(c) (d) 11 11
(3 +5 )'
(e)
11. 311
Solution
(d)
U" ~ 3" +5" ~ 5"
1 1
II 1
+(~J] ;Take v" ~~ ; "If.
1 (Un)
~ ~l ,,0
Sequences of Series 409
LUll and L VII behave the same way. But L v" is convergent since it is
Take Vn =- U = Lt ( -
Lt _" 3n- ) =-*0
3
n n ..... '" 2n + 1
n .....'" VII 2
I Un and I VII behave alike by comparison test.
But I Vn is diverges by p-series test. Hence I Un is divergent.
(2n+ 1)
12+22+ .... +n2 n(n+1)~6-- 2(2n+1)
(b)
un = 13 + 23- + .....n 3 = (
2 n +1
)2 = 3n (n + 1)
n ----
4
410 Engineering Mathematics - I
Hillt: Take vn =!
n
and proceed as in (a) and show that IU II
is divergent.
Exercise 6(a)
1. Test for convergence the infinite series whose nih term are:
1
(a) [Ans: divergent)
n-Fn
.Jn~I-Fn
(b) [Ans : convergent)
n
(c) .Jn2 + I-n [Ans : divergent)
Fn
(d) [Ans : convergent)
n 2 -1
1 1 1
(c) J1 +.J2 + .J2 +J3 + J3 + J4 +...... ........ [Ans : divergent]
234
(d) 2+-2 +2+ ............... [Ans : divergent]
345
1 1 1
(e) 2+-3 +4+ .......... [Ans : convergent]
123
Seq uences of Series 411
00 ~n2 + 1
~ ~4n2 +2n+3
(f) (Ans : divergent]
J +9
5 ...................... .. (Ans : convergent]
123
(i) - + - + - + .......... . (Ans : divergent]
1.3 3.5 5.7
6.3
6.3.1 0' Alembert's Ratio Test
Let (i) LU n beaseriesof+vetermsand(ii) Lt un +J
II~OO un
=k(~O)
Then the series L un is (i) convergent if k < 1 and (ii) divergent if k > I.
Proof:Case(i): Lt un + J =kI)
n~oo un
From the definition of a limit, it follows that
U
3m > 0 and 1(0 < I < 1) 3 ~ < IV n ~ m
un .
i.e., U m+ J <I , U m+ 2 < I ,..........
Um U m+ J
is convergent
By adding a finite number of terms u J + u2 + ...... + um- J ' the convergence of the
00
U
C(l!t'e (ii) Lt ---.!!.l. = k > 1
n-->oo 11n
There may be some finite number of terms in the beginning which do not satisfy
the condition ull +' 21. In such a case we can find a number 'm' 3 u +' 21, 'lin 2 m
ll
Ull UII
Omitting the first 'm' terms, if we write the series as u, + 112 + llj + ......... , we have
!!2. 2 1, u3 21, u4 2 1 .......... and so on
u, 112 u3
II
Lt
n~oo
Iu" 2 Lt n.u, which ~ 00; :. IU
11=1 Il~CO
Il is divergent
6.3.2
Note: 1
k = 1, the series may converge or diverge and hence the test fails.
Note: 2 Ratio lest can also be stated as follows:
If k > 1 and divergent if k < 1 (the test tilib '.I. hen k = I).
Sequences of Series 413
-~---~ ~----- ----~---- -----
Solved Examples
r.
111/
:. By ratio test IUI/ is convergent When Ixl < and divergent when
Ixl> I;
1, 1 II
When x = I, ul/ = ) ; fake vn = - 2 ;
J ( Lt _1/ = 1
n- 1+ lin
. n v1/ 11->00
L1-= -+
ul/+ I L t (2n -1) x=x
1/-->00 lin 1/-->00 2n-l
:. By ratio test I Un is convergent when Ixl < 1 and divergent when
Ixl > 1
When x = 1: ul/ = 211 -1; Lt un = 00; 11----)00
:. I UI/ is divergent.
Hence IlIl/ is convergent when Ixl < 1 and divergent when Ixl ~ 1
00 1/
(c)
I-+-
n- + 1
1/;1
414 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution
I
x" X"+
U =2
-- . U =----
n n +1' n+1 (n+l)2 +1
2
Hence un +1 ( n +1 )
-;;: = n 2+ 2n + 2 x
2
Lt un +1 = Lt n (
1
+ >;:2) (x)=x
n~'" Un II~'" n2(1+~+2)
2
n n
:. By ratio test, L un is convergent when Ixl < 1 and divergent when Ixl > 1
1 1
When x=I'u
n
= - - . Take
n2 + 1 '
v =-
n n2
:. By comparison test, LU n is convergent when Ixl ~ 1 and divergent when
Ixl >1
6.3.4 Example
Solution
4
n (1+2/n)(1 +l/n) 1
=nIf", [ n4(l+2/n+2/n2)(1-l/n) =x
:. By ratio test, LU n is convergent when x< 1 and divergent when x> 1 when
x = 1,
n2 -1 1
U = 2- - Take vn =-0
n n +1 n
Sequences of Series 415
Applying p-series and comparison test, it can be seen that L un is divergent when
x= 1.
.'. L un is convergent when x < 1 and divergent x ~ 1
6.3.5 Example
2P 3P 4P
Show that the series 1+ ~ + l] + l1 + ..... , is convergent for all values ofp.
Solution
= Lt (
n~oo
1
) x Lt 1+ - )P
n + 1 n~oo n
(I = 0 < 1;
L lll/ is convergent for all 'p'.
6.3.6 Example
Test the convergence ofthe following series
1 1 1 1
-+-+-+-+
P P P ........... .
F 3 5 7
Solution
1 1
u = u =---
1/ (2n-IY' (2n+ly1/+1
when p ~ I
:. I iI" is convergent if /' I and divergent if p ~ I .
6.3.7 Example
" ' (n -1- l).\""
Test the com crgence of till' "cric~ L.. - - -,--.X >0
1/, I 11
Solution
( n + I) x" ( n + 2) X"-l I
lin = 1 ;1I1Itl - - - - , - , -
n (11+1)
;
I ; ~
1I 1
II
illi rl
LI -- = ..:
L,
'
! ,,- _.. , : , "" - - - ,
i
.x = X
11->''0 111/ " ,.w + 11 ( 1+ 1 )'
n, \.. n
By i'".1i j() test, I UII converges when x < 1 and diverges when x > 1 .
n+ I
When ..x= I ' IIII = -
n3-
6.3.8 Example
Test the convergence of the series
. ~(n2
(I) L.. -+-2
1) (.. 1 2.5.8 2.5.8.11
II) + - - +
... ) 1 1.2 1.2.3
+ ... (III - + - + - - +
II_I 2" n 1.5.9 1.5.9.13 3 3.5 3.5.7
Solution
(n2 1) n 2 1
(i) I ---;+-2 I-II + I-2
00 00 00
= Let
2
II-I n 2 n 11=1 11=1
Sequences of Series 417
Lt1111+1
-- _ L
t-. 1(1 +-1)2 --<
_1 1
I1~OO lin 2 11-+00 n 2
convergent.
:. The given series (I Un + I v,,) is convergent.
(ii) Neglecting the first term, the series can be taken as,
2.5.8 2.5.8.11
--+ +
1.5.9 1.5.9.13
Here, 1sl term has 3 fractions ,2 nd term has 4 fractions and so on .
:. nih term contains (11 + 2) fractions
2.5. 8....... are in A. P.
(n + 2 t term = 2 + ( 11 + 1 ) 3 = 3n + 5 ;
1. 5. 9, ....... are in A. P.
( n + 2t term = 1 + ( n + I ) 4 = 4n + 5
2.5.8 ..... (3n+5)
U =----'--~
n 1.5.9 ..... ( 4n + 5)
2.5.8 ..... (3n+ 5)(3n+ 8)
un+1 = 1.5.9 ..... (4n+5 )( 4n+9 )
un +1 _ (3n+8) .
-;,:- - (4n + 9) ,
n(3+~)
Lt u +1 = Lt =l
n
!) <1
l1
HOO un HOO n ( 4 + 4
[
1.2.3 .....n 1
un = 3.5.7 ..... (2n+l)
n 1
U +
1.2.3 .....n(n+l)
= [ 3.5.7 ..... (2n+l)(2n+3)
1
Il
U +
I
=(~)
U l 2n+3
n.(l+!)
Lt UIl +I = Lt n = ! <1
n~oo Un /HOO n(2+~) 2
6.3.9 Exercise
Test for the convergence of the series L 1.2.3.(....n )
3.5.7 ...... 2n+ 1
Solution
1.2.3 ...... n 1.2.3 ...... (n+l)
un = 3.5.7 ...... (
2n+l) ; U n+1 =
3.5.7 .....: ( );
2n+3
U n +1 = n+l . Lt = Lt n(l+
U,,+I /~) =!<l .
un 2n+3' /HOO un HOO n( 2+ %) 2 '
:. By ratio test, LUll is convergent.
6.3.10 Example
~ 1.3.5 .... (2n-l) n I( )
Test for convergence L.. .x - x> 0
11=1 2.4.6 .... 2n
Solution
1.3.5 .... (2n-l) nl
The given series of +ve terms has u" = .x -
2.4.6 .... 2n
1.3.5 .... (2n+l) n
and U,,+I = 2.4.6 .... (2n+2 ) x
Sequences of Series 419
2 1 x 2n(1 + 1 )
Lt 1111+1 = Lt ( ~ = Lt 2n .x=x
IHOO U// //-->00 2n + 2 ) IHOO 2n( 1+ 22n)
By ratio test, I u// is converges when x < 1 and diverges when x > I when
x = ), the test fails.
1.3.5 .... (2n -1)
Then U = <1 and Lt u// ;f::. 0
II 2.4.6 ..... 2n 11-700
Om itting 1" tcnn, II, =( ~: :~ ) x'-' ,(n " 2) and 'II,' arc all eve.
6.3.12 Example
(3 -4i)"
Using ratio test show that the series I 00
converges
/1=0 n!
Solution
_ (3-4i)" I . _(3 -4i),,+1 / .
un - In! ,un+1 - /(n+l)! '
420 Engmeerlng MC3tht::rnatl~~
---------------------------------=--
1II1tl)_ 1 I (3-4i)_0
1 t ( --- ---- <1
II ',,,,llil - ":'h n + 1 - II
6.3.13 Example
.
DlsclIss t Ile nature 0 f t he series,
. - 2 x + - 3 x 2 + - 4 x 3 + ........00 (x0
>)
3.4 4.5 5.6
Solution
Since x > 0 , the series is of +ve terms;
(n + 1) II (n + 2) X/HI
llil = (n+2)(n+3)x > Zln+1 = (n+3)(n+4)
= Lt r 2 (1 + 7;;)2
n
2
.x ] = X.
HOO l n 1+ ( Yn + j~2 ) ,
Therefore by ratio test, I Un converges if x < 1 and diverges if x> 1
. (n+l)
When x = 1, the t(.st falls; Then un =( )( ) ;
n+2 n+3
6.3.14 Example
. . ~ 3.6.9 .... .3n.5n
DIscuss the nature of the senes ~ ( )( )
4.7.10 ..... 3n+l 3n+2
Sequences of Series 421
Solution
3.6.9 ..... 3n 5"
Here, U = .
n 4.7.10 ..... (3n+l)(3n+2)'
3.6.9 .... .3n(3n + 3)5"+ 1
U II + I = 4.7.1O ..... ( )(
3n+l ) (3n+5
3n+4 );
Lt
11 I
~ = Lt (3n+2)(3n+3).5
--'-----_-'--c-'---,-----_'---:-
= Lt
5.9n2 (1 + 2 3" )(1 + 3/3'
Inn
)1 = 5 > 1
11->00
f
2
(1
9n + 4 3n )( + 5, 3n) 1
:. By ratio test, I lin is divergent.
6.3.15 Example
00
Solution
1I11 = n ; u +1 = (1)-11
n+
I-II
; lI
6.3.16 Example
2 3
I ~ ,for convergence.
00
6.3.17 Example
2/1 ,
Test convergence of the series L~
nn
Solution
n 1
+ (n + I)! /1 ( ~ )11
un +1 = 2 ~=2
1111 (n + 1)"+1 . 211 n! n+ 1
U 1 2
Lt --.!!..l = 2 Lt =- < 1 (since 2 < e < 3)
IHOO ull Hoo(l+ )-~r e
6.3.20 Example
Test the convergence of the series L un where u/I is
n2 + 1 x n- I
(a) 3/1 +1 (b) --,(a>O)
(2n+lf
(c)
1.2.3 ....n )2 (d)
~
( 4.7.10 .... .3n+3
~1+3n
(e) 3n + 7n
3 2
)xn
( 5n 9 + 11
Solution
(a) Lt
n-+oo (~
ull n-+oo
I)
u = Lt [(n+l)2 +1 x3/1-+1]
3n+1 + 1
-
n2 + 1
Seq uences of Series 423
1
= -<1
3
:. By ratio test, LUll is convergent.
Lt (u )= Lt [ (2n + 3r x~(2n+lf]
n+ I
l
(b) xn
n I
11-->00 un x
n-->oo -
aa
= Lt
2 n (I+!' )a
. 2n .x = X
IHOO
[ 2a na (l+ }Snf
By ratio test, LUll convergence if x < 1 and diverges if x> 1.
Lt
n-->OO
(Un) =
Vn
Lt
n-->oo
(_n_)a =
2n + 1
Lt
n-->oo (
1 = _1
2 + ;!~r 2
a
* 0 and finite (since a > 0).
(iii) x = L
1, a> 1, un is convergent, and
(iv) x = 1, a ~ 1, L un is divergent.
424 Engineering Mathematics - I
= Lt [ (n + I) X]2 =! < I
IHoo 3 ( n + 2) 9
:. By ratio test, IlIlI is convergent
(d)
= LI
U I lr 3 ( n + 1)3 + 7 ( n + I r Sn 9 + II ]
(e) ~=
LI
HOC> lIlI
LI
Hoc> t
S( n + 1 + II
x 3
3n + 7
xx
= Lt
U
--"...!.. = Lt
f3n3(1+ ~ )3 +7n2(1+ .1.1)2
.n n x
Sn9(I+l!'s/ 9) ]
n xX 1
Exercise - 1(b)
x"
(a)
n
I Ans: Ixl < legl, Ix ~Ildgt ]
(b) nx n-I .......................... . I Ans : Ixl < legt, Ix ~Ildgt I
(c) (~:. :n X
"' I Ans : Ixl < legl, Ix ~Ildgt I
( n 3 +1 )"
(g) [ Ans: cgt.]
(3 + 1)
n
x2 x3
(b)
X
1+-2+-2 +-2 + ............. .
234
I Ans : Ixl : : ; legt, Ixl > Idgt ]
1 x2
(c)
1.2.3 4.5.6 7.8.9
X
- - + - - + - - + ..... . ( Ans : Ixl::::; legt, Ixl > Idgl ]
2 3 n
x
(d)
X
2
X
1+-+-+-+ ..... - 2- + ....
5
X
10 n +1
(Ans: Ixl::::; legt,lxl > ldgt J
Let I u" be series of +ve terms and let E!. {n(:.:, - I)} ~ k
Then
(i) If k > 1, ~>n is convergent.
(ii) If k < 1, L un is divergent. (The test fails if k = 1)
Proof:
Consider the series
Case (i):
In this case,
Lt n{~-l} =k
n-+oo U +
n 1
>1
We choose a number 'p' 3 k > p > 1 ; Comparing the series L U" with L Vn
which is convergent, we get that L un will converge if after some fixed number
of terms
un Vn (n+ l)P
U +
n 1
> Vn+1 = -;;-
i.e. If.,
Un)
n ( - - 1 > p+
p(p-l) 1
.-+ ......... from (I)
Un+1 L2 n
i.e., If Lt n(~-I P
n-+oo U +
n 1
Sequences of Series 427
i.e., If k > p, which is true. Hence Llln is convergent .The second case also
can be proved similarly.
Solved Examples
6.4.1 Example
Test fe>r convergence the series
1 x3
x+-.-+-.-+--.-+ .....
1.3 x 1.3.5 x 7
2 3 2.4 5 2.4.6 7
Solution
Neglecting the first tern ,the series can be taken as ,
1 x 3
1.3
-.-+-.-+--.-+ .....
x5
1.3.5 x7
2 3 2.4 5 2.4.6 7
1.3.5 .... are in A.P. nih term = 1+(n-1)2=2n-1
2.4.6 ... are in A.p. n'h term = 2 + (n -1) 2 = 2n
3.5.7 ..... are in A.P nih term = 3+(n-1)2 = 2n+ I
:. By ratio test, LU" converges if lxl < 1 and diverges if Ixl > 1
If Ixl = 1 the test fails.
428 Engineering Mathematics - I
LI
tHOO
{ (
n -
ul/ -
ul/+
1
1J} = l I ( 6n
2
+ 5n
I/~OO 4n 2 + 4n + 1
1
n
2
( 6+ ~) 3
= Lt =- > 1
11-->00 n 2 (4 + ~n + _n-\ ) 2
By Raabe's test, I UI/ converges. Hence the given series is convergent when
Ixl ~ 1 an divergent when Ixl > 1 .
6.4.2 Example
Test for the convergence of the series
3 3.6 2 3.6.9 3
1+-x+--x + x + ..... ;x> 0
7 7.10 7.10.13
Solution
Neglecting the first term,
3.6.9 .... 3n 1/
ul/ = .x
7.10.13 .... 3n+4
3.6.9 .... 3n(3n+3) 1/+1
ul/+ 1 = 7.10.13 .... ( ) ( 3n+7 ).x
3n+4
lIl/+1 = 3n + 3.x ; Lt lIll+1 =X
lIl/ 3n + 7 1/-->00 lIlI
:. By ratio test, I UII is convergent when x < I and divergent when x > I.
When x = I The ratio test fails. Then
u 3n + 7. lin 1 _
ll _ 4
1I1/+1 - 3n+3' lIn+1 - - 3n+3
LI {n(~-l)}= Lt (~)=i>l
11-'>00 lln+1 11-->00 3n+3 3
Sequences of Series 429
--~-----------------------------------------------------------
6.4.4 Example
n2 ( 1+ 1/ ')2
Lt u n +1 = Lt ;' n .x = ~
11->00 U
n
n->004n2(1+}/
, 2n
)(1+2/)
2n
4
:. By ratio test, L un converges when:! < 1, i. e ; x < 4; and diverges when x >4;
When x = 4, the test fails.
430 Engineering Mathematics-I
x = 4 ~ = (2n + 1)( 2n + 2 )
When
- '1l11+1 4(n+l)2
U -2n-2 -1
_" -1=
lln+1 4 (n + 1 r = .
2 ( n + 1) ,
LI
II-->if.>
[n(~-11]= -12 <1
li
ntl
6.4.5 Example
,,4.7 .... (3n+ 1) n
Test for convergence of the series ~ x-
1.2.3 .... n
Solution
_ 4.7 .... (3n+1) n. _ 4.7 .... (3n+l)(3n+4) n+1
lin - X 'U n + 1 - () X
1.2.3 ....n 1.2.3 ....n n + 1 .
II
Lt ~ = Lt [(3n+4) .x] = 3x
n-->oo Un
n-->oo ( n + 1)
:. " lin
~ . convergent wl
IS len I - and 'Ivergent w Ilen x
x <d 1
~-
3 3
Sequences of Series 431
6.4.6 Example
1
, 3x 4x 2 5x
1 est for convergence 2 + - +- + ~ + ........... (x > 0 )
2 3 4
Solution
11 1(1+ 2)
lr
Lt I = LI 11 .x = X
11 + )-
(1 1
_H_' 1
H-N, 11 H~-'UJ 2
tl
11
:. By ratio test, IU II
is.convergent if x < I and divergent if x > I
Ifx= I, the test fails.
Then Lt 11
[
II
1 = Lt
[ 1]
-111
(11 + 1)-
II--'>UJ
_tl -
IIl/el
1 n(n+2)
,I/---W'
=LtI1
[11 ( 111]
+
11->00
=0<1
2)
:. By Raabe's test III// is divergent
:. I Zlil is convergent when x < I and divergent when x 21
6.4.7 Example
. . 3 3.6 3.6.9
FlI1d the nature of the series - + - + + ......00
4 4.7 4.7.10
Solution
3.6.9 ..... 3n 3.6.9 ..... 311(311 + 3)
1I 11 = 4.7.10 ..... ();1I1/+
3n+l = 4.7.10 ..... ( )(
311+1 )
311+4
1
3 3 3n(I+3 )
1111+1 =~. LI llll+1 = LI 3n = 1
ZlII 3n + 4' /1--'>00 llll 11->00 3n( 1+ 4 )
3n
Ratio test fails.
LI 11 { - -
[ ,lll/+1
tl--'>oo
Zltl I}] - LI [ n (3n+4
/1--'>00
---
3n + 3
I)]
432 Engineering Mathematics - I
11 n 1
= Lt = Lt =- <1
,,->003(n+1) 11->003n(1+,]n) 3
6.4.8 Example
If p, q > () and the series
1 p 1.3.p(p+1) 1.3.5 p(p+1)(p+2)
1+"2 q + 2.4.q(q + 1) + 2.4.6 q(q + l)(q +2) + ....
is convergent, find the relation to be satisfied by p and q.
Solution
1.3.5 ..... (2n-1) p(p+l) ..... (p+n-1) . I
un = [negle"tmg l' term 1
2.4.6 .... .2n q(q + 1) ..... (q + n-1)
1.3.5 ..... (2n-1)(2n + 1) p(p+ l) ..... (p + n -l)(p+ n)
lI"tl = 2.4.6 .....2n(2n+ 2) q( q + 1) ..... ( q + n-1)( q + n)
U,,+l _ (2n+1) (p+n).
--;z- - (2n + 2) (q + n) ,
r
Lt 2q(1+ )~)-p(2+ J~)+11=2q-2p+l
II->ool 2 2
Sequences of Series 433
~ . 2q-2p+l
Since L..,.llil IS convergent, by Raabe's test, >1
2
=> q - p > Yi, is the required relation.
Exercise 1 (c)
00
[ Ans : divergent]
(ii) 3.4
- x +4.5 5.6 3 + ..... ( x> 0)
- x 2 +-x
1.2 2.3 3.4
[ ADS: cgt if x :::; 1 dgt if, x > 1 ]
~ 1.3.5 ..... (2n -1) xn ( )
(iii) L.. . ( ) x>O
2.4.6 ..... 2n 2n + 2
[ ADS: cgt if x :::; 1 dgt if, x > 1
2 3
(iv) 1+ (U)2
II
X + (1l)2 x
l1
+ (lJ)2 x
l2
+
..... .
(x > 0)
Proof:
I,' II
(i) Lt u/" =1<1=>3a +venumber 'A'(!<A<1):HI,/" <A,Vn>rn
I1~OO
(or) u ll <A",Vn>rn
Since A < 1, I A" is a geometric series with common ratio < I and
therefore convergent.
Hence I UII is convergent.
II
(ii) Lt
11-->00
UII /11 = I> 1
:. By the definition of a limit we can find a number r 3 u/ > 1Vn > r
'II
1 ) J~ )3 =1
1. Consider the series I Yn3n :-LfU'/" =Lt
11-->00
1/
11-->00
(
-3
n
= Lt ( V1
11-->00 nl II
Solved Examples
6.5.1 Example
Test for convergence the infinite series whose nIh terms are:
(i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1
n'" Oogn)" [1 +~r
Sequences of Series 435
Solution
, 1
. Lt u 1n
Lt -n2 = 0 < 1
= lI~oo
, n~co II '
1 ~. 1 ,. 1
(ii) u = u n = - - . Lt u 'n = Lt --=0<1
n (log n)'" n log n ' n->oo n n->oo log n '
By root test, I Un is convergent.
(iii)
6.5.2 Example
Find whether the following series are convergent or ,) i vergent.
'" 1
(i) I-n-
-1
n=13
Solution
1/
In
1/
7n
1 1
Lt un Yn = n----+oo
Lt =-<1
n~ct) 3 '
Solution
Lt ( - 1 )}~ = 0 < 1
1 ' Lt U in 1/
1I
11
=-
nil 'Il~OO n
= Il~OO nil
(iii)
Solution
U =
[(n+1)x r
-'=--'----':--=----
n n"+1
r
II
Lt [{ ( n + ] ) X}" .-
1]), _
- ~ n + 1)
Lt ( - - x '1I-'
n-->oo n n n-->oo n nl n
(l+!)X.+, = Lt x.+,=x
Lt
n n'II n-->oo n/ n
n-->oo
:. I Un is convergent if Ixl < 1 and divergent if Ixl > 1 and when Ixi = 1 the test
fails.
1
Then Take vn =-
n
vn n"+ 1 nn
r
Un = (n + 1 .n = (n + 1 = (1 + !)n ;
n
r U
Lt-"=e>l
11-->00 VII
Ill
l
2
I n n II n
Lt u" " = Lt /1
2 ; = Lt = " = Lt (-)-"
"~a) II~OO n + 1)" ,,~oo
( n + 1)
J ,,~oo n + 1 (
=
,,~OO l I e
+-
L.
~
Lt [_1_]" = < 1 ;:. "u" converges by root test.
n
6.5.4 Example
U
11
= (_n_)" . . . . .
2n+l
(verify);
Lt u };, = Lt (_n_)=!<1
,,~oo n II~OO 2n + 1 2
By root test, I UII is convergt:nt.
6.5.5 Example
11=1 n+ 1
Solution
6.5.6 Example
Un =( nYn -If
Lt
n~oo
unYn = Lt
n . . . . . ct)
(n~-I)=I-I=O<I(since Lt
1l~Cf)
n'~:' =1);
:. L Un is convergent by root test.
6.5.7 Example
:. By root test, L un converges when Ixl < 1 and diverges when Ixl > 1
2)n
n
(1+-
When Ixl = 1 : un = (n +
n+3
2) ; Lt Un n~<XJ
= Lt
n~<XJ ( 1+-3 )
nn
n
2
e I
- 3 = - '" 0 and the terms are all +ve .
e e
:. L un is divergent. Hence L un is convergent if Ixl < 1 and divergent if
Ixl~l.
6.5.8 Example
Show that the series,
isconvergent
~ 1 1 1
Lt un II =-.--=--<1
IHOC) 1 e-l e-l
:. By root test, LUll is convergent.
6.5.9 Example
00 -Ill
e
Test Llllll for convergence when u m = 2
111=1
(1+2 mfll
Solution
6.5.11 Example:
Test the convergence of the series '" ~
~ 112
e
Solution
II
II n/n
Lt
11-)-00
U /n
n
= n--.r:1J
Lt - = 0 < 1
en
:. By root test, LU n is convergent.
6.5.12 Example
2 32 2 .
Test the convergence of the senes, -2 x + - 3 X + ...
( n + 1 .x
I
r l
+ ...... , x > 0
1 2 n'H
440 Engineering Mathematics - I
Solution
= Lt
n~oo
[( + -1). 1]
1
n
I/.x
n l II
= [.
I.I.x = x SInce Lt n/Vn = 1]
II~OO
Lt un
n~oo Vn
= Lt
II~OO
(1 + !)n
n
=e 0 :;t:
Exercise 1 (d)
(g)
(2n2 -I r [ Ans: convergent]
(2n )211
-n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_112
n-I
(i) (
[ Ans : divergent]
6.6
6.6.1 Integral Test
+ve term series,
(1)+(2)+ ..... +(n )+ .....
where (n) decreases as n increases is convergent or divergent according as the
integral
Proof:
r (x) dx is finite or infinite.
.. Sn ~ r (x)dx~Sn+I-(l)
442 Engineering Mathematics - I
v= O(n)
P,
P2
0
1
Q Cn +1
3 Bntl
11~1
0
Il
1 2 3 n n +1
AI A2 A) An ~
Solved Examples
6.6.2 Example
1
Test for convergence the series I ---
00
n logn
n=2
Solution
r
- xlogx
1 It [ r' 1 dx]
dx - n~oo 1 xlogx
= It [log log
11~00
x]~ = 00
Solution
dx - It [f-
p 1
[ _1
xP x
1
dx]
11~00 P
It [ x- + ]11
n~oo - p + 1 I
= _1_ Lt [ n l - p -1 ]
1- P IHOO
Sequences of Series 443
ClIse (i)
,,1 .
If P > I, this limit is finite; L..J - IS convergent.
n"
ClIse (ii)
,,1 . .
If P < 1, the limit is in finite; L..J- IS dIvergent.
n"
Ca.\e (iii)
for convergence.
Solution
n
1111 = -2 = (n){say);
e"
(n) is +ve and decreases as n increases. So let liS apply the integral test.
1(x){lx= x
I
I e-,2
I
dx =! le- dt{t=x
2I
1 2
,dt=2xdx}
= -"21e 00
-I 1
I = -"21(0 --;;1) = 2e
1' W IlIC. hIS fiillIte.
.
Solution
J(x)dx =
00 00
J-21 sin
(}x
7f
2 2 X X
444 Engineering Mathematics - I
Letix =t
TC
J
-! sintdt = !costl~/=!
~ TC /2 TC
finite, _TC/
/ x
2dx = dt
Yx2dx=- ~dt
:. By integral test, I Un converges x = 2 => t = ~ x = 00 => t = 0
6.6.6 Example
Apply integral test and determine the convergence ofthe following series.
Solution
(a) (n) - 3n is +ve and decreases as n increases
- 4n 2 + 1
I ( x ) dx = Lt [3-8 f-dt]
00
I
t
n~oo
= Lt [3-log t -log 5]=
8
5
I
n-->oo
00
1 OOfdt 1
= (; t
= (;[logt]5 = 00
00 4
[where t= 3x + 2]
5
If in an alternating series I (-1 ),,-1 .un ' where un are alI +ve,
Solved Examples
6.7.3 Example
Cons!derthe series
. 1--+---
1 1 1 .....
234
In this series, each term is numerically less than its preceding term and nih term
~O as n~oo.
:. By Leibneitz's test, the series is convergent.
(Note the sum of the above series is Loge2 )
6.7.4 Example
Solution
x"
where UII=--II Since O<x< 1, ulI>O,Vn;
. I+x'
x" X"+1
Further, U -u =--
n ----
II n+1 l+x I+XIl+1
x" _X"+1 x" (I-x)
=--:-----:--:------;-
( 1+ x" ) ( I + x"+ 1 )
0< x < 1 ~ all tenns in numerator and denominator of the above expression are
+ve.
6.7.7 Example
(-1 ),,-1
L ----r========
00
6.7.8 Example
Test for the convergence of the following series,
1 2 3 4 5
---+---+--+
6 11 16 21 26 ....
Solution
11
Given series, L (-1)
00
n=1
n-I
- - = L (-1)
511 + 1
II-I
Un is an alternating series
11
u =-->0\1'11 .
n 511 + 1 '
11 11+1 -1
----- ( )( ) ~ Un < Un+ I' \1'11
511+1 511+6 511+1 511+6
11 1
Again, Lt u = Lt --=-:;t:0
n-->oo n IHOO 511 + 1 5
Thus conditions (ii) or (iii) of Leibnitz's test are not satisfied. The given series is
not convergent. It is oscillatory.
448 Engineering Mathematics - I
6.7.9 Example
Test the nature of the following series.
(a) I
00 ( -1 r- I
(b) I --'--::--'r---
( -1
2
I
(c)
1 f;z +J;+i n +1
Solution
1
(a) u,,= I ~>OVn
vn+vn+l
1 1
U" - U,,+I = f;z + J;+i - J;+i + J n + 2
~~
By Leibnitz's test, given series converges.
6.7.10 Example
111
Test the convergence of the series sJ2 - sJ3 + sJ4 - +..... .
Solution
(_1)"-1 1
I
00
(ii)
(iii) Lt un
n-->oo
=0 .
'
6.7.11 Example
Test for convergence the series, 1- h + ~ - ~ + .....
Solution
(-If
:. By Leibnitz's test, I--
2n
is convergent.
6.7.12 Example
1 1 1
Test for convergence the series, 1- - + - - - + ..... .
3! 5! 7!
Solution
convergent
6.8.1
Consider the series
1 1 1
IU =1--3 +3"--3 +-+ ......
II
234
1 1 1 1 00
By p - series test, I I
IUn is convergent (p = 3 > 1 )
450 Engineering Mathematics - I
6.9
6.9.1 Conditional Convergence
[fthe series Ilu,,1
is divergent and I Un is convergent, then I Un is said
to be conditionally convergent.
6.9.2 Consider the Series
1-1..+.!-1.. .......
234
IU II
is convergent by Leibnitz's test. (Ex. 1.7.3)
6.10
6.10.1 Power Series and Interval of Convergence
A series, ao + a1x + a2 x 2 + ..... + anx n + ..... where 'an' are all constants is a
power series in x.
It may converge for some values of x .
. Sequences of Series 451
power series.
Solved Examples
6.10.2 Example
11;1 n
Solution
E
x
(-1,1)
When x = 1, L un = L in 3' which, is convergent by p series test.
:. L un is convergent when x =1
Hence, the interval of convergence of the given series is (-1, I]
6.10.3 Example
Test for the convergence of the following series.
p - series test.
Hence the given series is conditionally convergent.
00
It is convergent.
-U n +1 = 1 1 21 ; Lt -lln+1
.x =0 < 1
u" (2n -1 )(2n) tHoo ll"
By ratio test, the series Llu,,1 converges Vx; i.e., L u" is absolutely
convergent Vx;
(d) Here, Iunl =(n + I)xn;1 un+1 1= (n + 2)x n+1 (neglect 1 sl term)
lu I
Lt ~ = Lt
(n + 2)
Ixl = Lt
(1 + 7n)~ Ixl =Ixl < 1 }i
(": x < 12 )
IHOO Iunl IHOO (n + 1) IHOO (1 + Yn)
6.10.4
Show that the series 1 + x + x/6 + x/6 + ..... converges absolutely \;Ix
Solution
lu 1=-1-.
/l
4n - 3 '
Take v =! .
11'
n
Lt
//--+00
lunl = Lt
v" ,,--+00
n I
n( 4 - 3/)
=! *- 0
4
and finite.
n
By comparison test, I 111// I and I v" behave alike.
But by p - series test, I v" is divergent (since p = 1) .
Ilu// I is divergent and :. The given series is conditionally convergent.
6.10.7 Example
1
And Lt
n~oo
un = Lt
n---)-oo
, =0
3" n
:. By Leibnitz's test, the given series is convergent.
But I (_1)//-1.__ =
3,Jn
1
I_I-
3,Jn
is divergent by p- series test (since
1
p= -<1)
2
:. The given series is conditionally convergent.
6.10.8 Example
Test the following series for absolute / conditional convergence.
(c)
I (-1)" (d) " (_1)"-1.
L..J
nJr
e3n+1
n
,,=0 (2n)!
Sequences of Series 455
Solution
be divergent.
Hence given series is conditionally convergent.
convergent.
[In problems (a) to (d) above, hints only are given. Students are advised to
do the complete problem themselves]
6.10.9 Example
Find the interval of convergence of the following series.
(a) :t (_1)"-1 xX
,,~I
3
(b):t (_1)"-1 n(x:3 2)"
II~I
(c) log(l+x)
Solution
\ "\ \"+1\
(a) Let the given series be I lIlI ; Then Iunl = ~ ; lun+,1 = X 3
n (n+ 1)
/3 [_11J' lxHx:
00
1+--
n
:. By ratio test, Ilu,,1 is convergent if Ixl < 1
I Un is absolutely convergent if Ixl < 1 ;
i.e.,
:. I u" is convergent if Ixl < 1
456 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 1 1
Ifx= I,thegivenseriesbecomes 1-23"+ 33 - 4 3 + ....... .
W hIC I1 IS
. ."
convergent, sIllce 1 IS
~ -3 . convergent.
n
Similarly, if x = -1, the series becomes I -~ = -I ~ which is also
n n
convergent.
Hence the interval of convergence of I UII is (-1 ~ x ~ 1)
(b) Proceeding as in (a),
lulI+11
Lt-=--
Ix+21
IHOO Iu'" 3
:. I U is convergent if Ix + 21 < 3, i.e., if -3 < x+ 2 < 3, i.e., if
II
-5 < x < 1.
If x = -5, I lIlI =I (-llll-I .n ,and is divergent ( in both these cases
= II
(say)
n=1 'n
Ixnl 111+11
IUnl=-;-; lun+1= :+1 1
lun+11
Lt - - = Lt 1 I x I= I I X
Iunl
/1-+00 (1 +~) /1-+00
Exercise -1 (e)
1. Use integral test and determine the convergence or divergence of the following
series:
1
Ln 2
[ Ans : convergent]
00 1
2. ~ n{logn )2 [ Ans : convergent]
'" {-If-l
2. ~(2n-I)(2n) [ Ans : convergent]
[ Ans : convergent]
I
3. Classify the following series into absolutely convergent and conditionally
convergentseries:
[ Ans : abs.cgt ]
[ Ans : abs.cgt ]
{-If
[ Ans : abs.cgt ]
3. I n{logn)2
4. Find the interval of convergence of the following series
2n x n
1. L ~ [ Ans : -00 < x < 00 ]
458 Engineering Mathematics - I
111
5. (a) Show that 1- - 2 + - ? - - 2 + .... is absolutely convergent.
2 3- 4
111
(b) Show that 1 - J2 + j j - J4 + .... is conditionally convergent.
3. P - series test:- f ~n
11=1
is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p::;; 1
4.-C-omparison lest :- The series LUll and L vn are both convergent or both
(
Alternately, if Lt
n->oo
~
u
>1
+
or < 1) . If the limit = 1, the test fails
ll 1
8. Integral test: A series L (n) of +ve terms where (n) decreases as n increases
co
9. Alternating series - Leibnitz 's test: An alternating series L (-1 ),,-1 un convergent
n=1
X x2 x3
II. 1+ 22 +j2+4T+ ..... (x>O) ........................ . [ egt.if x::::; 1, dgt. if x > I]
12. 4+ (4 5
3x 5)2 x 2+(6)3 +x3+ ..... (x>o) ............ . [ egt if x < 1, dgt. if x 2 1 ]
[ egt. ]
a"
15. 2:--2,a<1 [egt.]
l+n
111
16. 1 - - + - - - + - + -..... [ Abs. egt.]
2.2 3.3 4.4
"(_I)n 33 n
I. L.,; 2
.......... ......... ............. .... [ Abs. egt.]
(-l .n
2. 2: 2f n
[ Abs. egt. ]
[Cond. cgt]
[ Cond.egt.]
111
10. The series - + - + - + ......... IS
2.4 4.6 6.8
(i) convergent (ii) divergent
(iii) oscillatory (iv) none of these [Ans :(i) ]
1 1 1 . d'
3. The series U+ 12 + lJ + ........ IS Ivergent... ................ . [ False]
3
x x
4. The series x - - + - - + - ....... , converges when -1:s x :S 1.. [True]
3 5
(_1)"-1
5. The series " is absolutely convergent. ........................ [ True]
LJ n.5/l
6. The series x + 2X2 + 3x 3 + 4X4 + ....00 is convergent if x> I........ [ False]
x2 x3
+ - + ........00 is divergent if x ~ 1 ...............
7. The series x + - [True]
3 2
x 2! 3 3! 3 4! 4
8. The series 1+-+2"x +-3 x +-4 x + ...... +00 is convergent
2 3 4 5
if x> e [ True]
-"J;;
9. The series I ( 1 + .);; ) is divergent ............................ . [ False]
2
Ih. 3n + 5
15. The sertes whose n term IS is convergent. [ False]
(n+2)"
3. Fill in the Blanks :
L ar l -
00
I
1. The geometric series converges if_ _ _ __ [ Ans: 1r 1< 1]
11=1
3. I {{!n +I-n}
11=1
3
IS _ _ __ [ ADs: convergent. ]
4. If L 3n3-4
00
( ADs: < 1]
[ADS: > 1]
9. If the series I(-Ifan,(all >OVn) is convergent, then for all values of n,!!JL
~ aMI
when x~ 1.
2. IfIll" is convergent, Lt u"
Il-~OO
=0 [The converse need not be necessary ]
3. p - series test:- f ~n
,,~I
is convergent if p > I and divergent if p ~1
4. Comparison test: The series L u" and I Vn are both convergent or both
we can always find an integer' III ' , ) , Ian -II <E, 'ifn ~ m
Taking E = jaIl -II < 1;
1, we have,
I.e., (I - 1) < all < (i + 1), 'if n ~ m
Let A = min {a"a 2 , am _,,(1 -1)} ,and fl = max {a"a 2 , am-,,(I + 1)}
Then obviously, A ~ an ~ fl, 'ifn EN;
Hence (an) is bounded.
Solution
The given series is an alternating series 2)-1 ),,-1 u" '
1
where u" =( ) We observe that,
211-1 !
(i) ll" > 0 and u" > 1l,,+1' '1111 and
1
(ii) Lt II = Lt =0
,,--+00" IHoo ( 211 - 1) !
4. Show that the geometric series I qlll = 1+ q + q2 + ....... converges to the slim
111=0
1
- - when /q/ < 1 and diverges when /q/ ~ 1
l-q
Solution
See theorm 2.3 (replace' x ' by 'q') .
5. Define the convergence of a series. Explain the absolute convergence and
conditional convergence of a series. Test the convergence of series
I[l+ J,;r'
Solution
For theory part, refer 2.1,2.2, 8.1 ,9.1, and 9.2
,
Problem: Let u" = (1 + _l_)-n
J;;
; Lt (u~{,) = Lt (1 + _1_)-n
11--+00 J;; ,,--+00
1 1
~ H-[l+ J,;J =7<1
L u n+ 1 L (2n + 1 )
1/100 ---;;: = 1/100 2n + 2 .x = x
By ratio test, LUI/ is convergent when x < 1, and divergent when x > 1
Lt [n(~-I)]= Lt (_n
n~oo 2n +
U Il +1 IHOO 1
)=!<1
2
:. By Raabe's test, LUI/ diverges.
u" =[(=:~H'
u 1n
1/
II
= (n+l)
- - X= _ _
n+2
n x
1+2/
[1+ 1/]
n
Lt uny.n =
ll----too
x; By Cauchy's root test, "~u// is cgt. when x < I and dgt. when x >
(1 + l/~r
When x = 1, un =( , )n;
1+ 3/~
Lt Un = ee = -e1* 0
IHOO
-2
:. LU n is divergent.
8. Test the series whose nih term is (3n -1) / 2n for convergence.
Solution
(3n-l) {3(n+l)-I}
U
n
= 2"
.
'
U
IHI
=-'--------'-
2"+1
U,,+I _ (3n + 2) - - -- 1
<1
L (Un+1
un 2(3n-l) n->oo Un 2
f(x)dx=f x(logx)
2 2
p = I --;;;
log2
U
=~ II
P
1
00
log2 ;
. I
[Takmg log x = u, - ax = du x = 2 => u = log 2 and x = 00 => U = 00 ]
x
Case (i) : p > 1 => 1- P < 0 => Integral is finite, and
Case (ii) : 0 < p ~ I => Integral is infinite.
Hence, by integral test, the given series converges if p > I and diverges when
O<p~1 .
JI
1 1
L1 U;,II = - <1 [2 <e <3I .
n~oo e
By Cauchy's root test, I u" is convergent.
n-l
11
"
.x)' 0 < x < I
Solution
xn
The given series is of the form I (-1)" 11" ,where u" = (
n n-l
)
This is an alternating series in which (i) lin > 0 and 1I" > 1l1l+IVn EN.
further L1 ll" = o. Hence, by Leibnitz test, the series is convergent.
11-00
. . 1 x2 X4 x6
12. DISCLISS the convergence of the series, J. + r;; + r:; + t. + ......... .
2'1'1 3'1'2 4'1'3 5'1'4
Solution
2n
n Iii
term 0 f th
e series = u = x r--:-:; ( . . I sl term )
omlttmg
ll
(n+2)'I'n+l
X
21
1+2 "1I+1,J;;+2 rn+i 2
U
llt
1= (n + 3).J n + 2 ; ---;;: = (n + 3) .x
/HOO
LI ~= I/~OO lrVn.M.
It" (+ 3.~) 2l=x
LI
1
X
2
;
When x
2
= 1, u = ll
1rn+i ;taking vn = -3-' ,
(n+2) n+l n i2
]I
U n/ 2
Lt = Lt =1
(1 + ,'n
2/) \fIT?n
hl
_II
n~oo vn n~oo n%
By ratio test, L un converges when Ixl < 1 and diverges for Ixl > 1 .
Lt un +1 = Lt ~
n~'" U
1+
n~oo ( 1+ 2/
II) X=X
n /n
Taking
un
;-=--.,
Vn 1+;11
n
Sequences of Series 471
:. Both IU II
and I VII converge or diverge together.
But I Vn diverges:. IU n also diverges when x ~ I.
By Leibneitz's test IU II
converges when x =-1
Solution
1. 3.5.... ( 2n + 1) 1.3.5 .... {2n+3)
un = 2.5.8 .... (3n+2 ); un +1 = 2.5.8 .... (3n+5 )
~ = Lt r2 + ( ~
3
Un +1 _ 2n+3. Lt 11 )] = <1
Un 3n+5' n~'" Un n~'" l3 + ( 5 11
) 3
By ratio test, I UII is convergent.
(-If
16. Prove that the series I---
n(logn)3
converges absolutely.
Solution
Iu 1- n(1ognr
n -
I ; "'f
2 X(logxf
dx = "'f d!
log2 r'
n +1
Solution
n/I! term 0 ft l . .
le given series, U = -2n+
3-X
I II
n n +1
_[2(11+1)+1] n+1 _ 2n+3 n+1
un + 1 - 1 X - ,x
(n+1) +1 (n+1} +1
II 1 (2n+3).x"H (113+1)
=
Lt
IH"O
~I/~t
1111
1,1
11->00 { ( r
n + 1 + I}
x --'-----'---
xn ( 2n + I)
x=.x
l1y ratio test, IlIlI converges if x < I and diverges if x> I. If x = I the test fails.
2n+ I . 1
Whenx = I, un = - , - ; Takmg VII = 2 '
n +1 n
LI _"
It
= LI -2n3-+X
I
n- = 2"* 0
?
and filllte
(-I)" (log n )
18. Test the series I00
2 ' for absolute/conditional convergence
II~I n
Solution
Solution
Given that u, = I
I (log log n)"
LI u'1/n
n-->oo n
= LI
n-->oo
[I] =
log log n
0<1
~/n
2
4
Lt u
11-->00 un
lI +1 = Lt [
n-->oo
(2n + 1)2
(2n + 2)( 2n + 3
X2]
r
Lt [ n ( + + I n2) X2] = x2
I/-'>OO 19
n 2( 4 + ~ + 6 n2 r
By ratio test, I Un converges when x < 1 , i.e.,
2
Ixl < 1 => -1 < x < 1
2
When x = 1 ,the test fails;
474 Engineering Mathematics - I
dr Lt Or Lt r{ u + ou) - r{ u)
du ou ~Oou ou ~O ou
dr = {~(3U2 +5U+6)li+{~(3U2)}j+{~(-4U)}k
du du 1 du du
Note: We can apply the above rule of derivative to the case of partial derivatives also
ex : If A = (ryz)i + (xyz}j - (3;Jyz2)k
a
2
A
find - - at the point (I, -I, 2)
axOv
Vector Differentiation 477
aA
-
ay
= { - a (2
ay
x yz )t. a {xy 2Z
1+-
Oy
}. j -a- {3xyz-
Oy
3 ') ')} k
a2 A
ax~v = 4i - 4j + 72k
and
x
(i) dr represents the velocity vector v (or tangent vector) of the point (x, y, z)
dt
Ex: If a particle moves along a curve x = e-t, y = 2 cos 2t, z = 2 sin 2t, where 't' is time.
I) find velocity and acceleration at time t = 0, and
2) find also their magnitudes
Sol: r = xi + yj + zk
= (e-t)i + (2 cos 2t)j + (2sin 2t)k
478 Engineering Mathematics - I
dr d d d
v= - = - (e-~i + - (2cos 2t}j + - (2sin 2t)k
dt dt dt dt
= (-e-t)i -(4sin 2t}j + (4 cos 2t)k
d 2 r dv d d. d
a= -=-=-(-e-t)i-
2
-(4sm2t}j+ - (4cos2t)k
dt dt dt dt dt
=i
a .a
-+ }-+ -
k a
V' ax ay az (i,j, k are unit vectors in x, y, z directions)
This operator' V' ' is used in defining the gradient, divergence and curl.
Properties of' V' ' are similar to those of vectors. The operator is appled to both
vector and scalar functions.
7.2.2 Gradient
.a .a
grad ~ = V' ~ = 1-+ }-+k-- ~
a)
( ax ay az
(.,' ~ =c)
:. The vector' V ~' which is 1.- r to the tangent plane is the normal vector to
~ = c at(x, y, z)
a= V~) and the maximum value of the directional derivate = It~~ = IV~I
7.2.5 Some basic properties of the gradient
If ~ and \jJ are two scalar functions,
'J) grad (~+\jJ) = grad ~ + grad \jJ(or) V(~+\jJ)= V~+V\I'
o~. ~. ~ ) + (Oljl.
(
= -I+-j+-k -I+-j+-k 8ljI. 8ljI )
ox oy OZ ox ay OZ
= Y'~+Y'ljI
oljl a~).1+
= ( ~-+ljI- (8ljI
~-+- O~).j+ (8ljI ~)k
~-+ljI-
ox ox ay oy OZ OZ
Solved Examples
Ex. 7.2.6 Iff= x2yz, find gradfat the point (I, -2, 1).
o~. o~. o~
Sol: f= x2yz; ": grad ~ = Y'~ = 0/ + ay } + OZ k,
o 0 0
gradf= -8 (x2yz); + - (x2yz}j + -8 (x2yz)k
x ay 'Z
Ex. 7.2.7 Find the unit normal to the surface xy +yz + zx = 3 at the point (I, 1, I).
Here f= xy +yz + zx
. 2;+ 2j + 2k ;+ j+k
:. Umt normal = ~
22 + 22 + 22 J3
Ex.7.2.8 (a) Find the directional derivative ofl= 2e2x-ytz at (1,3, I) in a direction
towards the point (2, I, 3).
. .
DlrectlOna I denvatlve
. . JI1. the d'IrectlOn
. 0 f a = Vf. a
(4i-2j+2k).(i-2j+2k) (4+4+4)
= = =4
,Jl +4+4 3
(b) In the 'Problem (a)' find the maximum value of the directional derivative
Ex.7.2.9 Find the acute angle between the surface xyz = 2 and:x2 + y + z3 = 6 at the
point (2, 1, 1).
Sol : Let 1 = xy2z = 4 be the surface (1)
-
482 Engineering Mathematics - I
Normal vector to (1) at (2, 1, I) = Vfl(2 1,1) = 1(Vz); + (2xyz}j + (xy)k 1(2, I, I)
= ; + 4j + 2k = a (say).
Let g = (.xl y + .?) = 6 be the surface (2)
= 4; + 2j + 2k = b (say)
:. Angle between the surfaces
= Angle between the normals to them
= Angle between a and b
- cos _1(a,b)1
- =cos -II 4+8+4 I
- I ab .Jl+16+4.J16+4+4
= cos
-1 (
J2t16)
J24 = cos -I ( 16)
6.J14 = cos
-I ( 8)
3.J14
7.2.10 Find the constants p and q such that the surfaces px2 - qyz = (p + 2)x and
4x2y + z3 = 4 are orthogonal at the point (1, -1, 2)
Sol: Letf= px2 - qyz - (p + 2)x = 0 be surface (1), and
Let g = 4.xly + z3 = 4 be surface (2)
=> -8p + 4q + 16 = 0
=> 2p - q = 4 ..... (i)
Since the point (1, -1,2) lies on (1), we have,
p + 2q - p - 2 = 0 => q = I
from (i) we get,p = 5/2 :. p = 512, q = 1
a~ a~
similarly 8y = 3yr; and az 3zr
a~. ~. ~
grad ~= - l + - ) +- k
ax 8y az
.. ar yarz
Slmtiarly =- .- =-
8y r'az r
grad ~ = Vr 3
a 3. a 3 . a 3 ..1 ar 2 ar. 2 ar
= -(r )l+-(r )}+-(r )k =3r-i+3r -}+3r - k
ax 8y az ax 8y az
..1
=3r y.[x.
-l+-)+- zk] =3rr
r r r
7.2.12 Evaluate grad r"
Sol: Let ~= rn = (xl + T + z2)nl2
~ =!!{x 2 + y2 + Z2
ax 2
r/ 2
-
t
.2x =nx{x 2 + y2 z2 r/z- t
484 Engineering Mathematics - I
..
sImilarly -o~ = ny (X 2 + y2 + Z2 )'?z-/,I and -o~ (222)";-1
= nz x + y + z
ox oz
o~. ~. ~k
grad rn = grad ~ = - I + - j +-
ox 0' oz
= n, {x 2 + y2 + Z2 )'fi- I (xi + yj + zk) = n rn-2.r
Aliter: g
rad ~
(-o~).
ox
1+ (o~l.
- j+ (~)
oy OZ
o~ or. o~ or. o~ or
- k=-.-I+-.-j+-.-k
orox or0' oroz
~I(r).r
Ex.7.2.14 Prove V (~(r=--
r
Sol: Let f= ~ (r)
81 ar I'X or x
- = ",I (r) - = ~ (r).-
ox 'Y ox r ox r
81 =~I(r)ar =~I(r).y or y
0' 0' r 0' r
81 = ~I(r) or = ~I(r).!... or z
-az =-r (see Aliter of ex. 7.2.11)
OZ OZ r
81. of. 81
.. V (~ (r = V f= 0/ + 0' ) + oz'''
<j>1(r) <j>1(r)r
= W (xi+yj+zk) = W
Vector Differentiation 485
Ex.7.2.15 Find the equations for the tangent plane and normal line to the surface
.r
z = x 2 + at the point (2, I, 5).
Sol: Let r = xi + y) + zk be the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) on the surface.
Let r l = xli + yJ + zl k be the position vector offixed point A(xI'YI' z,) on the
surface.
Then AP = (x - xI) i + (y - YI) + (z - z\) k = r - r,
Let n be the normal to the surface at A.
Then, since AP is perpendicular to n, we have,
(r-r\)n=O ..... (I)
which is the equation to the tangent plane at A.
Here, in the given problem
r-r, =(x-2)i+(y-I)+(z-5)k
abc
(xl'YI' zl) = (2,_1,5) and (a, b, c) = (4; 2, -I)
:. The equations of normal line are x - 2 = Y -I = z - 5
4, 2 -I
From the above example. we have to remember the following :
Let + = c be any given surface and (xl' YI' zl) be a point on it; then
Exercise 7(a)
I. If <jl = 2xz3 - 3xlyz, find V <I> and IV<I>I at the point (2, 2, -I)
[Ans: (i) 22i+ 12}-12k(ii)2M3]
2. If V = 2x i - 3y) + z 3k, and <jl = 2xyz - 3z2, find V. V<I> and Vx V<I> at the point
(1,2,3)
[Ans . (I) - 426 (2) 6i + 352} t 156k]
3. Iff=2xyzandg=xly+z,fing V (f+g) and V (fg) at the point(I,-I,0)
[Ans : -2i + ) - k; 2k ]
7
4.,Jr + 1 ~) [AI:1S : (6 - 2~/2 - 2r -3) r ]
2
4. Evaluate V (3r -
~r
5. If <I> = r2 e- , show that grad <I> = (2-r) e-r r
r
6. Find a unit normal vector to the surface z = xl + Y at the point (I, -2, 5)
I
[Ans: 51 (2i - 4j - k)
7. Finq the equations to the tangent plane and the normal line to the surface
xz2 + xly = z - I at the point (I, -3,2)
.
.. x-I y+3 z-2
[Ans: (I) 2x- y- 3z + 1 = (n) -2 =-1- =-3-
"
8. Find ~uations to the Tangent plane and normal line to the surface y = xl + z2
at the point (1, 5, -2)
x-I y-5 z+2
[Ans: (i) 2x-y-4z= 5 (ii) -2-=-=1=--=-4
9. Find the directional derivative ofU = 4xz3 - 3x2yz at (2, 1, -2) in the direction of
(3i - 2) + 6k).
384
[Ans: 7]
10. Find the directional derivative of <I> = 4e2x- y+z at the point (1, I, -1) in a direction
towards the point (2, 3, 1)
[Ans : 8/3]
Vector Differentiation 487
II. Find the values of the constants a, b, c so that the directional derivative off= axl
+ byz + cz2x 3 at (1,2, -I) has a maximum magnitude 64 in a direction paraIlel to
z-axis.
[Hint: /0:./ at (I, 2, -I) is IlleI to z-axis.
:. Equate coefficients of i and j to zero and IV ~ = 64. Thus get 3 equations in a,
b, c and solve them]
[Ans: a =6, b = 24, c = - 8]
12. Find the acute angle between the surfaces xlz = 3x + z2 and 3x2 - l + 2z = I at
thepoint(I,-2, I)
J3
[Ans : cos- I - - ]
7J2
13. Find grad ~ if r = xi + yj + zk, r = Irl and
I
(i) ~ = Log r (ii) ~ = - (iii) ~ =r
r
dx. dy. dz k
-l+-}+-
dt dt dt
2
[Ans: J6]
15. Find the acute angle between the normals to the surface xy = z2 at the points
(1,9,3) and (3, 3, -3)
. a }-+
= (1-+ . a k a)
ax ay -az' (A )1'+A21'+A3k)
= (aAax i + aAay + aA3)
I 2
az
(since i.i = j j = k.k = 1)
Note: (1) Div A is a scalar field
(2) V.A 7:- A.V
7.3.2 Physical significance of the divergence
If A represents the velocity of fluid in a fluid flow, Div A represents the rate offluid
flow through unit volume. (or) Div A gives the rate at which fluid is originating at a
point per unit volume.
Similarly if A represents the Electric flux or heat flux, Div A represents the amount
of electric flux or heat flux that diverges per unit volume in unit time.
7.3.3 Some properties of Divergence
If A, B , are vector functions and '/' is a scalar function, then, prove that
(1) Div (A + B) = Div A + Div B (i.e) V. (A + B) = -V . A + V .8
Proof Let A = A)i + Aj + A3k
B = 8 1i + B~ + B3k
A + B = (A) + 8) i + (A2 + 8 2 )j + (A3 + 8 3) k
a a
Div A = -(AI +B l )+-(A 2 + 8 2 )+-(A 3 + 8 3 )
a
ax ay az
= (aA1 + aA2 + aA3)+(aBI + aB2 + aB3)
ax ay az ax ay az
~
= Div A + Div B.
Vector Differentiation 489
(2) Prove that, Div (fA) = (grad.f) .A + .f{Div A) i.e. V .(fA) = (V .f). A + .f{ V A)
..... (1)
..... (2)
..... (3)
Solved Examples
Ex. 7.3.5 If A = (.x2y) i + (xy2z)j + (xyz)k, find div A at the point (1, -1,2).
Sol: A = (.x2y) i + (xyz)j + (xyz)k
. aA. aA 2 aA 3
DIVA=-+-+-
ax ay az
a 2 a 2 a
= -(x y) + -(xy z) + -(xyz)
ax ay az
= 2xy + 2xyz + xy
= xy (2z ,+ 3)
:. At (1, -1, 2), Div A = (1) (-1) [4 + 3] =-7
490 Engineering Mathematics - I
Ex. 7.3.6 If V = 2xyi + 3x2yj - 3pyz k is solenoidal at (1, 1, 1), find 'p'.
. a a 2 a
Sol: Dlv V = -(2xy)+-(3x y)+-(-3pyz)
ax oy oz
= 2y + 3xl - 3py
At (1. 1, 1). Div V = 5 - 3p
5
Since V is solenoidal, Div V = 0 :. p = 3"
Ex.7.3.7 Ifr = xi + yz + zk, and r = Irl, show that Div (r3 r) = 6 r3
oA2 .1. .. l oA 3 2 .. l
similarly ~ =3y r+r~ - =3z r+r
OZ
. oA I -
DlvA= - +
oA2 oA3
-+-
ax oy oz
= r3 + 3xlr
Vector Differentiation 491
o 0
Similarly ay (~y) = ~ + 3yr and oz (r3z) = ~ + 3z2r
DivA=6~
l
Ex. 7.3.8 Evaluate Div [ r grad (r-3) ] or V. {rvC 3 )}
_
--3r4 or . ar . --4 -or k--3r
-1-3r4 -j-3r _ --4 -i+-j+-
y. Z (x. k)
ox c:y oz r r r
= -3r-5 (xi + yj + zk)
aA I = ~ [-3r--4 x]
ax ax
= -3r--4 . 1 + x. -3. -4 r- 5 . :: = -3r--4 + 12 x r- 5 . ~
= -3r--4 + 12 x 2 r-6
oA
Similarly, c:y2 =-3r-4 + 12yr-6
Ex.7.3.9 Show that V .(x" r) = (n + 3) r". Hence show that r/f3 is solenoidal.
Sol: r" r = r" (xi + yj + zk)
a a a
V .(r" r) = -a (xr")+ ~, (yr") +- (zr")
x v)' az
y + z.-
= 3r" + n ['1-1 ( x.-X + y.- z)
r r r
r
:. 3 is solenoidal
r
Ex.7.3.10 Prove that Div (CIA + C 2 B) = C I Div A + C 2 Div B, where CI' C 2 are
constants.
=C (MI+M2+M3)+C(aBI+aB2+
I ax Oy az 2ax ay
aB
az
3)
Vector Differentiation 493
Ex.7.3.11 If A = 2xi + 3yj + 5zk and f= 2xyz, find div (fA) at (1,2,3).
Sol: fA =2xyz (2xi + 3yj + 5zk)
= (4x 2yz)i + (6xyz)j + (10xyz2)k
a a a
Div (fA) = ax (4x2yz) + ay (6xyz) + az (10xyz2)
= 40xyz
:. At (\,2,3), div (fA) = 240
Aliter: div (fA) = D.(fA) = (V f). A + f( V A)
j k
vfx V g = a.fjax aljay atjoz
agjax agjay agjaz
Exercise 6(b)
j k
i j k
V = ffi x r = ffil ffi2 ffi3
X Y z
j k
Curl V= a/ax 8/ay a/8z
i j k
Curl (A+B) =
ajax ajay ajaz
AJ+BJ A2 +B2 A3 +B3
j k j k
= ajax ajay ajaz + ajax ajay ajoz
= curl A + B
(2) If is a scalar function and A is a vector function
Curl (A) = ((curl A) + (grad) x A
(or)
V x (A) = ((V x A) + (V {P) x A
Proof: If A = Ali + Aj + A3k, then cj>A = cj>Ali + cj>Ai + cj> A3k
j k
L\ x (cj>A) = ajax ajay ajaz
cj>AI cj>A2 cj> A 3
= "i[.I."'ayaA3
~
+ A aq, _.I. OA2 - A aq,]
3ay "'az 2az
i j k i j k
= cj>ajax ajay ajaz -?> aq,jax aq,jay acj>jaz
AI A2 A3
=cj>( V x A) + (V cj x A
7.4.5 Conservative vector field:
A vector field F, which can be derived from a scalar field q, such that F = Vcj>, is
called a conservative vector field and q, is called the scalar potential ofF.
Vector Differentiation 497
Solved Examples
Ex.7.4.6 If A = (xy)i + (yz}j + (zx) Ii; find (a) curl A and (b) curl curl A at (1,2, -3)
Sol : A = xyi + yzj + zxk
j k
(a) curl A = V x A = a/ax a/ay a/az
xy yz zx
= I.[-(zx)--(yz)
a a].[ a a ] +k[-(yz)--(xy)
+ } -(xy)--(zx) a a]
ay & & & & ay
= i(O - y) + j(O - z) + k (0 - x)
= -yi - zj - xk
:. curl A at (1, 2, -3) = -2i + 3j - k
(b) curl A= V x (V xA)
=V x (-yi-zj-xk)
i j k
= a/ax a/ay a/az
-y -z -x
[aya a].[
= i -(-x)--(-z)
&
a a ] +k[-(-z)--(-y)
+ } -(-y)--(-x)
fu fu
a
fu
a ]
ay
= i(O - (-I) + j(O - (-1 + k(0 - (-I
=i+j+k
:. curIAat(I,2,-3)=i+j+k
Ex.7.4.7 Show that V = xi + Ij + z3k is irrotational -
Sol: Curl V = V x V
a 3)---(y
= I.[-(z a 3]) +k[-(y
a 2]) + }.[-(x)--(z
a a 2)--(x)
a ]
ay az oz & fu ay
=0 :. V is irrotational
498 Engineering Mathematics - I
Ex.7.4.8 If F = (4x + 3y + az)i + (bx - y + z)j + (2x + cy + z)k is irrotational, find the
constants a, b, c
i j k
Sol: Curl F = ajax ajay ajaz
(4x+3y+az) (bx- y+z) (2x+cy+z)
= i[~(2X+CY+Z)-~(bX-
ay az
y+Z)]+ j[~(4x+3y+aZ)-~(2X+CY+Z)J
az ax
+ k[~(bX-
ax
y+Z)-~(4x+3y+az)]
ay
= (c - l)i + (a - 2)j + (b - 3)k
Since F is irrotational, curl F = 0
:. c - I = 0, a - 2 = 0, b - 3 = 0
i.e., a = 2, b = 3, c = 1
Ex.7.4.9 If r = xi + yj + zk, and r = Irl, find curl (rn r)
j k
curl (rn r) = ajax ajay ajaz
1/ 1
III
x(x 2 + y2 + Z2Y2 Y(X2 + l + Z2Y2 Z(X2 + l + Z2 )"2
= I.[ z."2
n x- x + Y 2 +z 2) 2z J
(? + y-?+z-?hJLY- Y."2n (2
j k
curl (rn r) = ajax ajay ajaz
xrn yr" zr"
= "'.[
L..,l - a ( zr n) - -
a ( yr n)] = "'.[ ar - y.nr n-I -ar]
L..,l, z.nr n-I -
ay az ay az
_
-
'" .[
L..,l
Y - y.n.r II_I -;
f/zr n-I -; z]
= i( 0) + j( 0) + k (0) = 0
Ex. 7.4.10 Prove that, ifF = (x + Y + I)i + j - (x + y) k, F. curl F = 0
j k
Sol: Curl F = ajax a/ay ajaz
x+ y+1 -x-y
; j k
:. Curl F = ajax ajay ajaz
a~jax a~j~ 8$jaz
i( a ~ a ~
2 2
== L _ ) == 0
~az az~
Ex. 7.4.13 Show that F == (6xy + iJ)i + (3r -z)j + (3xz 2 - y)k is irrotational. Find ~ such
that F == V ~
a~
- = 3x2 -z ..... (2)
Oy
a~ ?
- = 3xz~ - y ..... (3)
az
Integrating equation (1) with respect to x we get
~ = 3.x2y + xz 3 + fly, z) ... :. (4)
Differentiating (4) partially w.r.t 'y'
a~ af(y,z)
ay = 3.x2 + ay ..... (5)
..... (8)
..... (3)
502 Engineering Mathematics - I
Curl (f(r) r) = %x
j
o/Oy %z
k j
xj{r) y j{r) zj{r
} k
VxV= VI V2 V3 =1:;(U 2V 3 -U 3 V 2)
VI V2 V3
..... (3)
au 3 _ au 2 au I _ au 3 . au 2 _ au I
From (I) ,we have, - - - - - , - - - , - - - - ..... (4)
0' az az ax ax 0'
av3 _ av2 aV _ av3 . av2 aV
an d from (2) we have - - - -I- - - - -I
_
..... (5)
, '0' az' az ax' ax 0'
Substituting the six equations of(4) & (5) in (3), we observe that all the 12 terms of
(3) will get cancelled. Hence Div (U x V) = 0
~ U x V is solenoidal
Exercise - 7(c)
I. If V = (2xz2);_ (yz)j + (3xz3)k, andf= xlyz, find the following at the point (I, I, I)
(a) curl V (b) curl (jV) (c) curl (curl V)
[Ans. (a) ; + } (b) 5; - 3} - 4k (c) 5; + 3k]
2. If 'g' is a scalar function, show that curl (g grad g) = 0
3. Find the value of the constant 'p' for which the vector V = (pxy - z3) + (p - 2) xl}
+ (I - p) xz2k is irrotational.
[Ans: 4]
4. Find the constants a, b, c so that the curl of the vector A = (x + 2y + az);
+ (bx - 3y - z)j + (4x + cy + 2z)k is identically equal to zero
[Ans. 4, 2, -1]
5. If r = xi + y) + zk, r = Irl, show that curl (;Z ) = 0 and find a scalar function of' such
r
that 2"= -v J,.f(a) = 0 where a> o.
r
6. If r = xi + yj + zk, and p, q are constant vectors, show that (I) curl [(r x p) x q]
= ( p x q) and (2) curl [(p.q)r)] = o.
'V2' can be applied to both scalar and vector functions as shown below.
2 a2~ a2~ a2~
V~=-+-+-
ax 2 ry2 az2
where '~' is scalar function
If A = Ali + Aj + A3k, is a vector function, then
a2 a2 a2 )
V2 A = ( ax2+ ay2 + az2 (Ali + Aj + A3k)
= (V2AJ+(V2A2)j+(V2A3~
7.5.2 Vector Identities: we shall give below some vector identities with proofs.
\. If '' is a scalar function curl grad ~ = 0, (or) V x V ~ = 0
acjl acjl. acjl )
Proof: Curl grad cjI= V x (-i+-}+-k
ax ry az
j k
ajax ajry ajaz
acjljax acjljay acjljaz
= L>[~(acjl)-~(a~)l
ay az az ry
j k
Curl (curIA)= a/ax a/ay a/az
aA3_ aA2) aA I _ aA3) aA2_ aAI)
( ay az ( az ax ( ax ay
= -'1 2A + '1('1.A)
(4) '1.(AxB)=B.('1xA)-A.('1xB), (A, B are vector functions) (or) Div(AxB)=B.
curl A-A. curl B.
Proof: Let A = A) i + A?J + A3k and B = B) i + B?J + B3k
i j k
A x B = AI A2 A)
BI B2 B)
= I i(A2B) - A)B2)
'1xA = a/ax
AI
..... (2)
Vector Differentiation 507
Similarly,
A. (V' x
" (BB3
0' - BB?)
B) = L.J AI Bz- ..... (3)
Solved examples
... (1)
2
Similarly -02 (r n) = n ( n- 2)y 2r n-4 + nr n-2 ... (2)
, oy
2
and -a2 I!
( n)
=n ( n- 2)z-r
J n-4
+nr n- 2 ... (3)
oz
= n,.rr2 . x
~~II)=
2 n(r ll
-
2.1 + x.{n _ 2)r"-3. ar)
az ax
Note: Ifn =-1, we have vt~ )= 0, which means that (.; ) satisfies the Laplace's equation
av au
Ex.7.S.6 If V .U =0, v .v =0, v xU=-at' v xV = at' show that Uand V satisfy
a2u
the wave equation V 2U = at 2
But V x (V x U) = V (V .U) - V 2U
from ()) & (2), a,2 = V2U , which shows that U satisties the wave equation.
i'iu
Similarly;
Vx (Vx
au a
v)= Vx- =-(Vx u)=--
-a~v
... (3)
at at2
at
and vx(vxY)=V(V.Y)-V 2 Y=-V 1 Y(": V.Y=O)
... (4)
(3) and (4) => Y satisfies the wave equation.
Ex.7.5.7 If V.Y = 0, show that V x[V x {V x (V x V)}] = V 4y (or)
curl [curl {curl (curl Y)} ] = V 4y
Sol: We know that
V x (V x Y) = V (V .Y) - V 2y [from 7.5.2 (3)]
= - V 2y (": V.Y = 0)
= - U (say)
Then the given expression
= - V x( V x U) = V 2U - V CV .U) [from 7.5.2 (3)]
= V 2( V 2y) - V (V . U) (": V 2y = U)
= V 4y - V (V . U)
V . U = V .( V 2y)
= {~) ~}{V2V}
= I {i ~ }.(V2(~i + V2i + V k)) 3
Exercise 7(d)
(I)
(2)
A= 8 0
Let ro' rJ ...... rn be the position vectors of points Bo' B)' B2 ...... Bn respectively. Let
us consider the sum,
The limit of this sum as n ~ 00 and 1&,:1 ~ 0 is defined as the line integral of A
along the curve c and is denoted symbolically by
f A.dr or dr
f A.-dt;
dt
which is a scalar.
f A .dr = fA1dx + A2 dy + A3 dz
c
fA .dr
J'
(P, Q are 2 points on c)
(2) If A is the electric field strength, the line integral given above i.e., JA.dr, is
In general, the line integral JA.dr, will depend on the path from P to Q
/'
7.6.4 T"eorem: Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for the integral fA.dr,
c
Q
fVI/>.dr=
G~ i-+j-+k-
01/> 01/> 01/
(dxi+dyj+dzk)
p p ox ry oz
= ~(x2'Y2,z2) -1/>(xI'Yl'zl)
i.e., the integral depends upon the two points only but not on the path joining them.
(This is true only if I/> is single-valued at all points P and Q).
(2) The integral is independent of the path. Then,
(x,y,z) (x,y,z) dr
I/>(x,y,z) = f A.dr = f A. ds ds
(Xl ,YI ,Zl) (Xl ,)'1 ,zl )
But
d<j> =V<j>dr ...... (2)
ds ds
dr dr
(I) - (2) => (A - V<j. -d = 0, which is true irrespective of-
s ds
:. A= V<j>
Solved Examples
4
Ex. 7.6.5: F(t) = (3t 2-t)j + (2-6t}j - 4tk, find (a) JF{t}dt (b) JF{t}dt
2
x/2
(C 1 is constant of integration)
But V = 0 when t = 0
:.-i-3k+C 1 =0=> C 1 =;+3k
Substituting in (I), we get
Velocity V = (I - e-t)i - (3t2 + 6t}j + (3 - 3cost)k
516 Engineering Mathematics - I
Integrating,
r = (I + e-t)i - (t3 + 3t2)j + (3t - 3sint)k + C 2 ..... (2)
(e 2 being constant of integration)
But r = 0 when t = O.
:. (2) => + i + C 2 = 0 :. C 2 = - i
From (2), r = (t - 1 + e-t)i - (t3 + 3t2)j + (3t - 3sint)k
Ex.7.6.8 Show that
d2F dF
f
Fx--=Fx-+c
dt 2
dt
Sol: We know that
~(FxdF)=FX~(dF)+dFxdF
dt dt dt dt dl dl
i j
2
(ii) A x B = 21 3/
t 2
196. 62.
= -1--j-4k
5 3
Vector Differentiation 517
d dF dF
We get, -(F.F)=F.-+-.F=2(dF)
F.- so that
du du du du '
F. dF =~~(F.F)=~~IFI2
'du 2 du 2 du
3 dF I
. IF.-du=-[49-9] =20
., 2 du 2
Ex. 7.6.11 If F = (.xl - 2y); - 6yzj + 8xz2k, evaluate IF.dr from the point (0,0,0) to the
c
/;1 1
J~2 -2t 2 }it -6.t 2 .t 3(2t}dt + 8t~3 J{3t 2 }it =
2 6 9
J-t dt -12t dt + 24t dt
/;0 o
518 Engineering Mathematics - I
12 12 1 252-180-35 37
-----= =
5 7 3 105 105
Aliter: Along C, F = (t2 - 2t2 )j - 6. t 2 t 3j + 8.t.t6 k = - t 2 j - 6tJ + 8t7k
dr = (dx)i + (dy}j + (dz)k = dt i + (2t dt}j + (3t2 dt)k
I
37
105
(2) Let 0 = (0,0,0), P = (1,0,0), Q = (I, 1,0), R = (I, 1,1 ).
Then along OP, y = 0, z = 0, dy = 0, dz = 0 and x varies from 0 to 1.
I I
2 2
:. JF.dr= J(x -2.0}tx-6(OXOXO)+8x(0)2(0)= Jx dx= .... (I)
~ x~ 0
Along PQ, x = I, z = 0, dx = 0, dz = 0 and y varies from 0 to 1.
I
Ex. 7.6.12 Find the total work done by a force F = 2xyi - 4zj + 5xk along the curve x = t2,
Y = 2t + 1, z = t3, from the points t = 1 to t = 2.
Sol: x = t2 , dx = 2t dt; y = 2t + 1, dy = 2dt; z = t\ dz = 3t2 dt
2 2
= fl2J 2(21 + I}J2Idl _{4./ 3 )2dt + {5/2 )3/2 dl = f{8/ 4 + 4/ 3 -81 3 + 15/ 4)dl
'~I 1
2
f{23/ 4 -4/ }11= [1
23--/4 ]2 =23
3
5
713 638
- (32-1)-(16-1)= - - 1 5 = -
1
5 5 1
5 5
t2 6/ 3 18t 5 1 1 18 5 18 11
= -+---1 = -+2--=---=--
2 3 5 0 2 5 2 5 10
2nd Method: >: =3x2, dy = 6x dx and x varies from
to 1.
1
.. fF.dr = f(x + 6x 2}Ix - x.3x 2.6x.dx
c 0
1
~( 2 11
= Jx+6x -18x 4 \px
,
=--
o 10
520 Engineering Mathematics - I
Ex. 7.S.14 Find the work done by the force F in moving a particle once around the circle
'C' in xy - plane, ifthe centre of the circle is origin and radius is '2' and
F = (x +y + z)i + (2x + y}j + (2x - y +z)k.
Sol: xy - plane is z = 0,
:. F = (x + y)i + (2x +y}j + (2x - y)k and r = xi +yj ~ dr = (dr)i + (dy}j
F. dr = (x + y)dx + (2x + y)dy.
y
The equation of the circle is x = 2cosS, Y = 2sinS
:. dx = - 2sinS dS, dy = 2cosS dS
S varies from 0 to 2n
2lt
= J(2COSS + 2sin sX- 2sinS)de + (2.2cosS + 2sin SX2cosS)dS
o
2lt 2lt
-~ J{- 2sin2S -4sin S + Scos S + 2sin 2S}ie = J{scos S - 4sin S ~S
2 2 2 2
o 0
2lt 2lt
= n4(1 + cos2S)- 2(1- cos2S)}iS = J(2 + cos2S)dS = [2S + 3sin 2S~lt
o 0
= 4n
Ex.7.S.1S Show that the necessary and sufficient condition for a vector field V to be
conservative is curl V = 0
Sol: a) Necessary condition: If V is conservative, :3 a 'cp' 3 V = V cpo
curl V= curl (V cp) = 0 (see 7.5.2 (1))
b) Sufficient condition: Let V = V I i + V'li + V 3k
i j k
Curl V = V x V = 0 ~ 8/ Ox 8/ By 8/ 8z = 0
~ I(8VBy 8V8z )i = 0
3 _ 2
.... (1)
Vector Differentiation 521
The work done by the force field V in moving a particle from (x\,y\,z\) to (x,y,z)
is IV.dr
c
.z
= V2 (X,y,ZI)+ V2(X,y,Z~ = V2(X,y,ZI)- V2 (x,y,z)- V2(X,y,ZI)
.... (4)
from (1)
y z
= V\(x,y\,z\) + V;(X,y,ZI~ + V;(x,y,z~
Yl Zl
=> V = V~
Hence the proof.
522 Engineering Mathematics - I
Ex. 7.6.16a) Show that F = yi + (2xy +z2)j +2yzk is a conservative force field.
b) Find its scalar potential.
c) Find the work done in moving an object in this field from (1,2,1) to (3, 1,4)
j k
a) V x F= Max a/fJy a/az
Sol:
i 2xy+Z2 2yz
= i(2z - 2z) + j(O - 0) + k(2y -2y) = 0
:. F is a conservative force field.
b) Let 'cjl' be the scalar potential of F.
1st method:
2
:. acjl
ax = y2 .... (1) :=2Xy +z .... (2) acjl_2 z
az - y .... (3)
Integrating (1) w.r.t x, (2) w.r.t. y, & (3) w.r.t. z, respectively, we get,
cjl = xY + j(y,z), cjl = xY +yz2 + g(z,x), and cjl = yz2 + h(x,y).
These equations will be consistent iff, g, h are taken as
j(y,z) = yz2, g(z,x) = 0, h(x,y) = xy.
Hence cjl = xy + yz2 + constant
2nd Method: Since F is conservative, JF.dr is independent of path joining
c
(Xl,yl,zl) to (x,y,z)
using method of problem 7.6.15(b),
x Y Z
2
= xYI - XlYI + xy +z 12y - ry I - ZI 2y I + yz2 - yz I
= xy2 + yr - x1yl2 - Zl2Yl = xy2 + yz2 + constant.
(3,1,4)
'=:-:::----i----"'I\( 1,0)
== ~(P2) - ~(PI) = xy + xz2 I
(1,2,1)
Ex. 7.6.17 Evaluate f(x 3dy + y 2dx) where c is the boundary of the triangle whose vertices
c
I == II +12 +1 3, where II == f, 12 == f, 1 f
OA AH
3=
HO
dr=dx i+dyj+dz k
2 2
dr =(dt)i + (2tdl )j + (3/ dl )k =(i + 2tj + 3/ k )dl
1 1 1 1
Jfdr
c
= Jill
1=0
(i + 2tj + 3/ 2k )dl =i Jill + dl+ j J2/
0 0
12
dl+ k J3/ 13 dl
0
./12 I 2/ 1 3/ 14 I 1. 2. 3
13
=1- J+l-J+k- J=-I+-l+- k
12 0 13 0 14 0 12 13 14
Ex. 7.6.18: If A = 3zi - 2xj + yk , and c is the curve given by
x = cos I, Y = sin 1 , Z = 2cos I,
evaluate JA x dr from I =0to I = 2
c
1t .
i j k
Sol: A x dr = 3z - 2x y
dx dy dz
= (-2x dz- y dY)i+(y dx-3z dZ)j +(3z dy+2x dx)k
x = cos I, Y =sin I, z = 2 cos I
~ dx = (-sin/)dl,dy = (cos I) dl, dz = (-2sin/)dl
:. (1) ~ Ax dr = i[(-2cos/)(-2sin/) - sinl . cost]dt +j[(sin/)(-sint) - 3(2cost)
(-2sin/)]dl + k[3(2cos/)( cost) + (2cos/)(-sin/)]d/.
=i(3sint cost) dt + j[(12 sinl COS/) - sin2/)] dl + k(6cos2/- 2sint cost) d/.
1C/23 ft/2[ 1
J J
!
Axdr=i J-sin2Idt+ j
.. c o 2 0
6sin2t--(1-cos2/) dl
2
1C12
+ k ~3(1 + cos2/)-sin 2/}it
o
= {
3
-4 )(-1-1)+ j[-3(-1-1)- : + 0]+k[3; +O+~(-l- ])]
Exercise - 7(e)
4
2/
[Ans:(a) ( ~-I
3
12
2
i+ 3t j + ( 2t-
t2
\06 l
2 k,(b) 3i+18j-2k]
11/2
2) Evaluate: J(6sillu)i -(3cosu)j +uk
o
2
1t
[Ans: 6i-3j+-k]
8
2 2
3) If A(s) = si - s2j + (s + l)k, B(s) = 2si + 6sk find (a) JA.Bds, (b) JA x Bds .
o 0
100
[Ans: (a) 3' (b) - 48i - 12j + 16k]
I
5. 37. 8 k
[Ans' (a) -- (b)
+-} +- ] --I
. 2 6 3' 3
5) The acceleration of a particle a at any time t ~ 0 is given by a = eli + (2cos2t)j +
(2sin2t)k If the velocity V and displacement r are both zero at t = 0, find V and r at
any time t.
[Ans: V = (el - I)i + (sin2t)j + (1 - cos2t)k,
Exercise 7(f)
I. I k
[Ans: JI i +4J+ 7 1
2. If F = xi - yzj + z2k, and c is the curve given by x = t, Y = t3, z = t 2, evaluate
(i) IF.dl" and (ii) fF.dr, from t = 0 to t = I.
e C
.) 5. 7. 1\ k .. 23]
[A ns: ( I -71-I5J +1"2 ,(II) 24
figure below.
y
x
Vector Differentiation 527
6. If A = (3x + 2y)i + (x + y)j, and c is the boundary of the tringle whose vertices are
3
[Ans: 2" J
7. If A = (2x + y)i + (3x - 2y)j, compute the circulation of A about the circle C:
xl + 1=4, traversed in the positive direction.
[Ans: 81t]
8. Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field.
F = 2x2i + (2yz - x)j + yk, along (a) the straight line from (0,0,0) to (3, I ,2)
(b) the space curve x = 3t2, Y = t, z = 3t2 - t from t = 0 to t = I
113 58
[Ans: (a) 6' (b) 3]
9. (a) Prove that V = (2x siny - 3)i + (x 2 cosy + z2)j + 2(yz + I)k is a conservative
force field. (b) Find the scalar potential ofY. (c) Find the work done in moving an
10. If A = (9xly - 2xz3 )i + 3x3j - 3x2z2k, (a) prove that fA.dr is independent of the
c
curve 'c' joining two given points. (b) show that there is a differentiable function <jl
such that A = \l<jl and find it.
..... (3)
(2) The notation If is also used to denote a surface integral over the closed
surface s.
(3) Sometimes the notation f may also be used for surface integrals.
(4) Surface integrals can be conveniently evaluated by expressing them as double
integrals over the projected area of s on one of the coordinate planes
{see 7.7.3)
Vector Differentiation 529
/
.,J------...... y
The area S is divided into 'L' elements of area Mill' m = 1,2, .... L,
let P'II = (xm'YIII,zm) be any point in &\)111. Let A(xm,Ym,zl/.)= AHI
Let nlll be the positive unit normal to I'1S111 at Pm. Then (Am.nm) is the normal
component of Am at Pm. Consider the sum,
/,
I
1/1=1
Am.nIllMm ..... (I)
The limit of the sum (l)as L ~oo such thatthe largestdimens~on of each I'1S", ~ 0
(if the limit exists) is known as the surface integral of the normal component of A
I
111=1
Am .nmMIII ..... (1)
530 Engineering Mathematics - I
;---~----~~~--.Y
The projection of ASmon thexy- plane is InmA.S'II/.kl (or) Illm.kIMi'm which is equal
dxdy
IfA.n In.kl
R which is the required result.
Note: Similarly ifR is the projection ofS on yz and zx planes respectively, it can be seen as
to fA.nds and it is known as the total flux of A through the entire surface S.
s
A can be a vector denoting physical quantities such as electric force, magnetic
A
n....---...---~C"
force, flux of heat or gravitational force etc. In all these cases, fA.nds
s
denotes
Sioved Examples
Ex.7.7.5 Evaluate fJA.nd\" where A = {x + y2} - 2xj + 2yzk and S is the surface of the
plane 2x + y + 2z = 6 in the first octant.
Sol: A = (x + y)i - 2.>.] + 2yzk
Let ~ = 2x + Y + 2z - 6 z
2i+ j + 2k
3
x
532 Engineering Mathematics - I
= .!(12y-4xy)
3
If R be the projection of S on the xy - plane.
2 dxdy 3
In.kl = -3 => ds = -l/l.kl- = -dxdy
2
J J(6y-2xy)1ydx
x=O y=O
3 3 3
TI3i _xy2 r:~x dx =
2 3
= J(3 -xX6- 2xY dx = J(J08-108x+36x -4x }Ix
Ex.7.7.6 If F = 4xzi - yJ + yzk, evaluate IfF.nds where S is the surface of the cube
s
bounded by x = O~ x = I, Y = 0, Y = 1, z = 0 and z = 1.
Vector Differentiation 533
Sol. The surface S can be divided into 6 faces (see figu --, z
o
(i) S\: Face EPFA
(ii) S2: Face OBOC E f---+----(
(iii) S3: Face PFBO
y
(iv) S4: Face OCEA
(v) Ss: Face POCE
x
(vi) S6: Face OBFA
On S2: n = - i, x = 0
1 1 1 1
On S3: n = j, y =I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
OnS 4 :n=-j,y=O
1 1 1 1
On Ss: n = k, z = 1
1 1 1 1 1 21
:. HF.n.ds=J J(4Xi-/j+yk}kdxdy=
8S 0 0
J Jydxdy= J~ I
0 0 0 0
On S6: n = - k, Z =0
1 1
HF.n.ds
.'16
=
0
J J{- y2 j }(- k )dxdy =
0
0
. JJF.n.ds =2 + 0 - 1 + 0 + ~ + 0 = ~
.. 2 2
s
534 Engineering Mathematics - I
f d~- ~~'
,. 5 R Q
,....
x
r=-----'JL..-- y
4 '<.
- ' z=Q
n
Z
2X+X 2 y
A.n = ------'--
4
. y
n.J= "4
:. From (I) J JA.nds
S
= J V2X+X2y dxdz
R 4 y/4
[.: J x
o ~16 _x 2
dx=4,
3
= 4z + 64zf = 820
3 3 0 3
Vector Differentiation 535
Ex.7.7.8 Evaluate I I<I>nd~ where S is the surface of problem 7.7.7 above and <I> = x~z
s
dxdz
Sol: We have Ifs <l>nds = If<l>n-
I
II
1
n.)
xi+ yj y
using n = - 4 - ' n.j = "4' the integral on R.H.S. becomes,
R
-
1
80
64 Z.
-l+-}
3
64Z.
3 f Z
I 64(z2.
-.- -1+-)
Z2 .]1
5
8 25(.
=-.--;;-1+) =-1+.1
.) 100(. .)
83 2 2 0 3 ~ 3
I--~-+--Y
j k
CurlA= a/ax a/fJy a/az
y x-2xz -xy
536 Engineering Mathematics - I
xi+ yj+zk
2
x 2y2 _2z2
(Curl A). n = 2
2
2 4x ( 2 )
3 x + y2 - 8dxd
f f I 2 2
x=-2Y=_~4_x2 ,,4-x y
OJ
de= f(8-8}ie=o
8=0
Vector Differentiation 537
Ex.7.7.10 Evaluate J JA.nds where A = yzi + zx} + xyk and S is the part of the sphere
s
x 2 + y2 + z2 = 9 which lies in the first octant.
. V x 2 + y2 + Z2
Sol: Untt normal n to S = IV x 2
+ y +z-
' ,
z
A.n = 3xyz; nk=
. -3
If R is the projection of S on xy - plane, we have,
= 9 fo ~4)31 cos9sin9d9=9.-811[/2fcos9sined9
1[/2(
4 0 4 0
(
1[/2
': !cos9Sin9d9=2"
I)
Exercise - 7(g)
I. If F = 18zi - 12x} + 3yk, evaluate J f F.nds where S is that part of the plane
s
2x + 3y + 6z = 12 which is located in the first octant
dxdy
(Hint: Take projection ofS on the xy plane and ds = -1-1
n.k
)
[Ans: 24]
538 Engineering Mathematics - I
4. Evaluate f fF.d~ over the entire surface ~fthe region above the xy plane bounded
s
by the cone :l- = x2 + Y and the plane z = 4, if F = 4xzi + xyzj + 3zk
[Ans: 3201t]
5. IfS is the surface of the parabolic cylinder y = 8x in the first octant bounded by the
[Hint: f f F .nds = f fF.n dIY~IZ , where R is the projection ofS on the yz plane]
S R nJ
[Ans: 132]
6. Evaluate f fV.nds over the entire surface S of region bounded by the cylinder
S
3
[Ans: "8]
Vector Differentiation 539
9. Evaluate JJ{(x 3
- yz2)i _(2x2y)j + 2k}.ds over a cube with edges of length 'r'
s
parallel to the coordinate axes
I
[Ans: 2"]
10. If V = xi + yj + zk, and S is the 'triangle with vertices at (1,0,0), (0, 1,0) and (0,0, I),
I
[Ans: 2"]
II. If A = xi - yj + (z2 - I )k, find the value of I IA.nds, where S is the closed surface
s
bounded by the planes z = 0, z = I and the cylinder x 2 + y=I
[Ans: 1t]
7.8 VOLUME INTEGRALS
7.8.1 Consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V. Then, integrals of the
V = LA~JL1v,
,;1
The limit of this sum as n ~oo such that L1V, ~ 0, is called the volume integral of
so that dv = dx dy dz
k f f f A3(X,y,z}lxdydz
f)
Solved Examples
Ex.7.8.3 If F = (2x 2 - 3z)i - 2xyj - 4xk, evaluate f f fV.Fdv where V IS the closed
v
region bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and 2x +2y + z = 4.
64 8
=16--+8=-
3 3
v
where A = 4xi - 2yj + z2k.
a(4x ) --(2y
V.A=- a 2 a 2 )=4-4y+2z
)+-(z
Sol: ax ry az
x=2 y=J4-x 2 3
.. fff(v.A}!v= fff(4-4y+2z}lv=
v v x=-2 y=-v4-x~
f
f [J(4-4y+2z)dzf/ytlx
12 z=O
Vector Differentiation 541
2 )'~f4-x2
dydx==
x~-2
J[ JC 2l - 12 y)dy]dx
;--- ?
y=-Y4-r-
x r.-? x 2 n
==84[--v4-x 2 +2sin- ' C-)] ==84[O+2C-)-O]==84n
220 2
Ex.7.8.5 Evaluate JJJ<I0v taken over the rectangular parallelopiped 0 s:; x < a, 0 s:; y < b,
J'
a b a a
== J2exy+ cy2 +e 2YI dx == JC2bex+eb2 +e 2b)dx==bex2 +(b 2e+be 2)xl
x=O 0 x=o 0
== a 2 be + (J(b 2 e + be 2) == abe {a +b + e)
Ex. 7.8.6 If ~ == 4y + 2xz, evaluate JJJ~dv over the region in the first octant bounded by
J'
x2 +1 = 9, z = 0, z = 2.
Sol: JJJ~dv== JvJJ{4y+2xz}lv
I'
J.=3y=J9-x 2 z=2 ~2 3 ?
J J [J(2xz+4y}lz]dydx== J2
JC4yz+xz )f dydx
x=O y=o ==0 0 0 0
3 ~x2 3 ~2
= J[ J(8y + 4xX/y]dx = JC4y2 +4xy)1 dx
o 0 0 0
3
= J[4(9-x2)+4x~9-x2]dx==108
o
542 Engineering Mathematics - I
Ex.7.8.7 Evaluate f f fFdv where F = xzi - 2xj + 2y.k and V is the region bounded by
v
the surfaces x = 0, y = 0, y = 6, z =.x2, and z = 4
Sol:
z Q s
\:
y=
.Q...~
z=x
2
z=4 ,I ~y =6
\ '\
L _________ J// y
-i <
The region V is covered by (see the figure) (a) keeping x andy fixed and integrating
from z = .x2 to z = 4 (base top of column PQ) (b) then by keeping x fixed and
integrating from y = 0 to y = 6 (R to S in the slab) and (c) finally integrating from x
= to x = 2 (where z =.x2 meets z = 4).
:. The required integral is
2 6 4
f f[ f(xzi-2xj+2y 2k)dz}1ydx
x=Oy=O z=x2
26 24 26 4 26 4
= i f f x; J dydx+ j f f- 2xz J dydx+k f f2 y 2 z J dydx
x=O y=O z=x2 x=O y=O z=x2 x=O y=O z=x2
Vector Differentiation 543
26 5 26 26
=i J[ J(8X-~)dy}lx+j J[ J(2x 3
-8x)dy]dx+k J[ J(8i- 2x2 y)dy]dx
x=() y=O x=o y=O ~=o y~o
X5 2 8 y3 2X2 3
= i
2
J8xy-~
2
6
I dx+ j J2x'y-8xyl
)'~()
6
)'~O
dx+k J-'--_Y-
3 3
6
I
y=O
Ix
x=o x=()
2 2 2
=i J( 48x - 3x 5
)dx + j J(l2x 3 - 48x)dx + k J(576 - 144x2 )dx
o 0 0
1 2 2 2
= i(24x 2 -:;- x 6 ) I + j(3X4 - 24x2) I + k(576x - 48x 3 ) I
~ x=o ~=O x=o
and x2 +z2 = b2 .
Sol:
z 2 2 2
x +z ::: b
/
/ I /'"
",
I I-
II
V - 2 2
_''x +y ::: b
2
V
~o y
Required volume is equal to 8 times the volume of the region shown in the figure
(as the axes cut the volume into 8 equal parts one in each octant)
544 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise - 7(h)
o~ x ~ 1, 0~y ~ 2,
o~ z ~ 3 , where A = (X2 - yz) i + (i - zx) j + ( Z2 - xY) k [ADS:3 6 1
6. Evaluate Iff(Div F)dv for the volume of a cube with edges of length unity
parallel to the coordinate axes where F = (x 3 - yz2 ) i - ( 2X2Y ) j + 2k
[ADS: 1/3)
Vector Differentiation 545
........ ;
>-----------~-------------y
"
x
The surfaces vI = ci' v2 = c 2 ' v3 = c 3. (cl'c2, c 3 beIng constants) are called
'coordinate surfaces'. (see figure).
Each pair of the above surfaces intersect in curves called 'coordinate curves or
lines'. i.e., vI = c I and v 2 = c2 intersect in v3 curve, v 2 = c2' v3 = c 3' vI = c I in v 2
curve.
546 Engineering Mathematics - I
If the coordinate surfaces taken in pairs intersect at right angles the coordinate
system is called 'an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system'.
Note: The coordinate surfaces described above are similiarto the coordinate planes of the
rectangular system and the coordinate curves are similar to the coordinate axes.
Infact, the rectangular coordinate system is also an example of curvilinear system
with VI = x, v2 = y, v3 = z; c I = c2 = c 3 = 0
7.9.3 Unit vectors of a curvilinear system
Consider the position vector r = xi + yj + zk, of a point P. using (I), it can be written
as r = r(v l ,v2,v3)
(i) A tangent vector to the VI curve at P(for which v2' v3 are constants) is ~. If e l is
av,
.
the Ul1lt tangent vector we have e I = I I'
ar/av
ar
av,
lilly if ar , ar are tangent vectors to the v2 and v3 curves at P respectively and e2,
av aV3
2
where
The unit vectors e I' e2 , e3 are in the directions of increasing v\' v2' v3 respectively.
The quantities A\, A2 , A3 are called 'scale factors'.
(ii) 'Vv, ' is a vector at P normal to the surface VI = c 1. If EI is a unit vector in this
direction,
VV 2 Vv
lilly the unit vectors, E2 = IVv 1' E3 = IVv: I at P are respectively normal the surfaces
2
v2 = c 2' and v3 = cy
Vector Differentiation 547
V3 curve
Thus, in general, at a given point P there exist two sets of unit vectors,
(i) el' e2, e 3 tangential to the coordinate curves and
(ii) E], E2, E3 are normal to the coordinate surfaces (see figure)
7.9.4 Representations of a vector
(a) A vector A can be represented in terms of the unit base vectors e], e2 , e3 or
EI' E2, E3 in the following forms:
(i) A = ale] + a 2e2 +a3e3
(or) (ii) A = A]E] + A2E2 + A3E3'
Here a\, a2 , a3 or AI' A 2, A3 are the components of A in the two systems
. 8r 8r 8r
respectively (b) The vectors - , - , - and Vv" Vv J , Vv3 , are called
av, av2 av3 -
'Unitary base vectors (need not be unit vectors in general). We can also represent
A in one of the following forms; as
Here
CI' c2' c3 are called the 'contravariant components of A and CI' C 2, C 3 are
called the 'Covariant components of A
548 Engineering Mathematics - I
:. dr= ~dvJ + ar dV 2 + ar dV3 =AJ(dvJe J+A 2 (dv 2 )e2 +A 3(dv 3)e3 ..... (3)
8v J aV2 aV3
Since ds 2 = dr. dr, the differential ds of arc length is given by,
Since v2 ' v3 are constants along VI curve and vI' v3 are constants along v2
curve, we have, from (3),
..... (4)
The area of the parallelogram formed with the vectors of( 4) as adjacent sides is
the area element or surface element 'ds 3 ' on the surface v3 = c3 (see fig) and it
is given by
V2 curve
ds 3 = Idv i x dv21 = IAIA2dvldv2e31 = AIA2dv ldv2
Oily ds I = A2A3dv2dv3
dS 2 = A3Aldv3dvi
are surface elements on surfaces
VI = c i and v2 = c2 respectively.
(iii) The volume element 'dv' for an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system is
equal to the volume of the parallelopiped whose coterminous edges are dv I' dv 2 ,
dv 3
Proof: Let V'~ = gle l + g2e2 +g3e3' where gl' g2' g3 are to be determined
ar
dr= -dvI +-dv2 +-dv3
ar ar
c7v1 c7v 2 c7v3
= (A1el)dv 1 + (A 2e2)dv2 + (A 3e3)dv3
d~ = V'~.dr,
V~=~ a~ +!2~ +~ a~
Al c7v1 A2 c7v2 A3 c7v3
550 Engineering Mathematics - I
Hence
lilly I V I= -:;:
n
v 2
e
= ~ IVV3 I= -:;:
2
2
-] e
1\,2, = ~-]
3
3
1\,3 , which proves (a)
y,
7.9.S. (3) Prove that, in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates,
V.(A,eJ=
1 a (A,AzA3) and hence show that,
A]A2A3 Ov]
= V(A,A2A3).~
A2 A3
+ A'A2A3{V.~}
A2 A3
..... (D)
(Using (C))
Now,
Vector Differentiation 551
= _I ~(_I_)+O+O
AI Ovl A2 A3
=0
=
1 a (AIA2 A3)
..... (E)
AIA2A3 Ovl
(Operating V)
e
.: VVI = -.L, we have,.
AI
V x (Ale l )= V x (A,A,Vv,)
=V(A,AI)xVv, +(A,A,)(VxVv,)
= [!l~(AIAI)+
AI oV
e ~(AIAJ+!2.~(AIAJlx!l
z
A Ov 1..,3 oV AI
I z 2 3
(substituting for V)
..... (i)
lilly, it can be shown that
V x (A 2 e2)= ~~(A2AJ--e'-~(A2AJ ..... (ii)
1..,11..,2 Ov l AzA3 OV3
and
= _e_1
{~(A3A3)-~(A2AJ1+~{~(A'AJ-~(A3A3)1
A2 A3 oV2 Ov3 f 1..,31..,1 Ov3 Ovl f
(Adding R.H.S. of (i), (ii) and (iii))
Ex. 7.9.6. (5) Derive an expression for V2~ in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
A=_I~
I AI Ov I '
Note: In the expressions for V , grad~, Div A, curl A, and V2~ derived in 7.9.6(1) to
x
554 Engineering Mathematics - I
x = r sin ecos~,}
y = rsinesin~
..... (i)
z =rcose
A =
] 8r
18rl=~(sinecos~)2+(sinesin~?+(cose?
=1
8r = 8r =(rcosecos~)i+(rcosesin~)j-(rsine)k
Ov2 as
=r
Vector Differentiation 555
A =
3
lorl=~(-"sinOsin<l2
0<1>
+ (rsinOcos<l2
= r sinO
: .. The scale factors of spherical coordinate system are
A( = I, A2 = r, A3 = r sinO.
7.9.7(4) Base vectors: The base vectors e (' e 2, e 3 are taken for the sake of convenience
as er , eo' etjl respectively. They are,
= (cosOcos<li+(cosOsin<jj-(sinO)k
and
= I.r.{rsin e)dr.d9.dcj>
where
8r I= -J cos 8 2 + sm
AI = 8p
82 = I
I
-8r= -8r= (-psm8
. ) i+ (pcos8 ) j
8v2 as
A2 =1:1=~(-psin8)2 + (pcos8)2 =p
8r = 8r = k; A1 = I8r I= 1
8v) 8z 8z
p = cl' which are cylinders coaxal with z-axis (or z-axis itself if c 1 = 0)
8 = c2' which are planes through z-axis
eo =_1 8r =~[(-psine)i+(pcose)j]
1<.2 as p
= (-sin8)i+(cose))
558 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 8r
e =--=k
~ A3 8z '
(i)
ds p' ds s' ds z represent the area elements on the surfaces p = c l ' 8 = c2 ' and z = c 3
respectively.
(iii) Volume element 'dv':
= l.p.dp.dedz = pdp.de.dz.
18/ 18/
Grad f= V j=---e l + - - e2 +---e3
18/
(from 7.9.6(1))
AI av l A2 av 2 A3 av
3
Vector Differentiation 559
a) spherical coordinates:
Al = 1, A2 = r, A3 = rsin 0
el =C r =(sin8cos~)i+(sin8sin~)j+(cos8)k
e2 = Co = (cos8cos~)i + (cos8sin ~)j ~(sin 8)k
e, =e<l> =(~sin~)i+(cos~)j
v f= of e +! Wc +_I_ofe
or r as r 0 rsine as <I>
b) cylindrical coordinates:
Al = 1, A2 = p, A) = 1
el =ep =(cose)i+(sine)j
e2 =eo =(~sine)i+(cose)j
Div A= 1
AIA2 A3 8v1
[~(AIA2A3)+~(A2A3AI)+~(A3AIA2)l(from
8v 8v
7.9.6(3
2 3
:. Div A = 2 1.
r sll1e or
[~~2 sin eA )+ ~(rsineA2)+
I
as
~(rA3)l
o~ J
(b) In cylindrical coordinates
Al =1, A2 =p,A 3 =1, VI =p,v 2 =e, V3 =Z
:. Div A = - 1[0-(pAI)+-(A2)+-(pAJ
p op
0 0 J
as oz
560 Engineering Mathematics - I
[from 7.9.6(5)]
a) In spherical coordinates:
Ai =1, 1.,2 =r, 1.,3 =rsiIl9, Vi =r, v2 =9, v)<l>
1 [ -a ( r2sm9-
a ) +-
a (.sm9- j
a ( -1- aj
V2j = . OJ ) +- - )]
r2 sin 9 ar ar 09 09 a<l> sin 9 O<J>
..
V2j = ![~(p
pap
Of)+~(!
op
Of)+~(p
OOpOO OZ
Of)]
GZ
(from 7.9.6(4
a) In spherical coordinates:
Ai =1, 1.,2 =r, A) =r~';n9, VI =r, v 2 =9, v) =<j>
Vector Differentiation 561
er rea {rsin8}eq,
1
ajar ajae aj~
.. curl A = r2 sin 8
AI rA2 (r sin 8 )A3
b) In cylindrical coordinates:
AI =1, A2 = p, A3 = 1, VI =P, v2 = 8, V3 = Z
7.9.9(5) Jacobian:
(i) Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates:
Let x = x{V"V 2 ,V3); Y = Y{V"V 2 ,V3); Z = z{V"V 2 ,V3) represent an orthogonal
curvilinear coordinate system
since r = xi +yj + zk
. =.,(x,y,z)
Jacobian --
r,O,<\>
eosO sinO 0
-psinO peosO 0 = p
o 0
The summary of important results of this chapter is given in a table in the next
page for the convenience of the student.
Cartesian Spherical Cylindrical
Coordinates Coordinates Coordinates
(x, y, z) (r, 0, ) (p ,0, z)
3) Base vectors i, j, k e,= (sinO coS)i + (sinO sin)j + (cosO)k ep = (cosO)i + (sinO)j
ee= (cosO coS)i + (cosO sin)j-(sinO)k ee= HinO)i + (cosO)j
e~= (-sin)i + (coS)j ez=k
8(x, y, z) 8(x, y, z) _ 2 Ll
4) Jacobian (J) a(r. 0, ) - r smu
a(x,y, z)
5) (Arc Length)2 (ds)2 =(dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 (dS)2 =(dr)2 + r2(d~)2 + r1 sin 2O(d)2
6) Area elements ds, =dy dz ds , = r2 sinO dO d dsp =pdO d- ~
8) Grauf
a~ a~
~ O[ ~
()A I
9) Div A -+-+- Div A = (r2sinO AI)
Ox ay clZ ....2
rsm (Jr
Solved examples
Ex. 7.9.10 Obtain the equations of transformation from cylindrical to cartesian coordinates.
Sol: Equations of transformation from cartesian to cylindrical coordinates are
x=pcos8 ..... (1), y=psin8 ..... (2) z=z ..... (3)
from (I) and (2), we get, p2 = x 2 + y2
~p=~X2 + y2 ,p> 0
y
from (I) and (2), we also get - = tan 8
x
~8=tan-l(~)
:. The required equations are
j = (sin8)ep + (cosS)eo
Then A = 2[(cosS)ep -(sin8)eo~-[(sinS)ep +(cos8~o}y+z2e~.
A = (2xcosS - ysinS)ep -[2xsin8+ ycosSh + z2e~
Aliter: Since cylindrical coordinates form an orthogonal coordinate system, we can write A
as A = a,ep + a2ee + a3ez ... (I) whereat'~, a 3 are to be determined.
From (1) we find,
A.ep =a" A.eo =a2 ; A.ez =a3 ..... (2)
For cylindrical coordinates, we have,
x=pcos8, y=psin8, Z=Z
given A becomes,
A= (2pcos8)i-(psin8)j+z 2 k ..... (3)
ep = (cos8)i+(sin8)j }
Also, eo = (-sin8)i+ (cos8)j ..... (4)
ez =k
using (3) and (4) in (2), we get
a, = 2pcos 2 8 - psin 2 8;
a 2 =-2psin8cos8-psin8cos8=-3psin8cos8; a 3 =Z2
A = a,ep + a2 ee + a3 ez
= (2 cos 28 - sin 2 8) pep - (3p sin8 cos8) eo + z2 ez
Ex. 7.9.12 Represent the vector A = xyi - zj + xzk in the spherical coordinate system.
Sol: Since the base vectors er, eo' ecj> are mutually orthogonal, we can write
A = a,er + a2 eO + a3eq, ..... (J)
where aI' a 2, a 3 are to be found.
From (I) we get, A.er =a,. A.ee =a2 A.eq, =a3 (2)
For spherical coordinates, we have,
x = r sin8 cos<j>, y = r sin8 sin<j>, z = r cos8 ..... (3)
2 2 2
A = {r sin 8sin <j> cos <ji - {rcos8)j + {r sin 8cos8cos<jk ..... (4)
Also we have,
er = {sin 8cos<ji + {sin 8sin <jj + {cos 8 )k
ee ={cos8cos<ji + (cos 8cos 4> )j - {sin 8)k
eq, = (-sin4i+ {cosiJj ..... (5)
Using (4) and (5) in (2), we get,
a, = 1'2 sin 3 8sin 4>cos 2 4> - rsin 8cos8sin<j> + 1'2 sin 8cos 2 8cos4> .
a2 = r2 sin 2 8cos8sin <j>cos 2 <j> - rcos 2 8sin cp - r2 sin 2 8cos8coscp
a3 = _1'2 sin 2 8sin 2 cpcos<j> - r cos 8 cos cp
Vector Differentiation 567
Hence
A = aler + a 2ee + 01 eq,
= {r 2
sin} 8sin $cos 1 $ - rsin 8cos8sin $ + r2 sin Ocos 2 8cosc/>k
+ {r 2 sin 2 8cos8sin $cos 2 $ - rcos 2 8sin $ - r2 sin 2 8cos8cos$ ~o
1 2 2
+ (-r sin 8sin $cos$-rcos8cos$h
Ex. 7.9.13 Prove the following:
" cos8cos$8"} i + {
er ={sin 8(- sin$)$+ " sinOcosc/>.$"} j - (sin8)8k
cos8.sin$.8+ "
o 0
= e{(-sinS)i + (cosS)j}
dr dp de dz
. V = -=-e +P-P +-e [
.: dez =~(k)=O]
.. dt dt p dt dt Z dt dt
o
= pep (0) 0
+p Sea +zez (from Ex. 7.9.14)
Vector Differentiation 569 .
dV d. . . .... .. .. ....
a = dt = dt [pep + pOeo + zeJ = pep + pep + pOeo + pOeo + pOeo + ze z
(since ez = 0)
= pBen + pep + pBeo + pBeo + pB(-Bep ) + ze z ' (using results of (ex 7.9.14
Ex. 7.9.16 If t = xyz, find 'gradf' in (a) Cylindrical coordinates (b) Spherical
coordinates
Solution:
In cylindrical coordinates (p,O,z), we have, x = pcosO,y = psinO,z = Z
and ..... ( I)
2
f = xyz = p2 Z sin 0 cos 0 = p Z sin 20
2
:. af ='csin2tjJ{-sin 3 0+cos02sinOcosO}
ao 2
579 Engineering Mathematics - I
aj =rJsin20cosO.cos2~
o~
:. from (2)
)
+ (r2 sinOcosOcos2~~~.
E.7.9.17 Itf= pzcosO (in cylindrical coordinates) find Vf.
Sol: f= pz cosO.
aj I aj of
Hence Vf = op ep +p ae eo + oz ez
= (zcosO)ep -(zsinO)eo + (pcosO}ez
Ex.7.9.18 Iff= ,.'2 sin2Gsin+ in spherical coordinates, find Vf.
Sol: aj = 2rsin20sin4>
or
-8f = 2r2 cos 20sin 4>
ae
aj =r2 sin20cos~
o~
8j Jo/ 1 Of
.. ~l = or e,. +-; ae ce + rsinO o~ e.p
= (2rsin20sinq,)e,. +(2rcos20sin~)eij + (2rcosOcos4e.p
Ex. 7.9.19 Show that the vectorfieldA = z{(sin O)ep + (cosoh }-(pcosO}ez, in cylindrical
polar coord inates is solenoidal.
Sol: IfA= Aiel' +A2 co +AJe z then, AI =zsinO; A2 =zcosO; A3 =-pcosO
Vector Differentiation 571
1 I I )
Ex.7.9.20 IfA= ( r-cosOer +-eo +-.-Oe+ ,in spherical coordinates, find Div A.
r rS1l1
I I
Sol: Here A =r 2 cosO, A2 =-, A3 = - . -
I r rS1l10
= 1.I
,.- S1l1 0
3
[4r
-sin20+cosO+O
2
1
cotO
= 4rcosO+-2-
r
2
Qf = 2 pz 2 cos2 0 . - j = 2 z 2 cos 20 .
a - at ')
-
ap , ap2 , as = -2p- Z 2 si1120'
_'J
572 Engineering Mathematics - I
~ = 2sin 29
2
Sol: Of = 2rsin29. a
or ' ar~
Of
-=-sin2+
a2f
-=-2cos2~
2
0+ ' 0+
a 2 f 20f 1 a 2f cot90f a 2f
yo2f - --+--+---+----+-::---::--
2
.. - ar2 r ar r2 00 ,.2 a9 r2 sin 9 a~2
2
+ [CO/9x2r2cos29+
r2 r
2 ~
sm~9
? X{-2COS2P)]
reo e, {rsinO)eq,
1
CurlA= ~.
r-smO
alar a/ae a/a~
Al rA2 (rsinO}A3
Here, AI =r sinO, A2
2
=~cosO, A =-
r 3 r2
e, {rsin O)eq,
\
:. Curl A = 2 ajar a/ae a/a$
r sin 0 r2 sin 0 cosO (I/r}sine
= 7
r- smO r
1. [~coso.e, +-;-sinO.re
r e _r2 coso.rsinoeq,]
= 2.
1 [\-cosO.e, +--ee
sin 0 -r 3 smO.cosOeq,
]
r smO r r
cotO I
= -3-e, +]ee -rcosOeq,
r r
ep pea ez
\
we have, Curl A = - a/ Bp alae a/az
p AI A2 A3
574 Engineering Mathematics - I
e peo ez
I P
:. Curl A = - a/ap a/ae a/az
p zcose -pzsinO 0
a a .}e + {-(zcose)--(o)
= -I [{ -(o)--(-pzsme) a a}
poO az Paz ap pee
= (sinO)ep + (cose)eo
Ex.7.9.25 Show that the vectorfieldA= (pzsin2e)ep + (pz cos 2e)ee +(~p2sin2e)e= is
irrotational.
ep peo ez
a/ap alae a/az
p pzsin2e p2zcos2e ~p2sin2e
2
Vector Differentiation 575
:. A is irrotational.
Ex.7.9.26 Show that div (curl A) = 0, where A is a vector function, in orthogonal curvilinear
coord inates.
Sol: Let A = Aiel + A2e 2 + Aj e3
Then
Ale] A 3 e3
%v2 Ojov)
A2A2 A)A,
. . '"
Dlv j = ~ A A A
I [~(
Ov VA A ) I
I 2 3
I 2 3 I
=0
576 Engineering Mathematics -
Exercise - 7(i)
l. Show that the spherical coordinate system is an orthogonal system.
2. Show that the cylindrical coordinate system is an orthogonal system.
+ (sin Scos8cos
2
~sin~ + cos 2 8sin 2 ~ - sin ScosScos~~o
+ (cosSsin~cos~-sinSsin2 ~cos~}~ 1
iii) Vf =(2rsin
2
~}r - (rsin 2S)eo -(~cosecscos2 ~sin~ )e~1
8. Find the divergence ofth fol/owing vector functions.
i) A = (cosS + sinS) ep + (cosS - sinS)e o + ez
.. 4 . 0 1 cos 20
IAns: (i) 0 (II) rsm +2-.-- (iii) 3cosO )
r Sill 0
9. Show that the following vector fields are solenoidal.
... 1 0
(III)V = -tan
,.
-e
2
IAns:(i) (sinO-cosO)c p +(sin+cos)Cf) (ii) (,.\ cot 0 jer -(cosB)c (iii) 1~2 c)
11. If ' f' is a scalar function in orthogonal curvil inear coordinates v" v2 , V3 prove
that 'Vf' is irrotational.
a ___ .lI __ ~ _ _7
I A
I
I
I
o~----~c------------~--x
578 Engineering Mathematics - I
Let the equations of the curves DAB and DEB (see the figure) be respectively
y = fl (x) and y = f2 (x). Let R be the region bounded by the curve C. Then,
oP " [ 12(X) oP }
f f=-dxdy = f f -dy ix
II CY x=c y=fI(x) CY
h a h
j k
Again,VxF=%x o/ay %z
P Q
OQ OP)
= ( ox oy k, so that
(v x F).k = oQ _ oP
ox oy
Taking dR = dxdy, Green's theorem in the plane can be stated in the vector form as,
..... (A)
7.10.3 Physical interpretation of Green's theorem
I. Let F denote the force field acting on a particle.
Then fF .dr represents the work done in movi.g the particle around a closed
curve C.
:. From (A) it follows that the work done is determined by curl F = V x F.
2. In particular, if V x F = 0 i.e., ifF is conservative (or F = V t)
if we put P = - y, and Q = x,
.I.e., -ap =-1, aQ_ == I, au _ap =2,
ay ax ax ay
:. We get,
Solved Examples
~ ~
I 2n
=- f(acosehcos 0 + bsinea sine}le
2 0
I 2n
== - fahdO = rrah
2 0
Vector Differentiation 581
Ex. 7.10.6 Evaluate f(y - sinx}dx + (cosx}1y, a) directly and b) lIsing Green's theorem,
where c is the boundary of the triangle in xy-plane whose vertices are (0,0),
1['2 n<2
f(y - sin x}1x + {cos x }dy = f- sin xdx = cosxi =-1
OA 0 0
alongAB: d\"=O
f(y-sinx}dx+cosxdy=
/JO
1[(2:
11 ~
-situ )+;cosx}x
x
2
= -+cosx+-stnxi0 2. =(0+ 1 +0)- (1t 1t
-+0+- =1----. 2) 2
1t 1t 11/2 4 1t 4 1t
7t 2 7t 2
=-1 +0+1- - - - =- - - -
4 7t 4 7t
582 Engineering Mathematics - I
8Q = _ sin x ap = 1
ax 'ay
[ = !,f( ~sinx~ l)dr try <i[[ (~sinx~ l)dy Jd< = ~i ~ysinx~ y'l d<
2x f
= fo --smx--
7r 2x.
2(
1C
x = -- f xsmx d'(-- f xd'(
2
1C
2 7r
1C X~O
2.
1C ()
7r 2
= -2 ffdxdy = -2A,
II
= -2 x 1C x 22 = -81C
Vector Differentiation 583
7.10.8 Verity Green's theorem in the plane for the integral 1(3x 2 - 8y2 )dx + 4( 4y - 6xy)dy
(I) (2) x = 0, y = 0, x + Y= I
(I) The given region is shown in the figure below.
._~ ______ X
Alongy = fx ; x = y, dt = 2ydy
yeO II 0 5
:.1= J(3 y 4_8 y 2jdy+(4y-6x 3 )dy= J(6yS-22y3+4Y)(2Y~/y=y6_~y4+2y21=-
AO )' I
2 I 2
5 3
:. 1=-1+-=-
2 2
By Green's Theorem,
1Pdt + Qdy =
c
Ii OQ. OP)dXd
)l ox ~v Y
Here, P = 3x2 - 8y ; Q = 4y - 6xy
oQ _ oP =-6v-(-16v)=IOy
ox oy . .
584 Engineering Mathematics - I
:.I=f flOydxdy= f
I[E 1 I
flOydydx= fSy
2 J~l dx =
x2
I 4 3
fCSx-Sx )dx=-
2
R x=O y=x 2 x=O x=o
(0,1)8
x=O
o~--~~----------x
y=0 A(1,0)
AlongOA, y = 0 ::) dy = 0
I I
2 3
:. Given integral = f 3x dx = x 1= I
x=o 0
AlongAB, y = I - x ::) dy = - dx
:. Given integral
o 0
= f~X2 - 8(1- x 2 )}dx + {4(1- x) - 6x(1- x)C-dx)} = fC-Ilx 2 + 26x -12) dx '
x=1 x=1
II 3 2 0 II 8
=--x +13x -12xl =--13+12=-
3 I 3 3
AlongBO, x = 0 ::) dx = 0
y=O 0
Given integral = f 4ydy = 2y21 =-2
y=1 I
8 S
:. The given integral = 1 + "3 - 2 ="3
By green's theorem,
= 5(1-x)3i =-~(O-I)=~
3x-1 0 3 3
Hence the theorem is verified.
(2,1)
4
Ex. 7.10.9 Evaluate J(10x - 2x/ dx - 3xl.v dy along the path x4 - 6xl - 4.0 = 0
(0,0)
. 2 512
:. The tntegral = J
o
4
lOx dx - 2x 0 = 64
Aliter: Since ar = aQ, we know that {I Ox4 - 2x1)dx - 3xl.0 dy} is an exact
ay ax
differential of (2x 5 - xlI).
(2.1) (2,1) 2 3
2 5 2
The given integral = J d(2x 5 - x /)= 2x - x y3 J= 2.25 - 2.1 = 60
(0,0) (0,0)
586 Engineering Mathematics - I
X
Ex.7.10.10 VerifY Green's theorem for f(e- siny)dx + (e-X cosy) dy where C is the
c
boundary of the rectangle whose vertices are (0, 0) (n, 0) (n, ~ ) and (0, ~ )
2 2
traversed in the +ve direction.
Sol:
y
O(~O~,O~)----~'~----~A~(n~,O~)-x
By Green's theorm,
fPdx+ Qdy =
c
In)l ax 8Q - 8P)dXdY
ay
Here, P = e-x siny, Q = e-x cosy
aQ ap
- - - = - e-x cosy - e-x cosy = -2e-x cosy
8x ay
fPdx+Qdy= If -2e x cosydxdy
c R
x x/2 x x/2
=-2 f [ f e-xcosdyJdx=-2 f eX siny fdx
x=o y=O x=() 0
x
=-2 fe-xdx=2e xl: =2(e- X
-1) .....(i)
c
Again,fPdx+Qdy=f f+ f+ f+ f
c c OA AB BD DO
Along OA ; y = 0, dy = 0
.. fPdx+Qdy=O
OA
Alo~gAB: x = n, dx= 0
Vector Differentiation 587
1tI2
AB 0
AlongBD;
o t 0
p dx+Qdy= fe-xdx=~ =-1 + e
J -- 1 11
11
Along DO ;
BD
x = 0, dx =
11
DO
JP dx + Qdy = feos ydy =
11/2
sinYI~/2 = - 1
..... (ii)
c
:. From (i) and (ii) it is proved that
J
c
p dx + Qdy = H( 8Q
R 8x
- 8P) dxdy
8y
Hence the theorem is verified.
Ex. 7.10.11 Apply Green's theorem to obtain the area bounded by the curve
x2/3 + y2/ 3 = a 2/3 , a> .
Sol: The parametric equations of the curve are x = a cos3e, y = sin 3e. A rough sketch of
the curve is given below:
A'
x~'--~~~~~~-----x
(6 =rc) A(6 =0)
,
y
x = acos3e, y = asin 3e
dx = -3 acos 2e sine de, dy = 3a sin 2ecose de
By Green's theorem, the area bounded by a simple closed curve C is given by
!J(xdy- ydx)
2c
588 Engineering Mathematics - I
3 3 3
ar
3 2 21t
= - JCos Osm OdO=-
22 af}2 br
(lr n:a
sm-20dO=-lJ-cos40)dO=--
2 2x 2
2 0 8 0 16 () 8
2 aQ ap
Here, P = 2xy - x , Q = x +,1 - - -ry
Y, ax
= 1 - 2x
o-=:;;~-----x
aQ of y=~
Jjr---)dxdy=
R ax ry
J[ f (1-2x)dyJdx= JY-2xyl~:;; dx I
x=() y=x2
I
()
I 3 5 3 4 I
= jr-v'x -2x-v'x _x 2 +2X3 )dx = '!:x 2 -2.'l:x 2 -~+2.~
o 3 5 3 40
1 4 1 1 1
=-----+-=- ..... (i)
2 5 3 2 30
Again fPdx+Qdy= fCPdx+Qdy)+ J(Pdx+Qdy)
r ~ ~
..... (ii)
Exercise -7(j)
1. Evaluate 1(x 2 + y2)dx+3xy 2dy, (a) directly (b) by Green's theorem, where cis
2. Evaluate 1(x 2 + 2xy)dx + (x 2 y + 3)dy around the boundary C of the region given
3. VerifY Green's theorem for the integral 1(3x 2 + 2y)dx - (x + 3cos y)dy where Cis
the boundary of the parallelogram with vertices at (0,0), (2, 0), (3, I) and (1, I)
(Ans: -6)
(n,2)
2
4. Evaluate J(6xy - /)dx+ (3x - 2xy)dy along the cycloid x = 8 -sin8,
(0,0)
5. Using Green's theorem find the area bounded by one arch of the cycloid
x=a(B-sinB), y=a(l-cosB),a>O, and x-axis.
[Ans: 3J[a 2 ]
the surface in the xy plane enclosed by x axis and the semi-circle y = ..Jl- x 2
[Ans: 4/3]
7. Evaluate f(cos x sin y - xy)dx + sin x cos y,using Green's theorem where c is the
c
[Ans: 0]
8. VerifY Green's Theorem in the plane for f{x 2_xy 3 )dx+ &2 -2xy)where C is the
c
[Ans: 8]
(2,1)
9. Evaluate f (12 x3- 2x/ ) dx - 3x2y2 dy along the path x3- y3 + Y - 4xy = 0
(0,0)
4 2 31(2,1)
[Ans: 3x - x y
(0,0)
= 44 ]
Vector Differentiation 591
t------y
R
..... ,
x
S is a closed surface
Let any line II lel to the coordinate axes cut S in at most two points.
Let z = gl(x, y) and z = gix, y) be the equations of the upper portion SI and lower
portion S2 respectively.
Let R be the projection of S on the xy-plane.
If A = Al i + A::J + A3 k
592 Engineering Mathematics - I
Then,
oA OA
fff OZ 3 dv = fff OZ 3 dzdydx
v v
Iq(x,y) oA ff z~g,
ff[ S 0/ dz] dydt= AJX,y,Z)1 dydx
II z~g2( x,y) II z~g2
s
f
= fA3k.ndS ..... (I)
oA2
and f f f dv = f f A 2j.n ds ..... (3)
v cry s
7.11.2 (a) Express Gauss' Theorem in words and (b) obtain its Cartesian form.
(a) Gauss' Theorem states that "The surface integral of the normal component
of vector A taken over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the
divergence of A taken over the volume enclosed by the surface.
(b) Let A=A 1i+A 2 j+A 3k,
. aA aA? aA 3
Then dlv A = V.A = ~-I + -"'- + ---
ax ay az
Let the unit normal n to S make angles a,P,r with the +ve coordinate axes so
that, cosa=n. i, cosp =n. j, cosr=n.kand cosa, cosp, cosr are the
direction cosines of n
Solved Examples
2 I 3 2 I 3
2 I 3 3 2 I
2 I 2 I 3 22 2
= I[ I (6y+9+3x)try]d\" = I 3i +9y+3xyl dx== I(12+3x)d\"=12x+ ;
X;O y;O 0 0 0 0
=24+6= 30
Ex. 7.11.4 Verify the divergence theorem for F = (4xy)i - (j2)j + (xz )k, over the cub(
bounded by x = 0, x = I, Y = 0, Y = 1, z = 0 and z = 1.
Sol: By the divergence theorem
II F.n dS == I I IV.F dv
\ V
I I
== I fi xz + 2 y z1 dydx
x;Oy;O
I I I I I 2 3
== If I(x+2y)dy]dx=
X;O y;O x;O
Ixy+y
2
1
0
dx=
x;o
IeX+I)d~==~ +xl~==2
To evaluate IIF.ndS z
x
Vector Differentiation 595
The surface integral IIF.ndS is equal to the sum of the surface integrals on the
above 6 faces.
on S" n = i, x = I, F.n = 4y; dS = dy dz
J J J J J J
on S6' n = k, z = 0, F.n =
:. I IF.ndS =
Hence :. II F.ndS = 2 - 1 + ~ =%
8
000
V.r = -(x) + -(y) + -(z) = 3
ox 0' oz
:. I Ir.n ds = I I I3 dv = 3v
But,
o )+-(c~)+-(c
0 0
= (V \jf).C [ ":V.c=-(c
ox l
oy- OZ3 )=0 ,
= c. V \jf cl' c2 ' c3' being constant]
and (\jIc).n = c.(\jJl1) [ ": a.b = b.a]
so that (2) becomes,
IJI(c.V'P) dv = JI{c.('Pn)}ds
Ex.7.11.7 : Ifs is a closed surface enclosing a volume V and ifF = (Ix)i + (my)j + (llz)k,
a a a
V.F = -(Ix) + -(my) + -(nz) = I + m + n
ax ry az
:. HF.nds = Hfu + m + 11) dv
=(/+m+n)V
Ex.7.11.8: IfE=curlA,evaluate HE.nds wheresisanyclosedsurface
Ex. 7 .11.9 : If s any closed surface and n is unit +ve normal to s, show that Hn ds = 0
=0
a. aa aa
[ ':V.a=-) +_2 +_3 =0]
ax ay az
Thus a. a.[ Hn dv] = 0 is true where a is any arbitrary vector.
:. Hnds=O
V.F =~(2X)+~(3y)~~(Z3)
ax ay ay 3
= 5+z 2
2 2.[i-; 3 3
= f f
x=O Y= 2 Ex
5z + ~
0
dydx
~--------r-----X
2 ) 2
= f 96J2xdx = 96J2 ~
x=o 0
= 192J2
Ex. 7.11.11 Evaluate ff( 2xi - 31 j + Z2 k ).n ds over the surface bounded by
s
2
x + y2 = 1, z = 0, Z = 2, using Gauss' theorem.
Sol: By the divergence theorem,
ff(F .n) ds = fff(V.F)dv ,
s
Here,F= 2xi-3y2j+Z2k
DivF =~(2x)-~(31)+~(z2)
ax ay ay
= 2-6y+2z
+1 M 2
ff(F.n)ds= f f f(2-6y+2z)dzdydx
x=ly=~O
Vector Differentiation 599
Ex.7.11.12: Evaluate using the divergence theorem H(F.Il)dS where S is the surface
f
:. H F.1l d~' = HV'F dv
v
..... (i)
F = yi + zj + xk
V'.F= 0
~--+B--Y
Let us evaluate the surface integrals over the faces OAB, OBC and OCA.
b Jj;2~)
f fF.n ds = - f fx dx(ry (,,' n = -k)
OA B x=O y=O
600 Engineering Mathematics - I
3
= -Jrb + If F.nds .... (iii)
AIlC
If F.nds = Jrb 3
ABC
Ex. 7.11.13: VerifY divergence theorem for F=4xi-2y2j+z2k taken over the
region bounded by
2
x + / = 4, Z = 0 and z = 3.
Sol: By the divergence theorem, we have
(1) DivF
s
=~(4x)-~(2/)+~(Z2) =4-4y+2z
..
.,.
Ox By 8z
=42 f ~4_X2dx=84Jr
x~-2
Z=3
x
The given surface of the cylinder can be divided into 3parts, namely
(a) 8 1 : the circular surface z = 0
- - - ( ) dxdy
(b) on S2:z==3; n=k ; F.n= 4xi-2y2j+9k .k=9; d\'=-I':' -I =dxdy
n.k
- V fjJ 2 ( xi + yi) xi + yi ( . 2 2
n =- - = = SInce x + y = 4)
!VfjJ! 2~X2 + i 2
4 x2 -2y 3 22 3
F.n= =x-y;
2
To evaluate JJF.1i ds, take x = 2cosB,y = 2sinB,
S3
602 Engineering Mathematics - I
S3 (}=02=0
2" 3 2"
= 16 f [( cos 0-sin O)z ]
2 3
dO = 48 f (cos 0-sin O)dB =487r
2 3
Exercise - 7K
f = (3x + 2Z2)i - (Z2 - 2 y) j + (/ - 2z)k and S is the surface of the sphere with
centre at (2, -I, 3) and radius 2 units. [Ans:32 TC]
3. Verify the divergence theorem for the vector function,
A = (4xz)i - (i)j + (yz)k , taken over the unit cube bounded by
x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0 and z = 1.[Ans:3/2]
4. If r = xi + yj + zk , and S is the surface of the rectangular parallelepiped bounded
by planes x = O,y = O,z = O,x = a,y = band z = c, find the value of ffr.ndS
s
using Gauss's theorem. Verity your answer by direct evaluation of the integral.
[Ans:3abc]
Let S be the surface. Let the projections of S on the coordinate planes be regions
bounded by simple closed curves.
Let 'R' the projection ofS on xy plane be bounded by C l . (see the figure above).
Let the equation of S be z = <l>1(x, y) where <1>1 is a single valued, continuous and
differentiable function.
j
Then Y'x(Ali)=alax alay
AI 0
604 Engineering Mathematics - I
= xi + y} + t/>/x, y)k
8r _. 0+]
and - - } + - k
ay 8y
8r
But ay being the vector tangent to S, it is .i, to n.
8r 3</>]
.. ay' n = 0 ~ n.} = - 8y (n.k)
..... (ii)
H(VxA\i)}.nds=
,I
Jf- aaay dxdy=fCdx-,
R ('
by Green's theorem in the plane. Now
at each point (x, y) ofC, the value ofG is the same as the value of AI at each point
(x, y, z) of C, and since dx is same for both curves, we have
I
Vector Differentiation 605
Ex.7.12.1 :(a) Express Stoke's theorem in words and (b) obtain its cartesian form.
Sol :(a) The I ine integral of the tangential component of a vector A taken around a simple
closed curve C is equal to the surface integral of the normal component of curl
A taken over a surface Shaving C as its boundary.
(b) As in 7.11.2(b)
A=A l i+Aj+A3k
n = (cosa)i + (cos~)j + (cosy)k
) k
Then, Vx A = ajax ajay ajaz
Al A2 A3
aA 3 aA 2 aA aA 3 aA 2 aA I
(V x A)Jl =( - - -)cosa + ( -I - -)cos~ +( - - -)cos y
ay az az ax ax ay
606 Engine~ring Mathematics - I
Hence the cartesian form of the Stoke's theorem can be stated as,
-_ 2~[-sin2S
21t
JI + I -cos2S]dS-
- cos2S
- - + S -sin2SI
- - -_2 n
o 2 4 2 0
i j k
Y' x A = ajax ajry ajaz = 2k
(x-2y) yz2 y2 z
Ex.7.12.4: Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that fF.dr for every closed
("
Assume that '\I x F "* 0 at some point P. then, assuming that '\IF is continuous,
there exists a region with P as its interior point where '\IF = 0 .Let S be surface contained
in this region and let the normal n to S at each point has the same direction as '\IF .
Note: It follows that '\IF = 0 is also a necessary and sufficient condition for the line
1'2
integral f F.dr to be independent of path joining the points ~ and ~ .(see 7.6.4)
I;
i j k
But curl r= a/ax a/ay a/dz =0
x y z
= JA.dr - JA.dr
c c
Vector Differentiation 609
= 0, by Soke's theorem, since the +ve directions along the boundaries ofS, andS 2
are opposite.
:. (I) ~ fffV.(clirl A)dv=O
Now, grad! dr
=(8f i + aJ j + 8f k ).( dx i + dy j + dz k)
ax 0' az
x=b
x=-b
--____ ~----~--~----~~--L---~~X
D A y=O
610 Engineering Mathematics - I
i j k
Sol: curl A = ajax ajay ajaz = - 4yk
y2 -2xy 0
a h a h U
fA.dr
C
= f+ f+ f+
DA AB BF FD
J
fA.dr = y2 dx - 2xydy
AlongAB, x= b, dx = 0
a
2
:. f A.dr= f-2bydy=-by2/: =-a b
AB y=O
AlongBF, y=a,dy=O
-b
:. JA.dr= Ja 2
dx = -2a2b
BF b
Ex.7.12.10: Use stoke's theorem to evaluate the integral fA.dr where A = 2y.i +3xY-
('
(2x +z)k, and C is the boundary of the triangle whose vertices are (0,0,0), (2,0,0),
(2,2,0).
) k
Sol: Curl A = ajax ajay ajaz
2
2/ 3x -2x-z
= 2} + (6x - 4y)k
Since the z-coordinate of each vertex of the triangle is zero, the triangle lies in the
xy-plane.
:. n = k.
:. (curl A). n = 6x - 4y
consider the triangle in xy-plane.
Equation of the straight line OB isy = x
By Stoke's theorem,
c
f A .dr = fsf(CurlA)nds o
(0,0)
A(2,O)
I 2
1= 332 .
Ex. 7.12.11 Use Stoke's theorem to evaluate ff(curlA)nds, where A = 2yi + (x- 2zx)j
+ xyk, and S is the surface of the sphere .xl + Y. + z2 = b 2 above the xy-plane.
Sol: The boundary C of the surface S is the circle.xl + y. + z2 = b2, Z = o.
The parametric equations of C are x = bcose, y = bsine, z = 0, 0 ~ e < 27t
By Stoke's theorem, we have,
2"
f(2bsin8)(-bsin8)d8+bcos8.bcos8.d8 [-: x = bcos8 => dx = - bsin8 d8
o
and y = bsin8 => dy = bcos8 d8]
Ex.7.12.12 Apply Stoke's theorem to evaluate f A.dr .where A = (x- y)i + (2y + z}j +
(y-z)k and C is the boundary ofthe triangle whose vertices are (~, 0, 0) (O,~, 0)
(O,O,~)
z
and
x y z
1/6 + 1/3 + 1/2 = I =>6x+3y+2z= 1 ..... (I)
:. By Stoke's theorem,
AB=
(H+(H ~ ~
AC= (H+(H ~~
Direction ratios of AB are -1, !, 0 .
6 3
-1 2
Direction ratios of AC are 15' 15' 0
. . ratios
Direction _-1
. 0 f AC a r e- .~-
0- ..
flO' , flO
cos CAB = ( Ts )(~ )+ 0 +0 = )so
sin CAB = .:i.--
EO
:. Area of triangle ABC = 1. AB.AC sin CAB = 1.. 15
2 2 6
.JlO ._7_ = 2.
6 J50 72
JA.dr=~x-2..=_1 [from(2)]
(' 7 72 36
Ex.7.12.13Evaluate If(curl A).n ds taken over the portion s of the surface
s
X2+/+Z2_2/x+ft=0 above the xy plane z 0, if
A = ~::CX2 + /-z2)i and verity Stoke's theorem.
Solution: Let'S' denote the portion of the surface, x 2 + y2 + Z2 - 2ft + ft = 0 above
the xy-plane z= O.
The surface S meets the xy-plane in the circle 'C', whose equations are
2
x + / - 2ft = 0, Z = O.
614 Engineering Mathematics - I
Let S) denote the plane region bounded by C.lfS) is the surface consisting ofS and
SI' SI is a closed surface.
:. From example 7.11.8 on divergence theorem, we have
=0
j k
Now, curl A= a/at a/ay a/az
8(,1t 16f31t 1t
3 4
= - 2 x -'- f(eosO + sin e )eos 8de = --3- feos OdO [.: feos 3 Osin Od8 = 0]
3 0 0 o
Again, fA.dr
('
2"
ftU + f cos 8)2 + f2 sin e](- fsine)de
o
2
21t
+ f [f2 sin 2e- (f + f cos8)21f cose)de
o
= f3[2I_ 2sin ede +2I_ 2sin 2ede.+ 2I_ 2cosed8 + 2I_ cos 3 eaU
o 0 0 0
21t 21t
- f(I+Cos2e)de+ fSin ecos8de
2 1 (on simplification)
o 0
f f(CurIA).nd\ = fA.dr
s ('
which verifies Stoke's theorem.
616 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise-7(1)
1. f F=(xe )i+(3/)j-(z)dz,and
X 2
C is the X +y2=9,z=2, evaluate fF.dr
('
2. Apply Stoke's theorem to obtain the value of the integral fV.dr ,where
('
v = (3/)i + (2X2)j -(x+ 2z)k and C is the boundary of the triangle whose
veltices are (0,0,0),(1,0,0) and (I, I ,0)
[Ans: I]
3. Verify Stoke's theorem for F = (2x - y)i - (yz 2)j - (/ z)k if S is the upper halt
surface of the sphere x 2 + y2 + Z1 = I and C is the boundary.
[Ans: Jr]
4. If F = (y - z + 2)i + (yz + 4)j - (xz)k and S represents the surface of the cube
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x = 2, y = 2, z = 2 above the xy plane , verify that
f
ff(Curl F).ds = F.dr ,C being the boundary of S traversed in the +ve direction.
s c
[Ans: Each integral =-4]
5. Find the value of the integral f(yz )dx + (zx )dy + (xy )dz ,using Stoke's theorem
c
where C is the Curve x 2 + y2 = 4, z = y2
[Ans:O]
Verify Stoke's theorem for the function V = (3x )i + (2xy)j , integrated along the
2
6.
square x = 0, y = 0, x = I,y =) in thexy-plane.. [Ans: 0]
Exercise - 7(m)
1. If !(x,y,z)=x 1y lllzn-1 , find the directional derivative of f at (1,1,1) in the
direction of (i+2j+2k)
1
[Ans: -(I + 2m+ 2n)]
3
2. Find the acute angle between the surfaces
x 2 + i + Z2 = 6 and 3xyz + i Z- xy + 3 =
at (1, -I, 2)
IAns: cos'( ~}
7. Evaluate J(4x -12x 2i)dx-(8x y)dy along the path x 3-3xi =2/
3 3
(0,0)
[Ans: 16]
2
8. If V=(xy)i-(yz)j+(zx )k and S is the surface of the cube bounded by
x = 0, x = 2, y = 0, y = 2, z = 0, z = 2 , evaluate JV.n ds
s
[Ans: 32/3]
coordinates.
the boundary of the squart: bounded by O:S x:S 1, O:s y:s 1 [Ans:1]
x 2 + y2 = r2 , z = 0, and z = I
15. Show that the Stoke's theorem, when restricted to the xy-p/ane, is Green's theorem
in the plane.
Exercise-7(n)
1C 1C
(b) - (d) - [a]
2 4
6. If a is a constant vector and r = xi + yj + zk , then '\l(a.r) is
Exercise - 7(0)
I. Iff(x,yx) = X lymz"_I, find the directional derivative of fat (1,1,1) in the direction of
I
(i+2j+2k) [Ans: "3 (I + 2m + 2n)
y3
[Ans: ~ = xz 3 - - +c ]
3
(2,1)
7. Evaluate 3
f{4x -12x2 y2 )Ix - {8x y}Jy
3
along the path x 3 - 3xy = 2;
(0,0)
[Ans: 16]
8. IfY = (xy)i - (yz}j + (zr)k and S is the surface of the cube bounded by x = 0, x =
9. If f = 4x + yz, evaluate f f ffdv over the region in the first octant bounded by
v
x 2 + y2 = I, z = 0, z = 3
[Ans: 1112]
Vector Differentiation 621
13. Verify Green's theorem in the plane for J(x 3 -l )tx + (x 2 - 2xy}ty, where C is the
c
boundary of the square bounded by 0 ~ x ~ I, 0 ~ Y ~ I
[Ans: 1]
Introd uction
The theory of Laplace transform is an essential part ofthe mathematical background
required by engineers, physists and mathematicians. It gives an easy and effective
means for solving certain types of differential and integral equations. It is the foundation
of the modern form of operational calculus, which was originated in an attempt to
justify certain operational methods used by an electrical engineer Oliver Heavinide, in
the latter part of the 19th century for solving equations in electromagnetic theory.
The Laplace transform reduces the problem of solving a differential equation to
an algebraic problem. It is particularly useful for solving problems where the mechanical
or electrical driving force has discontinuties, acts for a short time only or is periodic
but not merely a sine or cosine function.
f(t)
which can be made larger than any given constant by increasing 't' indefinitely.
8.1.2 Conditions for L. T to exist
By using above remarks we can prove the conditions that are sufficient for the
existence of Laplace transforms.
Theorem: Iff(t) is piecewise continuous in every finite integral [0, N] for N > 0,
and of exponential order cr,that is If(t)1 ~ Meat, \;f t ~ 0 and M> o. (from I)
then the Laplace transform ofF(t) exists for all s> 0'
00 00 00
00 00 00
=
f[ktf; (t) + k 2 f2(t)]e-'1 dt fk\.!; (t)e-'I elt + fk2.f; (t)e -,I lit = k\L[j; (I)] + k 2 L[f2(t)]
0 0 0 ~
This result can be extended to the linear combinations of more than two functions.
8.1.4 Iff(t) is piecewise continuous on [0, N] for each N > 0, and ttt) is of exponential
order 0", that is by 8.10.1 (1), If(t)1 ::s Meat, V t ~ 0 and M > 0 and ifL [f(t)] = F(s)
then we have
(1) L [eatf(t)] = F(s-a) V s > 0" + a va> 0 ..... (i)
,
(2) L[f (tn. = e-aSF(s)
Proof(l)
_a_
--~------~----~~s
Th is property shows sh ifting on the s-axis and is called the first shifting property.
This means that replacing s by s - a in the Laplace transform corresponds to
multiplying the original function by eat
00 a 00
= ~ }e-IP/af(p)dP==~F(~)
a0 a a
This property is known as change of scale property.
Proof:
.
L(smhat)=L
(e _e-
OI
1
ol
01 11 -01
=-L(e )--L(e )
222
- - 1[1
2 s-a
-----
s+a
I] from (a)
a
Thus (sinhat) = 2 2
S -a
s
similarly we can show that L(coshat) = 2 2 . (5)
s -(I
I(n + 1)
(d) L(tn) = ----;+] [(n + I) > 0 and s> 0]
s
Proof:
OOfe-P.pnd =T(n+l)
n+1 'P 11+1
o S S
00
6 s 1 12 s 1
Sol: I. L(2t3 + cos4t + e-2t ) = 2x-+ + - - =-+ +--
S4 S2 + 16 S + 2 S4 S2 + 16 S + 2
2. L(e2t ) + 4L(t3 ) - L(sin2tcos3t)
I 6 (5
S - 2 + 4x7 - S2 + 25 - n 2 + 1
1)
1
[.: sin2tcos3t = "2 (sin5t - sint)]
3. L cos(wt + 13) = L[coswt.cosj3 - sinwtsinj3]
=cosfJL(coswt)-sinfJL(sinwt)= cos fJ 2
S
2
.
-sm
fJ 2
w
2
+w S S +w
4. L[3t2+e-t+sin 32t] = 3L(t2 ) + L(e-t ) + L (sin 32t)
2 1 3 3
=3.-+--+ - -?--
S3 s+1 2(S2+4) 2s-+36
2 1 3 1 3 1
=-+--+--------
S3 S + 1 2 S2 + 4 2 S2 + 36
1
(.: L(sin32t) = 4" L[3sin2t - sin6t]
3 [cos6t + 3cos2t]
5. L(cos 2t) = L 4
=
1
4"
(s 3S)
S2 + 36 + S2 + 4
Exercise 8(A)
Find the Laplace transform of
8 3 1
1. 4t2 + sin3t + e-2t Ans. - + - - + - -
S3 S2 +9 s+2
1 4
2. (sin2t - cos2tf Ans. -
S S2 + 16
3. Ans. !(!+_S_)
2 S S2 -64
4.
5.
Laplace Transforms 629
a b
8. sinhat- sinbt An s. -?::-------::-)
s- -(r
S(S2 - 28)
9. Ans. -----:----::---
2
(S2 - 36)(5 - 4)
s s
10. coshat - cosbt Ans. 2 2
S -(I
6
2. L(t3 ) = 4
s
By shifting theorem 8.1.4(1)
6
L(e-4t. t 3) = - - -
(s + 4)4
. 3
3. L(sm3t) = -2--
S +9
by 8.1.4(1),
3
2t
L( e sin3t) = (5 _ 2)2 + 9.
630 Engil~eering Mathematics - I
4. e-3t .sin3t
L(sin3t) =- L [~(3Sin
4
1 - Sin3/)] = ~ L(sin I) - ~ L(sin 3/)
4 4
3 1 1 3
By 8.1.4(1)
-3t . - ~ I
L(e sm3t) - 4 3)2
(s+ +I
5. e-2 t(2cos3t - 3sin3t)
s
L(2cos3t) = 2.-2-
s +9
9
L(3sin3t) = ~9
8 +
By shifting theorem 8.1.4( I)
2L(e-2tcos3t) - 3L(e-2t sin3t)
2(s + 2) 9
= (s + 2)2 + 9 - (8 + 2)2 + 9
3s
8.1.8 If L[f(t)] = ~9 . find L[f(3t)]
8 +
38
SoL 'L[f(t)] = S2 +9
s
I 3") 38
By 8.1.4 (3), L[f(3t)] = 3(8)2 8
2
+27
- +9
3
Exercise 8(8)
Find the Laplace Transform of
2 8-3
1. Ans. 4cosa +sin-----,:-----
(s - 3)2 + 16 (8 - 3)2 + 16
2.
a(s2 + 2( 2)
4. coshat sinat Ans.
S4 + 2a 4
S(S2 - 7)
5. cos3t.cosh4t Ans.
S4 + 625 -14s 2
2s-5
6. e- 21(2cos3t-3sin3t) Ans.
S2 +4s+ 13
S3
7. coshat cosat Ans.
S4 + 4a 4
3
8. elsin4t.cos2t Ans.
(s _1)2 +36
5s 2 -3s+2
Ans.
S3
n+ 1 6
Ans.
(8 + a)"+1 + (.\'2 + 1)(s2 + a)
00
2,
d d ( 2
L(lcosat)=(-I)-[L(cosal)]=-- 2 = 2
2S2
2 2
s)
ds ds s + a (s + a )
a
4. L(atsinat-cosat)=aL(tsinat)-L(COsat)=a[-dd ( 2-
S S +a
2)]- s 2+a 2
S
2
2as] s 2a s s
= a [ (S2 +a2f~ - (S2 +a 2) = (S2 +a 2 )2 - (S2 +l?)
5. L(1+tet)3 = L[I+3et+3t2e2t+t3e3t]
= L(I) + 3L(tet)+ 3L(t2e 2t) + L(t3e3t)
2 3
1 d 1 d 1 d ( 1 ) '1 3 6 6
=~-3 ds (s-I) +3 ds 2 (s-2)ds 3 s-2 =2+ (s-1)2 + (S-2)3 + (s-3)4
6.
d
L(te4t sin2t) = -L[e sm 2/1 = - -
41' d [ 2 ] by shifting property
7. 2
ds ds (s-4) +4
d [ 2 J 45 -16
=- ds S2 -85+20 = (S2 -8s+20)2
2 2
d d [ s -1 ]
L(t2etcos4t) = ds2 L(e cos4/) = d~2 (s _1)2 + 16 by shifting theorem
l
8.
=_~[ S2-2S-15]=
3 2
(2s -6s -90s+94)
ds (S2 - 2s + 17)2 (S2 - 2s + 17)3
Exercise 8(C)
2s+4
3. Ans, (S2 + 4s + 5)2
Laplace Transforms 633
9+ 12s -3s 2
4. 2tsin3t-3tcos3t Ans. 2 2
(s +9)
35-3
5. tetsin2tcost Ans. 2 ?
(s - 2s + 10)-
Integrating bothsides w.r.t 's' between the limits s, 00 and changing the order of
integration on right hand side (R.H.S),
8.1.12 Examples
Find the Laplace Transforms of the following
1 s
Sol.1. L(I-cosat) = L(l) - L(cosat) = - - 2 2
S S +a
(l I s
)K
L -(I-cosat) = - - 2 ] [
1 2
2 ds= logs--log(s2+a) ]00
1
=-Iog(2? 1
s + a-
2
t , s s +a 2 0 2 s
a
2. L(e-tsinat) = 2 2
(s+l) +a
I ISlOat)
L -(e-
[t
. ]
= oof a2 [-1
(S+I)]OO
2ds= tan - 1t
- =--tan s+1
--=cot _I(S+I)
-- -1
s (s + 1) + a a ,2 a a
634 Engineering Mathematics - I
1 1
3. L(1-e2 t) = L(I) - L(e2t) = ---
s s-2
I
L[-(1-e
t
21]
) = ----
s s-2
X
I I)ds= [logs-log(s-2)Js100 =Iog--
(s - 2)
s
s
2
4. L(e-3tsin2t) = ---::---
(S+3)2 +4
L(!e-
t
3/
Sin2t)= }
s
22
(s + 3) + 4
ds=tan- I (S+3)00
2 s
1t
=-=tan _1(S+3)
- - =cot _1(S+3)
--
2 2 2
1 I
5. L(eal ) = --, L(e ht )= - -
s-a s-b
1 al -e bl]
L [ -(e
t
) = XI - - - -1)
s-a s-b
- ds= [log(s-a)-Iog(s-bh,.
100
s
Exercise 8(0)
1.
1
-(1-cost)
t
1 (hI]
Ans. 2"log - s -
I _I
2. -e SlOt Ans. coc 1 (s+l)
t
1
3. - (-at
e - e-hI) Ans.log C+b)
--
t s+a
4. ! (e-3tsin2t) S-3)
Ans. coC I ( -2-
t
5. !
t
(sin2t) Ans.
1 (.'+4]
"4 log ~
Laplace Transforms 635
6.
I
- (coat - cosbt) I
Ans. -log (S2+b 2)
2 2
t 2 S +(1
7.
I
- (I - cos3t) I
Ans. -log (S2 +9)
--2-
t 2 S
8.2.2 Example
s
:. L( cosat) = 2 2
+a S
8.2.3 Theorem: Iff is Piecewise continous on [0, N] for each N > 0 and is of exponential
I I
order cr, then L ff(u)du = -L[/(/)] v s > CT,
o s
I
Proof. Let p(t) = ff(u)du. Then we have p1(t) = f(t) and f(O) = 0;
o
I. fsin 2pdp
o
I
2. fp cosh p dp
o
3. r
I
o p
mp
dp
I
rp .
sm P
4. je . - - d'P
o P
2
Sol. 1. L(sin2t) = Z--4 = f(s) , say
s +
112
fsin 2pdp =- f(s) = --=-2--
o S s(s +4)
Laplace Transforms 637
2.
I 2 )
I (s + (1-)
o J
then L pcosh pdp = - I(s) =- )
8
)
(8- -a-)s
3.
.
L(smt)= ~I
I
s +
; L
(I .
-SlOt
t
)
= J-2-
00
s +1
0\
I ds
L 'JSin
-- p dOp=-Ijo() I
s =-cot -I
s
o P s s
I I
4. L(sint)= -2-1 ... L( etsint) = --.,,----
s + (s _1)2 + I
I
L [ -ee' sint) ] = ooJ ds2
t , (s -I) +1
'f sin p 1 1 1
:. L e P --dp = - I(s) = -cot- (s -1)
o P s s
Exercise 8(E)
s 8(s + 3) I _I
Ans. I. 2. 3. -cot s
S(S2 + 4) S(S2 + 6s + 25)2 s
638 Engineering Mathematics - I
I I'
L([f(t)] = I-e- Ps fe-Slf(t)dt
o
Proof: Let f(t) be a periodic function of period 'p' so that f(t) = f(t+p) = f(t+2p) = ...... .
00 I' 21'
L[f(t)] = fe -si f(t)dt = fe -s/ f(t)dt + fe -si f(t)dt + ............... .
o o I'
writing t = u+p
21' I'
now fe-ollf(t)dt= fe-o,(u+p)f(u+ p)du
I' 0
I'
= e- Ps fe-OVlf(t + p)dt (change u to t)
o
I'
f -vlfCt )dt
= e -1" Je 0 [.: f(t+p)=f(t)]
o
31' I'
similarly, fe-oIl f(t)dt = e- 21'S fe-ollf(t)dt and so on
21' 0
I'
L[f(t)] = (1+e-ps+e-2ps + .................... 00) fe-ollf(t)
o
The expression within parantheses is a G.P. with c.r. = e-PS
Solved Problems
L[f(t)] =
1 2a si
Je- f(t)dt =
1 [a
1 _ e- 2as
2a.
Je-sl.l.dt + Je-'I (-I)dt
1
1- e-2as 0 0 0
SI
_ 1 [{_e-SI}a {_e- }2aj_l 1 (l -a,)2
-1_e-2a, - s - 0 - - s - 0 - s l_e-2as ' -e
- 1s [11+- ee -2as
--.
-2as
]_ 1[/f - e-'T --tanh
--.
S ~
1 [-as ]
s-~ 2
1-
e 2 +e 2
8.2.7 Find the Laplace transform of the rectangular wave shown in the figure:
f(t)
1s
o b 2b 3b
Rectangular wave
640 Engineering Mathematics - I
Hence L[f(t)]=
I 2h.
-2h, Je-Mj(/)dt=
I [ h .S1 2b
-2h.\ J1.e- j(t)dt+ J(-I)e-S1dt
1
l-e 0 l-e 0 b
hs -bs
- -
e 2 -e 2
I bs
=-tanh-
s 2
8.2.8 What is the Laplace transform of the staircase function (fig(a)) given by
f( t) = n+ I, np < t n+ 1)p for n = 0, 1, 2 ............ .
Sol. The easient way of getting the Laplace transform of the staircase function is to
consider it as the difference between the two functions shown in Fig(b) the
transform ofthe linear function (t + p) can easily be found by using first shifting,
P
second shifting and change of scale properties.
Thus, we have
f(t) f(t)
o P 2p 3p
(a) Staircse function (b) solution of the stair case function (c) Saw-tooth function.
Laplace Transforms 641
t
The function fl(t) = - is called a saw-tooth function (fig(c and its transform is
p
obtained as shown below.
1 P 1 1 [ -,I ]P
L[ft(t)] = _, fe-'I~d'= _.- _e_(_st_1)
1- e Ip p 1- e "P p S2
o 0
1- (1 + ps)e - P'
ps2(1-e-"P)
L[ I' (I)] -
JI -
~[1
P S2
+ ps - p 1
s(1-e- PS ) ..... (2)
L[f(t)]=~(~+P)_~(I+PS_ p- 1
p s- s P S2 s(1-e P")
1
Exercise 8(F)
-e -sl e-as
s o s
. 1
In Particular, when a=O, we get L(H(t = -
s
8.2.10 Heaviside shift theorem: If Lf(t) = f(s), then L[f(t-a)H(t-a) = e-as f(s).
Proof: By defnition, we have
00 a 00
L[f(t - a)H(t - a) == fe- si f(t - a)H(t - a)dt == fe- si f(t - a)O.dt + fe- si f(t - a)l.dt
o 0 0
00 00
8.2.1 Examples
Find the L.T. of the function
1 -It' -2 It'
L[f(t)] = L[H(t)] - L[H(t-1t)] + L[H(t-21t)sint] = __ _e _ + _e_
s s s
2. Find L.T. oft2H(t-3)
Let us express <I>(t) = t 2 as a function of(t-3) by using Talor's series, which states
that
_ fI (x-a)2 II
f(x) - f(a) + (x-a) (a) + 2! f (a) + ................. + ............. .
(t 3)2
(t)=94-(t - 3).6+ .2
2!
Now, by the above result
L[f(t).H(t-a)] = L[9+6(t-3) + (t-3fH(t-3)]
= L[f(t-3).H(t-3)] = e-3S Lf(t) where f(t) = 9+6t+t2
3. Express F(t) = (t-2)2 when t>2 and f(t) = 0 when 0<t<2 in terms of Heavis ide unit
step function and find its Laplace transform
Sol. It is easy to see that
F(t) = (t-2)2 = (t-2f.H(t-2) (since for t<2, H(t-2)=0 and for ~2, H(t-2)=1)
L[f(t).H(t-2)] = L[(t-2)2H(t-2)] = e-2s .Lf(t) where f(t) = t2
-2,\ 2!
=e .3
s
644 Engineering Mathematics - I
Exercise 8(G)
I. Find the Laplace tranform off(t) using the unit step function, where
I ifO<t<1
2 ifl<I<3
f(t) =
4 if3<t<4
-2 if 4 <I
5 2-,
(ii) f(t) = e2I H(t-log5) Ans. - -
5-s
-(1\'
e
(iii) f(t) = (t-a)H(t-a) Ans. -2
s
e-2"(2 4s 4s 2 ) + +
(iv) f(t) = t2 H(t-2) Ans. --'-----.:3--...:...
S
1
(v) f(t) = H(t-e t ) Ans. -
s
25 38 42 24]
(vii) f(t) = (l +2t-3t2 +4t3)H(t-2) Ans. e-2s - + - + - + -
[ s S2 S3 S4
1
(viii) f(t) = sint.H(t-1t) Ans. e-ltS --
S2 +1
Laplace Transforms 645
Some of the important properties of the inverse laplace transforms are analogous to
the corresponding properties of Laplace transforms.
1. Linearity Property: If kl' k2 are any constants and F I(s) and Fis) are the Laplace
transforms of fl(t) and fit) respectives, then
L-I[kIFI(s) + k2Fis)] = klfl(t) + k/i t).
2. First shifiing property: If L- I [F(s)] = f(t), then
jor t > a
for t < a
= ff..ff(u)du".
00 0
L[f(t)] L- I [F(s)]
L(1) = -
I
s
L- I (~) = 1
L(e-at) = --
s+a
1
L- I (_I
s+a
) = e-at
L(tn ) = -
S"+I
n!
1-1 ( I) + I)!
S'1+1
-
- (n
t"
L(sinat) =
S2
a
+a 2
rl ( 2
s +a
I 2) = ~a sinat
s
L(cosat) = L-I ( 2 S 2) = cosat
S2 +a 2 s +a
2)=~sinhat
a
L(sinhat) = L_ I ( 21
S2 _a 2 s -a a
s
L(coshat) = L- I ( s 2 ) coshat
S2 _a 2 S2 _a
8.3.3 Using the above results inverse Laplace transforms of some simple functions can b~
obtained as below.
Find the inverse Laplace transform of:
2s+3 3s+5 4._1_
I. 2 -- 3. 2
S2 +9 9s -25 4s+5
I 3 2s+ I s+3
5. 4s-5 6.- 7. (s + 1) 8~4
s+ 4 s +
Laplace Transforms 647
I.
2.
= 2cos3t + sin3t
3. I
L- ( 3~+5 )=L-I( 3s )+L-I( 2 5 )=~COSh(~)+~sinh(~)
9s- - 25 9s 2 - 25 9s - 25 3 3 3 3
4.
5.
6. L- (_3_)
I
s+4
= 3rl_1_ = 3e-
s+4
41
7. L-I 2s+1
1
-2L-I(_s
- 1
) + L-I(_l
2 )_" .
- .... cost+smt
(s- + 1) s- + 1 s +1
Exercise 8(H)
2 1 1 4s+ 15
1. -+-+--
S S3 S +4 5. 16s 2 _ 25
648 Engineering Mathematics - I
[2
Ans. 1.2+ - + e-4t 2. 3cos4t + sin4t 3. 2cosh3t+sinh3t
2
,4
4.1 + t 2 + -
24
Examples 8.3.4
Find the inverse Laplace transform of:
6s-4 I s-2
1. --"-2- - -
2. (s _ 3)3 3. (s _ 2)4 4. + -=-2- - -
2
s -4s+ 20 (s-l) s -4s+5
Sol.
4 L- I 1 ) + L-I (s - 2) = L-I( I ) + L- I ( (s - 2) )
. ( (S-2)4 (s2-4s+5) (s-2i s2-4s+4+1
=L -I( 1 ') ) + L
(s-2t
-l( S-2)
(S-2)2 + 12
= ')
et.t + e~t.cost
Exercise 8(1)
s+ 1 A Bs+C
---=-+---
S(S2 + I) S S2 +1
s+1 = A(s2+1) + (Bs+c)s = As2 + A + Bs2 + cs
comparing coefficients of different powers of s from both sides
O=A+B
)= c
:. I = A, B =-1
s+1 1 -s+1
. =-+--
.. S(S2 + I) S S2 + 1
By the linearity property of L-I, we have
- - = L-l(I)
L-l(S+l) - - L-1(-s- ) + L-1(-I- ) =I -cost+smt
.
S3 + s ' S S2 + 1 S2 + I
2S2 -6s+5
2. If L[f(t)] = S3 + 6s2 + lIs -6 find [f(t)]
:. 2S2 -6s + 5 = A(s -2)(s -3)+ B(s -l)(s -3)+C(s -l)(s -2)
put s = I we get
I =2A A= 1/2
put s = 2
B=-1
650 Engineering Mathematics - I
Similarly s = 3 gives
C = 5/2
.
.. L-I[f'( S.)]_
--I L- I - -
I - L- I ( -I- ) +-
5 L- I ( -A- )_ 1 1 -e 21 +-e
--e 5 31
. 2 (s-I) 8-2 2 8-3 2 2
3s+ I
3. If Lf(t) = ( )( 2 I ' find f(t)
s-I s + )
Sol. By partial fractions we have
j(s)=~+ Bs+C
s -1 S2 + I
:. Solving for A, B C
we have A = 2, B = -2, C = -I
= 2e t - 2cost + sint
s+2
4. If L[f(t)] = (s + 3)(s + 1)3 find f(t)
:.rl[f(8)]=~rl-I--~rl-I-+ 1 ? + I 1
8 8+38 8+14(8+1)- 2(8+1)3
as+b c8+d
Sol: Let f(s) = 82 + 28 + 5 + S2 + 28 + 2
3 2 3 2
:f(s)= s2+2s+5 s2+2s+2 (s+I)2+22 (s+I)2+12
2s
6. If L[f(t)] = 4s2 + 16 ' find f(t)
L-I[ 2
2s ] =-cos
1 21 since L- I [ 2 S
s +16
] = cos4t
4s +16 2
e- 5
7. If L[f(t)] = (s _ 2)4 find f(t)
L- I
[
e -5s
(S-2)4
1={Ig -(I - 5)3e2(t - 5) ift>5
if 1 < 5
Exercise 8(J)
10g(~)
3 s 2s+ 1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
s+2 s2+2s+6 s(s + 1) s+2
s-5 e -2 .. S2
(v) (vi) (vii)
S2 +6s+ 13 s(s + 1) (S2 + 9)(S2 + 16)
652 Engineering Mathematics - I
2S2 + s -I 0
(viii) -(ix) log (I + Sl2 ) (x) 4
(s - 4)(S2 + 2s + 2) (8 + 64)
s
(xi) (xii)
s(s + I)(s + 2)(s + 3) (s4+s2+1)
2
8 + lOs + 13 s
(xiii) (xiv) 2
2 (8 + 1)(s2 +4)
8 -I 0(8 - 5s + 6)
8+29 5s+3
(xv) (xvi)
(S+4)(S2 +9) (s -1)(s2 + 2s + 5)
48+4 S2 + 1
(xvii) (xviii)
(8 _1)2(8 + 2) s3 +3s 2 +2s
Ans. . ) -1 (-2/
( IV e -e -3/)
t
2 I
(viii) e4t - e-t(cos2t+2sint) (ix) -(I-cost)
t
(x) "8 sin2t sinh2t
. I
(XI)
6 2
I _/ 1 -2/ 1 -3/
-.l--e +-e --e
2 6
. J32(. TJ5 t.sln'ht]2"
(XII) Sin
(xiii) 12et - 37e2t + 25e3t (xiv) "3I (cost - cos2t) (xv) e--4t - cos3t + "35 sin3t
(xviii) .! - 2- et + ~ e-2l
2 2
Laplace Transforms 653
=
00
rrllo
Ile-(U+V)S J(v)g(u)dvdu = le-S(V+U) J(V)dV]g(U)dU'
where the integration is extended over the first quadrant (u ~ 0, v .:=:: 0) in the
uv-plane. We now introduce a new variable 't' in the inner integral of the last expression
by taking v = t-u so that u + v = t and dv = dt (u being fixed during this integration).
Thus
al a
8.4.2 Examples
I 2
=L- [ 2( U
1 y]= J(ue- -{t-u}du= J(ut-u )e- )du
U
s s+1 0 0
(2) ~valuate L- I
[ 2 S 2 2] using the convolution theorem.
(s +2 )
s s
Sol. Let F(s) = ~4 ' G(s) = - 2 - and Let ~s) = F(s) G(s)
s + s +4
_I s
f(t) = L-I [F(s)] = L (-2-) = cos2t
s +4
1
g(t) = L-l[G(s)] = r-I (-2-_) = ! sin2t
s +4 2
I I
C l [tp(S)] = JCOS 2u -sin 2(1 - u) du
o 2
I
=~[sin2t.U+~COS2(t-2U]1 ~tsin2u
4 2 04
(3) Evaluate L-
I
[ ~ 1using convolution theorem.
s s+4
1
Sol. Let F(s) = ~ G(s) = - and choose
vs+4 s
i...s) = F(s).G(s)
.. f(t) = L- [F(s)] =
I
r
I
~
= e-4t CI_1_ =e-41
s~
t~ = r;;
r- 1
e-
41
(s + 4) 2 2 '\I1tl
1
g(t) = L-1[G(s)] = L- 1 (-) =1
s
e --4u
f(u) = rand g(t-u) = 1
'\I1tU
By convolution theorem
1
Je-
I -4u 2!i
x2
L-1[$(s)] = Jer- du = r dx
o '\I 1tU '\I 1t 0
(where erf(t) J
I
= 2r e- x
'\I1t 0
2
dx
Exercise 8(K)
1 1
(ii) "3 (2sin2t-sint) (iii) "3 tsint
-/I -211
e -e du
(iv) I
o
u
2
I f4 -cost-smt
(vi) -Le . ]
The function L[f(t)] is a specific function of s since f(t) is known; and since a, /3, y.
}'0 and y J are constants, L(y) is completely known as a function of s. The inverse
Laplace transform of L(y) will be the solution of the given diff. eqn.
(Here it is assumed that the functions f( t), y, y' and y" must have Laplace transforms).
Laplace Transforms 657
Solved Examples
8.4.4
2
' d th
Fm e soiutlOn d2
' 0f - y + -dy - 2Y = smt
' w h'IC h satls e Imtla I cond'ItlOI1S
'files t h'" , y = 0,
dt dt
y' = 0 when t = 0
Sol. Applying the Laplace transforms to both sides of the given equation and by linearity,
we have
L(yW) + L(y') - 2L(y) = L(sin t)
1
As we know that L(sint) = -2-1 ;s > 0
s +
1
[s2L(y) -sy(O) - y' (0)] + [sL(y) - yeO)] -2 L(y) = -2-1
s +
8.4.5 Example
Solve the initial value problem
Sol. Applying Laplace transform to both sides of the differential equation, we get
1
[s2Ly(t) - sy(O) - y' (0)] -3 [sLy(t) - yeO)] +2 L(t) = L(e3!) = -
s-3
Applying the given conditions, we get
1
(s2 - 3s + 2) Ly(t) = s-3 + -
s-3
s-J I
:. L[y(t)] = (S2 _ 3s + 2) + (s - 3)(S2 - 3s + 2)
1 s-3
:. L(y(t)] = (s _ 3)(S2 _. 3s + 2) + (8 2- 3s + 2)
1 8-3
--------+------ .... (1)
(8-1)(s-2)(s-3) (s-I)(8-2)
To find yet), we expand each term on the right hand side of (I) in partial functions,
Thus
ABC
------=----+---
(s-I)(s-2)(s-3) s-1 s-2 s-3
I
s = 3 gives c ="2 hence
- - -1- - - = 1
--- +----
(s-I)(s-2)(s-3) 2(8-1) s-2 2(8-3)
Similarly we can also write
s-3 D E
----=-+--
(s-I)(s-2) s-1 s-2
Laplace Transforms 659
I I I I I
Hence L[f(t)] = --+ +---
2(s-l) s-2 2{s-3) s-I s-2
221
- - - - + -,-----
- 2( s - I ) s - 2 2{s - 3)
Example 8.4.6
Solve yll + 3yl + 2y = 2t3 + 2t + 2 with yeO) = 2, yl(O)
Sol. Applying Laplace transform to both sides of the given equation we get
L(yll) + 3L(yl) + 2L(y) = 2L(t2) + 2L(t) + 2
? I 4 2 2
[s-Ly(t) - sy(O) - yeO)] + 3 [sL[y(t)] - yeO)] + 2Ly(t) = 3 + -2 + - .... (1)
_ s s s
By partial fractions,
Exercise 8(1)
Using Laplace transform method solve the following differential equations with
the given conditions.
I. yll + 2yl - 3y = 0 at, y = 0, yl = 4 when x = 0
2. yll + 4y = 4t at y = I, yl = 0 when t = 0
3. yll - 2yl + Y = et at y = 2, yl = -I when t = 0
I
4. yll + k2y = coskt at y = 0, yl = "2 when t = 0
1. k 1 .
4. Y = 2k Sill t + "2 tSll1t 5. y = -1 + et - cosht 6. y = 3e-tsint
-I 1 I 2
7. x = 8 +"2 t - t2 + "8 e-4t 8. y = 2t - "3 sin3t