Bilbao

Universidad del Pas Vasco Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea,

Servicio Editorial = Argitalpen Zerbitzua, 2012.

ISBN: 978-84-9860-595-2
Depsito Legal / Lege gordailua: BI-142-2012

Benjamn Tejerina and Ignacia Perugorra (editors)

Edition: Mikel Azpiri Landa

Book cover design: Josu Aguinaga Cueto
From Social to Political
New Forms of Mobilization
and Democratization

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
Edited by Benjamn Tejerina and Ignacia Perugorra
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 4

Table of Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Organizing Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6FLHQWLF&RPPLWWHH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Conference Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ARAB SPRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Mobilizing during the Arab Revolutions: Palestinian Youth Speak for Themselves
Abeer Musleh (Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Iconography and Contestatory Language in the Arab Protest
Moiss Garduo Garca (Universidad Autnoma de Madrid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Social Media and New Technologies in Egypt and Tunisia:
Two Examples of Innovative Forms of Democratization
Stefania Perna (University of Reading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Gdeim Izik. A Change in the Struggle Strategies of the Sahrawi Population
Carmen Gmez Martn (EHESS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Antecedents, Achievements and Challenges of the Spanish Socio-Political Movement 15M
Toms Alberich Nistal (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Continuities and Discontinuities in Recent Social Mobilizations.
From New Social Movements to the Alter-Global Mobilizations and the 15M
Benjamn Tejerina and Ignacia Perugorra (UPV-EHU and Rutgers University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
The Assemblies of 15th May Movement in Cceres:
An Example of Democracy School, a Road to Dialogic Society
Borja Rivero Jimnez (Universidad de Extremadura) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Among Militants and Deliberative Laboratories: The Indignados
Hlose Nez (Universit Paris 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

The Notion of the Multitude and Lessons from the Present Cycle of Struggles: The Case of Greece
Nikos Sotirakopoulos (University of Kent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Occupy: A New New Social Movement
Lauren Langman (Loyola University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

The New Wave of Student Mobilizations in Europe Explained as a Fordist-Posfordist Transition
Joseba Fernndez Gonzlez (UPV-EHU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Precarious Present, Uncertain Future: Multiple Dimensions of Precarity
as a Symbolic Tool and Resource in the Italian University Mobilization
Lorenzo Zamponi (European University Institute) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Transforming the Ominous into Happiness: How Antinuclear Drive
was Tamed in the Post-War Japan?
Daishiro Nomiya (Sophia University). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Aproximacin a los movimientos sociales como sujetos de emancipacin
Zesar Martnez, Beatriz Casado and Pedro Ibarra (UPV-EHU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
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Raphael Schlembach (University of Salford) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Environment and health, yes but for other reasons:
Asserting Control, Sovereignty and Transgression in Barcelona
Isabelle Anguelovski (Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona and MIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

What Really Matters in Creating Mass Mobilization: Classical Organization or New Social Media?
A Comparative Case Study of the Mass Mobilization Process in France and South Korea
Jeong-Im Hyun (Sogang University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Twitter and Public Reasoning around Social Contention: The Case of #15ott in Italy
Stefania Vicari (University of Leicester) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Protest Politics Through Music in the Basque Country.
The Spread of the Lip Dub as a New Form of Collective Action
Ion Andoni Del Amo, Jason Diaux and Arkaitz Letamenda (UPV-EHU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

A Study of Movement Identity on Protest Events:
The case of The Protest Against the 2008 Hokkaido Toyako G8 Summit
Kyoko Tominaga (University of Tokyo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Ocup(arte)!: Cultural Engagement in The University of Puerto Rico Student Movement, 2010
Katherine Everhart (Vanderbilt University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

From the Save Movements to the Live Ones. An Analytical Approach
to the Evolution of Social Movements in Valencia in the Last Two Decades
Rafael Xamb Olmos and Xavier Gins Snchez (Universitat de Valncia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Social Movements, Civic Society and Globalization in Latin America
Ilan Bizberg (El Colegio de Mxico) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 6

Foreword

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Max Weber, and as a central class struggle for the transformation of society by Karl Marx.

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rights and pro-democratization movements constitute alternatives to global domination and the systemic
conditioning of individuals and groups.

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to deepen or initiate processes of democratization in countries such as Tunez, Egypt, Morocco, Libya and
Syria, among other. On the other, the massive displays of discontent regarding the political mismanage-
ment of the socio-economic crisis and the shrinking of the Welfare State in Southern Europe. Among the
latter are the 15M mobilizations in Spain, the Indignate-vous protests in France, Italy and Greece, and
other mobilizations organized by young people and students in England, Israel and Belgium.

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social movements, expressed by the Research Committees RC47-Social Movements and Social Classes
and RC48-Social Movements, Collective Action and Social Change of the International Sociological Asso-
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continuities and discontinuities in the contexts, organizations, repertoires, identities, and symbols suffered
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 7

Organizing Committee 6FLHQWLF&RPPLWWHH

Centro de Estudios sobre la Identidad Colectiva Taghi Azadarmaki Iran

-Collective Identity Research Center- UPV-EHU Tova Benski, College of Management Studies Israel
Diego Carbajo Breno Brigel, UNICAMP Brasil
Beatriz Cavia Jorge Cadena-Roa, UNAM Mexico
Gabriel Gatti Casal de Rey 0DUFHOOH'DZVRQ-RKDQQHVEXUJ8QLYHUVLW\
David Gmez Ruiz South Africa
Ignacio Irazuzta 0DULH&KULVWLQH'RUDQ2WWDZD8QLYHUVLW\&DQDGD
Amaia Izaola Antimo Luigi Farro, Sapienza-Universit di Roma Italy
Mara Martnez Helena Flam, Universitt Leipzig Germany
Daniel Muriel Maria da Gloria Gohn, UNICAMP Brasil
Csar A. Or Rocca James Goodman, University of Technology Australia
Alfonso Prez-Agote -HII*RRGZLQ1<8QLYHUVLW\86$
Ignacia Perugorra Eiji Hamanishi, Kyoto University Japan
Silvia Rodrguez &KULVWRSK+DXJ*RWHERUJ8QLYHUVLW\6ZHGHQ
Gema Sancibrian Lukasz Jurczyszyn, Aleksander Gieysztor Academy
Elsa Santamara of Humanities Poland
Andrs G. Seguel Lauren Langman, Loyola University of Chicago USA
Benjamn Tejerina <YRQ/H%RW&516)UDQFH
Henri Lustiger Thaler, Ramapo College USA
Kevin McDonald, Goldsmith College UK
Dai Nomidia, Sophia University Japan
Geoffrey Pleyers, FNRS-U.C. Louvain Belgium
Paola Rebughini, Bicocca Milan University Italy
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Debal Singharoy, Indira Gandhi National
Open University India
Benjamn Tejerina Montaa, UPV-EHU Spain
Emanuele Toscano, Sapienza-Universit di Roma Italy
6KXMLUR<D]DZD+LWRWVXEDVKL8QLYHUVLW\-DSDQ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 8

Conference Program

Thursday, February 9
9:00 Accreditation
9:30-9:45 Presentation
9:45-11:15 Session 1
ARAB SPRING I
Chair: Antimo Farro

Musleh, Abeer (Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University)
0RELOL]LQJGXULQJWKH$UDE5HYROXWLRQV3DOHVWLQLDQ<RXWK6SHDNIRU7KHPVHOYHV
Khosrokhavar, Farhad (CADIS)
Arab Spring Mobilizations
Garduo Garca, Moiss (Universidad Autnoma de Madrid)
Iconography and Contestatory Language in the Arab Protest
Desrues, Thierry (IESA-CSIC)
The 20th February Movement: Collective Action and Political Responses in Morocco
11:15-11:45 Coffee break
11:45-13:15 Session 2
ARAB SPRING II
Chair: Pedro Ibarra

Perna, Stefania (University of Reading)

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7ZR([DPSOHVRI,QQRYDWLYH)RUPVRI'HPRFUDWL]DWLRQ
Esu, Aide & Maddanu, Simone (Universit degli Studi di Cagliari & CADIS-EHESS)
The Controlled Heteropia: Urban Ethnography among Tunisian Migrants
connected to Arab Spring
Gmez Martn, Carmen (EHESS)
*GHLP,]LN$&KDQJHLQWKH6WUXJJOH6WUDWHJLHVRIWKH6DKUDZL3RSXODWLRQ

13:15-15:30 Lunch
15:30-17:00 Session 3A
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS
Chair: Amparo Lasn

Baumgarten, Britta (CIES-ISCTE, Universidade de Lisboa)

Espanha, Grecia, Irlanda, Portugal! A nossa luta internacional! The Portuguese Mobilizations
around the Economic Crisis and their Relationship to Other Contemporary Protests
Langman, Lauren (Loyola University)
2FFXS\1HZ1HZ6RFLDO0RYHPHQW
Grinberg, Lev Luis (Ben Gurion University)
The Israeli Mix of Europe and the Middle East: Collective Identity, Mobilization
and Socio-Political Context of the J-14 movement
 9

Sotirakopoulos, Nikos (University of Kent)

The Notion of the Multitude and Lessons from the Present Cycle of Struggles:
The Case of Greece
Session 3B
YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS
Chair: Elena Casado

Fernndez Gonzlez, Joseba (UPV-EHU)

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Zamponi, Lorenzo (European University Institute)
Precarious Present, Uncertain Future: Multiple Dimensions of Precarity as a Symbolic Tool
and Resource in the Italian University Mobilization
Rebughini, Paola (University of Milan)
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17:00-17:30 Coffee break
17:30-19:30 Session 4A
EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Chair: Ybon LeBot

Langman, Lauren & Benski, Tova (Loyola University & Tel Aviv University)
The Effects of Affects: Democratic Social Movements and their Visions
Lasn, Amparo & Casado, Elena (Universidad Complutense de Madrid)
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IURP:RPHQV0RYHPHQWVDPRQJ2WKHUV
Nomiya, Daishiro (Sophia University)
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Bataille, Philippe (CADIS)
Au sujet du corps, le corps du Sujet
Session 4B
RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Chair: Paola Rebughini

Toscano, Emanuele (Sapienza-Universit di Roma)

The space of movements: An interpretative frame
Martnez, Zesar, Casado, Beariz & Ibarra, Pedro (UPVEHU)
Aproximacin a los movimientos sociales como sujetos de emancipacin
Schlembach, Raphael (University of Salford)
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Anguelovski, Isabelle (Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona & MIT)
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Sovereignty, and Transgression in Barcelona
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 10

Friday, February 10
9:00-11:00 Session 5
15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS I:
CONTINUITIES AND DISCONTINUITIES
Chair: Dai Nomiya

Alberich Nistal, Toms (Universidad Complutense of Madrid)

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in Spain and the 15M Movement.
Tejerina, Benjamn & Perugorra, Ignacia (UPV/EHU & Rutgers University)
Continuities and Discontinuities in Recent Social Mobilizations.
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Fernndez Garca, Manuel (IESA-CSIC)
Emerging Forms of Political Protest as Participation:
The Political Space of 15M Movement
Farro, Antimo L. (Sapienza-Universit di Roma & CADIS)
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11:00-11:30 Coffee break

11:30-13:30 Session 6
15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS II: LEARNING PROCESSES
Chair: Ignacia Perugorria

Rivero Jimnez, Borja (Universidad de Extremadura)

The Assemblies of 15th May Movement in Cceres: An Example of Democracy School,
a Road to Dialogic Society
Romanos, Eduardo (Universidad Pblica de Navarra)
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Movement
Nez, Hlose (Universit Paris 13)
Among Militants and Deliberative Laboratories: The Indignados
Calvo, Kerman (Universidad de Salamanca)
Fighting for a Voice: the 15M Movement in Spain

13:30-15:30 Lunch
15:30-17:00 Session 7A
MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Chair: Emanuele Toscano

Hyun, Jeong-Im (Sogang University)

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 11

Vicari, Stefania (University of Leicester)

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Del Amo, Ion Andoni, Diaux, Jason & Letamenda, Arkaitz (UPV-EHU)
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Form of Collective Action
Del Val, Fernn (Universidad Complutense)
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Session 7B
IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY
Chair: Tova Benski

Tominaga, Kyoko (University of Tokyo)

A Study of Movement Identity on Protest Events:
The case of The Protest Against the 2008 Hokkaido Toyako G8 Summit
Everhart, Katherine (Vanderbilt University)
Ocup(arte)!: Cultural Engagement in The University of Puerto Rico
Student Movement, 2010
Martnez, Miguel A. (Universidad Complutense de Madrid)
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17:00-17:30 Coffee break
17:30-19:00 Session 8A
NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION
Chair: Simone Maddanu

Xamb Olmos, Rafael & Gins Snchez, Xavier (Universitat de Valncia)

From the Save Movements to the Live Ones. An Analytical Approach
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Rosenhek, Zeev & Shalev, Michael 2SHQ8QLYHUVLW\RI,VUDHO +HEUHZ8QLYHUVLW\RI-HUXVDOHP
Class, Generation and Social Protest. The Summer of Discontent in Israel
Bizberg, Ilan (El Colegio de Mxico)
Social Movements, Civic Society and Globalization in Latin America
Le Bot, Yvon (CADIS)
The Emergence of the Migrant Subject. A Sociological Interpretation
of the Latino Movement in the United States

19:00-19:30 Closing ceremony
ARAB SPRING
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 14

Mobilizing during the Arab Revolutions:

Palestinian Youth speak for themselves

ABEER MUSLEH
Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University

Abstract
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did not succeed in mobilizing despite the emergence of a political opportunity.
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culture of engagement, gender, youth identity and culture of mobilization, Mobilization
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To achieve this understanding the research utilizes in depth case study analysis of the
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2011. The researcher conducted participant observation for events taking place on the
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cation style, leadership style, and the structures they decide to establish.

Keywords
Activism, Arab Revolutions, Forms of Engagement, Identity, Palestine.

Literature Review
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LQJVLPLODULWLHVLQSDWWHUQVGHYHORSHGVXFKDV7XQLVLD(J\SW6\ULD<HPHQ/LE\D0RURFFR%DKUDLQHWF
+RZHYHUWKHVSLOORYHUHIIHFWRIUHYROXWLRQVFDQQRWEHPLVVHGDOORYHUZKHWKHUWKURXJKVORJDQVUDLVHGIRUPV
RIHQJDJHPHQWOHDGHUVKLSVW\OHDQGVRFLDOFODVVRIOHDGHUV$OVKZHLU\+DQD

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 15 ARAB SPRING

EHWZHHQWKHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHGDQGQRQSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHG\RXWKLQ(J\SWZDVRQHRIWKHDVSHFWVXQGHU
VWXG\+DQD)XUWKHUWKH<RXWKDELOLW\WRRYHUFRPHWKHSHUVRQDOLGHRORJ\DQGWKHLUVHQVHRIDJHQF\
WRWDNHGLIIHUHQWVWDQGVRWKHUWKDQWKHLUSROLWLFDOSDUWLHV+DQDLQDGGLWLRQWRWKHLUDELOLW\WRFRQQHFW
EHWZHHQWKHSROLWLFDOFLYLFDQGHFRQRPLFDODVSHFWVZDVFOHDULQWKHVORJDQVRIMXVWLFHUDLVHGPDLQO\E\ERWK
the revolutions of Tunisia and Egypt.

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$UDEZRUOGZDVDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHSHRSOHDUHQRWJRLQJWRUHEHODJDLQVWWKHLQMXVWLFHDQGGLFWDWRUVKLSWKH\
OLYH,WZDVDUHYROXWLRQWKDWVXUSULVHGPRVWDFWRU$OVKZHLU\0RVWRIWKHVWXGLHVDERXWWKH$UDE
UHYROXWLRQVWULHGWRXQGHUVWDQGZKDWKDSSHQHGIURPDVRFLRHFRQRPLFDOSHUFHSWLRQ/HDYLQJPRVWO\WKHIUHH
VSDFHVLQZKLFKWKHUHYROXWLRQVEXLOWLWVFXOWXUHDQGWKHQHZVSDFHVXWLOL]HGWRQXUWXUHWKLVFXOWXUHPDLQO\
VRFLDOPHGLDVWUHHWVDQGPRVTXHVDVSXEOLFVSDFHVZKHUHFXOWXUHRIPRYHPHQWVDUHGHYHORSHG(O6DNND
2QHRWKHUDVSHFWRIWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVLVWKDWLWUHLQIRUFHGWKHFRQFHSWRISRZHURIRUJDQL]HGQRQ-
YLROHQFHUHYROWVIRUVRFLDOFKDQJH(O(NHUDQGSUHVHQWHGDVSDFHLQZKLFKHDFKFLWL]HQGHVSLWHWKHLU
JHQGHUFODVVHGXFDWLRQFDQHTXDOO\SDUWLFLSDWHDQGFRQWULEXWHWRWKHFKDQJH

7KHGHEDWHDERXW3DOHVWLQLDQPRELOL]DWLRQGXULQJWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVPRVWRIWKHWLPHVWDUWHGZLWKWKH
TXHVWLRQZK\WKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKIDLOHGWRPRELOL]HRUZK\WKHLUVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQZDVQRWH[LVWHQW
5DLVLQJVXFKTXHVWLRQVLVDSUREOHPDVLWDVVXPHVWKDWDPRYHPHQWVKRXOGWDNHSODFHDQGWKHIDFWWKDWLW
did not happen is considered the abnormal (Al-Azzeh, 2011), and it limits the ability to analyze the context.
Nevertheless, both the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions had the largest impact on the Palestinian youth and
LQVSLUHGWKHPWRDFWDVFDWDO\VWVIRUWKHLUFRPPXQLW\5HYLHZLQJWKHVORJDQVUDLVHGE\WKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWK
LWLVQRWLFHGWKDWWKHVORJDQVWKHVDPHVWUXFWXUHWKDWVWDUWVZLWK7KH3HRSOHZDQWVWKH\WULHGWRKDYHWKH
VDPHZD\IRUSDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDGHUVKLSDQGSUHVHQWWKHPVHOYHVDVLQGHSHQGHQW<DWHV%URZQ
+RZHYHURQHLPSRUWDQWDVSHFWRIWKHLPSDFWRI$UDEUHYROXWLRQVRQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKLVWKHLQFUHDVHRI
sense of agency and ability to change.

When studying youth mobilization in Palestine during the period of Arab revolutions, It is hard not to
ORRNDWWKHFKDQJLQJUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQVDQGWKH$UDE:RUOG$FFRUGLQJWR$OD$]]HK
WKH3DOHVWLQLDQVWXUQHGWREHZDWFKHUVIRUWKH$UDEVFHQHLQVWHDGRIEHLQJWKHVFHQH,WZDVDWLPHLQZKLFK
WKH\ZLOOGHPRQVWUDWHLQVROLGDULW\ZLWK$UDEVDQGQRWWKHRSSRVLWH,WZDVDWLPHLQZKLFKWKH\KDGWRVWHS
EDFNDQGOHDUQQHZPHWKRGVDQGIRUPVRIPRELOL]DWLRQ2QHH[DPSOHLVZKHQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKDW4D-
ODQGLDFKHFNSRLQWRQWKH1DNEDGHPRQVWUDWLRQXVHGVLPLODU7DFWLFVWKDWZHUHXVHGE\WKH(J\SWLDQDWWKH
7DKULU6TXDUHWRRYHUFRPHWKHLPSDFWRIWHDUJDV+63HUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ

)XUWKHU\RXWKPRELOL]DWLRQLVGLIIHUHQWIURPRQHFRXQWU\WRDQRWKHUGHSHQGLQJRQWKHFRQWH[WLQZKLFK
\RXWKOLYHLQ<DWHV:LWKLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFRQWH[WWKHLQWHUQDOFRQLFWEHWZHHQWKHWZRELJJHVW
SDUWLHVOHGWRWZRGLVSXWHGJRYHUQPHQWVZKLFKZDVQRWZHOOUHFHLYHGE\SHRSOHDQG\RXWKLQSDUWLFXODU
HVSHFLDOO\WKH:HVW%DQN:%DQG*D]D6WULS*6ZHUHDQGVWLOODUHXQGHURFFXSDWLRQDGGHGWRWKLVWKH
escalation violence and repression by the Israeli occupation. All of this led to bad economic situation, and
OHIWRWKHUSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDQGWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFLYLOVRFLHW\WKDWLVLQODUJHO\GHSHQGHQWRQGRQRUVZLWKPLQL-
PDOSRZHU7KLVVLWXDWLRQDIIHFWHGWKHGHPRFUDWLFSURFHVVWKDWKDVEHHQSXWRQKROGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHLQWHUQDO
FRQLFWEHWZHHQWKHPDLQ3DOHVWLQLDQ)DFWLRQV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 16

Scope of study
7KLVDUWLFOHWULHVWRDQDO\]HZKDWKDSSHQHGLQ3DOHVWLQHGXULQJWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQV7RGRVRLWWDFNOHV
RQRQHVLGHWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WDQGWKHSROLWLFDORSSRUWXQLW\VWUXFWXUHWKDWH[LVWHGLQ3DOHVWLQHRQWKH
RWKHUVLGHLWWDNHVLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKH\RXWKSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHLUH[SHULHQFHZKLFKZLOODOORZWRXQGHU-
VWDQGEHWWHUZKDWWRRNSODFHLQUHJDUGWR\RXWKSROLWLFDOPRELOL]DWLRQVXFKDVWKHFKDOOHQJHVWKDWKLQGHUHG
mobilization in the Palestinian context. The study is based on both literature of youth engagement and social
movements.

The importance of this research lies in the fact that it not only provides hands on experience that took
SODFHLQ3DOHVWLQHGXULQJWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVEXWDOVREHFDXVHLWUHHFWVRQWKH\RXWKH[SHULHQFHWKURXJK
reading their narratives.

Research question and objectives

7KHREMHFWLYHRIWKLVSDSHULVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHGLIIHUHQWHOHPHQWVWKDWPDGHLWGLIFXOWIRUWKHFXUUHQW
JHQHUDWLRQRI\RXWKWRPRELOL]HRQWKHJURXQGWKURXJKFRQVLGHULQJ\RXWKUHHFWLRQRQWKHLUH[SHULHQFH,Q
GRLQJVRWKHIROORZLQJIDFWRUVZLOOEHWDNHQLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQFRQWH[WJHQGHULGHQWLW\IUDPLQJOHDGHU-
ship styles, and forms of engagement.

Methodology
0RVW RI WKH QGLQJV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV DUWLFOH VWHP IURP WKH UHVHDUFK FRQGXFWHG EHWZHHQ 'HFHPEHU
DQG-XQHLQ5DPDOODK3DOHVWLQH7KHUHVHDUFKHUXVHGFDVHVWXG\DSSURDFKLQZKLFKWKHWKUHH
PDLQ\RXWKJURXSVDFWLYHLQWKHDUHDRI5DPDOODKZHUHVHOHFWHG7RFROOHFWGDWDWKHUHVHDUFKHUFRQGXFWHG
SDUWLFLSDQWREVHUYDWLRQIRUHYHQWVDQGJURXSVPHHWLQJVLQWHUYLHZVZLWKOHDGHUVRIWKHWKUHHPDLQ\RXWK
groups, and content analysis for articles and responses to the events taking place.

:LWKLQWKHLQWHUYLHZVTXHVWLRQVWR\RXWKFRYHUHGWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQWKHPRELOL]DWLRQLQUHJDUGWR
WKHLUPRWLYHWRPRELOL]HOHYHORILQYROYHPHQWJURXSVOHDGHUVKLSVWUXFWXUHUROHWKH\SOD\HGWKHLUSHUFHS-
WLRQRIRWKHUPDLQ\RXWKJURXSVDFWLQJRQWKHJURXQGWKHLULGHQWLW\VSHFLFZD\VRIHQJDJHPHQWQHWZRUNV
XWLOL]HGZD\VXVHGWRIDFHUHSUHVVLRQUROHRI\RXQJZRPHQDQGQDOO\WKHLUIXWXUHSHUVSHFWLYHV

$OOLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGLQ$UDELFVRPHRIWKHLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGGXULQJWKHPRELOL]D-
WLRQSURFHVVDQGDVWKHHYHQWVZHUHWDNLQJSODFHDQGSDUWRIWKHLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGDIWHUWKHZKROH
PRELOL]DWLRQSURFHVVHQGHG,QWHUYLHZVZHUHWUDQVFULEHGDQGFRGHGDQGDQDO\]HGXVLQJ$WODV7,VRIWZDUH7R
SURWHFWWKHSULYDF\RI5HVHDUFKVXEMHFWSVHXGRQDPHVZLOOEHXVHGLQVWHDGRIUHVHDUFKVXEMHFWVQDPHV,WLV
LPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWWKHUHVHDUFKHUHQVXUHGWKH\RXWKWRVKDUHWKHUHVXOWVDQGDQDO\VLVRIWKHUHVHDUFKZLWK
WKHP7KHUHVXOWVVKDUHGZLOOEHDZD\RIHYDOXDWLQJWKHH[SHULHQFHWKH\SDVVHGWKURXJK7KH\RXWKFRQVLG-
HUHGWKHUHVHDUFKHUDQLQVLGHULQWKHJURXSVHVSHFLDOO\WKDWWKHUHVHDUFKHUZDVDPHPEHURIRQHRIWKHJURXSV
and considered her task as documentation and as part of the effort needed to enhance the group experience.
 17 ARAB SPRING

The Palestinian context and political mobilization

The nature of youth political mobilization in Palestine has been changing over time. The nature of po-
OLWLFDOPRELOL]DWLRQXVXDOO\LPSDFWVWKHSRVLWLRQRI\RXWKZLWKLQWKHLUFRPPXQLW\WKHSRZHUWRKROGLQJ
positions, and the impact they can make in the Palestinian society in general. Historically the Palestinian
youth played an important role in community mobilization for national causes. The 1st Palestinian youth
FRQIHUHQFHWRRNSODFHLQWKH\HDULQZKLFK3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKORRNHGLQWRZD\VWRFRPPXQLW\PRELOL]H
WRUHVLVWWKH=LRQLVWPRYHPHQWWKUHDWVWRWKH3DOHVWLQLDQVRFLHW\WLQWKHVWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ
youth through the student movement formed and led the PLO and mobilized the Palestinian community
DURXQGWKH0LOLWDQWUHVLVWDQWRIRFFXSDWLRQ\LJKDQG6LUKDQ,QWKH\SURYLGHGDPRGHORI
non-violent popular resistance through the 1st,QWLIDGD6LQFHVLJQLQJRI2VOR$FFRUGWLOOQRZ3DOHVWLQLDQ
SROLWLFDO\RXWKHQJDJHPHQWVKRZHGYDULRXVIRUPVRIDFWLYLVPWKDWYDULHGEDVHGRQWKHDIOLDWLRQDQGFRQ-
WH[WZLWKLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFRPPXQLW\

Studies about the Palestinian youth, indicated a decrease in the level of youth political activism and
mobilization since the signature of the Oslo agreement (Bailey and Murray, 2009) compared to their sig-
QLFDQWUROHGXULQJWKHUVW,QWLIDGD6LQFHWKHQPDLQFKDQJHVWRRNSODFHUHJDUGLQJWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWK
LGHQWLW\IRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWSRVLWLRQDQGUROHRI\RXWKZLWKLQWKH3ROLWLFDO)DFWLRQV

<RXWKHQJDJHPHQWGRHVQRWKDSSHQLQDYDFXXPLWLVDIIHFWHGE\WKHFRQWH[WLQZKLFK\RXWKOLYHLQ7KLV
FRQWH[WLQFOXGHVVWUXFWXUHVDQGYDOXHVORJLFVDQGSUDFWLFHVWKDWSURYLGH\RXQJSHRSOHZLWKRSSRUWXQLWLHV
FRQVWUDLQVIRUGHYHORSPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ<DWHV%HLQJXQGHURFFXSDWLRQWKHFOHDUV\VWHPWR
UHEHODJDLQVWGXHWRFRQWLQXHGLQFUHDVHGRSSUHVVLYHPHDVXUHVSUHVHQWHGE\WKH$SDUWKHLGZDOOWKHVHWWOH-
PHQWVFRQVFDWLRQRIODQGFKHFNSRLQWVGHPROLWLRQRIKRXVHVDQGDSDUWKHLGODZVDJDLQVW3DOHVWLQLDQV
ZKHWKHUWKH\OLYHLQ,VUDHORULQWKH:HVW%DQNLQFOXGLQJ-HUXVDOHPDQG*D]D6WULSWKHVWDWHGLGQRWH[-
LVWZLWKLQWKHSROLWLFDOFRQWH[W$O$]]HK'HVSLWHWKHLUGLVDSSRLQWPHQWIURPWKH3DOHVWLQLDQV\VWHP
DQGVWUXFWXUHVZKLFKLVIHHGLQJWKHGLYLVLRQWKH\RXWKFRXOGQRWUHDFKDSRVLWLRQZKHUHWKH\FDQVWDQG
completely against it. This limited the forms of engagement they adopted.

7KHVLWXDWLRQEHFRPHVZRUVHFRQVLGHULQJWKHGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQ)DWHKDQG+DPDVLQZKLFKWKH\RXWK
ZHUHGLYLGHGEHWZHHQWKHWZRELJSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVUHVXOWLQJLQKDYLQJ\RXWKJKWLQJDJDLQVWHDFKRWKHU
LQVWHDGRIXQLWLQJWRJHWKHUIRUGHYHORSLQJWKHVRFLHW\DQGUHVLVWLQJRFFXSDWLRQ%DLOH\DQG0XUUD\
5DKDO(QGLQJGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQWKHPDLQWZRIDFWLRQVEHFDPHWKHPDLQFRQFHUQRIWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ
VRFLHW\LQJHQHUDODQGWKH\RXWKLQSDUWLFXODU%DLOH\DQG0XUUD\$VWKH3/2ZHDNHQHGDIWHUWKH
2VOR$FFRUGLWFRXOGQRWSOD\DUROHLQVROYLQJWKHLQWHUQDOFRQLFW9DULRXVDWWHPSWWRRNSODFHVLQFH
WRHQGWKHGLVSXWHKRZHYHUDOOWKHVHDWWHPSWVIDLOHGDQGDV\VWHPUXOHGE\VHFXULW\IRUFHVZDVUHLQIRUFHG
in both WB and GS that year.

$WWKHOHYHORIWKH3DOHVWLQLDQRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVZKLFKDUHLPSRUWDQWLQQXUWXULQJ\RXWK
LQWRSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWDVWKH\DUHWKHSODFHZKHUHSROLWLFDOVRFLDOL]DWLRQXVXDOO\WDNHVSODFHGLGQRW
SOD\WKLVUROH%RWK0FDGDPDQG&KHFNRZD\DQG*XWLHUUH]GHVFULEHGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI
community organization and indicated the importance of institutions in creating the opportunity for young
SHRSOHWRHQWHUWKHSROLWLFDOSURFHVV+RZHYHULQWKHFDVHRIWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKPRVWRIWKHPKDYHEHHQ
IDFLQJPDQ\FKDOOHQJHVVXFKDVEHLQJVWXFNZLWKLQROGHUVWUXFWXUHVOHGE\ROGHUJHQHUDWLRQVZKLFKGLG
QRWDOORZ\RXWKWRKDYHDUROHLQGHFLVLRQPDNLQJZLWKLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGSDUWLHVVWUXFWXUHV,QDGGL-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 18

WLRQWKHQRQJRYHUQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQV1*2VEHLQJGHSHQGHQWRQ'RQRUVORVWWKHLUFRQQHFWLRQZLWK

WKHJUDVVURRWVDQGFRXOGQRWEHWKHSODFHVZKHUH\RXWKYDOXHVFRPPXQLFDWLRQVW\OHDQGLGHQWLWLHVDUH
GHYHORSHGDQGVKDSHGDQGZKHUHQHJRWLDWLRQVEHWZHHQROGDQGQHZZRUOGVYLVLRQVDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
VW\OHVFDQWDNHSODFH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKDFWLYLVWVUHHFWHGWKDWWRDFHUWDLQH[WHQWWKDWWKH\GRQWQGD
SODFHZLWKLQWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHG\RXWKDQG\RXWKLQYROYHGLQRUJDQL]DWLRQVFRXOGQRWJHW
RXWRIWKHDXWKRULW\RIWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVWRKDYHWKHLURZQZD\RIWKLQNLQJDQGGHYHORSWKHLUHOGRILQWHU-
est. Therefore, it is clear that the existing structures of the various institutions and political parties did not
HQFRXUDJH\RXWKSDUWLFLSDWLRQZKLFKUHVXOWHGLQWKH\RXWKVPLVWUXVWLQWKHVHLQVWLWXWLRQV,WJRHVZLWKRXW
VD\LQJWKDWZLWKLQWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVXVXDOO\WKHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHG\RXWKFRXOGQRWUHPRYHWKHKDWRIWKHLU
SROLWLFDOSDUW\DQGZHDUWKHKDWRID\RXWKDFWLYLVWWKDWKDVDGLIIHUHQWYLVLRQ

7KHRSSRUWXQLW\IRUWKHSROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQFKDQJHFDPHDVDUHVXOWRIWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVZKHQ3DO-
HVWLQLDQ\RXWKIRXQGDQHZPRGHOWRLGHQWLI\ZLWK7KH)LUVW3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKPRELOL]LQJDWWHPSWGXULQJ
WKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVZDVDQDFWRIVROLGDULW\ZLWKWKH7XQLVLDQSHRSOH7KHGHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVLQLWLDWHGE\
\RXWKJURXSVZKRLGHQWLHGWKHPVHOYHVDVLQGHSHQGHQW7KLVLVQRWVXUSULVLQJDVWKH\RXWKLQWKHSROLWLFDO
SDUWLHVZHUHWLHGE\WKHLUSDUWLHVSROLFLHVDQGWKLVH[SODLQVZK\\RXWKZKRZHUHQRWSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHGWR
SDUWLHVPDGHWKHUVWPRYH7KHVH\RXWKZHUHPHPEHUVRILQGHSHQGHQWDFWLYLVWVJURXSVDQGZHUHUHDFKHG
WKURXJKIDFHERRNSHUVRQDOQHWZRUNV7KHUVWGHPRQVWUDWLRQVWRVXSSRUWERWKWKH7XQLVLDQDQG(J\SWLDQ
SHRSOHZHUHIDFHGZLWKUHSUHVVLRQE\WKH3DOHVWLQLDQVHFXULW\IRUFHV7KHVROLGDULW\GHPRQVWUDWLRQVZLWK
WKH7XQLVLDQDQG(J\SWLDQSHRSOHKRZHYHUVWDUWHGWRUDLVHVORJDQVRIHQGLQJGLYLVLRQDQGRFFXSDWLRQE\
February 7th, 2011

<RXWKJURXSVVWDUWHGWRHPHUJHDQGRUJDQL]HPDLQO\HLWKHUWKURXJKIDFHERRNRUIDFHWRIDFHWKURXJK
FORVHGPHHWLQJV0HPEHUVRIWKHJURXSVZHUHWU\LQJWRDYRLGWKHVHFXULW\IRUFHVLQWHUYHQWLRQDQGLQWHUUR-
JDWLRQ+RZHYHUWKHUHZDVDVHULRXVSUREOHPWKDWIDFHGWKHVHJURXSV7KHDFWLYLVW\RXWKJURXSVFRXOGQRW
UHDFKDFRQVHQVXVRQRQHPDLQREMHFWLYHRIWKHLUPRELOL]DWLRQ7KH\ZHUHPDLQO\GLYLGHGEHWZHHQ(QG
'LYLVLRQDQG(QG2FFXSDWLRQ+XQGUHGVRIJURXSVHPHUJHGRQIDFHERRNXQGHUWKHDERYHWZRREMHF-
WLYHV,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHZDVQRFOHDUDJHQGDRUDJUHHGXSRQSODQWRKRZWRJRDERXWLWDQGFRXOGQRWHYHQ
agree on one date.

Taking into consideration that the Palestinian society is highly politicized , political parties had a high
FRQWURODQGDFFHVVWRQHWZRUNVRILQGLYLGXDOVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQVGHVSLWHWKHKLJKGLVDSSRLQWPHQWRIWKHLUSHU-
IRUPDQFH%URZQ3ROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVFRQWURORYHUWKHDIOLDWHG\RXWKZDVDQGVWLOOLVYHU\VWURQJ
2QHPDLQLQFLGHQWWKDWVKRZHGWKLVFRQWUROZDVEXUQLQJWKHVLWLQWHQW:KLOHWKHSXEOLFZDVZDLWLQJIRU
WKH\RXWKWRPDNHDFKDQJH\HWDQGLWZDVQRWZLOOLQJWREHSDUWRIWKLVFKDQJH%XLOGLQJRQWKH$UDEH[SH-
ULHQFHVWKHSXEOLFZDVDQWLFLSDWLQJIRUFKDQJHWRKDSSHQ:LWKLQSROLWLFDOVRFLDOL]DWLRQSUHYLRXVH[SHUL-
HQFHUHODWLRQWRLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGFURVVDJHUHODWLRQVDUHDOODVSHFWVWKDWVKDSH\RXWKIRUPVDQGZLOOLQJQHVV
of engagement (boyte,2004).

As the Palestinian society is politicized, the creation of security controlled authority, is one of the chal-
lenges that limited youth and community participation. Within this context, freedom of expression and
SROLWLFDOULJKWVZHUHWKUHDWHQHG

Both of the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions created a change in the Palestinian morale, and gave
\RXWKVRPHKRSHWRPDNHDGLIIHUHQFHZLWKLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQSROLWLFDOVWUXFWXUH
 19 ARAB SPRING

Research Results and Discussion

7KLVVHFWLRQZLOOUHHFWRQWKHPDLQLVVXHVPHQWLRQHGE\\RXWKDQGSRVLWLWLQWKHIUDPHRI\RXWKSROLWLFDO
engagement through considering mainly identity, framing, leadership styles, and forms of engagement taking
LQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQFRQWH[WDQGJHQGHUDVVLJQLFDQWYDULDEOHV

Identity

Identity gets its meaning from being part of collectiveness. Gender, race, class, and education are ele-
PHQWVWKDWDIIHFWLGHQWLW\IRUPDWLRQ.ODWFK$OWKRXJK\RXWKDFWLYLVWVIURPDOOJURXSVLGHQWLHGWKHP-
selves as independent, they still had different identities and perspectives based on their previous and current
DIOLDWLRQV$FFRUGLQJWR0LFKHHYHU\LQGLYLGXDOKDVPXOWLSOHLGHQWLWLHVDVDUHVXOWRIEHORQJLQJWR
various collectives. Individuals negotiate the dominant identity at a time given depending on the setting
and the various collectivities existing and the public they are trying to create. Groups and individuals are
SHUFHLYHGE\LGHQWLHGE\WKHLUDIOLDWLRQVDQGEHORQJLQJWRYDULRXVFROOHFWLYLWLHV:LWKLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ
FRQWH[WSROLWLFDODIOLDWLRQLVRQHRIWKHPDMRULGHQWLWLHVWKDWGHQHLQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSV'HVSLWHWKHVHOI
GHQLWLRQDVLQGHSHQGHQWWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHJURXSVZHUHVWLOOSHUFHLYHGE\WKHLUSUHYLRXVDIOLDWLRQV7KH
WKUHHJURXSVZHUHPDLQO\GLYLGHGLQWRLQGHSHQGHQW\RXWKQRSUHYLRXVSROLWLFDODIOLDWLRQSROLWLFDOO\DIOL-
DWHG\RXWKSUHYLRXVO\DIOLDWHGZLWKOHIWLVWIDFWLRQVDQGDJURXSDIOLDWHGZLWK)DWHKDQG1*2V

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DOOLDQFHVDQGQHWZRUNV7KHJURXSVFRXOGQRWDJUHHRQRQHXPEUHOODWRZRUNEHQHDWK7KHGLVFRPIRUW
DFURVVWKHJURXSVZDVQRWLFHGRQWKHJURXQGLQWKUHHIRUPVVORJDQVUDLVHGE\WKHJURXSVGLYLGLQJGD\V
RIDFWLYLWLHVDFURVVWKHJURXSVLHHDFKJURXSFRQGXFWHGLWVDFWLYLW\DWWKH0DQDUDKVTXDUHPDLQVTXDUH
LQ5DPDOODKRQDGLIIHUHQWGD\DQGQDOO\FRQGXFWLQJGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLWLHVRQWKHVDPHGD\ZKHQXQLWLQJ
HIIRUWVZDVQHHGHG7KLVZDVFOHDURQWKH/DQG'D\RQ0DUFKZKHQRQHJURXSSHUFHLYHGWRKDYHOHIW-
LVWDIOLDWLRQVOHGDGHPRQVWUDWLRQWRZDUG%HLW(LO,VUDHOLVHWWOHPHQWZKHUHWKH\JRWLQWRFRQIURQWDWLRQ
ZLWKWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ1DWLRQDO$XWKRULW\31$WKH31$SROLFHGHFODUHGWKDWWKH\ZLOOVWDQGDJDLQVWDQ\
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DIOLDWLRQFDOOHGIRUVXSSRUWLQJWKHSHRSOHRI1DEL6DOHK9LOODJHQHDU5DPDOODKWKDWDUHLPSDFWHGE\WKH
Apartheid and Separation Wall (MM, personal communication).

,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWWKHFRQLFWEHWZHHQJURXSVDQGLQGLYLGXDOLGHQWLWLHVPDLQO\H[LVWHGZLWKLQ
JURXSVZKRZHUHFRQGXFWLQJDFWLYLWLHVRQWKHJURXQGFRQWUDU\WRWKHJURXSZKRFRQGXFWHGWKH6LWLQQDQG
KXQJHUVWULNH7KRVHJURXSVRQWKHFRQWUDU\SOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHDWOHDVWGXULQJWKHUVWPRQWKLQEULQJ-
LQJ\RXWKJURXSVWRJHWKHUWKH\ZHUHWKHEURNHUVEHWZHHQWKHJURXSVHVSHFLDOO\WKDWWKH\KDGPHPEHUVWKDW
DUHFRPPLWWHGZLWKDOORIWKHP7KHIRUPRIHQJDJHPHQWSURYLGHGWKHPZLWKLQVLGHURXWVLGHUSHUVSHFWLYH
and status ( Miche, 2008).

)XUWKHUWKHIHDUWKDWWKH\RXWKKDGIURPEHLQJFRRSWHGE\RWKHUSROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVPDGHWKHPGUDZD
ERDUGHUWKDWLVRODWHGWKHPIURPRWKHUV(YHQZKHQWKH\ZHUHDSSURDFKHGE\\RXWKIURPYDULRXVSROLWLFDO
SDUWLHVWKH\FRXOGQRWEXLOGZLWKWKHPDFROODERUDWLYHUHODWLRQDQGPRYHWRZDUGDPXWXDOLGHQWLW\RUHYHQ
QHJRWLDWHWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHGDQGLQGHSHQGHQW\RXWK,QVWHDGWKH\DVVXPHGWKDW
every attempt to support them from political factions is meant to co-opt their mobilization and eventually
UHIXVHGLW7KLVPHDQWWKDWWKH\RXWKORVWDODUJHSRVVLEOHQHWZRUNRIVXSSRUWWKDWWKH\FRXOGKDYHGHYHORSHG
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 20

)XUWKHUWKHERDUGHUVWKDWWKH\RXWKGUDZDURXQGWKHPVHOYHVZHUHFOHDURQWKH0DQDUDKVTXDUHZKHQ
\RXQJSHRSOHPDGHDKXPDQFLUFOHLQZKLFKDFWLYLWLHVWRRNSODFHZLWKLQ$OWKRXJKRQWKHUVWGD\WKLV
circle aimed at protecting the activists from being physically and sexually harassed, it created eventually
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the activists and the rest of the community.

The connotation of the circle is important not only in regard to the identity of the youth activists and the
RWKHU\RXWKJURXSVQRWRQO\ZKRDUHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHGWREXWLWVLVDOVRVLJQLFDQWLQLGHQWLI\LQJZKR
FRPHIURPDZKDWVRFLRHFRQRPLFEDFNJURXQG$FFRUGLQJWR+=LWZDVLPSRUWDQWIRUXVLQRUGHUWRSUR-
WHFWRXUVHOYHVDWWKHUVWGD\VWRGRWKHFLUFOHDIWHUWKDWZHOLPLWHGRXUVHOYHVLQWRDVPDOOFRUQHULQVWHDG
RIRFFXS\LQJWKHVWUHHW+=3HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ)XUWKHUEHLQJLQWKHFLUFOH\RXQJSHRSOHZHUH
DVNHGWREHKDYHLQDFHUWDLQZD\IROORZFHUWDLQGLUHFWLRQZKLFKLVQRWQHFHVVDU\UHSUHVHQWLQJWKHJHQHUDO
SRSXODWLRQRI\RXWK$VDUHVXOWGLVWXUELQJWKHFLUFOHJHWWLQJLQWRLWRUFRQGXFWDFWLYLWLHVFORVHWRLWZDVD
ZD\IURPRWKHUJURXSVWRQHJRWLDWHDQGVKRZSRZHU

The youth tried hardly to identify themselves as non-factional, and tried to present themselves as com-
PXQLW\FDWDO\VWV+RZHYHUVXFKDVWDQGZLWKLQDKLJKO\SROLWLFL]HGFRPPXQLW\PHDQWWKDWWKH\RXQJSHR-
SOHQHHGHGWRKDYHFDUHIXOQDYLJDWLRQEHWZHHQEHLQJFRRSWHGE\WKHROGHUPRYHPHQWVDQGFKDOOHQJLQJ
WKHPWRRGLUHFWO\%URZQ)XUWKHU$FFRUGLQJWR+LODOSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVZHUHDIUDLGWKDWWKH
\RXWKPRELOL]DWLRQFDQWXUQLQWRDPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQZKLFKZLOOPDNHSROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVORVHLWVUROHDQG
SRZHULQWKHFRPPXQLW\VSHFLDOO\ZLWKDQLQFUHDVHRIGLVDSSRLQWPHQWDQGZLWKGUDZDORI\RXWKIURPSR-
litical parties to reach approximately 60 percent (Hilal, 2011). As a result political parties tried to limit and
co-opt the youth mobilization directly or indirectly.

*HQGHUZDVDQRWKHUFRPSRQHQWRILGHQWLW\IRU\RXWKPRELOL]DWLRQ6WDUWLQJth of March gender iden-

WLW\VWDUWHGWRVKRZFOHDUO\WKURXJKUROHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVWDNHQE\GLIIHUHQWJURXSPHPEHUVSRZHU
perception, type of repression by security forces, forms of engagement. Starting the demonstrations of 15th
RI0DUFKLWZDVQRWLFHGWKDWWUDGLWLRQDOSHUFHSWLRQVRIZRPHQUROHVDQGVSDFHVWDUWHGWRVKRZXSHVSH-
FLDOO\ZKHQGLVFXVVLQJLVVXHVRIZRPHQVOHHSLQJLQWKHVLWLQQLWZDVFOHDUWKDW\RXQJPHQLPPHGLDWHO\
DGRSWHGWKHWUDGLWLRQDOUROHVLQZKLFKWKH\WKRXJKWDOO\RXQJZRPHQVKRXOGJREDFNKRPH)43HUVRQDO
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ+63HUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ=63HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ)XUWKHUWKHSHUFHSWLRQRI
PDOHDFWLYLVWVDOOWKHWLPHZHUHWKLQNLQJWKDWWKH\KDYHWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRSURWHFWWKHIHPDOHDFWLYLVWV
DOWKRXJK\RXQJZRPHQZHUHWKHRQHVZKRDFWXDOO\SURWHFWHGWKHPDOHDFWLYLVWVIURPSK\VLFDOKDUDVVPHQW
ZKHQLWWRRNSODFHRQWKDWVDPHGD\)XUWKHULWLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWIHPDOHDFWLYLVWVIURPDOOJURXSV
ZHUHWKHRQHVZKRDUHZLOOLQJWREULGJHJDSVEHWZHHQWKHJURXSVWKH\ZHUHZLOOLQJWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQDOO
IRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWKRZHYHULWZDVQRWDOZD\VDOORZHGE\PDOHDFWLYLVWVIURPWKHLURZQJURXSV

Framing

,QWKHFDVHRI3DOHVWLQHWKUHHGLVFRXUVHVXVHGZHUHHQGLQJ2FFXSDWLRQHQGLQJGLYLVLRQDQG1HZ
3DOHVWLQLDQQDWLRQDO&RXQFLO31&IRUWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ/LEHUDWLRQ0RYHPHQW3/2$OWKRXJKWKHJURXSV
tried at some points to raise all the slogans at the same time mainly in the demonstration of the 15th of
0DUFK\RXWKZHUHQRWDEOHWRKDYHRQHIUDPLQJWKDWDOOJURXSVZLOODGRSW)XUWKHUWKHUVWIUDPLQJ
RIREMHFWLYHVRIPRELOL]DWLRQZHUHQRWDUHVXOWRIZHOOWKRXJKWIXOSURFHVV$FFRUGLQJWR+$+
 21 ARAB SPRING

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ZRXOGKDSSHQLIZHZRXOGFDOOIRUHQGLQJRIWKHLQWHUQDOGLYLVLRQDQGWKLVLVZKDWZHGLGVXGGHQO\HYHU\RQHLQWKHGHP-
onstration started calling the same slogan. At the same demonstration people also started calling for ending the occupation.
7KHQH[WGD\KXQGUHGVRIIDFHERRNJURXSVDSSHDUHG7KHVHJURXSVZHUHGLYLGHGEHWZHHQWKHWZRVORJDQVDQGRQO\IHZ
combined both ( HAH, Personal communication).

$IWHUWKLVWKHJURXSVVWDUWHGWRZRUNRQWKHLUYLVLRQDQGLGHQWLI\SULRULWLHVIRUWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFRPPX-
QLW\)RUH[DPSOHWKH\RXWKJURXSVWKDWVHOHFWHGDQHZ31&VORJDQUDLVHGWKHVORJDQDVDVWDUWWREHGLIIHU-
HQWIURPWKHJURXSVRI\RXWKDIOLDWHGZLWKSROLWLFDOSDUWLHV%RWK)DWHKDQG+DPDVDIOLDWHGJURXSVWKDW
UDLVHGWKHVORJDQRIHQGLQJGLYLVLRQDQGRQHPDMRUJURXSZKLFKLQFOXGHGERWK1*2VDQG)DWHKDIOLDWHG
UDLVHGWKHVORJDQ(QGLQJRFFXSDWLRQ,WZDVWKHLUZD\WRVKRZWKHLULQGHSHQGHQWLGHQWLW\DQGWRFRQQHFW
ZLWKODUJHUQXPEHURI3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKLQDQG'LDVSRUD)43HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ+$+3HU-
VRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ1%3HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ=63HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ

)UDPLQJ$IUDPHLVVFKHPDWDRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ*RIIPDQLVLPSRUWDQWWRVXSSRUWSDUWLFL-

SDWLRQLQ6RFLDO0RYHPHQW6QRZ(%XUNH5RFKIRUGHWDODVLWHQDEOHVLQGLYLGXDOVWRORFDWH
SHUFHLYHLGHQWLI\DQGODEHORFFXUUHQFHVZLWKLQWKHLUOLIHVSDFHDQGWKHZRUOGDWODUJH)UDPHVSOD\DQ
LPSRUWDQWUROHLQRUJDQL]LQJH[SHULHQFHDQGJXLGHDFWLRQVIRUERWKLQGLYLGXDODQGWKHFROOHFWLYH6QRZ(
%XUNH5RFKIRUGHWDO)UDPHVDUHFRQVLGHUHGYLWDOIRUVKDSLQJZD\VDFWLYLVWVRUJDQL]HDQGFRP-
PXQLFDWHDVZHOODVV\PEROVWKH\FDUU\)UDPHVDIIHFWFKDQQHOVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQVWUXFWXUHVIRUPHG
LGHQWLWLHVDQGZRUOGYLHZV

6HYHUDOIDFWRUVSOD\HGUROHLQWKHGLYLVLRQDFURVVWKHLUJURXSV)LUVW7KHJHRJUDSKLFDOGLYLVLRQZLWK
different living situations across the various Palestinian places of existence. For example, the interest of
WKH\RXWKLQ*D]DPDGHHQGLQJGLYLVLRQWKHLUSULRULW\KRZHYHULQUHJDUGWR3DOHVWLQLDQVZLWKLQWKH:HVW
%DQNLQDGGLWLRQWRGLYLVLRQHQGLQJRFFXSDWLRQZDVDOVRDSULRULW\7KHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHFRQWH[WEHWZHHQ
the West Bank and Gaza impacted the interpretation to priorities. The geographical division also impacted
the level of communication across youth groups during the framing process. Most of the discussions took
SODFHRYHUIDFHERRNSDJHV)4SHUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ=63HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQH[FHSWIRUIHZ
meetings that took place across some youth leaders, and lectures conducted by youth groups at various
locations before 15th of march, 2011.

6HFRQGWKHLGHQWLW\RIWKHSROLWLFDOIDFWLRQZDVVWURQJHUDPRQJPRVWRIWKHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHG\RXWK
WKH\FRXOGQRWVHSDUDWHWKHPVHOYHVDZD\IURPWKHLUSDUWLHVDQGZRUNRQDGLIIHUHQWIUDPLQJDQGWKHLQGH-
SHQGHQW\RXWKFRXOGQRWWUXVWWKHSROLWLFDOO\DIOLDWHG\RXWKQRWWRWU\WRFRRSWWKHLUPRYHPHQWDQGKLMDFN
LW7DNLQJLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKHKLJKO\SROLWLFDO3DOHVWLQLDQVRFLHW\ZLWKSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVWKDWGRQRWSUR-
vide a place for young people to be part of decision making (Rahal, 2009), and considering the existence of
ruling political party structure and culture in both the WB and GS and the high levels of disappointments
IURPSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVVLQFH2VORDFFRUGGHYHORSLQJDQDOOLDQFHEHWZHHQLQGHSHQGHQWDQGSROLWLFDOO\DIOL-
DWHG\RXWKZDVQRWDQHDV\PDWWHU

$V6KHUURGHWDOLQGLFDWHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFROODERUDWLRQZLWKRWKHUVKDYLQJVLPLODULQWHUHVWVLQ

RUGHUWRGHYHORSWKHFROOHFWLYHSRZHUWRLQXHQFHWKHSROLWLFDOV\VWHPLQ3ROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQ3DUWLFLSD-
WLRQUHTXLUHGJURXSVWREHDEOHWRSUHVHQWWKHLURZQLQWHUHVWVOLVWHQWRRWKHUVDQGQHJRWLDWHMRLQWGHFLVLRQV
8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHRWKHUVSHUVSHFWLYHVZDVQRWRQHRIWKHVWURQJDVVHWVIRUWKHH[LVWLQJJURXSV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 22

Further, taking into consideration both the context and the characteristics of youth activists, the fram-
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Palestinian youth could not raise slogans that could mobilize people around them and this is due to the
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FKDOOHQJHIRUWKHWZRDXWKRULWLHVLQWKH:%DQG*6$FFRUGLQJO\\RXWKFRXOGQRWUHDFKDPDWXUHIUDPLQJ
process to encourage people join them.

Falling short from unifying the objectives meant that the youth could not build a strategy, and an ap-
SURDFKWRUHDFKWKHLUREMHFWLYHV<RXWKFRXOGQRWEXLOGDFROODERUDWLRQZLWKWKRVHZKRKDGKDYHVLPLODU
LQWHUHVWVZKLFKZDVQHHGHGWRGHYHORSWKHFROOHFWLYHSRZHUWRLQXHQFHWKHSROLWLFDOV\VWHP

Leadership and communication style

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SDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDGHUVKLSVW\OHDVVW\OHRIOHDGHUVKLSWKDWDOORZVIRUPRUHSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGGHFLVLRQPDN-
LQJ$FFRUGLQJWR0LFKH/HDGHUVKLSVWUXFWXUHVDGRSWHGE\JHQHUDWLRQVDUHLPSDFWHGZLWKWKHLUSUH-
YLRXVH[SHULHQFHVDQGDIOLDWLRQVLQZKLFKWKH\GHYHORSGLIIHUHQWZD\VRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGWKH\DGDSW
LWDFFRUGLQJWRWKHVLWXDWLRQWKH\OLYH7KLVDSSOLHVODUJHO\WRWKH3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKVLWXDWLRQ7ZRIDFWRUV
OHG\RXQJSHRSOHWRDLPWRKDYHDKRUL]RQWDODQGSDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDGHUVKLSUVWWKHLUSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFH
ZLWK3DOHVWLQLDQ,QVWLWXWLRQVSUHVHQWHGE\SROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVDQG1*2V7KHVHVWUXFWXUHVGLGQRWSURYLGH
DVSDFHIRU\RXWKWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQDGGLWLRQWRWKHGLVDSSRLQWPHQWRI\RXWKZLWKWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRISROLWLFDO
SDUWLHVDQG1*266HFRQGWKHPRGHOSUHVHQWHGLQERWK7XQLVLDDQG(J\SWUHYROXWLRQVLQZKLFKQRFOHDU
JXUHVRIOHDGHUVZHUHSUHVHQWHGDQGWKHERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQJURXSVZHUHH[LEOHDQGHYHQWXDOO\NHSWD
OHYHORILQQRYDWLRQIRUDOO\RXWKZKRVKRZHGLQWHUHVWLQJHWWLQJHQJDJHG)43HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ
+63HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ+=3HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ

+RZHYHUWKLVNLQGRIOHDGHUVKLSFUHDWHGSUREOHPVIRUWKHJURXSRQWKHJURXQG6RPHRIWKRVHSUREOHPV
ZHUHPDLQO\UHODWHGWRWKHVSHHGRIWDNLQJGHFLVLRQVRQWKHJURXQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKDXWKRULW\JXUHV
media, and reaching a joint demand and discourse. Not having a clear structure and channels of commu-
QLFDWLRQRQWKHJURXQGLQZKLFKXVXDOO\WKHWUDGLWLRQDOFKDLQRIFRPPDQGWDNHVSODFHPDGHLWGLIFXOWIRU
WKHDFWLYLVWVWRIDFHWKHWZRPDLQSROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVWKDWKDYHDVWURQJQHWZRUNRILQGLYLGXDOVDQGRUJDQL]D-
WLRQV7KHODFNRIFOHDUVWUXFWXUHFRPELQHGZLWKDVPDOOQXPEHURIDFWLYLVWVDQGOLWWOHRIH[SHULHQFHPDGH
it impossible for young activists to keep their stands, and instead of acting, most of their action became a
reaction to the repression they faced from the security forces and the attempt of the Main political parties
to coop their Political Mobilization.

<RXWKJURXSVOHDGHUVKLSZDVGHPRQVWUDWHGRQWKHJURXQGLQIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWVWKHOHDGHUVKLS
of youth participating in the sit-in, leadership of youth participating in the hunger strike, and leadership of
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tant to notice that until the 18thRI0DUFKWKHOHDGHUVKLSIRUWKHWKUHHIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWZDVRQH
$QGERWKPHPEHUVRIWKHKXQJHUVWULNHDQGWKHVLWLQZHUHWKHVDPHDV\RXWKFRQGXFWLQJDFWLYLWLHV+RZ-
HYHUZLWKWKHLQFUHDVHLQWKHQXPEHUVRI\RXWKSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKRVHIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWDQGZLWKWKH
increase in the level of risk taken, the leadership for the those forms of engagement became more apparent,
keeping into consideration the need to coordinate efforts. In one of the meetings to evaluate the events of
 23 ARAB SPRING

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pated in the sit-in and hunger strike said: We cannot decide on the demands of the people participating in
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)40HHWLQJRQWKHth of March).

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VLRQPDNLQJDQGLQIRUPDWLRQDUHFRQFHQWUDWHGZLWKVSHFLFSHRSOH

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WKHVSRWDQGDWVRPHSRLQWVWKH\EXLOWWKHH[SHFWDWLRQVWKDWRWKHUPHPEHUVLQWKHJURXSVZRXOGIROORZ
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PDNLQJSURFHVVYLVLRQDQGWKDWWKHLUH[SHULHQFHDQGNQRZOHGJHLVQRWDSSUHFLDWHG,QPRVWRIWKHJURXSV
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SURYLGHGIRUWKHPWRSDUWLFLSDWHDQGWKHDSSUHFLDWLRQRIRWKHUIHOORZPHPEHUV

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members, and, eventually it ended in some members halting their participation, or moving to other groups
)43HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ+63HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ163HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ

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PDMRUPRELOL]DWLRQHYHQWZKHUHFRQIURQWDWLRQZLWKWKHDXWKRULWLHVWRRNSODFH$WWKDWPRPHQW WKH\ UH-
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made it easier to drop participatory leadership.

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ZLWKLQLW0DOHDFWLYLVWVDWYDULRXVWLPHVFRXOGQRWVHHWKHUROH\RXQJZRPHQDFWLYLVWVFRXOGSOD\7KH
VRFLDOULVNWKDW\RXQJZRPHQIDFHGDQGIXUWKHUWKH\H[SRUWHGWKHWUDGLWLRQDOSDWULDUFKDOPDOHFKDUDFWHUWR
WKHLUOHDGHUVKLSVW\OH$OOWKHVHIDFWRUVOHGPDQ\WLPHVWRDFRQLFWDPRQJJURXSPHPEHUV

Forms of engagement/ type of activities

Forms of engagement adopted by youth are a result of a combination of different factors, such as politi-
FDOVRFLDOL]DWLRQDQGSROLWLFDORSSRUWXQLWLHV0F$GDP<DWHVLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
RIWKRVHZKRSDUWLFLSDWHLQULVN\DFWLYLVPLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKRVHZKRDUHLQYROYHGLQORZULVNIRUPRIDF-
WLYLVP3ROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQIRUPVDUHLPSDFWHGZLWKWKHW\SHRIH[SRVXUHWRLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKHUHODWLRQ
ZLWKWKHV\VWHP3ROLWLFDOVRFLDOL]DWLRQKHOSVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHEDFNJURXQGRIDFWLYLVWVWKHLURULHQWDWLRQDQG
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 24

3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKXWLOL]HG7KHIROORZLQJIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWLQWKHLUPRELOL]DWLRQGXULQJWKH$UDE
revolutions.

Social media activism

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centralization and hierarchy from other structures. yet trying to escape the intrusion of security forces,
JURXSVVWULHGWRFRQWUROPHPEHUVDFFHVVWRLWVIDFHERRNVLWHV6RFLDOPHGLDVVXFFHVVLQPRELOL]LQJ\RXWK
YDULHGIURPRQHHYHQWWRDQRWKHUIRUH[DPSOHLWZDVYHU\VXFFHVVIXOLQWKH1DNEDPDUFKRQWKHth of May,
EXWLWZDVOHVVVXFFHVVIXOGXULQJGDLO\DFWLYLWLHVDWWKH0DQDUDKVTXDUH7UDQVIHUULQJDFWLYLVPIURPWKHYLUWXDO
ZRUOGWRWKHUHDORQHGLGQRWWDNHSODFHLQODUJHQXPEHUV7KHQXPEHURI\RXQJSHRSOHSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQYLUWXDO
DFWLYLVPZDVPXFKKLJKHUWKDQWKHRQHZKRDFWXDOO\VKRZHGXSGXULQJWKHHYHQWV0RYLQJIURPEHOLHYLQJ
LQVRPHWKLQJWRDFWLRQGHSHQGRQPDQ\IDFWRUVVXFKDVWKHOHYHORIFRQVFLRXVQHVV0F$GDP<DWHV
5DKDOH[LVWLQJVWUXFWXUHVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKHFXOWXUHRIHQJDJHPHQW0LVFKH

In addition to the mobilization role of social media, it played a role as observers for both occupation
DQGDXWKRULW\SUDFWLFHVSHUVRQDOFDPHUDVDQGPRELOHVOLYHVWUHDPLQJDUHDOOQHZPHDQVWKDW\RXWKXVHGWR
VSUHDGWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQVDQGZKDWLVKDSSHQLQJRQWKHJURXQG

6RFLDOPHGLDZDVDWRRORIFRPPXQLFDWLRQDFURVV3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKDWSODFHVRIH[LVWHQFH<RXWKLQ
'LDVSRUDDQGDZD\RIFRQQHFWLQJZLWKDFWLYLVWVDURXQGWKHZRUOGDQGWKH$UDEZRUOG

Demonstrations
'HPRQVWUDWLRQVZHUHXVHGE\YDULRXV\RXWKJURXSVLQDMRLQWHIIRUWWRFRQWHVWWKHH[LVWLQJVLWXDWLRQ
+RZHYHUWKHPDLQGHPRQVWUDWLRQVFRQGXFWHGZHUHPDLQO\FRRSWHGE\SROLWLFDOIDFWLRQVWKDWDUHUHVSRQ-
VLEOHIRUWKHFXUUHQWVLWXDWLRQ'HPRQVWUDWLRQVZHUHDSODFHWRFKDOOHQJHWKHVORJDQVRIWKHUXOLQJSDUW\WKH\
ZHUHDSODFHZKHUH\RXWKWULHGWRUDLVHWKHLUIUDPLQJDQGEHYLVLEOHWRWKHFRPPXQLW\$VGHPRQVWUDWLRQV
ZHUHFRRSWHGE\SROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDQGFRQVLGHULQJWKHYLRODWLRQVRIWKHVHFXULW\IRUFHVWRWKHULJKWVRI
expression of the demonstrators in public, failed the expectations of the public that built expectations on
\RXWKHQJDJHPHQWDQGOHGWRWKHZLWKGUDZDORIYDULRXVFRPPXQLW\JURXSVIURPGHPRQVWUDWLRQVRUHYHQ
refusing to participate at all.

Hunger strike, Sit-in

<RXWKGHFLGHGWRVWDUWZLWKWKHVLWLQDQGKXQJHUVWULNHWZRGD\VEHIRUHWKHDVVLJQHGGDWHIRUWKHPDLQ
demonstration (15thRI0DUFKGHPRQVWUDWLRQ7KHSXUSRVHRILQLWLDWLQJWKHKXQJHUVWULNHDQG6LWLQZDV
to ensure that political factions cannot co-opt the initiative of youth. One of the aspects that affected the
LPSDFWRIWKHVHWZRIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWLVWKHODFNRIH[SHULHQFHRI\RXWK)RUPRVW\RXWKWKLVZDVWKHLU
UVWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVXFKDQHYHQWDVDUHVXOWWKHUVWFKDOOHQJHZDVVHWWLQJWKHLUREMHFWLYHVVRKLJKLQVWHDG
of building gradually their demands. Second the hunger strike and sit-in needed more proper preparation,
HVSHFLDOO\LQWHUPVRIORJLVWLFVGHPDQGVDQGPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHVLWLQDQGKXQJHUVWULNH)43HUVRQDO
&RPPXQLFDWLRQ+$+3HUVRQDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ

+RZHYHUWKHWHQWDVDSODFHIRUWKHVLWLQDQGKXQJHUVWULNHEHFDPHDVSDFHZKHUHGLVFXVVLRQWRRNSODFH
educating process about the Palestinian history, structures of the PLO, and other issues of concern. Ensur-
LQJWKDWWKHWHQWVWD\VDWWKH0DQDUDK6TXDUHKDGDQLPSRUWDQWVLJQLFDQFHIRUDOOJURXSVZKRDUHSDUWLFLSDW-
ing in sit-in in the various locations of WB and GS.
 25 ARAB SPRING

6HWWLQJWKHWHQWDWWKH0DQDUDK6TXDUHGLGQRWWDNHSODFHZLWKRXWVRPHGLIFXOWLHV7KH31$UHIXVHG
WRDOORZVHWWLQJWKHWHQWWLOODIWHURQHZHHNRIVWDUWLQJWKHVLWLQDQGKXQJHUVWULNH6HFXULW\IRUFHVHQVXUHG
WRKDYHVRPHRILWVLQIRUPDQWVDVSDUWRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHVLWLQDQGQDOO\WKHWHQWZDVDWWDFNHGDQG
EXUQHGE\)DWHKDIOLDWHG\RXWKRQWKHth of March.

Daily activities at the Manarah

$FWLYLWLHVDWWKH0DQDUDK6TXDUHVWDUWHGDVDZD\RIPRELOL]DWLRQDQGUHFUXLWPHQWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\
WKHVTXDUHZDVDOVRDSODFHWRUDLVHGHPDQGVIURPWKH$XWKRULW\7KLVSHULRGZDVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WHQVLRQ
ZLWKVHFXULW\IRUFHVSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVZKRZHUHWU\LQJWRFRRSWWKH\RXWKPRELOL]DWLRQDQGFRQLFWVZLWK
WKH)DWHKDIOLDWHG\RXWKDQGVHFXULW\IRUFHVDVWKH\ZHUHWU\LQJWRUHSUHVVWKHHYHQWVWDNLQJSODFH

$QRWKHUFKDOOHQJHZDVFRRUGLQDWLQJZLWKRWKHUJURXSVDERXWDFWLYLWLHVWRWDNHSODFHWU\LQJWRGHFUHDVH
WKHOHYHORIWHQVLRQDFURVVWKH\RXWKJURXSVWKHJURXSVGHFLGHGWKDWHDFKJURXSZLOOEHUHVSRQVLEOHIRU
DFWLYLWLHVRQDGLIIHUHQWGD\)XUWKHUDIWHUDZKLOHWKHDFWLYLWLHVFRQGXFWHGE\\RXWKJURXSVEHFDPHUHSHWL-
tive, and became a burden on the youth instead of a tool to reach for people. According to youth activists,
WKHGHFODUDWLRQRIUHFRQFLOLDWLRQZDVDJRRGRSSRUWXQLW\WRVDYHWKHLUIDFH

,WKLQNRQHRIWKHFKDOOHQJHVIRUWKHDFWLYLWLHVWDNLQJSODFHDWWKH0DQDUDK6TXDUHVWKDW\RXWKZHUHWU\-
LQJWRGXSOLFDWHZKDWLVWDNLQJSODFHDW7DKULU6TXDUHLQVWHDGRIDGDSWLQJIRUPVWKDWWZLWKWKHLUFRQWH[W
and situation.

Resisting occupation form of engagement

7U\LQJWRHVWDEOLVKDEHWWHUFRQQHFWLRQZLWKZKDWWDNHVSODFHLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFRPPXQLW\WKH\RXWK
started to participate in resistance of occupation activities. Not all members of the groups participated in
WKHVHDFWLYLWLHVEXWLWEHFDPHRQHRIWKHPDLQDFWLYLWLHVWKDWWKH\PRELOL]HDURXQG7KLVZDVFOHDULQWKH
PRELOL]DWLRQIRUWKH1DNEDPDUFKDQGWKHZHHNO\GHPRQVWUDWLRQVDJDLQVWWKHZDOO

<RXWKVWDUWHGWRMRLQRWKHUPRYHPHQWVZRUNLQJLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQVRFLHW\VXFKDVWKH%R\FRWWDQGGLYHVW-
PHQWDQGVDQFWLRQVPRYHPHQW%'6SULVRQHUVPRYHPHQWDQGSRSXODUUHVLVWDQFHPRYHPHQW

Conclusions
$OWKRXJKWKHDERYHUHVXOWVVKRZWKDW3DOHVWLQLDQ\RXWKSROLWLFDOPRELOL]DWLRQIDLOHGWREHDWWKHOHYHORI
\RXWKSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQVLWLVZRUWKQRWLQJWKDWWKLVH[SHULHQFHZDVWKHEHJLQQLQJRID
QHZWUDMHFWRU\RI\RXWKSROLWLFDOPRELOL]DWLRQ

)LUVW<RXWKSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWLVPHDVXUHGE\LWVFRQWLQXLW\DQGVXVWDLQDELOLW\7KHVH\RXWKKDYHQRW
RQO\FRQWLQXHGWRPRELOL]HEXWFRXOGDOVRLQYHQWQHZIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWVWKDWZHUHQRWSUHVHQWLQWKHLU
UVWPRELOL]LQJH[SHULHQFHWKHSHULRGFRYHUHGE\WKHVWXG\7KHVHQHZIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWDUHDGDSWHG
from Arab and international social movement experience. Examples are the latest Freedom Riders initia-
WLYHZKHUHWKH\RXWKWRJHWKHUZLWKQRQYLROHQFHDFWLYLVWVZHQWRQDQ,VUDHOLVHWWOHUVEXVDVDSURWHVWDJDLQVW
Israeli Apartheid.

$WDQRWKHUOHYHOWKHVH\RXWKEHFDPHPRUHH[LEOHWRMRLQGLIIHUHQWPRYHPHQWVDQGJURXSV7KH\GHYHO-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 26

RSHGWKHDELOLW\WRZRUNZLWKHDFKRWKHUZLWKRWKHUJURXSVDQGFRXOGEXLOGDOOLDQFHVZKLFKKDYHUHVXOWHGLQ
FRQWLQXRXVDFWLRQVRIDFWLYLVPDJDLQVWRFFXSDWLRQDQGWKHGLIIHUHQW3DOHVWLQLDQSROLWLFDOLVVXHVRIFRQFHUQ
VXFKDVWKHLQWHUQDOGLYLVLRQQRUPDOL]DWLRQZLWKWKHRFFXSDWLRQVWDWHGHFODUDWLRQ

7KHLGHQWLW\LVVXHLVRQHRIWKHPDMRUFRQFHUQRIWKH\RXWKZDVUHVXUUHFWHGWRFRQVLGHU3DOHVWLQLDQVLQ
3DOHVWLQHDQG'LDVSRUD7KLVZDVUHHFWHGLQWKHFRPPRQDFWLYLWLHVWKDWWRRNSODFHDWWKHVDPHWLPHDQG
YLUWXDOQHWZRUNVGHYHORSHGLQWKHGLIIHUHQWPDMRUDUHDVRI3DOHVWLQLDQVUHVLGH$WDQRWKHUOHYHOWKH\RXWK
DUHVWLOOGHPDQGLQJFRQGXFWLQJHOHFWLRQVIRUWKH31&ZKLFKUHSUHVHQWV3DOHVWLQLDQVHYHU\ZKHUH

As for framing, although the youth conducted various actions, their efforts do not build on one other.
7KH\VWLOOQHHGWRGHYHORSWKHLUGLVFRXUVHDFFRUGLQJO\WKH\QHHGWRGHQHWKHLUIXWXUHDFWLRQZKLOHFRQ-
WLQXHGHYHORSLQJWKHLULQGLYLGXDODQGJURXSQHWZRUNVDQGDOOLDQFHV7RGRVRWKH\QHHGWRRSHQXSWR
RWKHU\RXWKZKRDUHDIOLDWHGWRSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVWRGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOFODVVHVDQGWRFURVVWKHJHRJUDSKLFDO
boundaries to learn more about the different realities of the Palestinian people.

7DNLQJLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKDWSDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDGHUVKLSLVDSURFHVVLWJRHVZLWKRXWVD\LQJWKDWLWQHHGV
WLPHWRPDWXUH+RZHYHUOHDGHUVKLSVW\OHLVGHQHGE\H[SHULHQFHLGHQWLW\DQGGLVFRXUVH

Abbreviations
PLO: Palestinian Liberation Organization
PNC : Palestinian National Council, Which is the highest council in the PLO
NGOs: Non Governmental Organizations
PNA: Palestinian National Authority.
3DOHVWLQH3DUWRI+LVWRULFDO3DOHVWLQHZKLFKZDVRFFXSLHGLQWKH\HDUDQGWKHVWDWHRI,VUDHOL
is established over it.
Palestine 1976: It represent the Palestinian land occupied by Israel in the year 1976 and it includes the
West Bank ( Including east Jerusalem) and Gaza Strip.
WB: The West Bank
GS: Gaza Strip
BDS: Boycott and Divestment and Sanctions of Occupation
 27 ARAB SPRING

References
$O$]]HK$$O,QWLIDGDW$ODUDELDK+RGRG$OWDWKLU)DODVWLQLDQ3URFHHGLQJLQWKH$UDE5HYROXWLRQVLGHRORJLFDODQGSROLWLFDO
FKDOOHQJHVFRQIHUHQFH0XZDWLQ3DOHVWLQLDQ,QVWLWXWHIRU'HPRFUDWLF6WXGLHV5DPDOODK
$OVKZHLU\<$O7DKDZRODW$O$UDELDZ0RIDMDDW$OWKDZUDW-RXUQDORI$OPRVWDTEDO$ODUDEL-XO\
%DLOH\6DQG'0XUUD\7KH6WDWXVRI<RXWKLQ3DOHVWLQH3URPLVHRU3HULO"6KDUHN<RXWK)RUXP5DPDOODK
%URZQ13DOHVWLQH7KH)LUH1H[W7LPH5HWULHYHG-XO\IURPKWWSFDUQHJLHHQGRZPHQWRUJSDOHVWLQHUH
next-time/2sh8.
&KHFNRZD\%DQG0/*XWLHUUH]<RXWKSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQG&RPPXQLW\&KDQJH+DZRUWK3UHVV1HZ<RUN
(O(NHU0,QWURGXFWLRQ-RXUQDORI$IDT%DUODPDQLD
(O6DNND$$O+DUDNDW$O,KWLMDMLDK$ODUDELD$OMDGLGD,DGDW$O,WLEDU/LOIDGD$O,MWLPDL-RXUQDORI$IDT%DUODPDQLD
+DQD67KDZUDW$O\DVDPLQZ$OPLGDQ-RXUQDORI,GDIDWZLQWHU
+LODO-:DT$O,QWLIDGDWDOVKDEL\HK$GLPRTUDWH\HK$OD$O+DUDND$OVL\DVH\HK$O)DODVWLQL\HK-RXUQDORI3DOHVWLQLDQ6WXGLHV
Special volume: Arab Revolutions.
W%QDO4L\GWZDDOPXDVVDVWDOVL\V\DKI)LODVQ,QVWLWXWHIRU3DOHVWLQLDQ6WXGLHV%HLUXW
.ODWFK5$JHQHUDWLRQGLYLGHGWKHQHZOHIWWKHQHZULJKWDQGWKHV8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV%HUNHOH\
0F$GDP'5HFUXLWPHQWWR+LJK5LVN$FWLYLVP7KH&DVHRI)UHHGRP6XPPHU-RXUQDORI7KH$PHULFDQ-RXUQDORI6RFLRORJ\
92(1), 64-90.
0LVFKH$3DUWLVDQSXEOLFVFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGFRQWHQWLRQDFURVV%UD]LOLDQ\RXWKDFWLYLVWQHWZRUNV3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Pnrinceton).
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\LJK<GDQG%6LUKDQDO.LIDOPXVDOODZDDOEDWKDQDOGDZODKDODUDNDKDOZDDQ\DKDO)LODVQ\DK
0XDVVDVDWDO'LUVWDO)LODVQ\DK%HLUXW
6KHKDGD0/LPDWKD/DP<DWHP$OWDQDER%L7KDZUDW$O$UDELD-RXUQDORI$IDT%DUODPDQLD
6QRZ'-(%XUNH5RFKIRUGHWDO)UDPH$OLJQPHQW3URFHVVHV0LFURPRELOL]DWLRQDQG0RYHPHQW3DUWLFLSDWLRQ-RXUQDORI
$PHULFDQVRFLRORJLFDOUHYLHZ
<DWHV05RRWVRIFLYLFLGHQWLW\LQWHUQDWLRQDOSHUVSHFWLYHVRQFRPPXQLW\VHUYLFHDQGDFWLYLVPLQ\RXWK&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 28

DZUDFRQWHVWDWRU\ODQJXDJHDQGLFRQRJUDSK\
in the Arab revolution

MOISS GARDUO
National Autonomous University of Mexico/Autonomous University of Madrid

Abstract
7KLVSDSHUZLOODQDO\]HWKHSDUWLFXODULWLHVRIWKH$UDE3URWHVWWKURXJKYLVXDODQGYHU-
bal expressions in its resistance language. Lexical expressions like LUDOJRDZD\RU
DODE\XUGLVTDOQLPSHRSOHZDQWWRGLVPDQWOHWKHV\VWHPDUHHPERGLHGLQD
language that, on one hand, has to organize and to coordinate the protest itself in the
PLGQQHLJKERUKRRGPRVTXHDQGKRVSLWDOVDQGRQWKHRWKHUWRH[SUHVVWKHOHJLWLPDWH
FODLPVWKURXJKHOHFWURQLFDQGPDVVPHGLDQHZVSDSHUVDQGRWKHUVWRWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDO
public opinion. Time after time, language shines as an important identity element that,
in the case of Arab people, grammatical rules of IXj, DPL\D and ZXVWD play a crucial
role to the incorporation of existing concepts as XUUL\DOWDEU (freedom of speech) or
XUUL\DDODID (freedom of the press) to the protest in the street and as a tool of self
determination against corruption, censorship and persecution of the governments.

Keywords
Arab civil society, contestatory language, creative resistance, lexical and visual expres-
sions, revolution

Introduction
$OPDNWEXTUXPLQXQZQLKL (the content of a book must be read it from its title) is a famous Arabic
proverb that people use not only to analyze a visual/verbal piece but also to understand it. In Arabic, title
comes from the verbal root DQWRVLJQLI\DQGUHIHUVVRPHWKLQJRUVRPHRQHWKDWPDWWHUVWRDSHU-
VRQDVZHOODVWKHFRLQFLGHQFHRIDOOHOHPHQWVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHWKHIXOOHVWLQWHOOHFWXDOZRUNRIDSLHFH7KHYHUE
DQLVDOVRGHURRWRIWKH$UDELFZRUGVLJQZKLFKHPERGLHVVORJDQL]DWLRQDOOHJRULHVV\PEROVLFRQVDQG
LPDJLQDWLRQZKLFKLVWUDQVPLWWHGIURPWKHUDWLRQDOKHDUWRIDZULWHUWRWKHVHQVLWLYHPLQGRIDUHDGHU

7KH$UDE6SULQJKDVLWVRZQWLWOHVPHVVDJHVV\PEROVDQGVORJDQVWRLQWURGXFHSHRSOHWRWKHHPHUJHQFH
RID1HZ$UDE(UDDQGWRH[SODLQZK\DQGKRZ\RXQJVWXGHQWVDFWLYLVWVZRUNHUVGRFWRUVDQGPXFK
PRUHSHRSOHDUHLQWKH$UDE6WUHHWVULJKWQRZ'HVSLWHRIWKHPRVWRISHRSOHFDOOWKLVVSULQJDV$UDE
WKHUHDGHUVKRXOGQRWHWKDW$UDELFLQWKHVWDQGDUGDQGFROORTXLDOUHJLVWHUVLVQRWWKHRQO\ODQJXDJHXVHG
by people in the demonstrations and by contrast English, Amazigh, Kurdish, French and Persian, among
RWKHUVDUHLQFOXGHGWRVKDSHPHVVDJHVVWURQJHUZLGHUDQGPRUHUHFHSWLYHWRSXEOLFRSLQLRQDEURDG,QIDFW
WKHUVWZRUGXVHGDVFRQWHVWDWRU\ODQJXDJHLQWKHVRFDOOHG7XQLVLDQ5HYROXWLRQZDVWKH)UHQFKZRUG
GHJDJHJRDZD\WKDWJDYHULVHWRWKHYHU\SRSXODU$UDELFWUDQVODWLRQLUDOZKLFKTXLFNO\ZDVH[SDQGHG
LQRWKHUGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDFURVV(J\SW<HPHQDQG6\ULD
 29 ARAB SPRING

But to talk about signs, it is necessary to be able not only to translate messages but also to transfer them
WRSUHVHQWWLPHV)RUWKDWZHZLOOWDNHDORRNDWWKHSULQFLSOHVRIVLJQVWKHRU\LQRUGHUWRUHFRJQL]HWKH
SOHWKRUDRIVLJQLHGVDQGVLJQLHUVWKDWUHVXOWLQWKHOH[LFDODQGYHUEDOH[SUHVVLRQVRI$UDE5HYROXWLRQV
and, at the same time, to provide textual and contextual readings of slogans stressing on the difference be-
WZHHQPHDQLQJDQGVLJQLFDQFH7KLVVKDOOEHGRQHWRSURYLGHDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIVORJDQVDQG
PHVVDJHVE\$UDESHRSOHDYRLGLQJFRQIXVLRQLQGLIIHUHQFHDQGPLVLQIRUPDWLRQWKURXJKDFORVHUVLJQLFD-
WLRQRIZKDWSHRSOHIHHODQGSHUFHLYHIRUWKHIXWXUHRIWKHLUFRXQWULHV

6LJQLHG6LJQLHU0HDQLQJDQG6LJQLFDQFHLQWKH0DNLQJRI6ORJDQ
Slogans are used in political, commercial, religious and others social contexts as a repetitive expression
RIRQHLGHDRUIHHOLQJEXWLWPXVWEHFOHDUWKDWWKH\DUHQRWRQO\PHPRUDEOHPRWWRVZDLWLQJWREHWUDQVODWHG
but also series of verbal, visual and gestural signs providing a dynamic UHSUHVHQWDPHQ for a fact during
LQDEVHQWLD (or LQSUDHVHQWLD) of something or someone (Kristeva, 1981: 13).

$Q\VSHDNHULVPRUHRUOHVVDZDUHWKDWODQJXDJHV\PEROL]HVUHSUHVHQWVDQGQDPHVIDFWVEHFDXVH
RIWKHVLJQLVWKHFRUHRIWKHODQJXDJH,QZRUGVRI3LHUFHWKHVLJQLVDWULDGLFUHODWLRQVKLSGHYHO-
RSHGEHWZHHQDQREMHFWLWVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHDQGWKHLQWHUSUHWHUDVORQJDVWKHVLJQGRHVQRWUHSUHVHQWWKHZKROH
REMHFWEXWRQO\DYHU\FOHDULGHDRIWKDW$FFRUGLQJWRWKLV3LHUFHKDVFODVVLHGVLJQVLQWRWKUHHFDWHJRULHV

a) The icon. 6LJQWKDWUHIHUVWRWKHREMHFWE\LWVUHVHPEODQFHWRKLPIRUH[DPSOHWKHGUDZLQJRIDWUHH

WKDWUHSUHVHQWVWKHUHDOWUHHZKLFKORRNVOLNHLWLVDQLFRQ

b) The index.6LJQWKDWGRHVQRWVHHPQHFHVVDULO\WRWKHREMHFWEXWUHFHLYHVDQLQXHQFHRIWKHIRUPHU
DQGIRUWKDWPDWWHUKDVVRPHWKLQJLQFRPPRQZLWKWKHREMHFWIRUH[DPSOHVPRNHFRPLQJIURPD
EXLOGLQJFDQEHDUHDJHQWLQGH[RIUH

c) The symbol.6LJQWKDWUHIHUVWRDQREMHFWE\DNLQGRIODZRUFRQYHQWLRQWKURXJKDQLGHDIRUH[DPSOH
the linguistic signs.

6LQFH3LHUFHGHYHORSHGDJHQHUDOWKHRU\RIVLJQV6DXVVXUHZDVWKHUVWVFKRODUZKRPDGHHPSKDVLVRQ
OLQJXLVWLFVLJQV6DXVVXUHDEQRWHVWKDWLWLVLOOXVRU\WREHOLHYHWKDWWKHOLQJXLVWLFVLJQLVMXVW
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHUHODWLRQVKLSQDPHWKLQJDQGSURSRVHVWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQFRQFHSWVLJQLHGVRXQGLPDJH
VLJQLHU. This latter is not the sound itself but the psychological imprint of the sound or the representa-
WLRQWKDWJLYHVXVWKHWHVWLPRQ\RIRXUVHQVHV$FFRUGLQJWR6DXVVXUHIRUH[DPSOHLIZHWDNHWKH
WHUPUHYROXWLRQWKHQLWVOLQJXLVWLFVLJQZRXOGFRQVLVWRIWKHPHQWDOLGHDRIUHYROXWLRQVLJQLHGDQG
WKHVRXQGLPDJHUHYROXWLRQVLJQLHUERWKRIZKLFKZLOOJLYHXVWKHSV\FKRORJLFDOVHQVHRIWKH
fundamental change in organizational VWUXFWXUHVWKDWWDNHVSODFHLQDUHODWLYHO\VKRUWSHULRGRIWLPH (Tilly,
7KXVUHYROXWLRQDVDVLJQZLOOKDYHDQHTXLYDOHQWLQWKHSV\FKLFUHDOLW\RID6SDQLVKVLJQLHU
UHYROXFLyQWKH3HUVLDQHQTHOEWKH3RUWXJXHVHUHYROXomRWKH$UDELFDZUD among others.

$FFRUGLQJWR6DXVVXUHDVLJQLHGPD\KDYHVHYHUDOVLJQLHUVDQGYLFHYHUVD:HFDQFDOOWRPDWRWR-
PDWHDQGWDPWLPWRWKHWUDGLWLRQDOO\HGLEOHUHGIUXLWWKDW(QJOLVK6SDQLVKDQG$UDELFVSHDNHULPDJLQH
LQKLVPLQGUHVSHFWLYHO\DQGRQWKHRWKHUKDQGZHFDQVD\WKHLGHDDSSOHWRUHIHUWRHLWKHUDFRPSXWHU
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 30

RUDIUXLWGHSHQGLQJRQWKHFRQWH[WZKLFKWKHLQGLYLGXDOLVH[SRVHG%XWWKHTXHVWLRQLVWRWKLQNDERXWZKDW
KDSSHQVZKHQZHFDOOVRPHWKLQJE\DSV\FKRORJLFDOLGHDWKDWQRWEHORQJVWRWKHREMHFWZKLFKZHLPDJLQH
RULQVWHDGZHLPDJLQHVRPHWKLQJWRWDOO\GLIIHUHQWIURPZKDWRWKHUVZDQWWRPHDQ,QWKLVVHQVH0HVFKRQ-
QLFVWKHRU\GHVWUR\VWKLVELQDU\RUJDQL]DWLRQZKHQQRWHVQRPRUHVRXQGDQGVHQVHQRPRUH
GRXEOH DUWLFXODWLRQ RI ODQJXDJH QR PRUH VLJQLHG DQG VLJQLHUWKH ODQJXDJH LV RQO\ VLJQLHUV7KH
VLJQLHU0HVFKRQQLFLQVLVWVUHIHUVWRDSUDFWLFHWKHDFWLQJRIDVXEMHFWZKLFKH[SRVHVLWVKLVWRULFLW\7KH
)UHQFKZRUGVLJQLDQWNHHSVWKHLGHDPRUHHIFLHQWO\WKDQWKH(QJOLVKZRUGVLJQLHUZKRVHHQGLQJ
VXJJHVWVDUROHRUDIXQFWLRQWKDWLVWRVD\DQDFWLRQRQHFRXOGXQGHUWDNHZLWKGLVWDQFHRUQHXWUDOLW\,Q
$UDELFZHFDQH[SODLQLWZLWKWKHSURWRW\SHIDLODQGPDIXOWDNLQJWKHYHUEDQZKHUHWKHVLJQLHU
LVWKHVXEMHFWRUWKHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUVLJQLI\LQDQGWKHODWWHULVMXVWZKDWLVVLJQLHGE\WKHUHVSRQVLEOH
PDQDZZKLFKFDQH[LVWMXVWWKURXJKWKHVXEMHFW&RUWpV

,QVKRUWZKHQZHWUDQVODWHVLJQVZHWUDQVODWHVLJQLHUVFXOWXUHPHDQLQJWLPHDQGFRQWH[WLQRUGHUWR
H[SODLQWKHDXWKRUVYHUEDOPHDQLQJDVXQGHUVWRRGE\WKHFRPPHQWDWRU/DIUDLH7KHZKROH
SUREOHPLVQRWRQO\WKHPHDQLQJRIZRUGVOLQJXLVWLFVLJQLWVHOIEXWDOVRWKHVHQVHRIODQJXDJH7KDWVZK\
ZHDUHFRQFHUQHGQRWVRPXFKZLWKVORJDQVSXUHPHDQLQJEXWUDWKHUZLWKLWVVLJQLFDQFH7KHGLVWLQF-
WLRQEHWZHHQPHDQLQJDQGVLJQLFDQFHKDVEHHQSDUWLFXODUO\GHYHORSHGE\('+LUVFK-U
ZKRSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHWHUPPHDQLQJUHIHUVWRWKHZKROHYHUEDOPHDQLQJRIDWH[WDQGVLJQLFDQFHWR
WH[WXDOPHDQLQJLQUHODWLRQWRDODUJHUFRQWH[W7KHQVLJQLFDQFHRIDZUD (revolution) must be elucidated
E\FULWLFLVPZKLFKLVQRWLGHQWLFDOZLWKVLJQLFDQFHEXWUDWKHUUHIHUVWRLWWDONVDERXWLWDQGGHVFULEHVLW
+LUVFK,QWKHVHUHJDUGVRQHPLJKWDOVRVD\WKDWWRH[SODLQWKHSRZHURIODQJXDJHLQSROLWLFDO
life the context is everything. It gives meaning to events and creates an aura of understanding. It is a basis
RIFRPSHWLQJYLHZV,QVKRUWFRQWH[WIUDPHVPHDQLQJDQGPHDQLQJFUHDWHVFRQWH[W&KDQJHWKHRQHDQG
you change the other (Apter, 2006: 780).

DZUD
$IWHUUHFHQWIDFWVDW7DKULU6TXDUH+RPV6DQDDQG0DQDPDLWPXVWEHVDLGWKDW$UDEFRXQWULHVDUH
HIIHFWLYHO\IDFLQJDQRWKHUFRQWH[WDQRWKHUHUDDQGDQRWKHUV\VWHPRIYDOXHVZKLFKVXJJHVWDOLWWOHRIWUDQV-
ODWLRQDQGDOLWWOHPRUHRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ:KHQ0RKDPHG%RXD]L]LVHWKLPVHOIRQUHRQ'HFHPEHU
QRERG\NQHZKHZRXOGHOHFWULI\WKHHQWLUHUHJLRQDQGVHQGWKHH[LVWLQJSROLWLFDORUGHULQWKH0LGGOH
(DVWLQWRDORQJSHULRGRIWXUPRLO9HU\TXLFNO\KRZHYHUWKHUHZHUHVLJQVWKDWWKHVXFFHVVRI7XQLVLDQ
demonstrators in toppling their long-ruling dictator had sparked something important and one label derived
IURP&]HFKRVORYDNLDVEULHI&ROG:DUHUDXSULVLQJDJDLQVW6RYLHWUXOHTXLFNO\HQJUDYHGLWVHOILQWKH:HVW-
HUQOH[LFRQ7RGD\WKHXSULVLQJVWKDWKDYHHQJXOIHGDGR]HQ$UDEFRXQWULHVDUHFROOHFWLYHO\NQRZQLQWKH
West as the Arab Spring (Ghitis, 2011: 1).

7KHODEHODSWRUQRWKDVWDNHQKROGIRUQRZ%XWDFFRUGLQJZKDWZHKDYHVHHQKHDUGDQGSHUFHLYHGLQ
$UDE6TXDUHVPLGQ) the title of Arab Spring is by far eclipsed by the Arabic term revolution (DZUD)
ZKLFKKDVEHHQSURFODLPHGE\WKHDXWKRUWKHSHRSOHDOVKDEDGGUHVVHGWRRQHFRPPHQWDWRUZKLFK
has been by far the public opinion (UDDODPPLQWKHPLGGOHRIDIUDPHZRUNUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHHDUO\
21st century.

DZUDKDVEHHQDZLGHO\XVHGWHUPFRLQHGE\SHRSOHLQWKHPLGQ as an effort to change the domestic

 31 ARAB SPRING

tyranny that has emerged in the aftermath of European colonialism in the form of post-colonial societies.
From Western Sahara to Syria young people believe that dictators represent fake and phony post-colonial
VWDWHVWKDWKDYHSRVLWHGWKHPVHOYHVDVDQWLFRORQLDODQGWKHQIRUIRUW\RUIW\\HDUVKDYHORRWHGWKHLU
FRXQWULHVZLWKRXWDQ\VHPEODQFHRIGHPRFUDWLFLQVWLWXWLRQVRUFKDQJH$\RXQJDXGLHQFHWKDWKDVQRIXWXUH
in their country, is sick and tired of being denigrated and denied any kind of participation in the global
VRFLHW\7KH\GRQWZDQWWRHPLJUDWHWREHVXEMHFWVRIHYHQPRUHKDUDVVPHQWDQGUDFLVPLQ(XURSHDQGWKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVDQ\PRUHDQGLQVWHDGWKH\ZDQWWRUHFODLPWKHLUVRFLHW\WKHLUFXOWXUHDQGWKHLUSROLWLFVDQG
other civil rights through peaceful means.

,QWKLVTXHVWWKH\KDYHFDOOHGWKLVSURFHVVDDZUDDUHYROXWLRQDFKDQJH+RZHYHURQHRIWKHUVW
WUDQVODWLRQVDQGPLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVGRQHE\WKHPHGLDDQGVRPHVFKRODUV.KRXULZDVWKHWHUP
DZDNHQLQJZKLFKUHIHUVWR$UDEVDVLIWKH\KDGEHHQLQDVWDWHRIOHWKDUJ\DOOWKHVH\HDUVMXVWWRZDNH
XSRQ'HFHPEHUDQGWRJKWDJDLQVWGLFWDWRUV%XWLQIDFW$UDESHRSOHZHOFRPHGWKHFXUUHQWFHQWXU\
ZLWKWKHVHFRQG,QWLIDGDLQ3DOHVWLQHDQGZLWKDPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQDJDLQVWWKHLQYDVLRQRI,UDTFRQGXFWHG
socio economic demonstrations against dictatorial regimes like Berber uprisings in Algeria, textile strikes
DQGSURWHVWVE\.HID\DPRYHPHQWLQ(J\SWDQGPLQLQJZRUNHUVGHPRQVWUDWLRQVLQ7XQLVLD$UDESHRSOH
also denied any legitimacy to jihadist solutions refuting ideas of Bin-Laden and radicalism, and last but not
OHDVWUHLQYHQWHGFLYLFSDUWLFLSDWLRQEDVHGRQQRQHFRQRPLFSXEOLFVSDFHVDVFLYLFDVVRFLDWLRQVDQG1*2V
(Gmez, 2011). For Arabs, the 21st century began as the 20thH[DFWO\GLGZLWKUHSUHVVLRQZDUVDQGSRVWFR-
ORQLDOGLFWDWRUVKLSVEXWQHYHUZLWKWKHFORVHGH\HVDQGLPPHUVHGLQWRDGHHSVOHHS

$IWHUWKHWHUPDZDNHQLQJPDQ\RWKHUWUDQVODWLRQVRIDZUDZHUHSUHVHQWHGWRSXEOLFRSLQLRQVXFKDV
GHPRQVWUDWLRQVLQVXUUHFWLRQVJKWLQJPRELOL]DWLRQVSURWHVWVXSULVLQJVDPRQJRWKHUVZKLFK
KDYHSHUSOH[HGWKHFRPPHQWDWRU:KHQWKHYLHZHUFDQQGDZRUGWUDQVFULEHGDQGWUDQVODWHGLQIRXURU
YHGLIIHUHQWZD\VKHFDQQRWUHFRJQL]HWKHVLJQLFDQFHRIZRUGMXVWVHYHUDODQGGLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJVDQG
FRQVHTXHQWO\LWOHDGVKLPWRDQHVWUDQJHPHQWWKDWDJJUDYDWHVWKHLJQRUDQFHWRZDUGVWKHSKHQRPHQRQ$VDQ
example, it is enough to remember the misunderstanding of Islam in general and Arab People in particular
since 9/11 events and even before since the beginning of French and British orientalist approaches to the
0LGGOH(DVW6DLGZKHUHUHOLJLRQWKHJXUHRI3URSKHW0XKDPPDGDQG,VODPLFFXOWXUHZHUH
UHGXFHGWRV\QRQ\PVRIYLROHQFHIDQDWLFLVPDQGWHUURULVPLQWKHOH[LFDOH[SUHVVLRQVRIZHVWHUQ/LWHUDWXUH
3ROLWLFVDQGPHGLD/HZLV6RLIFRPPHQWDWRUWUDQVODWHVDZUD for any other concept that is
QRWUHYROXWLRQQRWRQO\PLVXVHVWKHWHUPEXWDOVREHWUD\VLWVVLJQLHGFKDQJHDQGLWVVLJQLHUDZUD)
DQGWKHUHIRUHZKDWSHRSOHZDQWWRPHDQLVWRWDOO\PLVUHSUHVHQWHG

Even, the term DZUDPXVWEHDFFRPSDQLHGZLWKWKHDGMHFWLYHWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKHFXUUHQWIRUPRIPR-

bilization in modern social movements at the PLGQ, this is, peaceful. We say this because the current sig-
QLHUUHYROXWLRQLVQRWWKHVDPHVLJQLHURIUHYROXWLRQWZRKXQGUHG\HDUVDJRZKHUHWKHVRFLDOFKDQJH
KDGEHHQGRQHPRUHE\YLROHQWWKDQE\SHDFHIXOPHDQV7LOO\,QQRZDGD\VUHYROXWLRQRU
DZUD is a concept that must be taken in the media simply by the fact that comes from its author, DOVKDE,
and because involves stated support for (or opposition to) actual or proposed actions by the objects of
PRYHPHQWFODLPVXQGHUQHZSDUDGLJPRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQZKHUHSHRSOHGRQRWXVHUD]RUVNQLYHVRUJXQV
EXWFDPHUDVPLFURSKRQHVDQGPRELOHVDQGGRQRWVHWUHDQGYLROHQFHLQWKHPLGQEXWMXVWVKRZWKHVROH
RIWKHLUVKRHVDVRQO\ZHDSRQWKH\XVHDORQJZLWKWKHLURZQYRLFHWKHYR[SRSXOL the voice of people.

The Arab DZUD LV E\ IDU WKH UVW VRFLDO UHYROXWLRQ RI FXUUHQW FHQWXU\ ,W UHSUHVHQWV WKH HQG RI SRVW
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 32

FRORQLDOLVPDQGXQOLNHIURPWKHLUSUHFXUVRUVVXFKDVWKHODERUPRYHPHQWDQGRWKHUPRYHPHQWVZKLFK
KDGEHHQVHHQSUHYLRXVO\DVIRFXVHGRQHFRQRPLFFRQFHUQV$UDEUHYROXWLRQORRNIRUVSHFLFFKDQJHVLQ
SXEOLFSROLF\LGHQWLW\OLIHVW\OHDQGFXOWXUH0RUHRYHUWKLVQHZHUDLQ$UDE:RUOGLVFOHDUO\LQVHUWHGLQWKH
DJHRIWKHVRFDOOHG1HZ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWVZKHUHDJUHDWHPSKDVLVRQWKHUROHRISRVWPDWHULDOYDOXHVLQ
FRQWHPSRUDU\DQGSRVWLQGXVWULDOVRFLHW\LVJLYHQDVRSSRVHGWRFRQLFWVRYHUPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVGHVSLWH
of contra-revolutionary strategies taken by some Arab States that believe that this revolution is just for the
money. According to Melucci, these movements arise not from relations of production and distribution of
UHVRXUFHVEXWZLWKLQWKHVSKHUHRIUHSURGXFWLRQDQGWKHOLIHZRUOGDVDUHVXOWRIZKLFKWKHFRQFHUQKDV
shifted from the sole production of economic resources directly connected to the needs for survival or for
reproduction to cultural production of social relations, symbols and identities (Melucci, 1999: 21). In other
ZRUGVWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDUHUHMHFWLRQVRIWKHPDWHULDOLVWLFRULHQWDWLRQRIFRQVXPHULVP
LQFDSLWDOLVWVRFLHWLHVE\TXHVWLRQLQJWKHPRGHUQLGHDWKDWOLQNVWKHSXUVXLWRIKDSSLQHVVDQGVXFFHVVFORVHO\
WRJURZWKSURJUHVVDQGLQFUHDVHGSURGXFWLYLW\DQGE\SURPRWLQJDOWHUQDWLYHYDOXHVDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJVLQ
UHODWLRQWRWKHVRFLDOZRUOG7KH/\ELD6\ULD$UDELD6DXGLDQG%DKUHLQFDVHVFDQEHJRRGH[DPSOHVRI
these realities.

DZUDVFODLPVFRQVLVWRIDVVHUWLRQVWKDWZHWKHFODLPDQWVFRQVWLWXWHDXQLHGIRUFHWREHUHFNRQHG

ZLWKDEOHWRDVVHUWWLHVDQGVLPLODULWLHVWRRWKHUSROLWLFDODFWRUVOLNHH[FOXGHGPLQRULWLHVUHOLJLRXVJURXSV
RUOR\DOVXSSRUWHUVRIWKHUHJLPHIRUH[DPSOHWKHDUP\LQWKH(J\SWLDQFDVHDQGDWOHDVWLQWKHUVWGD\V
RIWKHPDQLIHVWDWLRQVDQGIXUWKHUPRUHRIWHQUHMHFWZKROHFDWHJRULHVRIWKHORFDOSRSXODWLRQDVXQZRUWK\
of belonging to the people.

,UDO
,UDOJRDZD\LVDQ$UDELFYHUELQLPSHUDWLYHIRUPSHUIHFWO\DGDSWHGE\$UDESHRSOHLQWKHFODLPV
against dictators and particularly expressed in Egypt against Mubarak. In the DZUDWKHVLJQLHULUDO
KDVKDGPDQ\RWKHUVVLJQLHUVIRUWKHVDPHVLJQLHGJRDZD\LQYLVXDOH[SUHVVLRQVPRUHWKDQLQYHUEDO
RQHV6LQFHWKH3UHVLGHQWLVWKHV\PERORIWKHQLPUHJLPHDVZHOODVWKHDUP\DQGVWDWHEXUHDXFUDF\
SLFWXUHVLPDJHVDQGFDUWRRQVRI0XEDUDN6DOHK4DGDDQG$O$VVDGKDYHEHHQWKHEHVWLFRQVIRUWKH
VLJQLHGZHGRQWZDQW\RXZHZDQWFKDQJHDVWKHDJHQWVRISRVWFRORQLDOLVPDQGW\UDQQ\LQWKHLUUH-
VSHFWLYHFRXQWULHV$FFRUGLQJ1VDVUDWKLVVORJDQSDUWRIFUHDWLYH(J\SWLDQVZHDSRQVRIWKHZHDN
DQG*HQH6KDUSVPHWKRGVRIQRQYLROHQWUHVLVWDQFHFRQWULEXWHGDORWLQWRSSOLQJGRZQ0XEDUDNVUHJLPH
DQGQRZLVFDXVLQJHIIHFWLQRWKHUVFHQDULRVOLNH<HPHQDQG6\ULDZKDWVXJJHVWLQJWKDW(J\SWLDQVDOVRKDYH
FUHDWHGDQHZHQF\FORSHGLDRIQRQYLROHQWDFWLRQWRROVDQGWKDW*HQH6KDUSPLJKWKDYHDGGHGWKHPWRKLV
list of 198 methods of non-violent actions.

,UDO comes from the Arab root UDDODWRJR&RUWpVDQGLVDYHU\JRRGVLJQLHUWRGH-

mand the exit not only of dictator but also the removal of all their supporters abroad, mainly the United
States and Israel. As popular, the street-based LUDO term has tried to force domestic reforms through the
$UDEFRXQWULHVDQGWKHRQO\[HGFULWHULDLQWKLVZLGHVSUHDGVRFLDOH[SHULPHQWKDVEHHQWKHGRJJHGLQWHU-
YHQWLRQVRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGLWVDOOLHV)URP7XQLVLDWR%DKUDLQWR6\ULDWR<HPHQWR(J\SWWR/LE\D
$PHULFDIRRWSULQWVPDUNWKHRWKHUZLVHLQGLJHQRXV$UDESROLWLFDOVDQGVWRUPVKXUOLQJWKURXJKWKHUHJLRQ
1REOHLQLWLDWLYHVWRKDVWHQPXFKQHHGHGSROLWLFDOUHIRUPVDQGHFRQRPLFVWLPXOXVZRXOGEHZHOFRPHGZLWK
RSHQDUPVE\PRVW$UDEV%XWWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVKDVVKRZQOLWWOHLQWHUHVWLQWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWDOHVVHQWLDOV
 33 ARAB SPRING

instead focusing entirely on a strategic holy trinity: 1) unfettered access to cheap oil, 2) advancing Israeli
hegemony over its Arab neighbors and 3) regime-change in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Nasra, 2011).

There is not one thing on this list that seeks to promote a better life for Arabs. In fact, in order to achieve
LWVJRDOVFRVWHIIHFWLYHO\DQGHIFLHQWO\:DVKLQJWRQKDVGRJJHGLQWRWKHEDJRIROGFRORQLDOGLUW\WULFNVOLNH
QXUWXULQJDQGHVWDEOLVKLQJDQHOLWHFODVVUHJLPHWRDGPLQLVWHULWVLQWHUHVWVDVZHKDYHVHHQZLWKWKH0RGHU-
DWH$UDE6WDWHVRI6DXGL$UDELDDQG-RUGDQZKLFKDUHVWLOOVWXFNUHSHDWLQJWKH:DVKLQJWRQERUQQDUUDWLYHV
WKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKH0LGGOH(DVWDVWKHZRUOGOLNHRQHZRUOGDSDUWLQWKHZRUOGWKDWLVRIWHQWRUQEH-
WZHHQ,VODPLVPYHUVXVVHFXODULVP6KLDYHUVXV6XQQLDQG$UDEVYHUVXV,UDQLDQVDQGRWKHULGHRORJLFDO
DQGVWXSLGDUWLFLDOGLYLVLRQV

,UDO LV DJDLQVW WKH KLJKO\ F\QLFDO DSSURSULDWLRQ RI UHYROXWLRQDU\ LGHDOV E\ 3RZHUV ,UDO America,
LUDO Iran, LUDO Israel are very blunt slogans against a pressure cooker effect. The United States sug-
gests not repression but the opposite: the creation of spaces for people to speak. Sell them hope, the hope
of change. But Arab people see this as contra slogans describing them as the magic ingredient for Arabs
these days. Arabs are shouting LUDO$PUHHNDVKRZEXOOHWVPDGHLQ$PHULFDLQIURQWRIWKHPDUW\UV
DQGFDPHUDVDQGVWURQJO\FULWLFL]HWKH$PHULFDQPLOLWDU\VXSSRUWWRWKHUHYROWLQ6\ULDDQG/LE\DZKLOH
this support is keeping a suspicious silence in Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Bahrain (this latest home of the 5th
Naval American Fleet in the Gulf).

Religious terms social concerns

$JDLQZHVD\UHOLJLRXVWHUPVDQGQRWVDFUHGWHUPV

From ODLODKDKLOD$OODK, (no god except God) to $OODKXDNEDU, God is great, the diffusion of this term
throughout Arabic language expresses lots of feelings in the DZUD, but it does not mean that WDZUD is taking
VKDSHRID.KRPHLQL,VODPLFUHYROXWLRQDV,UDQH[SODLQHG0DQWKRUSH:HIRFXVRQMXVWRQHZRUG
*RGWKHUVWQDPHRIWKHUVWYHUVHRIWKHUVWTXUDQLFVXUD%LVPLOODKHUUDKPDQHUUDKLPLQWKHQDPHRI
*RGWKHPHUFLIXOIXOORIJUDFHZKLFKJLYHVWKHELJJHVWVHQVHRIFROOHFWLYHRUDOLW\LQWKH$UDEVWUHHW*RGLV
WKHPDLQGHIHQGHURISHRSOHQRWRQO\IRU0XVOLPVEXWDOVRIRU&KULVWLDQDQG-HZVDQGUHSHDWLQJDOPRVWKLV
QDPHRQHKXQGUHGWKRXVDQGWLPHVDGD\EHFRPHVDXGLEOHDQGDVWURQJVLJQLHUIRUWKHRQO\RQHZKRQHYHU
let DZUD be abandoned. A better example of this can be found in the latest slogans pronounced by Syrian
3HRSOHLQ+RPVODVW-DQXDU\ZKHUHSKUDVHVOLNHYLFWRU\LVIURP*RGRQO\QRW2EDPDQRW(UGRJDQZH
VZHDUE\*RGWKH0DJQLFHQWZHZLOOQRWEHVLOHQWRYHUWKHEORRGRIRXUPDUW\UV*RGZHKDYHQRQH
RWKHUWKDQ\RXDPRQJRWKHUVZHUHSOHGJHGZLWKUHDOGHYRWLRQDVDV\PERORISHDFHIXODQGFLYLOUHVLVWDQFH

Of course young people respect God and reject his misuse by corrupt regimes to justify their actions and
false politics. Today, the WDZUDLVVHHQDVDQHZYHUVLRQRIWKH,EQ.KDOGXQV$VDEL\DZKHUHSHRSOHKROGWKH
SRZHUWRRYHUWKURZWKHLUUXOHUVDQGWRHVWDEOLVKDPRUHMXVWHTXLWDEOHDQGGHPRFUDWLFV\VWHP1ROHDGHUVQR
ideology, neither Arabism nor Islamism, it just people using religious terms and chanting the right to do it.

%LVPLOODKHUUDKPDQHUUDKLPKDVVRPHVLJQLHUVOLNHLQWKHQDPHRI*RG more the clement et mi-

VHULFRUGLHX[FOHPHQWDQGPHUFLIXOOHWUHVPLVHULFRUGLHX[OH&RPSDWLVVDQWDPRQJPDQ\RWKHUVZKDW
GUDZVDWWHQWLRQQRWRQO\IRUWKHXVHRIDOOWKHVHVYDULDQWVDWWKHHQGRIWKHSKUDVHEXWIRUWKHOLWWOHLQWHUHVWLQ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 34

WUDQVODWLQJWKHZRUG$OODK,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHPRVWRIZHVWHUQPHGLDGRQRWWUDQVODWHLWWKHQDPHE\WKH

VLJQLHU*RG7KH\OHIWWKHQDPHLQ$UDELF$OODK$QGWKLVLPPHGLDWHO\UHYHDOVDWKHRORJLFDOLVVXHWKDW
LVWRVD\DFRQVLGHUDEOHDQGGUDPDWLFWKHRORJLFRSROLWLFDOLVVXHYHU\PXFKRIFXUUHQWFRQFHUQ,IZHVD\
*RGLQWUDQVODWLRQLQZKLFKHYHUODQJXDJHZHSODFHRXUVHOYHVLQDXQLYHUVDOSHUVSHFWLYHZLWKWKHVDPH
VLJQLHG0HVFKLQQLF*RGPHDQVWKDWWKHUHLVRQH*RGZKRLVWKHORUGRIWKHZRUOGV
ZKLFKE\GHQLWLRQKDUERXUVERWKWKHZKROHZRUOGDQGHYHU\RQH:KDWHYHUWKHWUDQVODWLQJODQJXDJHLIZH
WUDQVODWH$OODKE\*RGZHPDNHRI,VODPDXQLYHUVDO7KHUHIRUHWKHQRQWUDQVODWLRQZKLFKLVWKHPRVWDF-
FXUDWHIURPWKHWKHRORJLFRSROLWLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZRIVXQQD,VODPZLWKWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVLWLPSOLHVEULQJV
DNLQGRIGHQHJDWLRQ7KHQ*RG'LHX*RWWDUHDGLVDYRZDORI$OODKDQGYLFHYHUVD:KDWZHWU\
WRVD\LVWKDWERWK:HVWHUQDQGFRQVHUYDWLVP,VODPYLHZVRI*RGDUHQRWLQFOXVLYHDQGFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKH
UHOLJLRXVFXOWXUHRIHDFKRWKHUDQGWKHUHIRUHDUHWRWDOO\LQFRKHUHQWZLWKWKHFXUUHQWXVHRISHRSOHFROOHFWLYH
DFWLRQZKLFKKDVVKRZQXVKRZHDV\LVWRLQFOXGHSHRSOHZKHQRQO\DFFHSW*RGODQJXDJHDQGFXOWXUHDV
VXFK7KLVKDVEHHQDOVRH[SUHVVHGE\KXQGUHGVRI&RSWVDQG0XVOLPVSHRSOHZRUNLQJWRJHWKHULQWKHSUR-
WHVWVRI7DKULU6TXDUHZKHUHWKH&RSWVFDUULHGPHGLFLQHVWRPRVTXHVWKDWZHUHIXQFWLRQLQJDVWHPSRUDU\
hospitals for the protesters.

7KDWVZK\ZHKDYHWRWUDQVODWH$OODKE\*RG'LRV*RWWDQGVRRQLQWKHUHVSHFWLYHVLJQLHUV
of our psychic reality. Allah is not a strange and particular God of Arabs and much less a singular be-
LQJDSDUWIURPWKHPRQRWKHLVWLFZRUOGYLHZDQGE\FRQWUDVWLVZKDWPDNHV,VODPVWURQJ

$UDESHRSOHTXLFNO\DGDSWHG*RGLQWRDZUD in both verbal and visual expressions. We are talking about

the slogan NXQPDDOODKZKLFKPHDQVEHZLWK*RGZKLFKZDVDGDSWHGWRNXQPDDZUEHZLWKUHYR-
lution). .XQPDDOODKLVYHU\IDPLOLDUSURYHUEWRSHRSOH,Q(J\SWZKLFKLVDUHOLJLRXVVRFLHW\ ZKHQ
VORJDQZDVUHSODFHGZLWKDZUDZDVVRPHWKLQJELJ.XQPDWDZUD has had a multiple plastic interven-
tions in the PLGQWKHPRVTXHWKHFKXUFKWKHKRVSLWDOVDQGRWKHUVWUDWHJLFSODFHVIRUSHDFHIXOFROOHFWLYH
DFWLRQLQVHYHUDOFLWLHVRI$UDEFRXQWULHV7KLVFDOOLJUDSK\DUWZRUNZDVSUHVHQWHGLQ$SULOZKHQWKH
DFWLYLVWVLQ(J\SWFDOOHGIRUDJHQHUDOVWULNHDOORYHU(J\SWLWZDVMXVWDQDUWZRUNE\0RKDPHG*DEHUV
SURMHFW*UDSKLF$JDLQVW6\VWHPDQGE\WKDWWLPHLWZDVXVHGRQOLQHRYHUVRPHRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKVWDNHQ
IRUWKHULRWVKDSSHQHGWKDWWLPHDQGZDVJHQHUDOO\VSUHDGRQOLQHRQDOOWKHVRFLDOQHWZRUNDV)DFHERRN
DQG7ZLWWHU%\'HFHPEHU*DEHUPDGHDQRWKHUYHUVLRQFDOOHGNXQPDIDQ or be part of art used
LWLQDVWUHHWDUWSURMHFWZLWKVWUHHWDUWLVWVIURP$OH[DQGULD%\-DQXDU\DQGWKHPRELOL]LQJIRUth
January revolution in Egypt, the activists online re-used it, spread it online, and printed it out into posters
DQGEDQQHUVWRKROGLQ7DKULUVTXDUH7KHQWKHDXWKRUGLGDFRZRUNZLWKWKH%UD]LOLDQFDUWRRQLVW&DUORV
/DWXIIZKLFKIRXQGDJUHDWIHHGEDFNE\SHRSOHLQWKHVWUHHWV*DEHUEHFRPLQJDJUHDWLFRQIRUWKH
$UDEUHYROXWLRQLQQRZDGD\V

Revolutionary Arabic in the creative resistance

7KHXUJHQWQHHGIRUKXPRUWDNHVDYHU\ZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGSRVLWLRQLQWKHDZUD. To rediscover the comical
RIWKRXJKWSHRSOHKDYHFUHDWHGORWVRIZRUNVIRUSXEOLFLW\DQGSXEOLFXWLOLW\PLQGVHWZKLFKKDYHWDNHQDQ
active role in the struggle against the repressive regimes, especially against the Syrian one and the violent
FUDFNGRZQLWKDVODXQFKHG

User-generated creativity has been a distinctive mark of the Syrian revolution. Syrian artist have dared
 35 ARAB SPRING

WRFKDOOHQJHWKHRIFLDOPHGLDGLVFRXUVHZLWKLQQRYDWLYHIRUPDWVWKDWEORVVRPHGRQWKHLQWHUQHWDVPXFKDV
the people have braved the streets despite daily violence. Top Goon: Diaries of a Little Dictator, a series of
HSLVRGHVZKLFKSUHPLHUHVHYHU\ZHHNRQ<RX7XEHZLWK(QJOLVKVXEWLWOHVFRPELQHVWKH6\ULDQVLQFOLQD-
WLRQWRFRPHG\DQGSURIHVVLRQDODFWLQJZLWKDGDUNKXPRUWKDWLVWUXO\WDERREUHDNLQJDQGFRPHVWRSLFN
XSWKHPHWKRGRORJ\SURSRVHGE\(OLD6XOHLPDQLQKLVPDVWHUSLHFH<DGXQ,ODKL\D'LYLQH,QWHUYHQWLRQ
in the Palestine issue. Since its launch, Top Goon has received lavish praise and occasional furious out-
EXUVWVIURPDXGLHQFHVZKRDUHVWXQQHGE\LWVXQSUHFHGHQWHGODPSRRQLQJRIWKHSUHVLGHQW7KHVHULHVVWDUV
DQJHUSXSSHWQDPHG%HHVKRXZKRFOHDUO\UHVHPEOHV3UHVLGHQW%DVKDUDO$VVDGHYHQLQKLVIDPRXVOLVS
ZKHQSURQRXQFLQJWKHV,QWKHUVWHSLVRGH%HHVKRXLVKDXQWHGE\QLJKWPDUHVKHIHDUVWKDWKLVSHRSOH
ZRQWORYHKLPDQ\PRUHRQO\WREHUHDVVXUHGE\KLVDLGH6KDELKPHDQLQJWKXJWKDWWKHPDMRULW\RIWKH
SRSXODWLRQVWLOOORYHKLP,WLVSUHFLVHO\IRULWVDELOLW\WRUHPL[UHDOHYHQWVDQGFKDUDFWHUVZLWKSDURG\DQG
dark humor that Top Goon is so provocative and innovative (Della Ratta, 2011).

$QRWKHUVLPLODUH[SUHVVLRQWR7RS*RRQLVDVHULHVRIFOLSVFDUWRRQVDQGLPDJHVSURGXFHGE\WKHZHE
VLWH NKDUDEHHVK KWWSWRRQVNKDUDEHHVKFRP"KO HQ ZKHUH DXWKRUV VKRZ WKURXJK FKDQQHOV EORJV DQG
<RX7XEHYLGHRVGLIIHUHQWDQGVSRQWDQHRXVH[SHULPHQWVDERXWVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOOLIHWKURXJKFRPPHQ-
tary cartoon pieces that sarcastically tackles some of the burning issues in Arab societies. One of them is
7KH%X.KDVKLPVKWWSZZZEXNKDVKLPVFRPZKLFKLVDQDQLPDWHGFRPHG\VKRZLQ$UDELFDERXW
D%HGRXLQIDPLO\WKDWUHFHQWO\PRYHGWRWKHFLW\(YHU\GD\WKH\OHDUQPRUHDERXWFLW\OLIHZKHUHWKHLU
QRPDGLFFXOWXUHIXQQLO\FROOLGHVZLWKXUEDQFXOWXUH

,QWHUPVRIYHUEDOH[SUHVVLRQVRQJVKDYHEHHQRQHRIWKHPRVWIUHTXHQWPRGHVRIH[SUHVVLRQLQWKH$UDE
UHYROXWLRQ$ORWRIWLWOHVUHHFWWKHSROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQLQGLIIHUHQW$UDEFRXQWULHVZLWKDZLGHYD-
riety of music styles from the rap and rock to acoustic and regional music. Among the most famous songs
ZKLFKFDQEHIRXQGLQWKHVLWHKWWSZZZ\RXWXEHFRPSOD\OLVW"OLVW 3/('%&&&%ZHKDYH
/HDYHE\5DP\(VVDPZLWKO\ULFVFRPSULVLQJDOOWKHPRVWSRSXODUFKDQWVDQGVORJDQVRIWKHUHYROXWLRQ
KHDUGRQWKHVWUHHWV7KLVVRQJEHFDPHWKHKLWRIWKHUHYROXWLRQJRLQJYLUDORQ<RX7XEH(VVDPOLYHGLQ7DKULU
6TXDUHVWHQWYLOODJHIRUWKHHQWLUHUHYROXWLRQFRPSRVLQJVRQJVDQGSOD\LQJDOPRVWHYHU\KRXURQRQHRIWKH
PDQ\VWDJHVWKDWVSURXWHGWKHUH:HDOVRKDYHWKHWZHQW\RQH\HDUROG+DPDGD%HQ$PRUDOVRNQRZQDV(O
*HQHUDOUHOHDVHGDQLQFHQGLDU\UDSVRQJFDOOHG+HDGRI6WDWHDURXQGWKHVDPHWLPHDV%RXD]L]LVVXLFLGDO
DFW7KHVRQJZKLFKGLUHFWO\DGGUHVVHVQRZIRUPHU3UHVLGHQW%HQ$OLFDXJKWRQOLNHZLOGUHRQ)DFHERRN
inspiring thousands of young Tunisians to take to the streets, and landing El General in jail. El General took
WRWKHVWDJHRQFHPRUHLQ7XQLVLDWRJLYHDQHPRWLRQDOSHUIRUPDQFHLQIURQWRIDFURZGRIVWXGHQWV

2WKHULFRQLFWLWOHVRIWKHUHYROXWLRQKDYHEHHQ(J\SWLDQ,QWLIDGDZULWWHQE\WKHSRHW$KPHG)RXDG
Negm, sung by Sheik Imam. Egyptian folk act al- tanbura and others from the El Mastaba Centre for
(J\SWLDQ)RON0XVLFOPHGLQWKHVWUHHWVRI&DLURZLWKDFXWWLWOHG7DKULU6TXDUH-DP5HEHOE\(J\S-
WLDQUDSSHUV$UDELDQ.QLJKW]VXQJLQ(QJOLVKLWVO\ULFVUHZULWWHQE\WKHJURXSV.DULP$GHO(LVVDDND$
Rush, on the night of Thursday January 27. Cairo rock luminaries, Amir Eid, Hany Adel and Sherif Mosta-
IDDUHDOVRSUHVHQWZLWKWKHLUURXVLQJDQWKHPWRWKHUHYROXWLRQ6RXW$O+RUH\D7KH9RLFHRI)UHHGRP
7KH,UDTLUDSSHU1DUFLF\VWZLWKRWKHU0&VIURPWKH$UDELFUDSGLDVSRUDLQ1RUWK$PHULFDLQFOXGLQJ2PDU
2IIHQGXP)UHHZD\$\DKDQG$PLU6XODLPDQZLWK-DQDUHIHUHQFHWRERWKWKHGDWHWKHSURWHVWVEH-
JDQLQ(J\SWDQGLWVSURPLQHQFHDVDWUHQGLQJWRSLFRQ7ZLWWHU0DVWHU0LP]%DFNGRZQ0XEDUDNDQG
PDQ\RWKHUVH[LVWLQJWKDWZHUHDGGHGWRWKRVHSURGXFWLRQVOLNHNRIH\\H$UDEH\\HE\6KDGLD0DQVRXU
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 36

:LWKUHJDUGWRRWKHUYLVXDOZRUNVKDQGELOOVSRVWHUVVWLFNHUVDQ\WKLQJWKDWFDQKROGDQLGHDZDVEH-
LQJSODVWHUHGRQWKHJUDIWLVWUHZQZDOOVRIWKH0LGGOH(DVWVQHZHVWGHPRFUDF\LQZDLWLQJ$ORQJVLGHDOO
of the earnest portraits, optimistic slogans and anachronistic symbols, an enigmatic series has been pop-
SLQJXSDURXQGPDQ\GRZQWRZQVKDXQWV7KHUHDUHQRSKRWRVQRSDUW\ORJRVMXVWZRUGVLQ$UDELFVFULSW
0DWDGLQHHVKGRQWPDNHPH\RXUHQHP\PDWLVWDJKUDEQHHVKGRQWFRQVLGHUPHVWUDQJHPDWNDIDUQ
HHVKGRQWFDOOPHDQLQGHODPRQJRWKHUVORJDQVKDYHFDUHIXOO\FKRVHQZRUGE\ZRUGRQDSRVWHUWR
communicate more than grandiose proclamations of patriotism and morality.

$VZHFDQVHHWKHVHPHVVDJHVKDYHEHHQZULWWHQLQFROORTXLDO$UDELFDQGDUHWKHPRVWUHFHQWFUHDWLRQV
RIWKH$UDEUHYROXWLRQZKLFKKDYHHPHUJHGLQ(J\SWDVDZD\WRPDNHIHHOQRZPRUHWKDQHYHUWKHSRSX-
lar language of the VKDEDJDLQVWWKHW\UDQQ\WKDWKDVVKRZQWKH6&$)LQUHFHQWGD\V7KHVLJQLFDQFHRI
XVLQJGLDOHFWLVWKDWZKLOHLWLVFRQVLGHUHGWKHODQJXDJHRIWKHSHRSOHLWLVUDUHO\XVHGLQWKHSROLWLFDOPHGLD
UHDOPDQGFHUWDLQO\ZDVQRWXWLOL]HGIRUDQ\RIWKHFDPSDLJQSRVWHUVDGYRFDWLQJFDQGLGDWHVRYHUWKHSDVW
IHZZHHNV7KHGLDOHFWLPSOLHVDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIWRQHDQGIDPLOLDULW\ZKLFKVHUYHVWRVWULNHDUHVRQDQW
FKRUGE\DPSOLI\LQJWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHZRUGV%\XVLQJ(J\SWVGLVWLQFWVWUHHWSDWRLVWKHFDPSDLJQVXE-
YHUVLYHO\FULWLTXHVWKHODQJXDJHRISROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHDQGFRPPXQLFDWHVLWVSDUWLFXODUVORJDQVWR(J\S-
tians from Egyptians.

7KHVHSRVWHUVDUHWKHZRUNRIDUWLVW%DVVHP<RXVUL+LVZRUGVSURYLGHDFRXQWHUQDUUDWLYHWRWKHPRUH
commonplace party-led campaigns. He calls it Hamlit Matikhsarneesh, (Spread a Word). The campaign
ZDVLQVSLUHGE\WKHERPELQJWKDWWRRNSODFHRXWVLGHWKH6DLQWV&KXUFKLQWKHHDUO\PRUQLQJRI-DQX-
ary 2011 (killing 21 people and injuring hundreds) and had the intention of making political posters to
avoid sectarian divisions in the revolution emphasizing that those attacks had been made by the govern-
PHQWDQGQRWE\WKH,VODPLVWVDVPLOLWDU\DQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOPHGLDSUHVHQWHG$ZDG,Q(J\SWSRVWHUV
KDYHORQJEHHQXVHGDVDWRRORISROLWLFDOSURSDJDQGD<RXVULH[SODLQVFLWLQJWKHSRVWHUVRIWKH0XEDUDN
IDPLO\WKDWRRGHG(J\SWEHIRUH-DQXDU\,WKRXJKWWKDWZHFRXOGXVHSRVWHUVWRSURSDJDWHLGHDVVSUHDGLQJ
KXPDQULJKWVDQGWROHUDQFHWKHZRUGVDUHPHDQWWRUHLQIRUFHSHUVRQDOULJKWVDQGWRHQFRXUDJHWKHSXEOLF
WRGHOLYHULWVRZQPHVVDJHWRDQ\SHUVRQRUDXWKRULW\WKDWYLRODWHVWKRVHULJKWV%HUJHU

,QWHUPVRIYRFDEXODU\LWLVQHFHVVDU\WRVD\WKDWERWKFROORTXLDODQGHORTXHQW$UDELFKDYHEHHQH[SRVHG
together in the sticks, posters, songs, slogans and other kind of visual and verbal demonstrations in Arab
revolutions, making of DOOXJDWKH$UDELFODQJXDJHDVRQHFRUSXVDUHIHUHQFHODQJXDJHZKLFK,FDOO
0LGGOH&RQWHPSRUDU\$UDELF*DUGXxRZKLFKLVWDXJKWLQPRVW$UDEDQGQR$UDEXQL-
YHUVLWLHVDQGDVQRZKDSSHQVZLWK$UDEUHYROXWLRQKDVEHHQWKHUHVXOWRIWKHQHHGWRGHDOZLWKSROLWLFDODQG
VRFLDOSUREOHPVLQWKH0LGGOHHDVWVLQFHWKHLQFRUSRUDWLRQVRIWHUPVOLNHELQOGLQL\\DWKDW
ZRXOGEHXVHGWRVWXG\WKHLGHRORJ\RIWKHIRUPHUDQGQRZGHIXQFWOHDGHURI$O4DHGDWHUURULVWQHWZRUN
DZODPDZKLFKLVWUDQVODWHGE\WKHWHUPJOREDOL]DWLRQVO\GWZKLFKLVXVHGWR
GHVFULEHWKHVOLGHVLQDSUHVHQWDWLRQLQSRZHUSRLQWDPRQJRWKHUV

,QWKHFDVHRI$UDEUHYROXWLRQZHKDYHFROOHFWHGVRPHLFRQLFDQGXVHIXOZRUGVIRUWKHDZUD based in
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 37 ARAB SPRING

Egypt maSr
Tomorrow Bokrah

Real Education ta3leem begad

Freedom of opinin Horeyyet er ra`y

System niZaam

Parity takafoo`

Dignity karaama

Hope amal
Poverty Eradication maHo el-fa`r 
Retirement el-ma3aash
The change et-taghyyer
Democracy eddimoqraTayya
Abolition of Emergency law ilgaa` qanoon eT-Tawaaree` 
Conscience eD-Dameer
New president ra`-ees gedeed 
Social Responsibility mas`oolayya eg-tima3aaya 
Social Justice 3adaala eg-tima3ayya

Dialogue= el-Hiwaar

Fair Salaries mortabaat 3aadila 
Sincerity el-ikhlaaS
-RERSSRUWXQLW\MREWKDWEHQHWVPH shoghl yenfa3ni

Elimination of ignorance al-qadaa` 3ala el-gahl 
Better living ma3eesha afDal 
Appreciation et-taQdeer
Secure life Hayaah amna

Political Freedom Horeyya seyasay-ya

Honest ,virtuous people shorfaa C 
Citizen ship mowaTanah
KFC*(This is a sort of a joke because there kentaaki

were rumors during demonstration that some
demonstrators are paid 50LE+KFC daily
To protest )
Zamalek champion * Another wish ed-dawri lil zamalik 
as Zamalek football team used to be one
of the best of teams in the Egypt but they
couldnt win any real champion chip in years )
Cleanliness naDaafa

From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 38

Our right Haq-qina

Health care re3aaya SeH-Heyya 
Fresh air hawaa` naqi 
Domestic Industry Sinaa3a maHalayya

Security for my children amn awlaadi 
Honest media i3laam SareeH 
Accept the other taqbo l al-aakhar

Homeless care re3ayet el-moshardeen 
State of institutions= dawlit mo`sasaat 
Food (ak l is the word for food but lo`met 3ayesh 
(lo`met 3ayesh) which is an expression
that means a piece of bread , Minimum of
poor Egyptians food ,basic sustenance, and it
refers her to the minimum wages people)
Bride 3aroosa

Master ship of public syaada sha3baya

public sha3b,sha3bayya

National Unity (This expression is usually wiHda waTanayya 
used to refer to the unity between Muslims and
Christians )
A look to upper Egypt (The word naZra naZra lil-Sa3eed maSr

here means attention as Sa3eed is a poor part
of Egypt
Dignity of teachers (Colloquial word for teacher karaamat al-mo3lem

LVPRGDUULVVWKHVHQWHQFHUHHFWVKRZ
teachers of local schools feel because of their low
salaries )
Human rights Hoqooq el-insaan

Change taghy-yeer

Youth housing iskaan esh-shbaab 
Literacy maHo el om-mayya 
Culture thaqaafa

Renaissance nah-Da

Humanity insanay-ya
Disability rights hoqooq el-mo3aqeen

$IOLDWLRQ entimaa`  
Fair Representative councils magaales nyabayya Haqeqayya 
Azhar rights(this refers to the low wages that hoqooq al-azhreen

Azhr employs are struggling with )
Implementation of Judicial Decision tanfeez aHkaam qada`ayya

 39 ARAB SPRING

Free voting Soutee yawSal


Better future mostaqbal afDal  
Ethics akhlaaq 
Freedom Horayya

A look at Suez naZra lel-swees

Physiotherapy 3elaag Tabee3i

Easy exams imtiHnaat sahla 
Childhood Tofoola

Egyptians agenda agendet el-maSreen 

)LQDOFRPPHQWVDODE\XUGLVTDOQLP
DQGWKHFKDOOHQJHVIRUDZUD
Studying Arab Protest through visual and verbal expressions in its resistance language is a very impor-
WDQWDQGXVHIXOPHWKRG$VZHFRXOGVHHOH[LFDODQGYLVXDOH[SUHVVLRQVDUHHPERGLHGLQDODQJXDJHWKDW
on one hand, has to organize and to coordinate the protest itself in the PLGQQHLJKERUKRRGPRVTXHDQG
KRVSLWDOVDQGRQWKHRWKHUWRH[SUHVVWKHOHJLWLPDWHFODLPVWKURXJKHOHFWURQLFDQGPDVVPHGLDQHZVSDSHUV
and others to the international public opinion.

7LPHDIWHUWLPHODQJXDJHVKLQHVDVDQLPSRUWDQWLGHQWLW\HOHPHQWWKDWLQWKHFDVHRI$UDESHRSOHDOORZV
WRLQFRUSRUDWHVRPHH[LVWLQJFRQFHSWVDVXUUL\DOWDEUIUHHGRPRIVSHHFKRUXUUL\DDODIDIUHH-
dom of the press) to introduce the meaning of the DZUD as a tool of self determination against corruption,
FHQVRUVKLSDQGSHUVHFXWLRQRIVHYHUDOJRYHUQPHQWV7KHPDLQZHDSRQRI$UDESURWHVWDIWHUWKHPRGHO
of peaceful mobilization, is the language, not only in grammatical rules of IXjEXWDOVRLQWKHZLVGRPRI
IUHVKYRFDEXODU\DQGSURYHUEVRIFROORTXLDODQG0LGGOH&RQWHPSRUDU\$UDELFWKLVODWWHUDVWKHFRQWHPSR-
UDU\$UDELFODQJXDJHWKDWLVFUHDWHGIURPDPL[EHWZHHQHORTXHQWDQGFROORTXLDORQH

7KURXJKRXWWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\$UDELF3HRSOHXQGHUZHQWDPRGHUQL]DWLRQUHIRUPDQGLQWHOOHFWXDO
DGMXVWPHQWYLVDYLVWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHHFRQRPLFFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOLQXHQFHRI*UHDW3RZHUV,Q
QRZDGD\VLQWKHPLGGOHRIDZUD, Arab People have incorporated several Arabic and no Arabic terms in
DQHORTXHQWDQGFOHDUZD\WRH[SUHVVZKDWSHRSOHLVFRQFHUQHGLQPRGHUQWLPHVDQGZKDWZK\DQGKRZ
WKH\GHPDQGLWIRU6RZHKDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWRVWXG\WKHSRSXODU$UDEGHPDQGVWKURXJKWKHLUVORJDQVDF-
tions, songs and pamphlets not only in Arabic language but also in English, Farsi and other languages that
appeared in the streets since the so called Tunisia revolution.

,IZHFDQUHVXPHLQMXVWRQHVORJDQDOORIZHKDYHVHHQLQWKLVSDSHUZHKDYHWRWDONDERXWDODE\XUG
LVTDOQLPSHRSOHZDQWWRGLVPDQWOHWKHV\VWHP7KLVSKUDVHHYROYHVWKHFOXHWRFRPSUHKHQGWKHVLJQLI-
LFDQFHRIWKLV$UDEUHYROXWLRQ\HWXQQLVKHGDVVXPPDUL]HVDOOZHKDYHGLVFXVVHGQRWHVDERYH,WGHVFULEHV
ERWKWHUPVFKDQJHDQGUHYROXWLRQDVWKHPDLQREMHFWLYHVRISHRSOHDUHLQWKHVTXDUHDQGVWUHHWV6RXUFHRI
LQVSLUDWLRQIRUPRVWRIVRQJVWKDWZHPHQWLRQHGWKLVSKUDVHFRQWDLQVRUDOLW\UK\WKPFODULW\LQ$UDELFHYHQ
IRU(J\SWLDQ3HRSOHZKRKDYHSURQRXQFHSHUIHFWO\WKHVLJQTHILQWKHSKUDVHDQGDHVWKHWLFV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 40

7KHUHQGHULQJRIDXWRQRP\LQ$UDELFLOOXVWUDWHVKRZSHRSOHFRXOGFDSWXUHWKHLUVRFLDOFRKHVLRQDQGWKH
XQLW\LQMXVWRQHFRPPRQSURMHFW7KLVVORJDQODUJHO\EHGHWHUPLQHGLQWKHVWUHHWVDVZHOODVLQWKHLQWHUQHW
FDIHVDQGLQWKHXQLRQKDOOVQHZVSDSHURIFHVZRPHQVJURXSVDQGSULYDWHKRPHVRIPLOOLRQVRI\RXQJ
$UDEVZKRKDYHVHUYHGQRWLFHDVSXEOLFO\DVSRVVLEOHWKDWWKH\ZLOOQRORQJHUWROHUDWHEHLQJWUHDWHGZLWKWKH
FRQWHPSWDQGGLVUHVSHFWWKHLUJRYHUQPHQWVKDYHVKRZQWKHPIRUWKHLUHQWLUHOLYHV:KHQWKH\UHSHDWWKLV
phrase they are not only referring to their corrupt governments but they also mean the old regime that has
SUHYDLOHGIRUGHFDGHVLQWKHHQWLUH$UDEZRUOGIURPWKH$WODQWLFWRWKH*XOI5DVKLG

In post-Mubarak Egypt, given the fact that the military government only partially met the demands of
WKHUHYROXWLRQDULHVZLWKWKHGUHDGHGVWDWHRIHPHUJHQF\UHPDLQLQJLQSODFHVRPHSURWHVWHUVVWDUWHGXVLQJ
DVRPHZKDWGLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQRIWKHVORJDQ7KHSHRSOHZDQWWREULQJGRZQWKHHOGPDUVKDOUHIHUULQJWR
)LHOG0DUVKDO0RKDPHG7DQWDZLDODE\XUGLVTDOPXVKLU).

,QVKRUWZHFDQVD\WKDWSHRSOHKDYHVSRNHQFOHDUDQGORDGZKHQVKRZWKHIDFHRIUHYROXWLRQDVVD\-
LQJSHRSOHZDQWWRGLVPDQWOHWKHV\VWHP,Q6\ULD<HPHQ%DKUHLQ/\ELDDQGRWKHUFRXQWULHVDODE
\XUGLVTDOQLPDQGLWVDGDSWDWLRQVLVMXVWWKHEHJLQQLQJIRUWKLVUHYROXWLRQDU\SURFHVVZKLFKZLOO
WDNHDWOHDVWWHQ\HDUVWRRIIHUWKHLUUVWDQGFRQFUHWHUHVXOWV:KDWZHFDQFHOHEUDWHIRUWKHWLPHEHLQJLV
that people, the author of WDZUDDUHQDOO\VSHDNLQJDQGDUHEHLQJKHDUGDOWKRXJKPRUHLQVRPHSODFHV
than others). But major challenges lie ahead. We are living an important moment in the Middle East that
covers sensitive topics like the jure achievement of the Palestinian state in the United Nations, the future of
GHPRFUDF\LQ(J\SWDQGDVHULHVRISHQGLQJGHPDQGVLQVHYHUDOSHRSOHVIURP<HPHQ6\ULD%DKUDLQ,UDT
DQGRWKHUVDQGWKHQXFOHDULVVXHLQ,UDQ*LYHQWKLV,VUDHOKDVUHVSRQGHGZLWKDWKUHDWHQLQJUKHWRULFLQ
RUGHUWRSXVKWKH86DQGRWKHUZHVWHUQFRXQWULHVWRDWWDFN,UDQRUDWOHDVWWRDFWLYDWHWRXJKHUVDQFWLRQVWR
the political, economical and military elite, the Pasdaran.

Once again, those interested in opening this rhetorical political marketing, primarily AIPAC leaders,
VHHPGHWHUPLQHGWRVSUHDGDVHULHVRILGHDVWKDWPDNHQRVHQVHDQGMXVWGHHFWLQWHUQDWLRQDOSXEOLFRSLQLRQ
from real interest issues in the Arab region, this is, envisioning democratic governments in the Middle East
DVZHKDYHVHHQKRZ(J\SWLDQSHRSOHLVWU\LQJWRGRLQ7DKULUULJKWQRZHQGLQJFRUUXSWLRQDQGUHSUHV-
VLRQLQWKHVWUHHWVZLQQLQJFLYLOULJKWVWRH[SUHVVIUHHGRPDQGMXVWLFHDQGUHPDLQLQJLQGHSHQGHQWRIDQ\
American, Russian, Iranian or Israeli interference in internal affairs of Arab Countries.

In this sense, the only thing in the mind of Israel government is to remain as the only democratic state
RI7KH0LGGOH(DVWZLWKEDVHRQLWVHWKQRFUDF\VRPHWKLQJDVDEVXUGDQGLPSRVVLEOHDQGDWWKHVDPH
WLPHWRDYRLGWKLVGHPRFUDWLFZDYHLQ$UDEZRUOGWKURXJKWKHLQYHQWLRQRIWZRFRPPRQHQHPLHVEHWZHHQ
Arabs called: Iran and Islamism.

7KHDUULYDORIDQHZJHQHUDWLRQRI,VODPLVWSDUWLHVZKLFKFDQEHFDOOHG'HPR,VODPLVW3DUWLHVLQ
SRVLWLRQZLWKWKHH[LVWHQFHRI&KULVWLDQ'HPRFUDWLF3DUWLHVLQ(XURSHDQGDZD\IURPWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHYL-
sion of Khamenei or Saudi Islam), is ready to enter into the democratic game and to replace authoritarian
UHJLPHVDVZHFRXOGVHHLQWKH7XQLVLDQDQG0RURFFRHOHFWLRQVFDVHV7KLVZDYHLVFRQFHLYHGDVDWKUHDWE\
,VUDHODQGRWKHUSROLWLFDODFWRUVOLNHWKH86DQG6DXGL$UDELDWKDWZLOOVHHNDW\SHRIUHLVODPL]DWLRQLQ$UDE
VRFLHW\LQRUGHUWRXVHUDGLFDO,VODPWRFRQYLQFH(J\SWLDQ/LE\DQ<HPHQLDQGRWKHUSHRSOHVWKDWWKHHQG
of authoritarian governments is at the same time the end of the guarantors of stability and security people
DJDLQVWUDGLFDOV6RDQHZZDYHRILQVHFXULW\EDUEDULVPDQGWHUURULVPZRXOGEHFRPLQJEDFNWRVWUHHWV
 41 ARAB SPRING

LQRUGHURQRQHKDQGWRIRUFHSHRSOHWRFRQGHPQWKHIDNHIDFHRIQHZ,VODP3DUWLHVDQGRQWKHRWKHUWR
persuade people to make no more changes, protest and revolts.

This re islamization attempts to connect distortion of Islam and Islamist parties in coming months.
7KLVVWUDWHJ\ZLWK,VUDHODQG6DXGL$UDELDQDQFLDOVXSSRUWZRXOGEHDVSHDUKHDGIRUGLVFUHGLWWKHFXUUHQW
$UDE6SULQJSURFHVVPDNLQJDVWURQJHUGHWHUPLQLVPDJDLQVWQHZ,VODPLVWFDQGLGDWHVDVZHOODVJHQHUDW-
LQJIHDUEHWZHHQUHOLJLRXVPLQRULWLHVLQWKHFDVHWKDWWKH\VXSSRUWWKHUHYROWVDQGGHPRFUDWLFSURFHVV7KLV
UHVSRQGVWRWKHUHFHQWDWWDFNVRQVRPH&RSWLFFKXUFKHVLQ(J\SWZKLFKDFFRUGLQJWRVHYHUDOYHUVLRQVRI
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States. The fact is that the perpetrator can be any of them.

Moreover, there is another and more complicated strategy in this game called Iran. The current rhetoric
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DQ,VUDHOLDWWDFNZRXOGKDYHVWUDWHJ\HIIHFWVLQWKH,UDTVVFHQDULRZKHUH$PHULFDQWURRSVZRXOGQHHGWR
SRVWSRQHWKHGHSDUWXUHDQQRXQFHGODWHUWKLV\HDULQRUGHUWRDYRLG3DVGDUDQLQXHQFHLQWKHULVN\ERUGHU
EHWZHHQ,UDQDQG,UDTVRPHWKLQJQRWH[SHFWHGE\QHZ,UDTVJRYHUQPHQW

Although the Syrian regime is disable to provide logistical and intelligence support to Iranian regime
as he had promised some years ago, the current situation indicates that Israel cannot attack Iran unilater-
ally and automatically because an attack in the coming months has to involucrate, at least, some Arab Gulf
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WU\WREOXUWKHUDFLVWUROHRI,VUDHOLQWKH3DOHVWLQLDQFRQLFWWRDYRLGWKHFROODSVHRIDXWKRULWDULDQJRYHUQ-
ments in the Gulf zone mainly Saudi Arabia and Bahrain and to rebuild, if that is possible, the U.S image
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 42

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 43 ARAB SPRING

Social media and new technologies in Egypt and Tunisia:

two examples of innovative forms of democratization

STEFANIA PERNA
University of Reading

Abstract
In 2011 Web 2.0 has emerged as a crucial tool in organizing demonstrations and mo-
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SDSHUDLPVDWXQGHUOLQLQJWKDWQHZPHGLDDQGQHZWHFKQRORJLHVWRJHWKHUZLWKRSHQ
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on democratization that such approach has had.

Keywords
,&7V&URZGVRXUFLQJ(OHFWLRQV'HPRFUDWL]DWLRQ:HE

Introduction
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7KURXJKWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRI566DQGWKHFRQVHTXHQWFUHDWLRQRIVRFLDOPHGLDWKH,QWHUQHWKDVEHHQWUDQV-
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RIWKHELJZHEUPVEXWKDYHEHFRPHWKHPDLQFUHDWRUVRIWKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHZHELWVHOI7KHVHQHZIRUPV
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RUGHUWRJHWSULPDU\LQIRUPDWLRQWKHZHEDQGQHZWHFKQRORJLHVRWKHUZLVHNQRZQDV,&7VKDYHEHFRPH
tools to expand political, social and economic freedom of people and for this reason have been named lib-
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RQJRLQJ$UDEXSULVLQJVWKDWHUXSWHGLQDUHFOHDUH[DPSOHVRIKRZ,&7VKDYHFUHDWHGDQHZZLQGRZ
of opportunities for common citizens to mobilize and to regain the control of their social and political life.
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WLRQDOWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIQHZIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWRISHRSOHLQWKHVRFLHW\EXWLWLVDOVRIXQGDPHQWDO
LQGHQRXQFLQJZKDWKDSSHQHGLQDFRXQWU\RQWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWDJH,QWKHPRPHQWLQZKLFKVXFKWRROV
KDVEHHQRUJDQL]HGLQWZRRSHQVRXUFHVRIWZDUHVXFKDV8VKDKLGLDQG)URQWOLQH606WKHLPSDFWRIWKHVH
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,QWKHVHWZRFDVHVWKHGHSOR\PHQWRIRQOLQHSODWIRUPVWKDWPHUJHGWKHXVHRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHVZLWKWKH
WHFKQLTXHVRIFURZGVRXUFLQJKDYHFRQWULEXWHGDWVWUHQJWKHQLQJZKDW,GHQHG$FWLYLVPDQGLQHQ-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 44

gaging citizens in the process of democratization.

From Web 1.0 to Web 2.0: the electronic democracy

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merce. Web 2.0 is people2. What happened in 2005 can be considered a revolution that changed not only
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system itself. The author listed seven main principles that differentiate Web 2.0 from Web 1.0: the Internet
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SROLWLFDOFRQWHQWRYHUPXOWLSOHDSSOLFDWLRQVDQGULFKXVHUH[SHULHQFHVRQSROLWLFDOZHEVLWHV6. Although not
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as the use of the Internet as a platform for political confrontation, the propagation of political content over
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puter technology topics.
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for the Information Society, Vol. 5:1, 2009.
 45 ARAB SPRING

become the main features of a system that through the Nineties has presented itself as a one-to-many tool
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in terms of the Froomkin approach. In his trenchant examination of online democracy, Michael Froomkin
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philosopher argued that engaging people in political debates and encouraging them to associate in order to
exchange opinions can improve inherently the political process itself, as it enables the masses to disenfran-
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recent experiences, such as the on-going political uprisings in the Arab World, or the demonstrations in Lon-
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emerging of the so-called electronic democracy9ZKRVHHIIHFWVKDVEHHQKHUHWRIRUHH[WUDRUGLQDU\

The web 2.0 as Liberation Technology: the power of crowdsourcing

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to express opinions on a broader amount of issues, to mobilize and monitoring and to spread information in
real time on the international stage only by connecting to the Internet. Web 2.0 has enhanced the freedom of
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technologies. For a deeper analysis see Maurizio Bolognini, Democrazia Elettronica, Carocci Editore, Roma, 2001.
10 /DUU\'LDPRQGLVVHQLRUIHOORZDWWKH+RRYHU,QVWLWXWLRQDQG)UHHPDQ6SRJOL,QVWLWXWHIRU,QWHUQDWLRQDO6WXGLHVGLUHFWRURI6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\V&HQWUH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 46

and Communication Technologies11. According to Diamond (2010) liberation technology is any form of in-
formation and communication technology (ICT) that can expand political, social and economic freedom12.
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DWHG0HLHUUHFDOOHGZKDWDQ(J\SWLDQDFWLYLVWWROGGXULQJWKHXSULVLQJDJDLQVWWKHUHJLPHRI+RVQL
0XEDUDNLQ&DLURDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRI+HVDLG:HXVH)DFHERRNWRVFKHGXOHRXUSURWHVWV7ZLWWHUWR
FRRUGLQDWHDQG<RX7XEHWRWHOOWKHZRUOG147KHIURQWSDJHRIWKH1HZ<RUN7LPHVRI7KHth June 2009
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mobile phones and the Internet have played a fundamental role in circumventing the censorship imposed by
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been used to document the revolt and the push for change embodied by the Green Movement15.

Picture 1: Picture of the front page of the New York Times, 22 June 2009. Source: Meier 2011.

Although their primary use is not related to political activities, ICTs have proved to play a fundamental
role at the point of supporting citizens and protesters in organizing demonstrations and revolts. For this rea-
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to create, change, spread and manipulate information on a large scale.
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versity Press, 2010.
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15 The Green Movement is a pro-reform movement born in the aftermaths of the presidential elections in Iran in 2009. Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Kar-
roubi are considered the leader of the movement.
 47 ARAB SPRING

ing people, a phenomenon he called smart mob16$V'LDPRQGZULWHVUHFDOOLQJWKHGHQLWLRQRI

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hierarchy or central direction in order to gather at certain location for the sake of protest17.

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purposes.

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as rescue programs, monitoring or information activities. Although can be a very general phenomenon,
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processes and about possible episodes of frauds violence or misconduct during the electoral confrontations.
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but also to overcome the censorship and denounce the episodes of frauds and corruption of the regime of
Hosni Mubarak on the international stage. On the other hand, in Tunisia, the initiative has been launched
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the Abdulaziz Ben Ali regime, the election of the Constituent Assembly.

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mation, but also the possibility of manipulating or falsifying them. A clear example of manipulation and
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17 Larry Diamond, cit., pg. 11.
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 48

in Kenya in the aftermath of 2007 elections. Once violence erupted, after the communication of the results,
some groups mobilized and started sending text messages to prevent violence and to inform people about
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spread hate speeches, further igniting an already tense and violent situation.

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refer both to the information coming from mobile phones or the Internet and social media. Depending on
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ing the processes of interrogating the source and/or triangulating the information. If an information is taken
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has been given in occasion of the violence erupted in South Kyrgyzstan in 201020.

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tion process. Once several different pictures or video, or messages, are submitted to the organizers of the
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20 During the months of May and June the turmoil in the country have been fuelled by misinformation and disinformation, especially through mobile phones.
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available at http://irevolution.net/publications/, accessed on the 3/01/2012.
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London, UK: UN Foundation-Vodafone Foundation Partnership, 2009
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vided by Web 2.0 are Ushahidi and FrontlineSMS. Whilst the latter counts on the improved communication
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the Internet and goes a step further, introducing real time mapping activities.

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report by International Telecommunication Union, in 2011 the mobile-cellular subscriptions have reached the 5.9
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22 Ibidem.
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 50

Picture 3: Mobile-cellular subscriptions by level of development; Source: ITU *Estimates

0RUHRYHULQWKHODVWIRXU\HDUVVXEVFULSWLRQVKDYHJURZQDQQXDOO\WRWKHSRLQWWKDWWRGD\WKHUHDUH
PRUHPRELOHWKDQ[HGSKRQHVVXEVFULSWLRQV24.

Picture 4: Mobile-cellular subscriptions 2006-2011; Source: ITU

Many FrontlineSMS deployments have been made especially in the health, agricultural or human devel-
RSPHQWHOGVEXWRQHRIWKHPRVWFRPPRQXVHVLVIRUHOHFWLRQPRQLWRULQJ7KHUVWRIVXFKGHSOR\PHQWV
KDVEHHQPDGHLQWKHRFFDVLRQRI1LJHULDQHOHFWLRQVLQ,QWKDWRFFDVLRQWKHVRIWZDUHKDVEHHQXVHGWR
UHFHLYHWH[WVIURPSHRSOHDWWHQGLQJWKHSROOVWKDWZHUHZLWQHVVLQJLQFRQVLVWHQFLHVRUIUDXGVLQWKHHOHFWRUDO
SURFHVV7KLVLQIRUPDWLRQKDYHEHHQODWHO\IRUZDUGHGRQWRWKHHOHFWRUDOERG\DQGSODFHGRQDPDSZKHUH
SUREOHPVSRWVFRXOGEHYLVXDOL]HG7KHUVWDLPRIWKLVSURMHFWKDVEHHQDQDWWHPSWWRSXWGHPRFUDF\EDFNLQ
WKHKDQGVRIWKHYRWHUVWKHUHIRUHHPSRZHULQJWKHPDQGPDNLQJWKHPSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKHVRFLHW\

24 ITU, ICT Facts and Figures, The World in 2011, ICT Data and Statistics Division Telecommunication Development Bureau International Telecommunica-
tion Union, Geneva, 2011.
 51 ARAB SPRING

Picture 5: How FrontlineSMS works; Source: FrontlineSMS

Ushahidi

8VKDKLGLLVDQRUJDQL]DWLRQWKDWZDVFUHDWHGE\DJURXSRIVFKRODUVGXULQJWKHWXUPRLOLQWKHDIWHUPDWK
RI.HQ\DQHOHFWLRQLQZLWKWKHDLPRISURYLGLQJLQIRUPDWLRQWRSHRSOHRIZKDWZDVKDSSHQLQJLQ
WKHFRXQWU\LQDPRPHQWLQZKLFKRIFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQZHUHODFNLQJRUQRWUHOLDEOH&RXQWLQJRQWKHDELOLW\
of putting together the functionalities of different ICTs (the Internet and mobile phones), Ushahidi created
DQRSHQVRXUFHVRIWZDUHDEOHQRWRQO\WRJDWKHULQIRUPDWLRQWKURXJKFURZGVRXUFLQJEXWDOVRWRPDSWKHP
on a visual interactive map.

Picture 6: Screenshot of the Ushahidi website; Source: http://blog.ushahidi.com/

7KHVHLPSURYHPHQWVKDYHSURYLGHGDQHZWRROWKDWKDVEHHQXVHGLQGLIIHUHQWGHSOR\PHQWVIRUGLIIHUHQW
goals, from natural disasters rescuing operations to election monitoring activities, therefore contributing to
HOHFWLRQUHODWHGYLROHQFHULVNDVVHVVPHQWVRUHDUO\ZDUQLQJSURMHFWV%\DOORZLQJWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRISHR-
ple, Ushahidi represents the kind of tool that has succeeded in using the advances of technology in order to
prompt local population to take part in their political life. From 2008 to March 2011, there have beenmore
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 52

than 11,000 Ushahidi deployments and the Ushahidi platform25ZKLFKFDQEHGHQHGDVDIUHHDQGRSHQ

VRXUFHSODWIRUPWKDWFRPELQHV6067ZLWWHUDQG*RRJOH0DSVWRFURZGVRXUFHFULVLVLQIRUPDWLRQ26, has
proved to be a useful support to traditional methods of analysis and data gathering.

,WVPDLQVWUHQJWKLVWKHIDFWWKDW8VKDKLGLLVDQRSHQVRXUFHIUHHO\GRZQORDGDEOHDQGWKDWLWLVHDVLO\
DGDSWDEOHWRWKHQHHGVRQWKHJURXQG2QFHLQVWDOOHGRQDODSWRSRUSFWKH8VKDKLGLVRIWZDUHLVDEOHWR
UHFHLYHLQIRUPDWLRQFRPLQJIURPPRELOHSKRQHVHPDLOVDQGVRFLDOPHGLDVXFKDV7ZLWWHUWKDWDUHSUR-
FHVVHGDQGJHRORFDWHGRQDQLQWHUDFWLYHPDSDQGWKHQYHULHG7KLVSURFHVVFDQEHGRQHE\WKRVHZKRUXQ
WKHVRIWZDUHEXWLQWKHFDVHRISDUWLFXODUO\UHOHYDQWGHSOR\PHQWVVXFKDVWKHRQHLQRFFDVLRQRIWKH+DLWL
HDUWKTXDNHLQZKLFKDVEHHQWKHWXUQLQJSRLQWLQWKHKLVWRU\RI8VKDKLGLRUDJDLQGXULQJWKH/LE\DQ
crisis, an entire online community has taken part to the projects, putting together individual skills that have
PDGHSRVVLEOHWRUHDFKREMHFWLYHRWKHUZLVHXQDFKLHYDEOH

7KHPHWKRGRISURFHVVLQJWKHLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWDUULYHRQWKHSODWIRUPLVVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGDQGHYHU\VLQJOH
step is designed to get the most out of the information received and to ease the process of drafting reports and
VWDWLVWLFVRQZKDWKDSSHQVRQWKHJURXQG(YHU\PHVVDJHLVDQDO\]HGLQRUGHUWRPDNHLWWLQRQHRUPRUHFDW-
egories, useful at the point of identifying the different types of problems that appear in a given situation. In the
case of deployments aimed at monitoring an electoral process, the categories can refer to episodes of violence
against polling stations, harassments of candidates, hate-speeches or frauds committed during the voting day.
7KHPHVVDJHVDUHODWHO\ORFDWHGRQDPDSJLYLQJWKHFRRUGLQDWHVRIZKHUHWKHHYHQWKDVWDNHQSODFHDQGWKHQ
video or photos, if present, are uploaded. Once completed the processing procedures, the information pass to
WKHYHULFDWLRQWHDPDQGRQO\DIWHULWKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGUHOLDEOHLWDSSHDUVRQWKHPDLQSDJH

The impact of the use of Ushahidi has been huge, especially in supporting organizations on the ground
and its use has demonstrated that people can be the most ready and reliable source of information in situ-
ations of crisis.

)URQWOLQH606DQG8VKDKLGLDUHMXVWWZRH[DPSOHVRIWRROVWKDWKDYHEHQHWWHGIURPWKHODWHVWWHFKQR-
logical advances and that have been designed to bring people back to the central stage of their political and
VRFLDOOLIH7KLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\HYLGHQWLQWKHFDVHVLQZKLFKWKHVHWRROVKDYHEHHQXVHGWRPRQLWRUHOHFWRUDO
processes. Elections are an essential part of any democratic system and only by granting the development
RIUHJXODUDQGWUDQVSDUHQWHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVHVLWLVSRVVLEOHWREXLOGDQHIIHFWLYHDQGHIFLHQWGHPRFUDF\
&RQYHUWLQJSHRSOHLQHOHFWRUDOPRQLWRUVPHDQVQRWRQO\JLYLQJWKHPWKHSRZHUWRFRQWURODQGWRGHQRXQFH
possible irregularities during the polls, but it also translates into the possibility of spreading democratic
SULQFLSOHVDQGJRRGSUDFWLFH2QFHSHRSOHOHDUQZKDWLVULJKWDQGZURQJLWLVHDVLHUIRUWKHPWRUHFRJQL]H
a good or a bad social or political behavior and not to be manipulated by political or governmental actors.

,QWKLVVHQVHQHZWHFKQRORJLHVDQGFURZGVRXUFLQJKDYHEHHQSDUWLFXODUO\XVHIXOWRWKHJRDORIGHPRF-
UDWL]DWLRQDVWKHGHSOR\PHQWVRIWZRFURZGVRXUFLQJSODWIRUPVLQ(J\SWDQG7XQLVLDVKRZ

,QWKHODVW\HDUV(J\SWLDQDQG7XQLVLDQSHRSOHKDYHEHQHWWHGIURPWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVJLYHQE\ZHE
DQGKDYHULGGHQWKHZDYHRIFKDQJHSOD\LQJDQHZUROHLQWKHLURZQFRXQWULHV
25 Sarah George, Ushahidi Key Deployment Report March 2011, available at http://blog.ushahidi.com/index.php/2011/03/21/key-deployments-and-les-
sons-learned-part-1/, accessed on 8/01/2012.
26 Diane Coyle and Patrick Meier, cit., pg. 23.
 53 ARAB SPRING

Egypt and Tunisia: two examples of innovative forms

of democratization
,QRUGHUWRXQGHUVWDQGZK\WKHWZRFURZGVRXUFLQJH[SHULHQFHVWKDWZLOOEHDQDO\]HGLQWKLVSDSHUKDYH
been so important in mobilizing Egyptian and Tunisian people and in democratizing their social processes,
LWLVIXQGDPHQWDOWRGUDZDSLFWXUHRIWKHVRFLOEDFNJURXQGVLWXDWLRQVLQERWKWKHVHFRXQWULHV$OWKRXJK
different, Egypt and Tunisia share some common features, especially if related to freedom of expression,
movement, press and speech.

,Q  ERWK7XQLVLD DQG (J\SW VXFFHHGHG LQ WRSSOLQJ WZR RI WKH PRVW ORQJVWDQGLQJ GLFWDWRUVKLSV
RIWKHUHJLRQZKRVHDXWRFUDWLFUXOHVLPSRVHGIRUGHFDGHVDVROHSROLWLFDOWKRXJKFRXSOHGZLWKDUHVWULFW-
HGIUHHGRPRIVSHHFKDQGRWKHUSROLWLFDOULJKWVERWKWRZDUGUHOLJLRXVPLQRULWLHVDQGSROLWLFDORSSRVLWLRQ
JURXSV,QWKLVFRQWH[WWKHULVHRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHVDQGWKHXVHRIWKHDGYDQFHVSURYLGHGE\:HEKDYH
SURYHQWREHIXQGDPHQWDOLQJLYLQJYRLFHDQGSURYLGLQJDQHZSODWIRUPZKHUHWRRUJDQL]HGLVVHQWWRWKDW
SDUWRI7XQLVLDQDQG(J\SWVRFLHWLHVWKDWZDQWHGWRQGDZD\WRH[SUHVVWKHLUGLVFRQWHQWDJDLQVWWKHUH-
gimes. These tools became instruments in the hands not only of social and political activists, but also of
WKRVHSDUWVRIWKHVRFLHW\HVSHFLDOO\WKH\RXQJDQGHGXFDWHGSHRSOHWKDWVDZLQWKH,QWHUQHWDQGLQWKHQHZ
technologies an opportunity of getting again possession of their political life. By canalizing the dissent and
SURYLGLQJDQHZYLUWXDOVSDFHIRULQWHUDFWLRQWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWVKDYHFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHUHVKDSHRIWKH
VRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOVFHQDULRERWKLQ7XQLVLDDQG(J\SW$QHZVRFLDOFODVVKDVHPHUJHGIURPWKHQHWZRUNHG
DUHQDRIWKHZHELQZKLFKRUGLQDU\FLWL]HQVDQGKLJKO\,7OLWHUDWHLQGLYLGXDOVZLWKDVWUXFWXUHGSROLWLFDO
consciousness, emerged as leading actors of the protests and then as primary monitors of the democratic
SURFHVVHV7KLVVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWUHVKDSHGLQLWVIRUPDQGPRGDOLWLHVKDVSURGXFHGDQHZ
NLQGRIDFWLYLVPWKDWFDQEHGHQHGDV$FWLYLVP7KHIDFWWKDWQHZPHGLDDQGQHZWHFKQRORJLHV
have been considered crucial elements during the uprising that led to the fall of the regime both of Hosni
0XEDUDNDQG$EGXOD]L]%HQ$OLUHVROYHVDURXQGWKHVHFRQGLWLRQV+RZHYHULWLVLPSRUWDQWWREHDULQPLQG
WKDWWKHVHQHZIRUPVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQKDYHQRWEHHQWKHVROHWULJJHULQJFDXVHVRIWKHVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDO
XQUHVWVUHJLVWHUHGLQWKHVHFRXQWULHVGXULQJEXWWKH\RSHQHGZLQGRZVRIRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRDOUHDG\H[-
LVWLQJVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVVXFKDVWKHQHWZRUNRI(J\SWLDQEORJJHUVWKDWDOORZHGEHWWHUFRPPXQLFDWLQJDQG
RUJDQL]LQJSHRSOH,QRWKHUZRUGV1HZPHGLDHQDEOHGLQGLYLGXDOVWRE\SDVVWKHWUDGLWLRQDOJDWHNHHSHUV
to, and sources of, information27.

+RZHYHUWKHGHVLUHRISOD\LQJDGLIIHUHQWUROHLQWKHVRFLHW\DQGWKHLQFUHDVLQJSROLWLFDODZDUHQHVVRIWKH
SRSXODWLRQWRZDUGVRFLDOLVVXHVKDYHEHHQHYLGHQWZHOOEHIRUHHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHFDVHRIWKH86KDKLG
experience in Egypt in occasion of the parliamentary elections in November 2010.

7KHLGHDRIXVLQJDFURZGVRXUFLQJSODWIRUPGXULQJWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVLQ(J\SWKDVEHHQDQDWWHPSW
WREULQJEDFNWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVWRSHRSOHE\SURYLGLQJDPHFKDQLVPRIFRQWUROWKDWZDVLQWKHKDQGRI
WKRVHZKRZHUHFDVWLQJWKHLUYRWHV%\SXVKLQJ(J\SWLDQVWRPRQLWRUWKHLURZQHOHFWRUDOSURFHVV86KDKLG
ZDQWHGWRPDNHSHRSOHUHDOL]HWKDWE\DFWLYHO\SDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHFRQIURQWDWLRQWKHSURFHVVLWVHOIZRXOG
have become more authentic and less corrupted. By observing and judging the regularity of the electoral
process, Egyptian have been pushed to look at the electoral process no more as tool in the hand of the au-
WKRULWLHVWRDIUPRQFHDJDLQWKHLUSRZHUEXWDVDQLQVWUXPHQWWKDWZRXOGKDYHDOORZHGWKHPWRSOD\DQHZ
27 (OLVDEHWK,VNDQGHU&RQQHFWLQJWKH1DWLRQDODQGWKH9LUWXDO&DQ)DFHERRN$FWLYLVP5HPDLQ5HOHYDQW$IWHU(J\SWV-DQXDU\8SULVLQJ",QWHUQDWLRQDO
Journal of Communication 5, London School of Economics, 2011.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 54

role and to take back the control over the democratic practices of the country. For such a long time elec-
WLRQVKDYHORVWWKHLUPHDQLQJIRU(J\SWLDQVDVLWXDWLRQGHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKHLQFUHDVLQJO\ORZYRWHUWXUQRXW
registered during the last 30 years.

Year Turnout Year Turnout

1976  1995 
1984  2000 
1987  2005 
1990 

Picture 7: Voter Turnout in Previous Egyptian Parliamentary Elections, Source: Al-Ahram Press Institute

Under the Mubarak regime, taking part to the electoral process has been a privilege limited to people
FORVHG WR WKH *RYHUQPHQW RU WKH 0LOLWDU\ HVWDEOLVKPHQW ZKHUHDV VWULFW ODZV WKDW KDYH FRQVWUDLQHG WKH
SROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOULJKWVRIRSSRVLWLRQPRYHPHQWVKDYHLQXHQFHGWKHSROLWLFDOFDPSDLJQWRWKHSRLQW
WKDWWKHUHZDVQRGRXEWRQZKRZRXOGKDYHHPHUJHGDVWKHZLQQHURIWKH(J\SWLDQHOHFWRUDOFRQIURQWD-
WLRQV7KLVVLWXDWLRQKDVLQFUHDVLQJO\SXVKHGSHRSOHDZD\IURPSROOLQJVWDWLRQV0RUHRYHUVLQFHWKH
HOHFWRUDOSURFHVVHVKDYHDOZD\VEHHQSROOXWHGE\IUHTXHQWHSLVRGHVRIIUDXGVWKDWKDYHQHYHUIRXQGMXVWLFH
WKURXJKDSSHDOSURFHGXUHVGXHWRWKHKLJKOHYHOVRIFRUUXSWLRQ+RZHYHULQWKHHYHRISDUOLDPHQWDU\HOHF-
WLRQVLQWKHSROLWLFDOVLWXDWLRQLQWKHFRXQWU\ZDVVOLJKWO\GLIIHUHQW$VRUWRISROLWLFDOYDFXXPZDV
YLVLEOHVLQFH0XEDUDNVXIIHUHGIURPVHULRXVKHDOWKSUREOHPVEXWKDGQRWQDPHGDVXFFHVVRUDQGWKHUHZHUH
GRXEWVRQWKHDELOLW\RIKLVVRQ*DPDORIJDLQLQJWKHWUXVWRIWKH$UP\ZKLFKZDVDIXQGDPHQWDOFRQGL-
tion to rule the country. In this context the opposition gained space and capitalized this opportunity through
WKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVRIIHUHGE\QHZWHFKQRORJLHVDQGPHGLD

7KLVZDVWKHFRQWH[WLQZKLFKWKH86KDKLGSODWIRUPKDVEHHQODXQFKHG7KHGHFLVLRQWRJLYHELUWKWR
this experiment has been taken by the DISC (Development and Institutionalization Support Center)28, an
(J\SWLDQJURXSEDVHGLQ&DLURZKRVHDLPZDVWRPRQLWRUWKHSDUOLDPHQWDU\HOHFWLRQVWKURXJKUHSRUWVVXE-
PLWWHGE\ORFDOSHRSOHWKURXJK606HPDLODQGWZLWWHUDQGWRSURFHVVWKHPWRDUHDOWLPHPDS7KH',6&
GRZQORDGHGWKH8VKDKLGLSODWIRUPDQGFXVWRPL]HGLWDFFRUGLQJWRWKHQHHGVRQWKHJURXQG

28 The Development and Institutionalization Support Center, DISC, is an Egyptian organization promoting political, economic, and social change throughout
WKH0LGGOH(DVWDQG1RUWK$IULFDZKRVHDLPLVWREXLOGWKHFDSDFLWLHVRI1*2VDQGFLYLOVRFLHW\HQFRXUDJH\RXWKSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGVXSSRUWWUDQVSDU-
HQF\DQGDFFRXQWDELOLW\WKURXJKWKHXVHRIQHZPHGLDKWWSGLVFHQWHUFRP"SDJHBLG DFFHVVHGRQWKH
 55 ARAB SPRING

Picture 8: Screenshot of the U-Shahid home page; Source: www.u-shahid.org

7KHSULQFLSOHDWWKHEDVHRIWKLVGHSOR\PHQWZDVWKHEHOLHIWKDWE\SURYLGLQJDFFHVVWRSHUWLQHQWDQG
WLPHO\LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVWKLVZRXOGKDYHDFTXLUHGWUDQVSDUHQF\DQGLWZRXOGKDYH
SXVKHG (J\SWLDQV WRZDUG DQ LQFUHDVHG SDUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG WUXVW LQ GHPRFUDF\ 7KLV REMHFWLYH KDV EHHQ
VWUHQJWKHQHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWSHRSOHWKHPVHOYHVZRXOGKDYHPRQLWRUHOHFWLRQVDQGWKDWWKH\ZRXOGKDYHQRW
be dependent on foreign help. Through the U-Shahid platform, deployed by a local NGO, common citizens
have become activists, creating a circle of trust that has strengthened the initiative. For this reason the call
to take part to the project has been opened to candidates, election observers, a range of commentators, and
ordinary Egyptian citizens29DQGLQVWUXPHQWDOWRWKLVDLPKDVEHHQWKHWUDQVODWLRQRIWKHZKROHZHEVLWHLQ
$UDELF+RZHYHUIURPWKHYHU\EHJLQQLQJWKHLGHDZDVWKDWWKHLPSDFWRIWKHSODWIRUPVKRXOGQRWKDYH
been limited to the country itself, at least in terms of communication. On the contrary, one of the main aim
ZDVWRRYHUWDNHWKHFHQVRUVKLSVDQGWKHOLPLWDWLRQVLPSRVHGE\WKH0XEDUDNUHJLPHZKRGLGQRWRSHQHG
the country to international observers, and therefore to spread to the international stage the information
related to the electoral process, denouncing the frauds, the constrains and the corruption in the country. The
LQLWLDWLYHKDVWKHUHIRUHEHHQWZRIROGPDNLQJDZDUHSHRSOHLQWKHFRXQWU\EXWDOVRPDNHWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDO
FRPPXQLW\KHDUWKHLUYRLFHE\GHQRXQFLQJRQWKHZHEWKHIUDXGVDQGLUUHJXODULWLHV

Another interesting feature of the U-Shahid platform is the fact that its deployment has not been limited
to the days of the election, but it has run for an extended period of time, a characteristic that has given the
SRVVLELOLW\RIORRNLQJQRWRQO\DWWKHYRWLQJGD\EXWWKDWKDVDOVRDOORZHGWRJLYHDJHQHUDOLQVLJKWRIZKDW
have been the entire electoral process, from the starting of the electoral campaign to the communication of
results. This is an interesting aspect of the deployment because it proved the validity of the platform also in
terms of risk assessment tool since it monitored the situation of the ground on the medium and short term.
+RZHYHUWKLVKDVQRWEHHQWKHRQO\DGYDQWDJH%\SXVKLQJSHRSOHWRUHSRUWIURPWKHLQLWLDOVWDJHRIWKHHOHF-
WRUDOSURFHVVWKH86KDKLGGHSOR\PHQWKDVFRQWULEXWHGWRUDLVHSRSXODUDZDUHQHVVWRZDUGHOHFWLRQVZLWKRXW
IRFXVLQJWKHDWWHQWLRQRQO\RQWKHYRWLQJGD\2QWKHFRQWUDU\LWKDVFRQWULEXWHGWRLOOXVWUDWHWRSHRSOHZKDW
is the correct code of conduct during electoral confrontations, playing as a tool for voting education.

7KHSHULRGLQZKLFK86KDKLGKDVPRQLWRUHGWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVLQ(J\SWFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWKUHH
parts: the registration of candidates, the political campaign and the voting day.

29 KWWSGLVFHQWHUFRP"SDJHBLG DFFHVVHGRQWKH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 56

'XULQJWKHUVWSKDVHZKLFKFRYHUHGWKHSHULRGEHWZHHQWKH3rd of November, the start of candidate reg-

istration, and the 15thRI1RYHPEHUWKHGD\EHIRUHWKHDQQRXQFHPHQWRIWKHQDOFDQGLGDWHVOLVWV
UHSRUWVZHUHVXEPLWWHGDQGWKHELJJHVWSDUWRIWKHPUHIHUUHGWRHSLVRGHVRILOOHJDOFDPSDLJQLQJLH
campaigns that started before the set time, or that used public facilities). All the reports have been divided
DFFRUGLQJWRGLIIHUHQWFDWHJRULHVZKLFKUHPDLQHGDOPRVWWKHVDPHGXULQJWKHZKROHREVHUYDWLRQSHULRG
violation and frauds, illegal campaign, harassment of candidates, violation of political rights and violence.

Picture 9: Testimonies categorization on Ushahid platform on the stage of candidates
registration for the Egyptian Parliamentary Election 2010; Source: U-Shahid

7KHVHFRQGSHULRGWKDWZHQWIURPWKHth of November until the 27th of November 2010, the day before
WKHYRWLQJGD\UHSRUWVZHUHVXEPLWWHGPRVWRIWKHPUHODWHGDJDLQWRLOOHJDOFDPSDLJQDQGYLROHQFH

Picture 10: Categories of campaigning reports, Source: U-Shahid

'XULQJWKHYRWLQJGD\WKHUHZDVDERRPRIUHSRUWVLQWRWDORIZKLFKZHUHFRUUHODWHGE\YLGHR
and 111 by images. The majority of these reports (265) highlighted again violations related to the continu-
DWLRQRILOOHJDOFDPSDLJQLQJZKLOHGRFXPHQWHGIUHTXHQWDQGVSUHDGHSLVRGHVRIYLROHQFH
 57 ARAB SPRING

Picture 11: U-Shahid reports on election day; Source: U-Shahid

According to the administrator of the platform, one of the most curious features highlighted by the
UHSRUWVVXEPLWWHGRQWKHHGD\ZDVWKDWWKHUHZDVDSSDUHQWSDWWHUQVRIYLRODWLRQVUHSHDWLQJWKURXJKRXW
(J\SWDWWKHVDPHWLPHZKLFKJDYHFOHDULPSUHVVLRQWKDWWKRVHYLRODWLRQVDUHV\VWHPDWLF30

7KHLPSDFWWKDWWKHSODWIRUPKDGRQWKHSROLWLFDOVFHQHLVGLIFXOWWRDVVHVVEHFDXVHHYHQLIWKHQXPEHUV
ZHUHLPSUHVVLYHIRUVXFKDQH[SHULPHQWWKH\ZHUHTXLWHVPDOOLIFRPSDUHGWRWKHQDWLRQDOYRWHUWXUQRXW
1HYHUWKHOHVVZKDWLVLPSRUWDQWWRKLJKOLJKWLVWKHSRWHQWLDOLPSDFWWKDW86KDKLGKDVKDGRQORFDOSRSXOD-
WLRQDQGWKDWKDVEHHQFRQUPHGE\WKRVHZKRUXQWKHSODWIRUP$V0HLHUUHSRUWVLQKLVZRUNWKH
DGPLQLVWUDWRUVRIWKHZHEVLWHDJUHHGRQWKHIDFWWKDWWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIUHSRUWLQJDQRQ\PRXVO\IURPWKH
polling station, surely encouraged people in taking part to the project and the details that emerged from ev-
HU\UHSRUWVXEPLWWHGSURYHWKDWWKHSROLWLFDODZDUHQHVVWKDWRQWKHth of January 2011 pushed Egyptians to
WDNHWKHVWUHHWVDQGWKDWOHGWRWKHRXVWLQJRI+RVQL0XEDUDNZDVDOUHDG\WKHUHLQDQGWKDWSHRSOHZHUH
UHDG\WRXVH,&7VLQRUGHUWRPDNHKHDUWKHLUYRLFH0RUHRYHUZKDWWKH86KDKLGSODWIRUPKDVSURYLGHG
KDVEHHQDQDOWHUQDWLYHVRXUFHRILQIRUPDWLRQWRWKRVHZKRZHUHORRNLQJIRUUHDOHYLGHQFHVDERXWZKDWZDV
happening in the country.

A similar experiment has been also developed in Tunisia during the last polls for the elections of the
Constitutional Assembly last 23rd2FWREHU$OWKRXJKWKHEDFNJURXQGFRQGLWLRQVUHODWHGWRWKHZLOORI
WKHSRSXODWLRQRIJHWWLQJEDFNWRWKHFHQWUDOVWDJHRIWKHLUSROLWLFDOOLIHZHUHFRPSDUDEOHWRWKRVHGHVFULEHG
for U-Shahid in 2010, in the case of the Carte de Controle du Processus Electorale, the Tunisian deploy-
PHQWKDVZRUNHGLQDFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQWSROLWLFDOHQYLURQPHQW7KLVHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVKDVWDNHQSODFHLQ
a country already free from its dictatorship and the electoral process represented an historic opportunity for
WKH7XQLVLDQWRVKRZWRWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\WKDWSHRSOHZHUHUHDG\WRUHVSHFWGHPRFUDWLFUXOHVDQG
to actively contribute to the construction of a democratic country.

30 KWWSZZZXVKDKLGFRPHQ"S DFFHVVHGRQWKH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 58

Picture 12: Screenshot of the home page of the Carte de Controle du Processus
Electorale web site, Source: http://carte.isie.tn/fr/?l=fr_FR

The Carte de Controle du Processus Electorale has been organized by the Higher Independent Election
Committee, or ISIE31WRJHWKHUZLWKWKH,&73HDFH)RXQGDWLRQRI6ZLW]HUODQG32 and Ushahidi, and funded
by DCAF33ZLWKWKHDLPRIDQVZHULQJWRWKHQXPHURXVFDOOVFRPLQJIURPWKHSHDFHEXLOGLQJDQGWKHKX-
manitarian assistance community for a more integrated communication among the electoral stakeholders.
,QIDFWWKHUHTXHVWWRODXQFKVXFKSODWIRUPKDVEHHQPDGHE\WKH(OHFWLRQ&RPPLVVLRQDQGWKH7XQLVLDQ
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SURFHVVWKHUVWVLQFHGHFDGHVWKDWIRUWKHELJJHVWSDUWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQUHSUHVHQWDWHVWRIWUXVW

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GLIIHUHQWIURPWKHRQHGHYHORSHGLQ(J\SWEXWDOVRLQWKLVFDVHZKDWHPHUJHVLVWKDWHYHQLQDGLIIHUHQW
FRQWH[WDQGZLWKGLIIHUHQWPRGDOLWLHV,&7VDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\EHFRPLQJDQLPSRUWDQWWRROIRUGHPRFUDWL]D-
tion and mobilization.

:KDWGLIIHUHQWLDWHVWKH&DUWHGX&RQWUROHGX3URFHVVXV(OHFWRUDOHVSODWIRUPLVWKHIDFWWKDWWKHFURZG-
sourcing has been made mainly by SMS and that in this case the authorities chose to implement a bounded-
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VLDVHQGLQJUHSRUWVDQGREVHUYDWLRQVYLD606WRWKHSRUWDOZKHUHLWZLOOEHYDOLGDWHGE\WKHPDSSLQJDQG
31 Instance Suprieure Indpendante pour les Elections
32 ICT4Peace is a policy and action-oriented international Foundation that explores and champions the use of Information Communications Technology
,&7IRUFULVLVPDQDJHPHQWKXPDQLWDULDQDLGDQGSHDFHEXLOGLQJ,&73HDFH)RXQGDWLRQ:RUNRYHUDYDLODEOHRQWKHZHEVLWHKWWSLFWSHDFHRUJ
accessed on the 12/1/2012.
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 59 ARAB SPRING

YHULFDWLRQFHQWUHEHIRUHLWPDNHVLWWRWKHRQOLQHIURQWHQGRIWKHSRUWDO34. Also in this case the Ushahidi

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LQWKLVRFFDVLRQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQODXQFKHGWKHDGYDQFHGYHUVLRQRILWVWUDGLWLRQDOVRIWZDUH8VKDKLGL
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1st of October 2011 to the 23rd of the same month and during this period more that 800 reports have been
VXEPLWWHGDQGYHULHG

Picture 13: Carte de Controle du Processus Electorales reports; Source: http://carte.isie.tn/fr/reports

7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHUHSRUWVUHIHUUHGWRHSLVRGHVRIZURQJSXEOLFLW\WKDWLVWKHSRVWLQJRISROLWLFDOSRVWHUV
RXWVLGHWKHDXWKRUL]HGDUHDVWKHXVHRIDJVWKHSRVVLELOLW\WRKDYHDFFHVVWRSODFHVZKHUHWKHHQWUDQFHZDV
restricted and the violation of the electoral silence.

$QRWKHULQWHUHVWLQJIHDWXUHRIWKHSODWIRUPZDVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDFWLYDWLQJWKHFURZGIHHGLQJIXQFWLRQ
WKDWLVUHJLVWHULQJRQHVSRVLWLRQJLYLQJWKHHPDLODGGUHVVHGDQGEHDGYLVHGLQWKHFDVHHSLVRGHVRIYLR-
OHQFHRURWKHUVFDWHJRULHVZRXOGKDYHKDSSHQHGLQDQDUHDRINLORPHWUHVDURXQGWKHVXEVFULEHU

7KHQDORIFLDOUHSRUWVRIWKHSODWIRUPKDYHVWLOOWREHUHOHDVHGEXWIURPWKHDOUHDG\DYDLODEOHLQIRU-
mation it is evident that this experience has had an enormous impact in such an historic moment as the
Constitutional Assembly Elections in Tunisia has been.

Conclusions
7KHDGYHQWRIWKH:HEKDVUDGLFDOO\FKDQJHGWKHDSSURDFKWKDWXVHUVKDGWRZDUGWKH,QWHUQHWDQGWKH
LQFUHDVHGFRQQHFWLYLW\WKDWWKHQHZV\VWHPKDVSURYLGHGFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHULVLQJRIDQHZIRUPRIVRFLDO
and political involvement, especially in Egypt and Tunisia. Not just bloggers and activists, but normal citi-
zens have become the main actors and monitors of their social and political life. Through innovations, they
H[SORLWHGWKHQHZRSSRUWXQLWLHVSURYLGHGE\WKH,QWHUQHWZKLFKEHFRPHDYLUWXDOIRUXPZKHUHWRH[FKDQJH
RSLQLRQVVSUHDGLQIRUPDWLRQDQGEHKLQGZKLFKVKLHOGLQJLQRUGHUWRE\SDVVWKHFHQVRUVKLSDQGWKHFRQWURO
34 0RQLWRULQJ7XQLVLDVUVWHOHFWLRQ,&73HDFH)RXQGDWLRQDQG,QVWDQFH6XSpULHXUH,QGpSHQGDQWHSRXUOHV(OHFWLRQVKWWSLFWSHDFHRUJXSGDWHVPRQLWRU-
LQJWXQLVLDVUVWHOHFWLRQLFWSHDFHIRXQGDWLRQLQVWDQFHVXSHULHXUHLQGHSHQGDQWHSRXUOHVHOHFWLRQVDFFHVVHGRQWKH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 60

LPSRVHGE\DXWKRULWLHVRQWUDGLWLRQDOPHGLD7KLVQHZZD\RIXVLQJ,&7VKDVEHHQGHQHG$FWLYLVPD
WHUPWKDWXQGHUOLQHVWKHLQFUHDVHGSROLWLFDODZDUHQHVVRISHRSOHDQGWKHLUSUHGLVSRVLWLRQDWXVLQJWKHZHE
DVDWRROIRUPRELOL]DWLRQ(J\SWDQG7XQLVLDKDYHZLWQHVVHGLQDQGLQUHVSHFWLYHO\WKHLPSDFW
WKDWWKHXVHRIDQRQOLQHRSHQVRXUFHSODWIRUPWKDWPHUJHVQHZWHFKQRORJLHVZLWKWKHWHFKQLTXHVRIFURZG-
sourcing, Ushahidi, has had on the processes of democratizing and mobilizing people. In order to analyse its
LPSDFWLWKDVEHHQFKRVHQWRVWXG\LWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQLQRFFDVLRQRIWZRUHOHYDQWHOHFWRUDOFRQIURQWDWLRQV
the Egyptian parliamentary election of 2010 and the Constituent Assembly election on 2011 in Tunisia.
7KHSROLWLFDOEDFNJURXQGFRQGLWLRQLQZKLFKWKHSODWIRUPKDVEHHQLPSOHPHQWHGDUHYHU\GLIIHUHQWVLQFH
LQ(J\SWZDVVWLOOXQGHUWKH+RVQL0XEDUDNUHJLPHZKLOVWLQ7XQLVLDZDVDOUHDG\IUHHIURPWKH
GLFWDWRUVKLSRI$EGHOD]L]%HQ$OL7KHPRGDOLWLHVLQZKLFKWKHSODWIRUPKDVEHHQXVHGFKDQJHGIURPRQH
FRXQWU\WRWKHRWKHUDVZHOO,Q(J\SWWKHLQLWLDWLYHKDVEHHQODXQFKHGE\DORFDO1*2ZLWKWKHWZRIROGDLP
of re-engaging people in the electoral process, after decades of ridded elections and corruption that caused
a dramatic drop in voter turnout, and of denouncing on the international media the lack of democracy in the
FRXQWU\,QWKHFDVHRI7XQLVLDORFDORIFLDODXWKRULWLHVVXFKDVWKH(OHFWRUDO&RPPLVVLRQUHTXHVWHGWKH
XVHRIWKHSODWIRUPEHFDXVHOHWWLQJSHRSOHPRQLWRULQJWKHHOHFWRUDOSURFHVVKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDZD\RI
JUDQWLQJWUDQVSDUHQF\DQGSXWWLQJSHRSOHDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHSROLWLFDOOLIHRIWKHFRXQWU\WKDWZDVHPHUJLQJ
DVDQHZGHPRFUDWLFHQWLW\RQWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWDJH%\EHFRPLQJRIFLDOPRQLWRUVSHRSOHKDYHFRQWLQ-
ued to play the role of actors that they began to develop at the starting of the uprisings that ousted Ben Ali.
+RZHYHUGLIIHUHQWZKDWHPHUJHVLQERWKWKHVHGHSOR\PHQWVLVWKHDVWRQLVKLQJUROHWKDW,&7VKDYHSOD\HGDW
the point of not only mobilizing people but also engaging them in the democratic process. The Internet and
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ZHUHGHYHORSLQJUHSODFLQJLQWKHFDVHRI(J\SWRUMRLQLQJLQ7XQLVLDWUDGLWLRQDOPHGLD
 61 ARAB SPRING

References
Bolognini, M., 2001, Democrazia Elettronica, Carocci Editore, Roma.
&KDGZLFN$:HE1HZ&KDOOHQJHVIRUWKH6WXG\RI('HPRFUDF\LQDQ(UDRI,QIRUPDWLRQDO([XEHUDQFHLQ,6$-RXUQDORI
/DZDQG3ROLF\IRUWKH,QIRUPDWLRQ6RFLHW\9RO
&R\OH'DQG0HLHU31HZ7HFKQRORJLHVLQ(PHUJHQFLHVDQG&RQLFWV7KH5ROHRI,QIRUPDWLRQDQG6RFLDO1HWZRUNV:DVKLQJWRQ
D.C. and London, UK: UN Foundation-Vodafone Foundation Partnership.
'LDPRQG//LEHUDWLRQ7HFKQRORJLHVLQ-RXUQDORI'HPRFUDF\9RO1DWLRQDO(QGRZPHQWIRU'HPRFUDF\DQG7KH-RKQV
Hopkins University Press.
)URRPNLQ07HFKQRORJLHVIRU'HPRFUDF\LQ'HPRFUDF\2QOLQH7KH3URVSHFWRI3ROLWLFDO5HQHZDO7KURXJKWKH,QWHUQHW3HWHU0
6KDQHHWDO5RXWOHGJH1HZ<RUN
George, S., Ushahidi Key Deployment Report March 2011,
available at http://blog.ushahidi.com/index.php/2011/03/21/key-deployments-and-lessons-learned-part-1/, accessed on 8/01/2012.
+DEHUPDV-7KH6WUXFWXUDO7UDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKH3XEOLF6SKHUHDQ,QTXLU\LQWRD&DWHJRU\RI%RXUJHRLV6RFLHW\&DPEULGJH0,73UHVV
+RZH-&URZGVRXUFLQJ:K\WKHSRZHURIWKHFURZGLVGULYLQJWKHIXWXUHRIEXVLQHVV1HZ<RUN&URZQ%XVLQHVV
,VNDQGHU(&RQQHFWLQJWKH1DWLRQDODQGWKH9LUWXDO&DQ)DFHERRN$FWLYLVP5HPDLQ5HOHYDQW$IWHU(J\SWV-DQXDU\8SULVLQJ"
International Journal of Communication 5, London School of Economics.
ITU, 2011, ICT Facts and Figures, The World in 2011, ICT Data and Statistics Division Telecommunication Development Bureau
International Telecommunication Union, Geneva.
0HLHU3'R/LEHUDWLRQ7HFKQRORJLHVFKDQJHWKHEDODQFHRISRZHUEHWZHHQUHSUHVVLYHVWDWHVDQGFLYLOVRFLHW\"$7KHVLV3UHVHQWHGWR
WKH)DFXOW\2I7KH)OHWFKHU6FKRRORI/DZDQG'LSORPDF\
0HLHU39HULI\LQJ&URZGVRXUFHG6RFLDO0HGLD5HSRUWVIRU/LYH&ULVLV0DSSLQJ$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWR,QIRUPDWLRQ)RUHQVLFVDYDLODEOHDW
http://irevolution.net/publications/, accessed on the 3/01/2012.
0HLHU3:K\&URZGVRXUFLQJDQG&URZGIHHGLQJPD\EHWKHDQVZHUWR6QRZPDJHGGRQ
DYDLODEOHRQKWWSLUHYROXWLRQQHWFURZGVRXUFLQJFURZGIHHGLQJVQRZPDJHGGRQDFFHVVHGRQWKH
Rheingold, H., 2003, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Cambridge: Basic Books.
6KDUPD$&URZGVRXUFLQJ&ULWLFDO6XFFHVV)DFWRU0RGHO6WUDWHJLHVWRKDUQHVVWKHFROOHFWLYHLQWHOOLJHQFHRIWKHFURZGDYDLODEOHRQKWWS
ZZZFURZGVRXUFLQJRUJGRFXPHQWFURZGVRXUFLQJFULWLFDOVXFFHVVIDFWRUPRGHOVWUDWHJLHVWRKDUQHVVWKHFROOHFWLYHLQWHOOLJHQFHRIWKH
FURZGDFFHVVHGRQWKHth December 2011.
6LQJHO5$UH<RX5HDG\IRU:HE"DYDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZZLUHGFRPVFLHQFHGLVFRYHULHVQHZVDFFHVVHGRQ
http://discenter.com/
http://ict4peace.org/
KWWSLFWSHDFHRUJXSGDWHVPRQLWRULQJWXQLVLDVUVWHOHFWLRQLFWSHDFHIRXQGDWLRQLQVWDQFHVXSHULHXUHLQGHSHQGDQWHSRXUOHVHOHFWLRQV
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 62

Gdeim Izik: a change in the struggle strategies

of the Sahrawi population

CARMEN GMEZ MARTN

EHESS

Abstract
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NQRZQ RI WKH$UDE UHYROXWLRQV :H ZLOO DOVR VKRZ WKH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKLV UH-
volt and other events taking place in neighbour countries some moths later: above all,
WKHFDSDELOLW\RIWKH6DKUDZLSHRSOHIRUFRPELQLQJVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFGHPDQGVWKH
struggle for identitary recognition and classical claims of independence. Finally, these
HOHPHQWVZLOODOORZXVWRWU\WRSUHGLFWWKHHIIHFWVWKDWWKHQHZVFHQDULRHPHUJHGIURP
*GHLP,]LNZLOOKDYHLQWKHVKRUWPHGLXPWHUPLQ:HVWHUQ6DKDUD,QWKLVVHQVHZH
IRUHVHHDQLQFUHDVHGSROLWLFDOFRPPLWPHQWRI6DKUDZLSHRSOHLQWKHRFFXSLHGWHUULWR-
ULHVWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPSHDFHIXODFWLRQVWRZDUGVPRUHUDGLFDODQGYLROHQWUHDFWLRQV
DQGDGLUHFWDQGGDLO\FRQIURQWDWLRQZLWK0RURFFDQVHWWOHUVDIIHFWLQJUHODWLRQVKLSVEH-
WZHHQERWKSRSXODWLRQVDQGVWRSSLQJDQ\SRVVLELOLW\RIFRH[LVWHQFH

Keywords
:HVWHUQ6DKDUD*GHLP,]LNSHDFHIXOFDPSUHYROWV6DKUDZL0RURFFDQ

Introduction
,QDXWXPQDVDSUHOXGHWRWKHSRSXODUSURWHVWVLQWKH0DJKUHEDQG0DFKUHNWKH6DKUDZLSRSXOD-
tion living inside the occupied territories performed a totally unexpected action: more than 20.000 people
VHWWKHSHDFHIXOFDPS*GHLP,]LNWRGHQRXQFHWKHLUSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFDQGVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQ6HYHUDOZHHNV
DIWHULWVHVWDEOLVKPHQWWKHFDPSZDVYLROHQWO\GLVPDQWOHGE\0RURFFDQVHFXULW\IRUFHV7KLVLQWHUYHQWLRQ
triggered bloody riots in some cities of Western Sahara, causing 13 dead among Moroccan policemen and
6DKUDZLFLWL]HQVDQGKXQGUHGVRIZRXQGHGDQGDUUHVWHG

Gdeim Izik is considered by some authors1DVWKHUVWUHYROXWLRQRIWKH$UDEVSULQJ$FFRUGLQJWR

3URIHVVRU/ySH]*DUFtD*GHLP,]LNPXVWEHOLQNHGWRDQHZ$UDEWLPHEHFDXVHDVLQWKHIROORZ-
LQJSURWHVWVLWZDVWKH\RXWKZKRIRUFHGDQDXWKRULWDULDQSRZHUWRQHJRWLDWHXVLQJLQQRYDWLYHZD\VRIFDOO
DQGRUJDQLVDWLRQ7KLVDXWKRUFRQVLGHUVDVZHOOWKDWWKHFDPSDVSURWHVWVWUDWHJ\ZDVH[SRUWHGIURP*GHLP
,]LNWRWKH.DVEDKRI7XQLVDQG7DKLU6TXDUHDW(O&DLUR7KHVRFDOOHG'LJQLW\FDPSLQWURGXFHGLPSRU-
WDQWFKDQJHVDERYHDOODUDGLFDOL]DWLRQRISROLWLFDOSRVLWLRQVDQGDQLQFUHDVHRIYLROHQFHDPRQJ6DKUDZL
and Moroccan population. One year after the appearance of the camp, the dynamics of this action and its
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6DKDUDEHIRUHGXULQJDQGDIWHU*GHLP,]LN%HVLGHVZHFDQREVHUYHWKDWWKHVSLULWHPHUJHGLQ*GHLP,]LN
 2QHRIWKHUVWDXWKRUVSRLQWLQJRXWWKLVIDFWZDVWKHQRUWK$PHULFDQSROLWLFDOVFLHQWLVW1RDP&KRPVN\KWWSZZZGHPRFUDF\QRZRUJWKHBJH-
QLHVBDUHBRXWBRIBWKH
 63 ARAB SPRING

remains, and that it fed the riots happened in other Arab countries. Despite the initial failure of their revolt,
6DKUDZLSHRSOHGLGQRWORVWKRSHUHJDUGLQJWKHLUFDXVHEHFDXVHWKH\YHULHGWKHSRVVLELOLW\WREUHDNWKH
dynamics of impunity characteristic of some Arab regimes.

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WKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQV+RZZDVWKHSROLWLFDOVRFLDOL]DWLRQRIWKHDFWRUVLQYROYHGLQWKHUHYROW":KDW
KDYHEHHQWKHPDMRUFKDQJHVLQVWUXJJOHREMHFWLYHVDQGPHWKRGVFRPSDUHGWRSUHYLRXV\HDUV"&DQZHWDON
DERXWWKHHPHUJHQFHRIQHZSROLWLFDODQGVRFLDO6DKUDZLRUJDQL]DWLRQV"5ROHSOD\HGE\+XPDQ5LJKWDF-
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PDVVPHGLDDQGWKHQHZLQIRUPDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKLVSURWHVW"

Chronology
Gdeim Izik resulted from several unfruitful attempts of setting protest camps in the outskirts of a num-
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VWUXJJOHVWUDWHJ\WKH6DKDUDZLSHRSOHWULHGWRGHQRXQFHWKHKDUVKVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFVLWXDWLRQLQWKHRF-
cupied territories, specially their marginalisation regarding access to jobs and housing, the corruption of
ORFDODXWKRULWLHVEH0RURFFDQRU6DKDUDZLWKHVWDWHZHOIDUHSROLFLHVJXLGHGE\FOLHQWHOLVPUDWKHUWKDQ
by socio-economic criteria, and the traditional denounce of the plundering of natural resources of Western
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DWWKHEHJLQQLQJRI2FWREHU$VLQSUHYLRXVDWWHPSWVWKHVSDUNZDVLJQLWHGE\WKHTXHVWLRQDEOHPDQ-
DJHPHQWRIGHYHORSPHQWIXQGVDQGVRFLDOVXEVLGLHVE\WKH0RURFFDQDXWKRULWLHV7KHUVWGHPRQVWUDWRUV
JDWKHUHGRQ2FWREHUPRVWRIWKHPZRPHQDQGXQHPSOR\HG\RXQJPHQ2QWKLVRFFDVLRQWKH0RURFFDQ
security forces did not ban the rally, encouraging more people to join the protest3. Such massive attendance
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IHZGD\VWKHIRUPDWLRQRIVRFDOOHGSRSXODUFRPPLWWHHVZDVQHFHVVDU\LQWHUQDOVHFXULW\FOHDQLQJFDPSSODQ-
ning, basic services and negotiation47KHFDPSZDVGLYLGHGLQVL[TXDUWHUVHDFKRQHXQGHUUHVSRQVLELOLW\RID
]RQHFKLHI$VWLPHZHQWRQWKH0RURFFDQVHFXULW\IRUFHVHVWDEOLVKHGDEORFNDGHDURXQGWKHFDPSE\GLJJLQJ
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DQG6PDUDZKHUHWKUHHSROLFHFKHFNSRLQWVPDGHHYHQPRUHGLIFXOWJDLQLQJDFFHVVWRWKHSURWHVWSODFH

7KHFDOPZDVKDUGO\PDLQWDLQHGXQWLO2FWREHUZKHQDFDULJQRUHGRQHRIWKHFKHFNSRLQWVDQGZDV
VKXWE\WURRSHUVNLOOLQJRQHRIWKHSDVVHQJHUVD\HDUROGZKRZDVEXULHGWKUHHGD\VODWHUZLWKRXWWKH
DXWKRULVDWLRQRIKLVSDUHQWVDQGZLWKRXWWKHSUHVHQFHRIDQ\UHODWLYHV7KLVHYHQWFKDQJHGGUDPDWLFDOO\WKH
VLWXDWLRQDW*GHLP,]LN2XWVLGHWKHFDPSWKHLQIRUPDWLYHEORFNDGHZDVWLJKWHQHG7KH0RURFFDQDXWKRUL-
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 7KHDWWHQGDQFHHVWLPDWHVRVFLOODWHEHWZHHQDQGGHPRQVWUDWRUVDQGEHWZHHQDQGWHQWV
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 64

country5. This happened also to some international observers and MEPs such as the Spaniard Willy Meyer
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RIWKHOLNHO\LPPLQHQWGLVPDQWOLQJRIWKHFDPSSURLQGHSHQGHQFHVSHHFKHVZHUHPRUHDQGPRUHIUHTXHQW
among the displaced population.

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LPDJHWKH0RURFFDQDXWKRULWLHVDJUHHGWRQHJRWLDWHZLWKDFRPPLWWHHRIUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVRIWKHFDPSFRP-
SRVHGE\QLQHPHPEHUVPHQDQGZRPHQ7KHFRQWDFWVZHUHKHOGLQLWLDOO\ZLWK0RKDPHG-HOPRXVZKR
had been to that date the :DOLJRYHUQRURI(O$DL~QDQGODWHUZLWKDFRPPLVVLRQRIWKH+RPH0LQLVWU\
integrated by three :DOLVRIWKHFHQWUDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQ)LQDOO\WKHODVWSKDVHRIWKHQHJRWLDWLRQVZDVOHGE\
WKH+RPH0LQLVWHULQSHUVRQ7DwHE&KHUNDRXL2Q1RYHPEHUDEDVLFDJUHHPHQWZDVUHDFKHGE\ZKLFK
the Moroccan State pledged to address progressively the housing and employment demands of the protest-
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a census of impoverished people. In principle, such measures should have been in force from November 8,
EXWQRQHRIWKHFRPPLWPHQWVZHUHIXOOOHGVLQFHWKHFDPSZDVGLVPDQWOHGWKDWYHU\VDPHGD\6.

7KHRSHUDWLRQWRRNSODFHHDUO\LQWKHPRUQLQJDQGZLWKRXWDFKDQFHIRUWKHGLVSODFHGSRSXODWLRQWRRU-
JDQLVHWKHHYDFXDWLRQ&KDRVGHYHORSHGDPRQJWKRVHWU\LQJWRUXQDZD\IURPZDWHUFDQQRQVDQGWHDUJDV
and those trying to organise resistance against the State security forces. According to Moroccan authorities,
WKHLQWHUYHQWLRQFRXOGQRWEHGHOD\HGEHFDXVHWKHFDPSZDVXQGHUFRQWURORIFULPLQDOVDQGWUDIFNHUVZKR
KHOGSDUWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQDJDLQVWWKHLUZLOO7+RZHYHU6DKDUDZLDQG0RURFFDQ+XPDQ5LJKWVRUJDQLVD-
WLRQVTXHVWLRQWKLVYHUVLRQ8$FFRUGLQJWRWKHPLWLVGLIFXOWWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZIRXU:DOLV from the Home
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WKDWLWZDVKLMDFNHGE\GDQJHURXVLQGLYLGXDOV$QRWKHUIDFWGLVSURYLQJWKHRIFLDOGLVFRXUVHLVWKHUHSRUW
SXEOLVKHGE\$PQHVW\,QWHUQDWLRQDODERXW*GHLP,]LNZKHUHLWLVKLJKOLJKWHGWKDWWKHQXPEHURISDUWLFL-
SDQWVLQWKHSURWHVWZDVRVFLOODWLQJDORQJWKHZHHNLPSO\LQJWKDW6DKDUDZLSHRSOHFRXOGWUDYHOEHWZHHQWKH
FDPSDQG(O$DL~QZLWKRXWRYHUZKHOPLQJSUREOHPVGHVSLWHWKHFKHFNSRLQWV9.

The breaking of the security forces into the camp generated an extremely violent response among many
of the displaced young people109LROHQFHVSUHDGVKRUWO\ODWHUWR(O$DL~QZKHUHWKHODFNRILQIRUPDWLRQ
and rumours induced people to believe that a massacre had happened during the eviction. The confuse
LQIRUPDWLRQDQGWKHODFNRISROLFHEURXJKWFKDRVWRWKHFLW\FHQWUHZKHUHEDUULFDGHVZHUHHUHFWHGDQG
SXEOLFEXLOGLQJVVKRSVEDQNRIFHVDQGFDUVRI0RURFFDQFLWL]HQVZKHUHSOXQGHUHGDQGEXUQHG11. During
WKHULRWVD6DKDUDZL\RXQJPDQZLWK6SDQLVKQDWLRQDOLW\GLHGDIWHUEHLQJUXQRYHUE\DSROLFHFDUZKLFK
DPSOLHGWKHVWULNHVDJDLQVWVKRSVDQGSXEOLFDQGSULYDWHSURSHUWLHV7KHDUULYDORIWKHEXONRIWKH0RURF-
FDQVHFXULW\IRUFHVEDFNIURP*GHLP,]LNVWRSSHGWKHYLROHQFHXQOHDVKHGE\WKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQDW
El Aain, but during the evening Moroccan civilians under police protection launched into plundering and
 7KH6SDQLVKMRXUQDOLVWVZHUHWKHZRUVWKLWE\WKLVGHFLVLRQ5DEDWDFFXVHGWKHPRIFRQGXFWLQJDFDPSDLJQWRGDPDJHWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOLPDJHRI0RURFFR
 $69'+UHSRUWVXUOHFDPSHPHQWGH*GHLP,]LNHWOHVpYpQHPHQWVTXLRQWVXLYLVRQGpPDQWqOHPHQW/$$<281(6DKDUD2FFLGHQWDO-DQYLHU
2011, p.10.
 $PRQJWKHVHJURXSVDOVRYLROHQW\RXQJPHQEHORQJLQJWR)UHQWH3ROLVDULRZKHUHLQFOXGHG
8 E.g. CODESA, ASVDH and AMDH.
9 A.I. report: Morocco/Western Sahara Rights trampled amidst protests, violence and repression, p. 4.
10 6HYHUDOSROLFHRIFHUVDUHNLOOHGLQWKHFDPSDQGGXULQJWKHIROORZLQJULRWVDPRQJWKHPDWOHDVWRQHKDGKLVWKURDWFXW
11 $PRQJWKHEXLOGLQJVZRUVWGDPDJHGLQWKHULRWVDUHWKH&RXUWRIDSSHDOWKH(QHUJ\DQG0HWDOV2IFHWKUHHVFKRROVDFOLQLFDQGWKH,QYHVWPHQWV&HQWUH
 65 ARAB SPRING

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against the management of the crisis by the Moroccan government.

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H[FHVVLYH$WWKHHQGRIWKHGD\WKHQXPEHURILQMXUHGPRVWO\6DKDUDZLVZDVRIVHYHUDOKXQGUHGZKLOH
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the other hand, the search of the instigators of the revolt engulfed El Aain in a non-declared emergency
VWDWH$VVDXOWVRQKRXVHVZLWKRXWFRXUWRUGHUEHDWLQJVDQGPLVWUHDWPHQWVLQSROLFHVWDWLRQVH[WUDMXGLFLDO
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ODWHUDURXQGSHUVRQVZHUHWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKH%ODFN3ULVRQDW(O$DL~Q12 and another group of 24 persons
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ZLWKLQWKHUVWVL[PRQWKVRIWKHLULPSULVRQPHQW+RZHYHUPRUHWKDQRQH\HDUDIWHUWKHUHYROWDOOPHP-
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Consequences of the 2010 revolt

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authorities had prided themselves in the past.

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KDUDFRQLFW'HVSLWHWKHVHULRXVVRFLDOSUREOHPVZKLFKH[SODLQWKHXQUHVWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQDQGOHGWRWKH
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KDYHKHOSHGWRHVFDSHIURPWKHXVXDOGHDGORFNRIWKLVFRQLFW

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changes that this action triggered DSRVWHULRULLQWKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQDQGLQJHQHUDOLQWKH:HVWHUQ
6DKDUD+HUHLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQIRXUGLIIHUHQWHIIHFWV

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12 7KHJXUHVRIDUUHVWHGSHRSOHDUHQRWDFFXUDWHHLWKHU$FFRUGLQJWRZRUNHUVRIWKH0RURFFDQ)RUHLJQ$IIDLUV0LQLVWU\WKHQXPEHURIDUUHVWHGLV+RZ-
HYHUWKH0LQLVWU\RI-XVWLFHUHSRUWV7KHGLUHFWRURIWKH3HQLWHQWLDU\$GPLQLVWUDWLRQVSHDNVDERXWDUUHVWHGZKLOHWKH&URZQ*HQHUDO$WWRUQH\DW
(O$DL~QUHSRUWV$,UHSRUW0RURFFR:HVWHUQ6DKDUD5LJKWVWUDPSOHGDPLGVWSURWHVWVYLROHQFHDQGUHSUHVVLRQ
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 66

traditional political claims.

2. The inrush in the public scene of a generation of young people suffering alarmingly high unemploy-
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together and carry increasingly radical actions.

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FODVKHVEHWZHHQWKHWZRFRPPXQLWLHVIURP1RYHPEHURQ

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\RXQJSHRSOHZKRIRU\HDUVKDGEHHQGHPDQGLQJWRUHVXPHWKHDUPHGVWUXJJOHEXWDOVRFRQYH\LQJ
WRWKH6DKDUDZLOHDGHUVKLSGHPRFUDWLFFODLPVZKLFKDUHDOVRREVHUYHGLQRWKHU$UDEUHYROXWLRQDU\
contexts.

Revitalisation of the struggle in Western Sahara

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,QWLIDGDDQGZKRVHQHZUHIHUHQWVZHUHWKH+XPDQ5LJKWVDFWLYLVWV

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PLQLPDORUJDQLVDWLRQFRQWLQXHGZLWKWKHLUSDUWLFXODUUHVLVWDQFH'XULQJWKHODVWWHQ\HDUVUHFXUUHQWXQUHVWV
ERWKLQWKHFLWLHVRI6DKDUDDQG0RURFFRKDYHEHHQVWDJHGE\WKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQVWXGHQWVDQG+X-
PDQ5LJKWVDFWLYLVWV7RJHWKHUZLWKWKHVHIUHTXHQWSURWHVWVWKUHHFULWLFDOPRPHQWVVHSDUDWHGE\\HDUV
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)URQWDVWKHUVW6DKDUDZL,QWLIDGD7KHSURWHVWUDOOLHVDW(O$DL~QZHUHKDUVKO\FUXVKHGE\WKHVHFXULW\
forces under command of Briss Basri, Home Minister and strongman of the late Hasan II. The claims of
the population focussed mainly on economic issues. In fact, at that point, problems such as unemployment,
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 67 ARAB SPRING

LQWKH6DKDUDZDVVWLOODVH[SORVLYHDVGXULQJWKHKDUVK\HDUVRIUHSUHVVLRQH[SHULHQFHGXQGHUKLVIDWKHU
Hassan II.

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\HDU7KHVRFDOOHGVHFRQG6DKDUDZL,QWLIDGDKDGDFOHDUO\SROLWLFDOQDWXUHWKHFODLPRIWKHVHOIGHWHUPL-
nation right an if independence for Western Sahara) and a larger international impact. The crushing of a
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turn severely repressed at El Aain, Smara and Dajla. The unrests extended to several Moroccan cities such
DV$JDGLU&DVDEODQFD5DEDWRU)H]ZKHUHWKHSROLFHFODVKHGYLROHQWO\ZLWK6DKDUDZLVWXGHQWV14.

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OHP7DPHN%UDKLP1RXPULDDQG$PLQHWRX+DLGDUZHUHYLROHQWO\DUUHVWHGDQGWULHGXQGHUWKHDFFXVD-
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sentenced to 6 months in prison, although the intense campaign of political pressure from abroad forced
their release in early 200615. During this period, the imprisoned activists and several Human Rights organ-
isations denounced the practice of torture in police stations and prisons, arbitrary transfers of prisoners,
inhuman arrest conditions and systematic mistreatment16.

After the 2005 events, Western Sahara disappeared again from the headlines of the international media.
+RZHYHUWKHGHFUHDVHRIWKHLQWHQVLW\RIWKHSURWHVWVGRHVQRWPHDQLWVHQGPDLQO\EHFDXVHWKHVHULRXV
political, social and economic problems persist, and the only measures undertaken by the Moroccan admin-
istration consist on reinforcing security and repression machinery. The Western Sahara did not come back
WRWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOKHDGOLQHVXQWLOZKHQWKH+XPDQ5LJKWVDFWLYLVW$PLQHWRX+DLGDUEHJDQDKXQJHU
strike at the Lanzarote airport17VKRZLQJDJDLQWKDWGHVSLWHRIWKHH[WHUQDOLQYLVLELOLW\WKHFRQLFWFRQWLQXHV
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of oblivion, causing a reactivation of the struggle in Western Sahara. In fact, during 2010 and thanks to the
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October 8, 2009, at the airport of Casablanca after visiting the Tinduf refugee camps, accused of attempt-
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QXPHURXVFODVKHVEHWZHHQ6DKDUDZLVDQG'DNKLOLV during the hearings, Gomez Martn (2011: 159).

The hunger strike of Haidar caused an acceleration of events. The intense social unrest originated by
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the construction of camp-cities in the outskirts of the large urban centres of the Western Sahara managed
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14 ,Q2FWREHUDVWXGHQWZDVNLOOHGLQFODVKHVZLWKWKHSROLFH7KH0RURFFDQDXWKRULWLHVUHSRUWHGWKHNLOOLQJDVDQDFFLGHQWZKHUHDVWKH6DKDUDZL+XPDQ
Right groups denounced police brutality during the arrest as the cause of death.
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16 $0'+5DSSRUWUHODWLIDX[pYpQHPHQWVTXDFRQQXVODYLOOHGH/Dk\RXQHjODQGXPRLVGHPDL
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From Social to Political.
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WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDQXQSUHFHGHQWHGWHQVHDWPRVSKHUHEHWZHHQ6DKDUDZLVDQG'DNKLOLV.

Role of the Saharawi youth in the new wave of protests

One of the most relevant characteristics of the democratic revolutions across the Magreb and Machrek
from the beginning of 2011 is the massive participation of young people, acting as the driving engine of
the protests and spreading the unrest among other sectors of the population. The major role played by the
PLGGOHDQGORZFODVV\RXWKLVQRWUDQGRP$VSRLQWHGRXWE\.KDGHUWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHGHPRJUDSKLF
IDFWRUVLPSRUWDQWGHFUHDVHRIWKHELUWKUDWHIURPWKHVDQGDQH[WUHPHO\\RXQJSRSXODWLRQ19), there has
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WDQWFRQVXPHSRWHQWLDOZKLFKFRXOGFRQWULEXWHWRWKHHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVHFRXQWULHV+RZHYHU
WKLVUHDOLW\LVLQRSHQFRQLFWZLWKWKHSURGXFWLYHVWUXFWXUHRIGHFDGHQWDQGFRUUXSWHGUHJLPHVJRYHUQHG
IRUGHFDGHVE\ROLJDUFKVZKRDPDVVHGKXJHIRUWXQHVDQGNHSWWKHLUSRZHUWKURXJKWKHXVHRIIRUFHZLWK
the approval of the West. Thus, the current situation in the Arab countries cannot be disconnected from the
context of global economic crisis, nor from the social contradictions generated by the neo-liberal system,
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WKHODERXUPDUNHWLQWKHVHFRXQWULHVWKHKXJHZHLJKWRIWKHLQIRUPDOVHFWRUWKHLQFDSDFLW\RIDGDSWLQJWKH
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PLJUDWLRQHWFFRQVWUDLQWKHODQGVFDSHRID\RXQJSRSXODWLRQZKRKDVLGHQWLHGWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRIWKHROG
UHJLPHVDVWKHRQO\ZD\RIWUDQVIRUPLQJWKHLURZQIXWXUH

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UHVWVZKHQWKH+XPDQ5LJKWVDFWLYLVWVSOD\HGDOHDGLQJUROH7KHODFNRILQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKH6DKDUDZL
\RXWKGRHVQRWLPSHGHWRHVWDEOLVKFRPPRQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZLWKWKH\RXWKVRIQHLJKERXUFRXQWULHV8SWRD
SRLQWDQGWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHVSHFLFLWLHVRIHDFKFRXQWU\LWFDQEHVWDWHGWKDWWKH6DKDUDZL\RXWKVXI-
fer from the same problems than the youths of other countries of the region: a not very promising outlook,
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 69 ARAB SPRING

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traditional sectors of the dissidence such as opposition parties or trade unions.

The marginal presence of the Polisario Front in the occupied territories and the ban of political parties
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6DKDUDZL\RXWKVHHNLQJWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVVHVWRMRLQORFDOUHJLPHIULHQGO\RU
VLPSO\WROHUDWHGSDUWLHVRU+XPDQ5LJKWVDVVRFLDWLRQVZKLFKDUHDOVREDQQHGEXWKDYHVRPHRSHUDWLRQDO
capability and external support, Veguilla (2009: 106-107). The current important social support for Human
Rights associations and the transformation of its most charismatic members into icons of the resistance
DJDLQVWRFFXSDWLRQKDVQDOO\JLYHQWKHPDSROLWLFDOVSHFLFZHLJKWWKXVRSHQLQJWKHSROLWLFDOUHSUHVHQWD-
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WKHPLGVDQGWKHHQGRIWKHV

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GHFDGHWUDLQLQJLWVSDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLVWLQJXLVKLQJFOHDUO\WKHIURQWLHUEHWZHHQZKDWLVFRQVLGHUHGDVDIRU-
bidden and a tolerated protest, that is, susceptible of not causing a repressive response from the Moroccan
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by others linked to the territory and the right to economic and social development of the region, Veguilla
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\RXWKVZLWKWKHREMHFWLYHRIGHIHQGLQJVSHFLFLQWHUHVWVRUGHQRXQFLQJSDUWLFXODUVLWXDWLRQVRILQMXVWLFH20.

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as legitimate, although carrying an underlying political component evident both to the participants and
to the Moroccan authorities, thus causing that many actions ended up in riots and repression. As pointed
out by the Organisation marocaine des Droits Humains: It is not possible to speak about social claims of
citizens ignoring their political claims. Indeed, the social issue in the background is political, because is a
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UHVRXUFHV21.

Finally, another important element characterising the development of the protests during the last decade
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SHUVRQDOWHVWLPRQLHVYLGHRVSLFWXUHVHWFIDFLOLWDWLQJWKHUDSLGGLIIXVLRQRIHYHQWVZLWKRXWLQWHUPHGLDULHV
ZKLFKFRXOGDGXOWHUDWHWKHQHZV

20 6XFKLVWKHFDVHRIWKHIRXQGDWLRQLQ$SULOLQ'DMODRIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQFDOOHG/DOLVWHSRXUOpJDOLWpFUHDWHGE\XQHPSOR\HG6DKDUDZL\RXWKVLQ
RUGHUWRGHQRXQFHWKHUHGXFWLRQRIWKHVKLQJOLFHQVHVDQGWKHODFNRIDFFHVVWRWKHPE\WKHORFDOSRSXODWLRQ'HVSLWHWKHHYLGHQWLGHQWLWDU\FRPSRQHQWRI
WKLVSURWHVWWKH0RURFFDQDXWKRULWLHVDQGSUHVVLQWHUSUHWHGLWDVDVHFWRULDOFRQLFWIDUIURPDQ\SROLWLFDORUWHUULWRULDOFODLP9HJXLOOD
21 $0'+UHSRUW5DSSRUWUHODWLIDX[pYpQHPHQWVTXDFRQQXVODYLOOHGH/Dk\RXQHjODQGXPRLVGHPDLS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 70

7KHXVHRIWKLVW\SHRILQVWUXPHQWVLQWKH6DKDUDPDNHVSRVVLEOHVSHFLDOO\IURPWKHnd Inti-
IDGDRQDEHWWHUFRRUGLQDWLRQRIWKHDFWLRQVUHLQIRUFLQJWKHGLVFXVVLRQDQGH[FKDQJHRILGHDVEHWZHHQ
QRQFRQIRUPLVW\RXWKVRUHVWDEOLVKLQJOLQNVZLWKWKHH[WHULRUWRE\SDVVWKHLQIRUPDWLYHEORFNDGHVHWE\
0RURFFR$OWKRXJKWKHXVHRI,QWHUQHWVRFLDOQHWZRUNV<RX7XEHHWFLVVWLOOOLPLWHGGXHWRWKHODFNRI
UHVRXUFHVWKHVHWRROVZHUHNH\GXULQJWKHZHHNVRISURWHVWVRI*GHLP,]LNLQRUJDQLVLQJWKHFDPSDQGDOVR
LQSURYLGLQJWKHRQO\DOWHUQDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQFKDQQHOWRWKHRIFLDO0RURFFDQPHGLD

The rupture of the coexistence myth: ethnic tensions and racism

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VKLSEHWZHHQWKHSRSXODWLRQVVHWWOLQJWKH:HVWHUQ6DKDUD$FWXDOO\WKHFODVKHVEHWZHHQFRPPXQLWLHVRQ
1RYHPEHUZHUHWKHUHVXOWRIDVLWXDWLRQWKDWKDGEHHQGHYHORSLQJIRUDORQJWLPHDQGTXHVWLRQWKH
DUWLFLDOQDWXUHRIDFRH[LVWHQFHZKLFKWKH0RURFFDQDXWKRULWLHVKDYHEHHQWU\LQJWRP\WKLWLFHRYHUDQG
over again.

The breach in the population goes beyond the Western Sahara independence issue and its total annexa-
tion by Morocco. From the occupation of the territory in 1975, the Moroccan State implemented a series of
HFRQRPLFDQGVRFLDOSROLFLHVZKLFKRQWKHORQJWHUPKDYHJHQHUDWHGDQXPEHURISHUYHUVHHIIHFWV,QWKLV
VHQVHZLWKWKHREMHFWLYHRIPRURFFDQLVHWKHWHUULWRU\5DEDWSURPRWHGWKHWUDQVIHURISRSXODWLRQIURP
0RURFFRE\PHDQVRILQFHQWLYHVDQGJHQHURXVZHOIDUHSROLFLHV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGPHDVXUHVZHUHDG-
RSWHGWRRIIHULPSRUWDQWSRVLWLRQVLQWKH0RURFFDQSXEOLFDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRWKRVH6DKDUDZLH[FRPEDWDQWV
DEDQGRQLQJWKH3ROLVDULR)URQWGLVFLSOLQHIURPWKHVRQ)LQDOO\DWKLUGJURXSWKHVRFDOOHGLQKDELWDQWV
RI$O:DKGD8QLRQFRPSOHWHWKHSRSXODWLRQVVXEVLGLVHGDQGVXSSRUWHGE\WKH0RURFFDQ6WDWHLQWKH
RFFXSLHGWHUULWRULHV7KLVJURXSLVFRPSRVHGE\VHYHUDOWHQVRIWKRXVDQGVRIPHPEHUVRI6DKDUDZLWULEHV
OLYLQJRXWVLGHWKHWHUULWRU\XQGHUGLVSXWHZKLFKIURPRQKDYHEHHQHQFRXUDJHGWRVHWWOHLQSURYLVLRQDO
FDPSVLQWKHSHULSKHU\RI(O$DL~Q6PDUD%RMDGRUDQG'DMODZLWKWKHREMHFWLYHRIEHLQJLQWHJUDWHGLQ
WKHLGHQWLFDWLRQOLVWVRI0,18562%HQQDQL6LQFHWKHUHIHUHQGXPQHYHUWRRNSODFHVXFKFDPSV
KDYHWXUQHGLQWRSHUPDQHQWGRUPLWRU\WRZQVSHUSHWXDOO\VXEVLGLVHGE\WKH0RURFFDQ6WDWH

6XFKELDVHGZHOIDUHSROLFLHVQDOO\FRQYLQFHGWKHQDWLYH6DKDUDZLVWKDWWKHDFFHVVWRGHFHQWKRXVLQJ
state subsidies or basic services completely depends on the ethnic origin or opinion about the Sahara con-
LFW7KHUHIRUHWKHXVXDOSROLWLFDOWHQVLRQDQGWKHSHUPDQHQWIHHOLQJRILQMXVWLFHUHJDUGLQJWKHGLVWULEXWLRQ
of resources have been joined in the last year by ethic and tribal tensions promoting dangerous racist atti-
WXGHVEHWZHHQFRPPXQLWLHV$SURRIRIWKLVDUHWKHFODVKHVDW'DMODEHWZHHQ\RXQJ'DNKLOLVDQG6DKDUDZLV
GXULQJWKHFHOHEUDWLRQRIWKH0HUHWGpVHUWIHVWLYDOLQ)HEUXDU\RUWKHULRWVDIWHUDQDPDWHXUIRRWEDOO
JDPHLQWKHVDPHFLW\LQ6HSWHPEHUZKHUHSHRSOHZHUHNLOOHG

As stated by the Moroccan journalist Driss Bennani (2011), the total absence of mutual understand-
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prejudices promoted during three decades, and from the policies implemented in the Western Sahara by the
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 71 ARAB SPRING

WKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQLQDPDUJLQDOLVHGHWKQLFPLQRULW\XVHRIVXEVLG\SROLFLHVDVDFRHUFLRQWRIRUFH
6DKDUDZLVWRDVVXPHWKH0RURFFDQSUHVHQFHVWDWHVXEVLGLHVQRWGULYHQE\VRFLRHFRQRPLFFULWHULDHWF,Q
VXPPDU\WKHULVHRIWKHHWKQLFIDFWRUDVDQHZYDULDEOHLQWKHFRQLFWLVDQDGGLWLRQDOGDQJHUZKLFKFRXOG
contribute to destabilise the region permanently.

Effects of Gdeim Izik in the refugee camps

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LQRSHQO\FULWLFLVLQJWKHGHDGORFNLQJRIWKHFRQLFWJHQHUDWHGE\WKHIUXLWOHVVQHJRWLDWLRQVEHWZHHQ
WKH3ROLVDULR)URQWDQG0RURFFR6LPLODUWRZKDWKDSSHQHGLQ:HVWHUQ6DKDUDLQWKHODVWWHQ\HDUVVHYHUDO
events sparked off the indignation among the population of the refugee camps, leading to more and more
FULWLFDOVWDQFHVDJDLQVWWKHDFWLRQRIWKH6DKDUDZLDXWKRULWLHV7KHVHHYHQWVFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVPRPHQWV
of rupture or loss of hope.

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WKURXJKWKHOLEHUDWHGWHUULWRULHVZLWKRXWFRQVXOWLQJWKH3ROLVDULR)URQW7KH6DKDUDZLDXWKRULWLHVUHDFWHG
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PRELOLVLQJSHRSOHZLWKDQXQPDWFKHGLQWHQVLW\LQDGHFDGH/DWHUWKH6DKDUDZLJRYHUQPHQWWKZDUWHGLWV
RZQFDOOFRLQFLGLQJZLWKWKHFROODSVHRIWKHst Baker plan. Thus, the freezing of the belligerent actions and
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sector of the refugees, the conditions imposed by the 2nd Baker plan22+RZHYHULWZDVWKLVWLPHWKH0RURF-
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6DKDUDZLVRFLHW\DVDZKROH7KHUHSUHVVLRQLQWKHRFFXSLHGWHUULWRULHVJDYHULVHWRDGGLWLRQDOWHQVLRQVLQ
WKHUHIXJHHFDPSVZKHUHWKH\RXQJSRSXODWLRQGHPDQGVWKH3ROLVDWLR)URQWDFRQYLQFLQJUHVSRQVH7KH
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\RXQJSHRSOHERWKZLWKLQWKHPLJUDWRU\FRQWH[WDQLQWKHUHIXJHHFDPSV6XFKJURXSVWULHGWRRIIHUVXSSRUW
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22 $IWHUWKHEORFNDGHRIWKHSURFHVVRILGHQWLFDWLRQRIWKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQZKLFKVKRXOGKDYHOHGWRWKHFHOHEUDWLRQRIDVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQUHIHUHQGXP
8QLWHG1DWLRQVWULHVWZLFHWKURXJKLWVIRUPHUVSHFLDOHQYR\WRWKH6DKDUD-DPHV%DNHUWKHDSSURYDORIWZRIUDPHDJUHHPHQWVIRUWKHUHVROXWLRQRIWKH
:HVWHUQ6DKDUDFRQLFWWKHst and 2nd%DNHUSODQVDQG%RWKSODQVSURSRVHDWZRVWHSSURFHVVLQUVWSODFHD\HDUWUDQVLWRU\SHULRGLQ
ZKLFKWKHWHUULWRU\FRXOGHQMR\DSURYLVLRQDODXWRQRP\XQGHU0RURFFDQVRYHUHLJQW\DQGDVHFRQGSKDVHZKHQDUHIHUHQGXPFRXOGEHFHOHEUDWHGDERXWWKH
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 72

about the need of rising in arms again, Gmez Martn and Omet (2009: 210).

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WKDWXQUHVWHPHUJHGLQWKHFLWLHVRI6DKDUDWKH\RXQJSHRSOHUHDFWHGE\SXWWLQJSUHVVXUHLQWRWKHLURZQJRYHUQ-
PHQWWRQDOO\EUHDNZLWKWKHSDFLVWVWDQFHVLWKDVGHIHQGHGIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHV,QWKLVVHQVHWKH
UHVXPSWLRQRIQHJRWLDWLRQVZLWKWKH0RURFFDQUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDW0DQKDVVHW1HZ<RUNMXVWDIWHUWKHGLVPDQ-
WOLQJRI*GHLP,]LNPHDQWDELJEORZIRUPDQ\DQRQXQGHUVWDQGDEOHDFWLRQODFNLQJDQ\ORJLFDQUHLQIRUFLQJ
WKHWRWDOGLYRUFHEHWZHHQSDUWRIWKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQDQGWKHIRUHLJQSROLF\RIWKHLUJRYHUQPHQW23.

+RZHYHUWKHGLVFRQWHQWRIWKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQZLWKWKHSROLWLFDOGLUHFWLRQRIWKH3ROLVDULR)URQW
ZDVQRWQHZ7KHFULWLFDOYRLFHVURVHIRUWKHUVWWLPHGXULQJWKHSUHYLRXVGHFDGHLQDFRQWH[WRIDVHULHVRI
desertions of former cadres of the Polisario and external and internal discrediting campaigns orchestrated
from Morocco. Thus, the suspicion of betrayal impregnates any criticism exerted against the actions of
the government or the direction of the Polisario. Gdeim Izik and the revolutionary context in the Magreb
DQG0DFKUHNHQFRXUDJHGVRPHVK\FULWLFLVPZLWKLQWKHFDPSV:LWKWKHUHYROXWLRQVLQ7XQLVLDDQG(J\SW
LQ0DUFKDQGWKHVWDUWRIWKHSURWHVWVLQ0RURFFRE\WKH)HEUXDU\PRYHPHQWRQ0DUFKD
GHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVRUJDQLVHGDW5DEXQLSROLWLFDODQGDGPLQLVWUDWLYHFHQWUHRIWKHUHIXJHHFDPSV7KHFDOO
ZDVPDGHE\WKHVHOIGHQRPLQDWHG5HYROXWLRQDU\<RXWKVJURXSZKRGLGQRWFODLPIRUWKHUHVLJQDWLRQRI
the prime minister Mohamed Abdelaziz, but asked for a stronger support of the Polisario Front to the Sa-
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ZHUHFKDQJHVLQWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIWKH6WDWHDQGWKH-XGLFLDU\SXWWLQJDQGHQGWRWKHFRUUXSWLRQLQWKH
JRYHUQPHQWLQVWLWXWLRQVJKWLQJPLVXVHRISXEOLFIXQGVSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIWKH\RXWKLQWKHSROLWLFDODFWLYLW\
DQGDUHIRUPRIWKHHOHFWRUDOODZDOORZLQJYRWHUVWRKDYHDVWURQJHULQXHQFHLQWKHHOHFWLRQRIWKH03VDQG
the president of the Republic24.

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and the suspicion of manipulation by Morocco to create internal disputes, discouraged the participation
of young people in the event256LPXOWDQHRXVO\WKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQFDOOZDVHQGRUVHGE\WKH-DW$FKDKLG
PRYHPHQWIRUPHGE\DJURXSRIGLVVLGHQW6DKDUDZLVEDVHGRXWVLGHWKHFDPSV7KHLUVXSSRUWLQFUHDVHG
WKHVXVSLFLRQVDQGHYHQPRUHZKHQWKH\VHQWDOHWWHUWRWKH$OJHULDQJRYHUQPHQWDVNLQJIRUDXWKRULVDWLRQ
to access the camps accompanied by independent journalists and members of Human Rights groups to
SUHYHQWDSRWHQWLDOUHSUHVVLRQE\WKH6DKDUDZLDXWKRULWLHVDUHSUHVVLRQWKDWKRZHYHUQHYHUKDSSHQHG26.
,QYLHZRIVRPXFKSUHVVXUHLWFRXOGEHH[SHFWHGWKDWWKRVHVHFRQGLQJWKHFDOOFDUULHGZLWKWKHPDOOVRUWV

23 7KHVSRNHVSHUVRQRIWKH3ROLVDULRIURQWLQ6SDLQ%XFKDUD\D%H\RXQFRQUPHGLQDQLQWHUYLHZLQ0DGULGRQ6HSWHPEHUWKHGLIFXOWLHVRIWKH
6DKDUDZLDXWKRULWLHVWRFRQYH\WKHUHDVRQVIRUVXFKVWDQFHWRWKHSRSXODWLRQ7KH3ROLVDULR)URQWFRQVLGHUHGWKDWQRWDWWHQGLQJWRDQHJRWLDWLRQURXQGSUR-
JUDPPHGPXFKLQDGYDQFHZRXOGEHQHW0RURFFRLQDPRPHQWZKHQLWVLQWHUQDWLRQDODOOLHVZHUHFULWLFLVLQJLWVDSSURDFKWRWKH6DKDUDLVVXHDQGLWVTXHV-
WLRQDEOH+XPDQ5LJKWVUHFRUG$FFRUGLQJO\WKH3ROLVDULR)URQWXQGHUVWRRGWKHPHHWLQJDW0DQKDVVHWDVDSROLWLFDOPDQRHXYUHZLWKWZRREMHFWLYHVFHUWL-
I\LQJWKHFRPSURPLVHRI6DKDUDZLVZLWKWKHQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVDQGVHFRQGIRUFLQJ0RURFFRWRH[SODLQWRWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRPPXQLW\ZKDWKDSSHQHGDW
*GHLP,]LN,QKLVRZQZRUGV,QSROLWLFV\RXKDYHWZRNQRZKRZWRZRUN,WKLQNWKDWZKDWWKH3ROLVDULR)URQWGLGZDVZHOOVWXGLHGZHOOPHDVXUHGDQG
ZDVULJKWIRUWKHIXWXUH7KDWLVQRWEUHDNLQJZLWKWKHQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVDV0RURFFRZDQWHGXVWRGRDQGIRUFHWKHPWRIDFHLQWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVWKH
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24 ZZZDIUROFRPHVDUWtFXORV
25 The most optimist attendance estimations are of 150-200 people.
26 Ibd.
 73 ARAB SPRING

of nationalist paraphernalia and pro-Polisario symbols. Such behaviour looks like a clear attempt to reject
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cusations of being pro-Morocco or trying to support the Moroccan discourse about the existence of internal
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In this sense, the democratic character and the importance given by this society and its government to
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WKHHYLGHQWH[LVWHQFHRIGHVWDELOLVLQJJURXSVEXWPDLQO\ZLWKWKHIHDURIDFULWLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHRI-
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PRUHWKDQ\HDUVLQWKHSRZHUFLUFOHVRIWKH6DKDUDZLPRYHPHQW

Conclusion
After a detailed analysis of the events and the aftermath of Gdeim Izik in the occupied territories and
LQWKH6DKDUDZLVRFLHW\DVDZKROHLWFDQEHREVHUYHGWKDWWKLVZD\RISURWHVWDOWKRXJKLQQRYDWLYHLVWKH
ORJLFDOSURGXFWRIDSURFHVVRISROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQZKLFKZDVRQLWVZD\IURPWKHEHJLQQLQJ
RIWKHGHFDGH,QRWKHUZRUGVLQVWHDGRIDUXSWXUHZLWKWKHSUHYLRXVVLWXDWLRQLWZRXOGEHPRUHDS-
SURSULDWHWRVSHDNDERXWDQHYROXWLRQWRDQHZVFHQDULRFXOPLQDWLQJLQWKH'LJQLW\FDPSDQGPDUNLQJWKH
approach for the next years in Western Sahara.

7KHFDPSLQWURGXFHGWKUHHPDMRULQQRYDWLYHHOHPHQWV5HJDUGLQJWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVXEMHFWVLWFRQUPHG
WKHLUUXSWLRQRIQHZDFWRUVOHGE\WKHXQHPSOR\HG\RXWKVDQGWKH+XPDQ5LJKWVDFWLYLVWVZKRHQULFKHG
WKH6DKDUDZLQRQFRQIRUPLW\5HJDUGLQJWKHVWUXJJOHLQVWUXPHQWVWKHMDLPDWHQWHPHUJHVDVWKHSULQFLSDO
HOHPHQWRIWKHSDFLFSURWHVWV277KHMDLPDWXUQVWKLVZD\LQWRWKHV\PERORIWKH6DKDUDZLFXOWXUHDQHOH-
PHQWDQFKRUHGWRWKHODQGLWVPRVWYLVLEOHDQGH[SRUWDEOHLGHQWLW\VLJQ,QQRYDWLRQDOVRVKRZVXSLQWKH
methodology of the protests: camps are placed in spaces close enough to cities to facilitate the supply of
essentials, but, on the other hand, free and outside the urban orbit and the control of the local and even the
VWDWHDXWKRULWLHV%HURQD&DVWDxHGD6XFKVWUDWHJ\DOORZVODUJHSHRSOHJDWKHULQJVFUHDWHVDFWLRQV
ZLWKVLJQLFDQWLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOLPSDFWDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWO\LPSOLHVDWDV\PEROLFOHYHOWKHXVHRID
IXQGDPHQWDOVSDFHZKLFKGHQHVWKH6DKDUDZLLGHQWLW\DQGFXOWXUHWKHGHVHUW

7KHPDUJLQDOLVDWLRQLQZHDOWKGLVWULEXWLRQWKHFRUUXSWLRQRIDORFDOHOLWHHPHUJHGIURPQRQWUDQVSDUHQW
HOHFWLRQVDQGFRQWUROOLQJDOOWKHVRXUFHVRIIXQGLQJZKLFKLPSHGHVDUHDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIWKH6DKDUDZL
society in the decision making processes and the distribution of resources, are key elements to understand
Gdeim Izik. But another key factor is the displacement of the nonconformist actions from the political to
WKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFVSKHUHZKHUHYHUWKH\DUHPRUHWROHUDWHGDQGHYHQOHJLWLPDWH7KLVGRHVQRWPHDQWKDW

27 $OUHDG\LQWKHFULVLVDFDPSKDGEHHQEXLOWDWWKH(FKGHLUD6TXDUHRI(O$DL~Q
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 74

WKHSROLWLFDOLVVXHLVQRORQJHUSUHVHQWEXWWKDWLWDSSHDUVVXUURXQGHGE\QHZGLVFRXUVHVDQGQHZIRUPVRI
VRFLDOQRQFRQIRUPLW\ZKLFKPDNHWKHFRQLFWHYHPRUHFRPSOH[LISRVVLEOH

$OWKRXJKLWFDQEHVWDWHGWKDW*GHLP,]LNJHQHUDWHGDPXOWLWXGHRIFKDQJHVLQWKH6DKDUDZLVRFLHW\DW
the same time the basic problem persists. A proof of this is that the Moroccan regime has made the same
mistake of imposing stability in the region by only reinforcing the security and repression machinery. But
WKHGHDGORFNRIWKHFRQLFWDOVRVKRZVLQWKHODFNRIFRQYHUJHQFHEHWZHHQWKH0RURFFDQDQG6DKDUDZL
QRQFRQIRUPLW\ZKLFKZRXOGKDYHKDGLPSRUWDQWFRQVHTXHQFHV:KDWZRXOGKDYHKDSSHQHGLIWKH 6D-
KDUDZL\RXWKZRXOGKDYHMRLQHGWKH0RURFFDQSURWHVWVOHGE\WKH)HEUXDU\PRYHPHQW"7KLV
PRYHPHQWWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHH[SHULHQFHDW*GHLP,]LNFRXOGKDYHPDGHWKHFRPPRQLQWHUHVWVRIWKH6D-
KDUDZLDQG0RURFFDQ\RXWKVFRQYHUJHIDFLOLWDWLQJDQDSSURDFKRIWKHWZRSRSXODWLRQV+RZHYHUWKLVGLG
QRWKDSSHQDQGLWLVQRWHYHQFRQVLGHUHGDVDSRVVLELOLW\1HLWKHUWKH6DKDUDZLSRSXODWLRQIHOWFRQFHUQHG
E\WKH\RXWKVGHPRQVWUDWLQJLQ0RURFFRQRUDQ\RIWKHUHIRUPVFODLPHGE\WKH)HEUXDU\PRYHPHQW
PHQWLRQHGWKHVROXWLRQRIWKH6DKDUDZLFRQLFWVLQFHDVDPDWWHURIIDFWWKH0RURFFDQ\RXWKFRQVLGHUV
6DKDUDDSDUWRI0RURFFR1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHWRWDOODFNRIFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQERWKPRYHPHQWVLVUHPDUN-
DEOHVLQFHWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHDXWRFUDF\FRUUXSWLRQVRFLDOLQHTXDOLW\DQGODFNRIIUHHGRPGHQRXQFHGE\WKH
Moroccan youth, the heaviest burden compromising the future of Morocco both at economic and political
OHYHOVWLOOLVWKHXQGHQHGGHOD\RIWKHUHVROXWLRQRIWKH:HVWHUQ6DKDUDFRQLFW

Abbreviations
$69'+$VVRFLDWLRQVDKUDRXLHGHVYLFWLPHVGHVYLRODWLRQVJUDYHVGHV'URLWVGHO+RPPH
$0'+$VVRFLDWLRQPDURFDLQHGHV'URLWVGHO+RPPH
&2'(6$&ROOHFWLIGHGpIHQVHXUV6DKUDRXLVGHV'URLWVGHO+RPPH
CORCAS: Conseil royal consultatif des affaires sahariennes
FRENTE POLISARIO: Frente de liberacin nacional de Saguia El Hamra y Rio de Oro
MINURSO: United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
 75 ARAB SPRING

References
$,UHSRUW5LJKWWUDPSOHGSURWHVWVYLROHQFHDQGUHSUHVVLRQLQ:HVWHUQ6DKDUD
$0'+UHSRUW5DSSRUWUHODWLIDX[pYpQHPHQWVTXDFRQQXVODYLOOHGH/Dk\RXQHjODQGXPRLVGHPDL
$69'+UHSRUW5DSSRUWVXUOHFDPSHPHQWGH*GHLP,]LNHWOHVpYpQHPHQWVTXLRQWVXLYLVRQGpPDQWqOHPHQW/Dk\RXQH6DKDUD
Occidental.
Barona Castaeda, C.: 2011, Memoria histrica y resistencia cultural, de Zemla a Gdeim Izik, XXIII Simposio Electrnico Internacional.
Medio Oriente y Norte de frica. Estados alterados y la geopoltica de la transformacin. Universidad Externado de Colombia and
Centro de Estudios Internacionales para el Desarrollo.
%HQQDQL'QRYHPEUH6DKDUD&RPPHQWWRXWDEDVFXOp7HOTXHO
%HQQDQL'QRYHPEUH6DKDUD/DERPEHjUHWDUGHPHQW7HOTXHO
&DUDWLQL6/D3ULVRQGXWHPSVOHVPXWDWLRQVVRFLDOHVjOXYUHGDQVOHVFDPSVGHUpIXJLpVVDKUDRXLV$IULTXHFRQWHPSRUDLQH
222, 181-197.
),'+UHSRUW6DKDUD2FFLGHQWDO/HVDIIURQWHPHQWVGXQRYHPEUHj/Dk\RXQH(VFDODGHGDQVXQFRQLWTXLVpWHUQLVH
*yPH]0DUWtQ&DQG2PHW&/HVFKHPLQHPHQWVGHODSROLWLVDWLRQGHVMHXQHVGDQVOHFKDPSSROLWLTXH6DKUDRXL(WXGH
FRPSDUDWLYHHQWUHODGLDVSRUDHWOHVFDPSVGHUpIXJLpV/$QQpHGX0DJKUHE9
Gmez Martn, C.: 2011, La migracin saharaui en Espaa. Estrategias de visibilidad en el tercer tiempo del exilio, (Editorial Acadmica
Espaola,), p.159.
+XPDQ5LJKW:DWFKUHSRUW6DKDUD2FFLGHQWDO3DOL]DV\PDOWUDWRSRUSDUWHGHODVIXHU]DVGHVHJXULGDGPDUURTXtHV
.KDGHU%/DMHXQHVVHPRWHXUGHVVRXOqYHPHQWVGpPRFUDWLTXHVDUDEHV,QVWLWXWHXURSpHQGHUHFKHUFKHVXUODFRRSpUDWLRQHXUR
arabe (Medea).
/ySH]*DUFtD%(O6iKDUD2FFLGHQWDOHQHOQXHYRWLHPSRiUDEH7ULEXQD'LDULRHO3DtV
0DVVLDK*/HVLQVXUUHFWLRQVUpYROXWLRQQDLUHVFLQTSUHPLqUHVOHoRQV&HQWUHWULFRQWLQHQWDO
5pYROXWLRQVOHUpYHLOGXPRQGHDUDEH0R\HQ2ULHQW, n10, Avril-Juin 2011.
Ruz Miguel, C.:1995, Sahara Occidental y Espaa: historia, poltica y derecho. Anlisis crtico de la poltica exterior espaola, (Editorial
Dykinson, Madrid).
6REHUR<6iKDUD0HPRULD\ROYLGR(GLWRULDO$ULHO0DGULG
9HJXLOOD9/DUWLFXODWLRQGXSROLWLTXHGDQVXQHVSDFHSURWHVWDWDLUHHQUHFRPSRVLWLRQ/HVPRELOLVDWLRQVGHVMHXQHVVDKUDRXLVj
'DNKOD/DQQpHGX0DJKUHE9
:LOVRQ$'HPRFUDWLVLQJHOHFWLRQVZLWKRXWSDUWLHVUHHFWLRQVRQWKHFDVHRIWKH6DKUDZL$UDE'HPRFUDWLF5HSXEOLF7KH-RXUQDO
of North African Studies, Vol. 15, 4, 423-438.
15M AND INDIGNADO
MOBILIZATIONS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 78

Antecedents, Achievements and Challenges

of the Spanish 15M Movement

TOMS ALBERICH NISTAL

Universidad de Jan

Abstract
Historical antecedents of the sociopolitical participative movements in Spain since the
HDUO\VHYHQWLHVRIODVWFHQWXU\7KRXJKZLWKRXWWU\LQJWREHYHU\H[KDXVWLYHZHZLOO
SUHVHQWVRPHRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVZKLFKKDYHXVHGPHWKRGVDQGDFWLRQVWUDWHJLHV
WKDWE\WKHLUIRUPRUFRQWHQWVZHFDQFRQVLGHUHUDVDSUHFHGHQWRIWKHRQHVXVHGE\WKH
SUHVHQWSURWHVWPRYHPHQWVWKDWZHGHQRPLQDWHFROOHFWLYHO\DVLQGLJQDGRVLQGLJQH]
vous movement, indignant movement, or 15M movement (the plural-international
and restrictive-national versions respectively). Emergence of the 15M movement: dif-
IHUHQFHVDQGVLPLODULWLHVZLWKKLVWRULFDODQGPRGHUQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV$FKLHYHPHQWV
DQG IDLOXUHV RI WKH  0RYHPHQW 6RPH RI WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV WKDW KDYH DIIHFWHG WKH
GHPRFUDWLFSROLWLFDOV\VWHPDQGPRUHVSHFLFDOO\WKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWUDGHXQLRQV
DQGOHIWZLQJHGSDUWLHV)XWXUHVFHQDULRVDQGFKDOOHQJHV

Keywords
0PRYHPHQWFLWL]HQLQYROYHPHQWQRQSURWVDVVRFLDWLRQVVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV

Immediate causes
0\LQWHQWLRQLVQRWWRFDUU\RXWDSURIRXQGDQDO\VLVRIWKHFDXVHVRIWKHELUWKRIWKH0PRYHPHQWZK\
it came up just in a particular moment in the middle of the campaign for the municipal and autonomic
HOHFWLRQVLQ0D\EXW,GRZDQWWRIRFXVRQWKHFRQXHQFHRISDUWLFXODUIDFWRUVDQGVLWXDWLRQVWKDW
PDGHLWVDSSHDUDQFHLQ6SDLQSRVVLEOH+HUHDUHVRPHRIWKHPRVWVLJQLFDQWRQHV

1. The feeling of having enough, of bearing an almost four year lasting crisis that is causing ever big-
JHUKDUGVKLSVIRUDJURZLQJSDUWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQJURZLQJVWUXFWXUDOXQHPSOR\PHQWDVRFLHW\XQGHU
home mortgage and debt).

2. The general perception that the crisis has been caused by sectors and economic groups (Bank Entities
DQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOVSHFXODWRUVWKDWDUHVWLOOOHDGLQJWKHHFRQRP\DQGJHWWLQJULFKHU$OOWKLVDOORZHG
if not fostered by, governments and main political parties. By the political HVWDEOLVKPHQW.

 'LVFUHGLW RI WKH SROLWLFDO FODVV LQ WKH SRZHU ZKLFK FRQQHFWV ZLWK FHUWDLQ DQWLSROLWLFDO URRWV
DJDLQVWSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVRIWKH6SDQLVKVRFLHW\ZKLFKGDWHEDFNIURPWKH)UDQFRUHJLPHEXWZKLFK
also have its antecedents in historical anarchism, libertarian communist, or revolutionary traditions.
7KLVSROLWLFDOFODVVKDVEHFRPHDFFRUGLQJWRWKH&,62IFLDO6RFLRORJLFDO,QYHVWLJDWLRQV&HQWUH
VXUYH\VWKHWKLUGPRVWLPSRUWDQWSUREOHPIRUWKH6SDQLVKSRSXODWLRQIRUWKHUVWWLPHDIWHUWKHGHPR-
 79 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

cratic transition. This bad reputation of the political class has also been favoured by the emergence of
QXPHURXVLQVWDQFHVRIFRUUXSWLRQIDYRULWLVPDQGZDVWHRISXEOLFVSHQGLQJDQLPDJHWKDWKDVEHHQ
GLVWRUWHGDQGPDJQLHGE\WKHPDVVPHGLDRULHQWHGWRDQHROLEHUDOGLVFRXUVHRUE\H[WUHPHULJKWSRVL-
WLRQV:KHQWKHHFRQRP\LVJURZLQJDQGWKHJHQHUDOSHUFHSWLRQLVWKDWLWLVJRLQJZHOOWKHVHDVSHFWV
FDQEHWROHUDWHGEXWZLWKWKHFULVLVWKH\FDQW

6RPHVHFWRUVZHUHREVHUYLQJZLWKDGPLUDWLRQRUHQY\WKHPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQVLQ$UDEFRXQWULHVWKH
changes in Iceland, the general strikes against social policies reductions in France and Greece.

7KHQHZWHFKQRORJLHV,7&VDQGYLUWXDOVRFLDOQHWZRUNVKDYHHYHQWXDOO\HQDEOHGWKHYLVXDOL]DWLRQRI
XQIDLUHYHQWVDQGVLWXDWLRQVDTXLFNHUDQGVRPHWLPHVDOVREHWWHUFRPPXQLFDWLRQVSHFLDOO\LQWKHFDVH
RIDLULQJWKHGLUW\ODXQGU\VXFKDVWKHXQFRYHULQJRIFRQGHQWLDOSDSHUVE\:LNLOHDNV7KH\DOVR
KDYHSURYLGHGDEHWWHUDFFHVVWRWKHNQRZOHGJHRIDOWHUQDWLYHVSURSRVDOVDQGFDOOVIRUPRELOLVDWLRQ
HYHQWKRXJKDOOWKHVHDUHPL[HGZLWKWKHLQWR[LFDWLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQ

7KH\KDYHDOVREHHQWKHWRROVWKDWKDYHHQDEOHGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIXQLWDU\PRYHPHQWVSODWIRUPV
and the immediate precedents 15 M movement in Spain: Social Movements of the Madrid Social Fo-
rum (2005-11), 9GH9LYLHQGD+RXVLQJ0RYHPHQWV$QWL%RXORJQHVWXGHQWV0RYHPHQW
<RXWKZLWKRXWIXWXUHZLWKRXWIHDU0HVDVGH&RQYHUJHQFLD&LXGDGDQD (Citizen
Convergence Board, 2010), 'HPRFUDFLD5HDO<D'5<5HDO'HPRFUDF\1RZ

7KH0PRYHPHQWJRHVEH\RQGLWVUVWRUJDQL]HUVRIWKHth of May demonstration. There is a before

and after in the political and social movements since the 15th of May, 2011, in Spain at least. The m15M
LQDXJXUDWHVDQHZF\FOHLQWKHKLVWRU\RISURWHVWPRYHPHQWV,QWHUQDWLRQDOO\LWZLOOSUREDEO\ZULWHDSDJH
LQWKHKLVWRU\RIRUWKH$UDE6SULQJMXVWDV0D\ZDVLGHQWLHGZLWKWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRI
that year.

$PRQJWKHURRWVRIWKHP0ZHVKRXOGDOVRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWVRPHJHQHUDWLRQDOFKDQJHVDQHZ
JHQHUDWLRQRI\RXQJSHRSOHWKHPRVWTXDOLHGDQGWHFKQRORJLFDOO\VNLOOHGRI6SDQLVKKLVWRU\EXWZLWKWKH
IHZHVWUHVRXUFHVWKHIHZHVWSURIHVVLRQDODQGIXWXUHSHUVSHFWLYHVDQGWKHIHZHVWSRVVLELOLWLHVWRFDUU\RXW
their independent life projects.

:HKDYHWREHDULQPLQGWKDWWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVZDVGXULQJWKHUVW\HDUVEHDUDEOHIRUWKHPRVWSDUWRI
WKH6SDQLVKSRSXODWLRQ:K\"LWZDVDOOHYLDWHGE\IDPLO\VXSSRUWVDYLQJVPXWXDOVXSSRUWVXEVLGLHVDQG
SXEOLFDLGXQHPSOR\PHQWVXEVLGLHV$JUHHPHQWVEHWZHHQ&RPSDQLHVDQG7UDGH8QLRQVIRU([SHGLHQWHV
GHUHJXODFLyQGHHPSOHR(5((PSOR\PHQW5HJXODWLRQ$JUHHPHQWVHDUO\UHWLUHPHQWV%XWZKHQWKH
situation remains a long time these resources are diploid and unemployment becomes structural, massive
DQGSHUPDQHQWZLWKRXWDQ\YLVLEOHIXWXUHH[LWWKHVXSSRUWQHWZRUNVEHJLQWREUHDNDQGWKHVLWXDWLRQJHWV
HYHQPRUHXQEHDUDEOHDQGH[SORVLYH)RULQVWDQFHVRPHJXUHVUHYHDOWKDWWKHQXPEHURISHRSOHOLYLQJ
XQGHUSRYHUW\UDWHVKDVLQFUHDVHGIURPDLQWRRYHULQGDWDIURP&DULWDVDOZD\VUH-
IHUUHGWRUHODWLYHSRYHUW\SRSXODWLRQZLWKDQLQFRPHXQGHURIQDWLRQDODYHUDJHDLQHTXDOLW\LQGH[
DQGDFFRUGLQJWRVRPHVWXGLHVZHZRXOGKDYHUHDFKHGDRIWKHSRSXODWLRQLQ,QDQ\FDVHWKHVH
DUHWKHKLJKHVWSRYHUW\DQGLQHTXDOLW\LQGH[HVRIWKHUHFHQW6SDQLVKGHPRFUDWLFSHULRGVLQFHWKHV7KH
UHFHQWUHVXOWVRIWKHUHVHDUFKHVFDUULHGRXWLQWKH2&'(FRXQWULHVUHYHDOWKHJUDGXDOLQFUHDVHRILQHTXDOLW\
GXULQJWKHODVW\HDUVLQPRVWRIWKHP
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 80

:HVKRXOGDOVRDVNRXUVHOYHVZK\GXULQJWKH\HDUVRIKLJKHFRQRPLFJURZWKDQGWKH6SDQLVKPLUDFOH
WKHUHODWLYHSRYHUW\LQGH[ZDVQHYHUXQGHUIURPWRWKH*'3DQGWKHHPSOR\PHQWGLGQRW
VWRSJURZLQJ%XWWKLVTXHVWLRQLVQRWWKHVXEMHFWRIWKLVDUWLFOH

Good ideas and virtues of the 15M Movement

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PRYHPHQWVZKLFKKDYHXVHGPHWKRGVDQGDFWLRQVWUDWHJLHVWKDWE\WKHLUIRUPRUFRQWHQWVZHFDQFRQ-
VLGHUDVDSUHFHGHQWRIWKHRQHVXVHGE\WKHSUHVHQWSURWHVWPRYHPHQWVWKDWZHGHQRPLQDWHFROOHFWLYHO\DV
LQGLJQDGRVLQGLJQH]YRXVPRYHPHQWLQGLJQDQWWKHSOXUDOLQWHUQDWLRQDOYHUVLRQVZKLFKLQFOXGHZLWK
all its differences, particularities and similarities from Occupy Wall Street to all the occupations of public
VTXDUHVWKURXJKRXWWKHZRUOG7KHLQWHUQDWLRQDOPRELOLVDWLRQRQWKHth of October, 2011 constituted their
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Spring, despite of being a clear precedent of the 15M and sharing some common characteristics, like the
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DVLQWKHVHFRXQWULHVWKHDFWLYLVWVDQGGHPRQVWUDWRUVDUHJKWLQJIRUDPLQLPXPIRUPDOGHPRFUDF\7KH
HYROXWLRQRIWKHVH$UDEPRYHPHQWVZKLFKKDYHFDXVHGKXQGUHGVRIYLFWLPVNLOOHGE\WKHLURZQJRYHUQ-
PHQWVHFXULW\IRUFHVDQGZKLFKLQPDQ\FDVHVDUHVWLOOEHDULQJDEUXWDOFULPLQDOUHSUHVVLRQGLIIHUHQWLDWHV
WKHPIURPWKHPRYHPHQWVLQWKHZHVWHUQFRXQWULHVRUWKRVHFRXQWULHVZLWKIRUPDOGHPRFUDFLHVZKHUH
WKH\KDYHIRFXVHGRQWKHJKWDJDLQVWWKHFULVLVDQGWKHFRPSODLQWVDERXWWKHFULVLVPDQDJHPHQWZLWKWKH
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKDWZLOOEHODWHUGHVFULEHGDORWRIWKHPFRPPRQWRWKHGLIIHUHQWLQGLJQDQW movements and
FRSLHGIURPWKH6SDQLVK0:HFDQDIUPWKRXJKWKDWDOOWKHVHPRYHPHQWVIURPWKH$UDEPRYHPHQWV
to the 15M, coincide not only in formal aspects but also in their vindication of a more extensive and better
democracy.

%HIRUHFRPSDULQJLWZLWKRWKHUVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRIWKH6SDQLVKUHFHQWKLVWRU\ZHDUHJRLQJWRKDYHD
look at some of the good ideas and virtues of the m15M:

7RGUDZWKHSHRSOHGLVDSSRLQWHGZLWKWKHV\VWHPWRZDUGVLGHDVDQGYDOXHVIURPWKHOHIWRUSURJUHVVLVW
DQGGHPRFUDWLFLGHRORJLHV7KHSRSXODWLRQLVWLUHGRIVHHLQJKRZWKHVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFLQHTXDOLWLHV
XQHPSOR\PHQWHYLFWLRQVDUHLQFUHDVLQJZKLOHWKRVHZKRSURYRNHGWKHFULVLVDUHQRWSXQLVKHGDQGWKH
ZHDOWK\JHWULFKHU8QWLOWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKH0WKHLQFUHDVHRIUHDFWLRQDU\LGHDVDQG[HQRSKREHDF-
WLRQVZDVHYLGHQW7KLVWUHQGZDVDWWKHSHDNH[WUHPHSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVLQGHSHQGHQW electoral platforms
RUDVVRFLDWLRQVSRVLWLRQVVKDUHGE\VRPHVHFWLRQVRIWKH3DUWLGR3RSXODUDQG&L8

7KH0KDVGUDZQDJUHDWSDUWRIDQWLV\VWHPJURXSVWRPRUHSDFLVWSRVLWLRQVVKRZLQJWKHHIIHF-
WLYHQHVVRIWKHMRLQHGDFWLRQRIDFWLYHDQGSDFLFFLYLOUHVLVWDQFH

7KH VXFFHVVIXO VSUHDG RI WKH PRYHPHQW WR QHLJKERXUKRRGV YLOODJHV DQG WRZQV H[SDQGLQJ LW DQG
HQDEOLQJDUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHUVW0DFWLRQWKH6RORFFXSDWLRQFDPSVLWHLQWKHRXWVNLUWVDQG
suburbs.
 81 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

4. As a unitary movement, the camp sites and the assemblies in Sol and the neighbourhood communi-
WLHVKDYHFRQWULEXWHGWRLPSURYHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHGLIIHUHQWSURJUHVVLVWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV
IHPLQLVW HFRORJLVW QHLJKERXUV DQWLHYLFWLRQV7KHVH DFWLRQV DQG SHUIRUPDQFHV KDYH VKRZQ WKHP
WKDWLWLVPRUHZKDWMRLQVWKHPWRJHWKHUWKDWZKDWPRYHVWKHPDSDUW

5. Joined action and political, social and generational pluralism fostering the joined action over ideo-
logical debates (Naredo and Villasante, 2011). The never-ending ideological debate so popular in the
OHIWZLQJHGHQYLURQPHQWVLVDSDUDO\]LQJKDQGLFDS7KHLGHRORJLFDOSOXUDOLW\LVHVVHQWLDOWRWKHOHIW

7KHGHPDQGIRUWKHUVWWLPHRID3DUWLFLSDWLYH'HPRFUDF\DVRQHRIWKHPDLQFODLPVRIWKHPRYH-
PHQWIURPWKHLQLWLDOFODLPVDQGZKDWLVPRVWLPSRUWDQWLWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWKURXJKUHDOSUDFWLFHV
VKRZLQJWKDWWKHLUFODLPVRWKHUIRUPVRIGRLQJSROLWLFVZHUHGLUHFWO\UHODWHGZLWKKRZWKHVHSUDFWLFHV
are implemented. Organization in assemblies, direct participation and internal participative democracy
KDYHEHHQWKHLGHQWLW\VLJQVRIWKHQHZPRYHPHQWIURPLWVRULJLQV7KLVKDVEHHQRQHRIWKHPDMRU
DFKLHYHPHQWVRIWKH0PRYHPHQWDOWKRXJKLWDOVRKDVLWVSURVDQGFRQVRSHUDWLYHGLIFXOWLHVDQG
VORZGHFLVLRQWDNLQJ

7. The successful use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT), even the development of
QHZPDVVVHOIFRPPXQLFDWLRQDFFRUGLQJWR&DVWHOOVWHUPLQRORJ\

7KHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZVLJQODQJXDJHEDVHGRQWKHVLJQODQJXDJHVXVHGE\GHDIFRPPXQLWLHVZKLFK

PDNHVGLDORJXHDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQDVVHPEOLHVHDVLHUSURYLGLQJDPRUHSDFLFIRUPRISXEOLFH[SUHVVLRQ

7KHFDSDFLW\RIWKHPRYHPHQWWRRUJDQL]HELJPRELOLVDWLRQVIRUH[DPSOHWKHMDQG2ZLWK
KXQGUHGWKRXVDQGVRIGHPRQVWUDWRUVZLWKIHZHFRQRPLFUHVRXUFHVDQGZLWKRXWWUDGHXQLRQVGHOHJDWHV
ZLWKWLPHRIIULJKWV,WKDVVXFFHHGHGLQEULQJLQJDVPDQ\LIQRWPRUHSHRSOHWRGHPRQVWUDWHLQWKH
VWUHHWVWKDQDQ\*HQHUDO6WULNHHYHQWKRXJKZKHQWKHVHDUHRUJDQL]HGZLWKWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIWKRX-
VDQGVRIZRUNHUVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVPHPEHUVRISROLWLFDOSDUWLHVFRXQFLOORUVHWFZLWKWLPHRIIULJKWV

10. The origins of the movement, DSDUWLGLVWHYHQDSROLWLFDODFFRUGLQJWRUVWVWDWHPHQWFDVWDJRRGLP-

DJHLQWKHPDVVPHGLD7KHPRYHPHQWDSSHDUVDVVRPHWKLQJQHZIUHVKDQGZKDWLVPRUHDWWUDFWLYH
XQH[SHFWHGDQGVSRQWDQHRXVLQWKHPLGGOHRIDQHOHFWLRQVFDPSDLJQSUHGLFWDEO\ERULQJDQGDW
Its appearance on the front covers of the main mass media has also its pros and cons, as in other move-
PHQWVZHZLOODQDO\]HODWHUDSROLWLFDOXQH[SHFWHGDQGVSRQWDQHRXVUHVSHFWLYHO\

7KHHPHUJHQFHRI0PRYHPHQWZRXOGPHDQDQHZGDZQRIWKHVSULQJZKHUHQHZLGHDVDOWHU-
QDWLYHVFUHDWLYLW\DQGDUWZRXOGEORRP$VVRPHRQHVDLGWKHUHZHUHPRUHLGHDVDQGGHEDWHVLQD
VLQJOHWHQWLQ6ROFDPSVLWHWKDQLQWKHZKROHHOHFWLRQFDPSDLJQ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 82

Antecedents, differences and similarities with other movements

The citizenship movement of the 70s. Assembly organization, participation and positions on
institutions in the residents associations.

7KHFLWL]HQPRYHPHQWVRIWKH6SDQLVKGHPRFUDWLFWUDQVLWLRQZHUHFKDUDFWHULVHGE\DQ

KRPRJHQHRXVVRFLDODQGDVVRFLDWLRQQHWZRUNLQHDFKWRZQRUWHUULWRULDOVSDFHYLOODJHQHLJKERXUKRRG
HWFRUJDQL]HGDURXQGDXQLWDU\IRUPDODVVRFLDWLRQLQHDFKQHLJKERXUKRRGFUHDWHGLQWKDWGHFDGHZKLFK
GHDOVZLWKWKHLQVWLWXWLRQV

,QPRVWFDVHVWKHFRKHVLYHDFWRURIWKHFLWL]HQVPRYHPHQWZDVDQHLJKERUVDVVRFLDWLRQ$VRFLDFLyQ
GH9HFLQRV$$99ZKLFKZDVDZDUHRILWVSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHPRYHPHQW:LWKLQWKHQHLJKERUVDVVRFLD-
WLRQLWZDVFRPPRQWRQGZRUNWHDPVDQG\RXWKZRPHQDQGFXOWXUDOJURXSVWKHDWHUPXVLFZLWKDQ
RQJRLQJUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHIHZRUJDQL]DWLRQVH[LVWLQJLQHDFKQHLJKERXUKRRGPDLQO\WKHDVVRFLDWLRQVRI
VWXGHQWVSDUHQWVODWHUFDOOHG$03$6VRPHLQGHSHQGHQWFXOWXUDORU\RXWKDVVRFLDWLRQVKRXVHZLYHVDQG
IDPLO\DVVRFLDWLRQVVRPHRIWKHROGKHDGRIWKHIDPLO\DVVRFLDWLRQVZHUHFKDQJHGLQWRQHLJKERXUVDV-
VRFLDWLRQV7KHVHKDGDOVRJRRGDOWKRXJKVFDUFHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKDVVRFLDWLRQVLQRWKHUQHLJKERXUKRRGV
,QPDQ\FDVHVWKH$VVRFLDWLRQSURYLGHGWKHQHLJKERXUKRRGZLWKDQLGHQWLW\8QWLOWKHVWKH\ZHUHQHLJK-
ERXUKRRGVZLWKRXWKLVWRU\DVWKH\ZHUHFUHDWHGE\HPLJUDQWVIURPWKHYLOODJHVZHXVHWKHGHQRPLQDWLRQ
most commonly used barrios neighbourhoods- for the territorial unit in general. Thus the term in these
VHQVHDOVRLQFOXGHVGLVWULFWVWRZQVYLOODJHVHWF7KHDVVRFLDWLRQVFUHDWHGKLVWRU\LQHDFKQHLJKERXU-
KRRGRUJDQL]LQJFXOWXUDOVRFLDOVSRUWVHYHQWVFUHDWLQJQHZIHVWLYLWLHVDQGSDWURQVDQGLQWHUQDOHGXFDWLYH
DQGVROLGDULW\QHWZRUNV

7KHUHZDVDFOHDUGLYLVLRQEHWZHHQWKHDXWRFUDWLFSRZHUWKHSROLWLFDOFODVVRIWKDWWLPHDQGWKHFLWL-

]HQV7KHVRFLDODQGDVVRFLDWLYHQHWZRUNZDVLQWHUPLQJOHGDVPRVWDVVRFLDWLRQVZHUHFUHDWHGIURPDORFDO
VRFLDO QHWZRUN DQG ZHUH DW WKH VDPH WLPH VRFLDO PRYHPHQWV7KH QHLJKERXUV DVVRFLDWLRQV $$99
ZHUHVHWXSWRLPSURYHWKHFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHVHQHZQHLJKERXUKRRGVZKLFKKDGVFDUFHDQGSRRUIDFLOLWLHV
DQGVHUYLFHVEDGXUEDQL]DWLRQODFNRISXEOLFWUDQVSRUWVFKRROVVRFLDOPHGLFDODQGFXOWXUDOFHQWUHV,WV
HPHUJHQFHZDVUHODWLYHO\VSRQWDQHRXVDQGDSDUWLGLVW (not associated to any political party), as many other
social movements that have succeeded. 6SRQWDQHRXV because neighbours joined to solve real problems and
DSDUWLGLVWEHFDXVHWKH\JDWKHUHGPLOLWDQWVIURPGLIIHUHQWSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVLOOHJDOXQWLOZLWKRXWEHLQJ
XVHGE\DQ\RIWKHP5HODWLYHO\EHFDXVHLWZDVHYLGHQWWKDWPLOLWDQWVDQGDIOLDWHVRIWKHOHIWSROLWLFDOSDU-
WLHVKDGDQLQWHUHVWLQWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKRVHDVVRFLDWLRQV$OWKRXJKWKHUHZHUHIHZRIWKHPWKHLUSUHVHQFH
ZDVVLJQLFDWLYHDQGJURZLQJ7KH\NQHZWKDWDVLWHYHQWXDOO\KDSSHQHGLQDGLFWDWRULDOUHJLPHWKHVHDV-
VRFLDWLRQVZLOOHQGXSFRQIURQWLQJWKHSRZHUGXHWRWKHQDWXUHRIWKHLUUHLYLQGLFDWLRQVRUWKHLUUHSUHVVLRQ
SURKLELWHGLQVRPHFDVHVWROHUDWHGEXWFRQWUROOHGIRURWKHUVDVVHPEOLHVGLVPDQWOHG7KHSROLFHUHSUHV-
VLRQZRXOGFDXVHLQGLJQDWLRQDPRQJWKHQHLJKERXUVDQGDQLQFUHDVHLQWKHQXPEHURIVXSSRUWHUVQRWRQO\
RIWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVEXWDOVRRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWKHPVHOYHVDQGWKHSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVJKWLQJDJDLQVWWKH
dictatorship. The transition from micro-changes (improvements in my neighbourhood) to macro-changes
DWDSROLWLFDOOHYHOWRDFKLHYHDGHPRFUDWLFV\VWHPZRXOGEHERXQGWRFRPHQDWXUDOO\

7KH$$99VWULYHGWRKDYHWKHKLJKHVWQXPEHURIDVVRFLDWHVSRVVLEOHEXWWKHPRVWVLJQLFDWLYHDVSHFW
LQPRVWRIWKHPZDVWKHFDOOIRUDVVHPEOLHV,QWKHQHLJKERXUKRRGDVVHPEOLHVDQ\QHLJKERXUFRXOGSDU-
WLFLSDWHZLWKRXWGLVWLQFWLRQIURPWKHDVVRFLDWHV7KHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWZHQWEH\RQGWKHQDUURZIUDPHRI
 83 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

WKHDVVRFLDWLRQ$QGWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVRSHUDWHGLQPRVWFDVHVZLWKLQWKHOLPLWVRIOHJDOLW\RUHYHQRXWVLGH
WKHODZFDOOLQJDVVHPEOLHVZLWKRXWSHUPLVVLRQRIWKHFLYLOJRYHUQPHQW'RHVQWLWUHPLQGXVWRWKH0
DVVHPEOLHVKHOGLQWKHVWUHHWDQGWKHRIFLDOWHUPRIRFFXS\WKHVTXDUH"3UHVVRIFHRIWKH0FRP-
municated on the 05.22.2011)

The social movements of these years succeeded in identifying themselves as part of a global movement,
a citizenship social movement, and in stablishing a solid relationship, even in articulating those movements
ZLWKWKHWHFKQLFDOH[SHUWVWHDPVWKHOHIWSDUWLHVDQGWKHPDVVPHGLDDQDUWLFXODWLRQWKDWLVQRWDOZD\VHDV\
6RPHWKLQJVLPLODUWRZKDWKDVRFFXUUHGZLWKWKHDOWHUJOREDOL]DWLRQPRYHPHQWVDJDLQVWWKH,UDNZDUDQG
WKHPRYHPHQWVRIWKHLQGLJQDGRV8VLQJWKHWHUPLQRORJ\RI0DQXHO&DVWHOOVZHFDQUHVXPHLWV
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQWKHJUDSKLFEHOORZ

Second and third scenario: from the crisis of the citizen movements of the 80s to the new
generation of the association movements of the 90s

7KHUVWGHPRFUDWLFPXQLFLSDOHOHFWLRQVLQLQDXJXUDWHDQLUUHYHUVLEOHSURFHVVRIVRFLDOFKDQJH

The neighbours associations lose their role as a main agent against institutions. The change in these is also
YLVLEOHDWDOOOHYHOVVWDWHORFDOQHZDXWRQRPLHV$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKHLQVWLWXWLRQVKDYHWDNHQRYHUSDUW
RIWKHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHVZKLFKKDYHEHFRPHPD\RUVFRXQFLORUVIXOOWLPHGHOHJDWHVRI
SROLWLFDOSDUWLHVRULQVWLWXWLRQV7KHGHFDGHRIWKHVLVLGHQWLHGZLWKWKHVHFKDQJHVZKLFKSURYRNHDQ
LUUHYHUVLEOHFULVLVLQWKHFLWL]HQVKLSPRYHPHQWVWKDWZHFDQVXPPDUL]HQRWLQMXVWRQHRUWZRRIWKHSRLQWV
already mentioned but at least in fourteen (see full description in Alberich, 1994, 2007a: 199-201): socio-
HFRQRPLFDQGVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHFKDQJHVGHVHUWLRQRIWKHPDQDJHPHQWDQGPRVWDFWLYHVHFWRUVRIWKHDVVR-
FLDWLRQVSROLWLFDOVHFWDULVPFRPSHWHQFHVRIWKHQHZ&LW\&RXQFLOVWKDWVHHWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVDVFRPSHWLWRUV
DQGGLVSHQVDEOHVWUXFWXUHVFULVLVLQWKHOHIWSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVIHDUIURPWKRVHHQWLWLHVWREHFRQWUROOHGDQG
GLVWUXVWWRZDUGVSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVODFNRIQHZSROLWLFDODQGJOREDOKRUL]RQVEHOLHYLQJWKDWIRUPDOGHPRF-
UDF\ZRXOGUHVROYHHYHU\WKLQJFDXVHVRIWKHVRFDOOHGGLVFRQWHQWRIWKHVRUJDQL]DWLRQZHDNQHVVHVLQ
WKHDVVRFLDWLRQVODFNRIWUDLQLQJLQSDUWLFLSDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV

'XULQJWKHVWKHUHZDVDFKDQJHIURPDQLUUXSWLYHWRDE\LQYLWDWLRQSDUWLFLSDWLRQWKHQHZRUJDQL]D-
tive structures create restricted, burocratic channels to lead the eager need of participation of the citizens.
,QWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVFRSLHGIURPWKHSROLWLFDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHORJLFZLWKQXPHURXVFORVHGVHFWRULDOFRXQFLOV
RIDFRQVXOWLQJQDWXUHZLWKRXWFDSDFLW\RIDFWLRQOHVVRIGHFLVLRQWDNLQJLQHIFLHQWPRVWRIWKHFLWL]HQV
give up participation.

,QWKLVFRQWH[WRQO\VRPHQHLJKERXUVDVVXPHWKHQHZDGPLQLVWUDWLYHDQGEXURFUDF\UXOHVDQGNHHSWKHLU
DFWLYLVPLQRUJDQL]DWLRQVGXULQJWKHV7KHVHFWRULDOGLYLVLRQIRVWHUHGE\WKHQHZDGPLQLVWUDWLYHLQVWLWX-
WLRQVZKLFKGLGQRWXQGHUVWDQGRIJOREDODVVRFLDWLRQVRQHFRXQFLORUIRUHDFKVHFWRUXUEDQLVPHGXFDWLRQ
FXOWXUHVSRUWV\RXWKSURYRNHGDIUDJPHQWDWLRQLQDVVRFLDWLQJHQWLWLHV7KHQHLJKERXUVDVVRFLDWLRQV
lose their identity as the association of the neighbourhood and turn into just another association more.
7KHUHLVDSURJUHVVLYHLQFUHDVHLQWKHDVVRFLDWLYHIUDJPHQWDWLRQGXULQJWKHV0RUHRYHUWKHQHLJKERXUV
DVVRFLDWLRQVDUHLQFUHDVLQJO\VHHQDOPRVWDVDQRWKHULQVWLWXWLRQE\WKH\RXQJSHRSOHIURPWKHZRUNLQJGLV-
WULFWVERWKWKHPXQLFLSDOGLVWULFWERDUGVDQGWKHQHLJKERXUVDVVRFLDWLRQVUXQDQGPDQDJHFHQWUHVVHUYLFHV
GHDOZLWKFRPSODLQWVUHTXHVWV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 84

,QHDFKQHLJKERXUKRRGDJUHDWHUQXPEHURIDVVRFLDWLRQVUHTXLULQJMXVWDVLQJOHDQGGLUHFWDFWLRQWR
DFKLHYHVSHFLFREMHFWLYHVLQWKHVKRUWWHUPDQGIRUDFRQFUHWHSODFHDUHFUHDWHGIROORZLQJWKHQHZPRGHO
RIYROXQWHHUV1*2VZKRVHPHPEHUVZDQWWRSHUIRUPYLVLEOHDQGGLUHFWDFWLRQVWRKHOSRWKHUSHRSOH
The distrust in the ideological debate and in politics is ever more evident.

+RZHYHUWKHVZLOOVHHRWKHUFKDQJHV6SDLQKDVJUDGXDOO\WXUQHGIURPDFRXQWU\UHFHLYLQJGHYHORS-
ing aids into a state that creates programs of international aid cooperation. This increases the development
RI WKH LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRRSHUDWLRQ DVVRFLDWLRQV SURPRWHG DOVR E\ VRPH FRQVHUYDWLYH VROLGDU\ JURXSV ZH
KDYHWRKHOSWKHWKLUGZRUOGQRWWRDQDO\VHWKHLQHTXDOLWLHVKHUHRUDVNRXUVHOYHVDERXWWKHUHDVRQZK\
WKH\DUHFDXVHGWKHUH7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHVHIDFWRUVLPSURYHPHQWRILQWHUQDOHFRQRP\DZDUHQHVVRI
WKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOSRYHUW\SURYRNHVVRPHPRELOLVDWLRQPRYHPHQWVVRPHWLPHVHYHQVSRQWDQHRXVDQG
explosive, not bound to any political party and gathering people from different ideologies in the solidar-
LW\RUJDQL]DWLRQVUHOLJLRXVDQGOHIWVXFKDVWKHPRYHPHQWZKLFKFODLPVIRUWKHIXOOPHQWRIWKH
8QLWHG1DWLRQVDJUHHPHQWERXQGLQJWKHGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVWRSURYLGHWKHDQGRIWKH*%3WRLQWHU-
QDWLRQDOFRRSHUDWLRQSURJUDPV7KLVZLOOEHODWHUNQRZQDVWKHDQGDGGLQJRWKHUFODLPVVXFKDV
the condemn of debt to the poorer countries and the improvement of social justice, although these remained
DOZD\VLQWKHEDFNJURXQG'XULQJDQGSDFLFDQGGLUHFWDFWLRQVRIQRQYLROHQWFLYLOGLVREHGL-
HQFHLQFOXGLQJFDPSVLWHVDQGRFFXSDWLRQRISXEOLFVSDFHVFODLPHGVLPSOHDQGPLQLPXPUHTXLUHPHQWV
until they achieved a state commitment to increase gradually the budget provisions for the cooperation
programs. As in the 15M, the camp sites began in Madrid, in Paseo de la Castellana, and from there they
VSUHDGWRRWKHUWRZQVDQGFLWLHV

6LQFHWKHPRYHPHQWORVHVJUDGXDOO\LWVJOREDOPRELOLVLQJSRZHUDQGWXUQVLQWRQHZFRRSHUD-
WLRQDQGVRFLDODFWLRQRUJDQL]DWLRQVZLWKDQLQWHUQDWLRQDORUORFDOSURMHFWLRQ

To sum up, the associative tendencies of the 90s in Spain are generally bound to very different factors
such as (from Alberich, 2007b:81):

6PDOOKROGLQJDQGVXEVLGL]HGDVVRFLDWLRQVZKLFKKDYHDOUHDG\RYHUFRPHWKHLUPRVWVHFWDULDOWHQ-
GHQFLHV3HQHWUDWHGE\SROLWLFDOSDUWLHVWKH\KDYHDOZD\VEHHQEXWZLWKOHVVSROLWLFDOPDQDJHPHQW
than in the former decades.

7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIROGDQGQHZUDGLFDODQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRNXSDVDQWLIDVFLVWJD\VDQG/*7%
IUHHDQGFRPPXQLWDU\UDGLRV

7KHVXSSO\RIQHZVHUYLFHVIURPWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVWRJHWKHUZLWKQHZPLQRULWDU\DQGDGPLQLVWUDWLYH
DVVRFLDWLRQVRIVHUYLFHVZKLFKOHDGVWRWKHHPHUJHQFHRIDQHZDVVRFLDWLRQEXVLQHVVPRGHOUHJ-
LVWHUHGDVDQDVVRFLDWLRQEXWZRUNLQJDVDWUDGLQJFRPSDQ\DFRRSHUDWLYHRUDVVHWFRPPXQLWLHV7KH
public administration starts to outsource some services using social organizations.

&UHDWLRQRIQHZ0DQDJHPHQW%RDUGV$KLJKHUSURIHVVLRQDOL]DWLRQLQWKHDVVRFLDWLRQV,QFUHDVHLQWKH
QXPEHURIDIOLDWHVZLWKGLIIHUHQWPRWLYDWLRQV

&RQVWLWXWLRQRIQHZDVVRFLDWLRQVVHOIFDOOHG1RQ*RYHUQPHQWDO$VVRFLDWLRQV1*2VLQRUGHUWR
give an independent but more institutional image
 85 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

6. Volunteering: After their successful participation in the organization of Barcelona 1992 Olympics,
WKHSXEOLFDGPLQLVWUDWLRQFUHDWHVQHZGHSDUWPHQWVWRUHFUXLWPHQWIRUFXOWXUDODQGVRFLDOSURMHFWV,WKDV
WREHVDLGWKDWYROXQWHHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQHYHQZKHQLWWXUQVLQWRDIDVKLRQRULQDZD\WRLQLWLDWHDSURIHV-
VLRQDOFDUHHULVDFRPSOH[DQGGLYHUVHVRFLDOSKHQRPHQRQZKLFKFDQQRWEHDFFHSWHGRUUHMHFWHGLQ
general terms.

3HQHWUDWLRQRIXQVROLGDU\YDOXHVLQVRPHROGDQGQHZPRYHPHQWVDQLOOXVHRI1RWLQ0\%DFN<DUG
1,0%<PRYHPHQWVZKLFKEHFRPHDQWLVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHQHZPLGGOHFODVVZKLFK
ZDQWWRPRYHDZD\IURPWKHVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGDQGPDUJLQDOSRSXODWLRQLQWKHVRFLHW\RIWKHWKUHH
WKLUGV VRPH LQVWDQFHV DUH WKH FLWL]HQV SDWUROV SURWHVW DJDLQVW UHKRXVLQJ DQWLGUXJV FDPSDLJQV
DOWKRXJKZHFDQQRWPDNHDQ\JHQHUDOVWDWHPHQWVLQFHHDFKFDVHLVGLIIHUHQW

7KHORFDOLVWDWRPL]HGHYHQFRUSRUDWLYHFKDUDFWHURIDVVRFLDWLRQVZKLFKHYHQWXDOO\LVGLVDSSHDULQJ
LQVRPHPRYHPHQWVLQIDYRXURIQHZXQLWDU\FXUUHQWV

1HZDVVRFLDWLYHIHGHUDWLRQVDQGSODWIRUPVDQGQHZIRUPVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQKDGDOUHDG\LQFUHDVHGWKH
PXWXDONQRZOHGJHDQGLPSURYHGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQDVVRFLDWLRQVDQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKHV
7KHQXPEHURI&RQJUHVVHVDQG0HHWLQJVRIFLWL]HQVFXOWXUDODLGFRRSHUDWLRQPRYHPHQWVPXOWLSOLHG
/LQNLQJWKHSDUWLFXODUWRWKHJOREDOLVVKRZQDVDVRFLDOYDOXHVLQFHWKHHQGRIWKHVDJDLQVWWKHLQGL-
YLGXDOLVWSDUWLFXODULVPKHJHPRQLFLQWKHV$OWKRXJKLWVKRXOGEHFODULHGWKDWWKHUHDUHWZRGLIIHUHQW
phenomena developing at the same time:

$JUHDWQXPEHURIPLFURDVVRFLDWLRQVDUHVWLOOEHLQJVHWXS7KHLQIRUPDWLRQJLYHQE\WKHJXUHVRIWKH
QDWLRQDOUHJLVWHURIFHVDQGWKH$XWRQRPRXV&RPPXQLWLHVVKRZVDSHUVLVWHQFHRIDVPDOOKROGLQJ
WHQGHQF\LQWKHDVVRFLDWLYLVP,QWKHUHZHUHDOUHDG\DVVRFLDWLRQVUHJLVWHUHGDFFRUGLQJWR
WKH/DZRI$VVRFLDWLRQVLQWKHLUQXPEHUKDGLQFUHDVHGWR/RFDODVVRFLDWLRQVZLWK
DUHDORUSUHWHQGHGDSROLWLFDOLQWHQWLRQWKDWLQWKHVGHFDGHDUHVHOIGHQRPLQDWHGDVZHH[SODLQHG
EHIRUH1*26QRQOXFUDWLYHDVVRFLDWLRQVRUYROXQWHHUVDVVRFLDWLRQZKHQLQIDFWDOODVVRFLDWLRQV
DUHE\WKHLURZQGHQLWLRQDQGOHJDOVWDWXVQRQJRYHUQPHQWDODQGQRQOXFUDWLYHDQGKDYHYROXQWHHUV

7KHUHLVLQFRQWUDVWDQLQFUHDVHLQWKHQXPEHURIDVVRFLDWLRQVEHFRPLQJDZDUHWKDWWKHVROXWLRQWRWKH
social problems cannot come only from the local action. The idea is spread that even the most particu-
ODUDQGORFDOSUREOHPVDUHGLUHFWO\FUHDWHGRULQXHQFHGE\WKHJOREDORQHV$WUVWWKHHFRORJLFYLVLRQ
RIDQHHGIRUORFDODFWLRQZLWKDJOREDOWKLQNLQJEHFRPHVJUDGXDOO\VWDEOLVKHG7KHQWKHQHHGRI
JOREDODFWLRQZLWKDORFDOWKLQNLQJDOVREHFRPHVHYLGHQW+XPDQULJKWVHQYLURQPHQWDOPRYHPHQWV
HPHUJH7KHQHZSURSRVDOVDQGDSSURDFKHVVHWGXULQJ5tR6XPPLWWKHUVWZRUOGFRQIHUHQFH
RQGHYHORSPHQWDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOLVVXHVDUHJRLQJWREHLQWURGXFHGDWDYHU\ORZSDFHDQGLWLVQRW
until the 2000 decade that sustainable development approach becomes predominant - although it
LVLQPDQ\FDVHVDIDOVHHWLTXHWWH,QWKHVDPHOLQHZHQGWKHPRYHPHQWRWKHUVROLGDU\PRYH-
ments and mobilisations for the condemn of the debt, the anti-Maastricht movement and the natural
PHUJLQJRIDOOWKHPZLWKWKHDQWLJOREDOL]DWLRQPRYHPHQWVDWWKHHQGRIWKHV$OOWKHVHFRQVWLWXWH
not only global resistance movements, but also alternative movements or movements calling an alter-
globalization
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 86

Since the end of the century a more global, and thus political, approach is adopted by many associations
and movements, due to the global nature of the main problems affecting the population directly: on the one
KDQGWKHHQHUJHWLFFULVLVDQGJOREDOFRQWDPLQDWLRQZLWKGDPDJHWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGWKHOLIHTXDOLW\DQG
RQWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOHFRQRPLFFKDQJHRULJLQDWHGE\WKHQHROLEHUDOJOREDOL]DWLRQZKLFKKDG
DVDFRQVHTXHQFHDQLQFUHDVHLQWKHLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOLQHTXDOLWLHVIRUFLQJPDQ\HPLJUDQWVRXWRIWKHLU
countries.

'LYHUVLW\DQGSOXUDOLW\KDVEHHQDFRQVWDQWIHDWXUHLQWKHDVVRFLDWLYHPRYHPHQWV+RZHYHUWKHUHLVDOVR
DJUDGXDODZDUHQHVVRIEHORQJLQJWRDFRPPRQFXOWXUHRIDOWUXLVWYDOXHVDQGWKDWDFKLHYHPHQWVZLOORQO\
EHREWDLQHGZLWKDXQLWHGDFWLRQ

+RZHYHUZKHUHDVLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGSURIRXQGFULVLVRIWKHVDPRELOLVDWLRQIRUD
referendum and anti-NATO movements emerged, during the 90s, the antecedents of the alter-globalization
PRYHPHQWVZHUHDPRQJRWKHUVWKH$QWL0DDVWULFKWPRYHPHQWZKRVHIXOOQDPHZDVSUHFLVHO\0RYHPHQW
against the Europe of Maastricht and the Economic Globalization. With an assambleary and participative
QDWXUHLWODVWHGORQJHUWKDQWKHDQWL27$1PRYHPHQWVLQFHLWRQO\KDGDVSHFLFREMHFWLYHDQGD[HG
FDGXFLW\WRDFKLHYHWKHFHOHEUDWLRQRIDUHIHUHQGXPDQGZLQLW$IWHUPDQDJLQJWRDFKLHYHWKHUHIHUHQ-
GXPZKLFKWKH\ORVWWKHPRYHPHQWZDVGLVVROYHGLQWRVPDOOSODWIRUPVZKLFKJDYHFRQWLQXLW\WRWKHROG
reivindications of the retirement of the North American troops and the elimination of the military bases
ZLWKWKHVORJDQ27$1QR%DVHVIXHUD1$721R%DVHVRXW7KHVHPRYHPHQWVORVWLQWHQVLW\ZKHQ
WKHHOLPLQDWLRQRIWKHPLOLWDU\EDVHVLQ6SDQLVKWHUULWRU\ZDVLQFOXGHGDVSDUWRIWKHJRYHUQPHQWDJHQGD
RQO\SDUWLDOO\IXOOOHG

Some associations and anti-NATO organizations participated in the creation of the Anti-Maastricht
PRYHPHQWZKLFKLQWURGXFHGDQHZVLJQLFDQWGHEDWHLQWKH6SDQLVKVRFLHW\

:KDWNLQGRI(XURSHDQFRPPXQLW\GRZHZDQWWREXLOG"7KH(XURSHRIWKHWUDGHUVOHGE\WKHFDSL-
WDO"7KH(XURSHRIIUHHPRYHPHQWIRUFDSLWDOQRZZHZRXOGVD\VSHFXODWRUVWKH(XURSHRIWKHJURZLQJ
GHUHJXODUL]DWLRQRIWKHPDUNHWVIROORZLQJWKHWUDLORIWKHQHROLEHUDOJOREDOL]DWLRQSURSRVDOVRIWKH0
7KDWFKHU55HDJDQWDQGHP"2UD(XURSHIRUWKHFLWL]HQV"7KLVGHEDWHZDVSUHVHQWLQDJUHDWQXPEHURI
assembleary meetings in different European countries.

%XWWKH(XURSHDQJRYHUQPHQWVQHJRWLDWHGWKHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZ(XURSHDQ8QLRQXQWLOWKHQ(XUR-
pean Community) and signed their Maastricht Agreement on the 7th of February, 1992. The main political
SDUWLHVFRLQFLGHGLQGHIHQGLQJWKHDJUHHPHQWDVDQHFHVVDU\FRQGLWLRQWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDQHZ(XUR-
SHDQ8QLRQDQGWKHDQWL0DDVWULFKWPRYHPHQWZDVSUHVHQWHGWRWKHH\HVRIWKHSXEOLFRSLQLRQDVDQDQWL
(XURSHDQPRYHPHQWVRPHWKLQJVLPLODUZRXOGRFFXUODWHUZLWKWKHSURMHFWRIWKH(XURSHDQ&RQVWLWXWLRQLQ
Spain, although not in other countries such as France).

+RZHYHUZHKDYHVHHQUHFHQWO\DGHFDGHDQGDKDOIODWHUKRZDJUHDWHUSDUWRIWKHFULWLFLVPPDGHE\

WKHVHDQWLPRYHPHQWVFRLQFLGHZLWKZKDWWKHH[SHUWVFDOOQRZWKHGHIHFWVRIWKH(XURSHDQDJUHHPHQWV
signed in Maastricht and in other summits: increasing de-regulation of the markets, freedom for the inter-
QDWLRQDOQDQFLDOVSHFXODWLRQZLWKRXWWD[HVLQGHSHQGHQWSRZHURIWKH(XURSHDQ&HQWUDO%DQN%&(
ZKLFKDLPVMXVWDWWKHFRQWURORIWKHLQDWLRQLQFRQWUDVWZLWKWKH)HGHUDO5HVHUYH%DQNZKLFKDOVRDLPV
DWWKHUHGXFWLRQRIXQHPSOR\PHQWWKHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZPRQHWDU\XQLRQZLWKRXWDFRPPRQVFDOSROLF\
 87 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

RUHFRQRP\PDQDJHPHQWDXWKRULW\ZKLFKDOORZVGLVSDUHDQGRSSRVLQJVFDOSROLFLHVFRPSHWLQJEHWZHHQ
WKHPWD[KDYHQVZLWKRXWJUDQWLQJDQ\PLQLPXPFRPPRQVRFLDOULJKWVDQG:HOIDUH6WDWHFRQGLWLRQVIRU
WKHZKROH8QLRQ

)LQDOO\DJUHDWQXPEHURIPHHWLQJVDQGQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFULWLFDORIWKHSUHYDLOLQJGHYHORSPHQW
PRGHOWRRNSODFHLQWKLVGHFDGH)RULQVWDQFHWKHUVWXQLWDU\,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQJUHVVRI6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV
&,06ODWHU&,06QHWZRUNZDVFHOHEUDWHGRUJDQL]HGE\6SDQLVKDVVRFLDWLYHHQWLWLHVZLWKWKH
participations of the main Trade Unions, cooperative unions, cultural and families federations, etc.. These
constituted an antecedent, in its form and content, of the alter-globalization movements and other social
IRUXPV,WLVLPSRVVLEOHWROLVWLQWKLVSDSHUDOOWKHPHHWLQJVDQGQHZPRYHPHQWVWKDWHPHUJHGZLWKGLIIHU-
HQWLGHDVEXWZLWKDVLPLODUIRUPDODSSURDFKSDUWLFLSDWLYHGHPRFUDF\RSSRVLWLRQDJDLQVWWKHSUHYDLOLQJ
JOREDOL]DWLRQPRGH,ZLOORQO\PHQWLRQWZRVLJQLFDWLYHH[DPSOHVWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO=DSDWLVWD0RYH-
ment (starting from the proposals of the Mexican movement led by VXEFRPDQGDQWH0DUFRVZKLFKHYROYHG
IURPWKH*XHUULOODWRPRUHSDFLFDOWHUQDWLYHVDQGWKHPHHWLQJKHOGLQ0DGULGLQZLWKWKHVLJQLFD-
WLYHQDPH$OWHUQDWLYH)RUXPWKH2WKHU9RLFHVRIWKH3ODQHW$ZRUOGPHHWLQJRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQG
NGOs on the occasion of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the creation of the IMF, WB and GATT.

Fourth scenario. From 2000 until now. Alter world movements and social forums

$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKLVFHQWXU\VRPHRIWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHIRUPHUGHFDGHDUHUHSURGXFHGZLWK
JUHDWHULQWHQVLW\RYHUSURIHVVLRQDOL]DWLRQDQGRYHUPDQDJHPHQWRIVRPHQRQOXFUDWLYHHQWLWLHVZLWKD
KLJKHIFLHQWPDQDJHPHQWEXWZLWKDIHZQXPEHURIDIOLDWHVDQGYROXQWHHUVODFNRISDUWLFLSDWLRQDQG
renovation of the management boards of some traditional associations (part of the AA.VV.),a lack of trans-
SDUHQF\DQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQWKDWHPHUJHVLQWKHZRUVWFDVHVLQWKHIRUPRIIDYRULWLVPDQGQHSRWLVPLQVRPH
FRQWUDFWVDQGHYHQFRUUXSWLRQVFDQGDOV,QWHUYLGD$QHVYDG$UFDGH=RpLQ7KHVHFDVHV
though minoritary and more or less restricted to foundations, bring certain discredit upon the associative
sector. Luckily enough most entities react on time, specially the bigger associations and the federations,
improving their internal control procedures, implementing ethic statement policies and management trans-
SDUHQF\1RQHWKHOHVVVRPHRIWKHSUREOHPVSUHYDLOSUHFDULRXVHPSOR\PHQWZLWKFRQWUDFWVGHSHQGHQWRQ
SXEOLFVXEVLGLHVDPDQDJHPHQWEDVHGRQSDWHUQDOLVPKLHUDUFKL]DWLRQ7KHLQFUHDVHRISULYDWHQDQF-
LQJZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH&RUSRUDWLYH6RFLDO5HVSRQVLELOLW\DQGWKHXVHRIDVVRFLDWLRQVIRUWKH
SULYDWL]DWLRQRISXEOLFVHUYLFHVKDYHFRQWULEXWHGWRPDNHVRPHSUREOHPVZRUVHDOWKRXJKWKH\KDYHDOVR
LQFUHDVHGWKHQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVDQGWRVSUHDGWKHLGHDWKDWWKH7KLUG6HFWRULVMXVWDQRWKHUZD\WRPDNH
a living and that they have abandoned the ideals of a social change.

4XLWHDQRSSRVLWHFDVHLVWKDWRIWKHUHLYLQGLFDWLYHVRFLRSROLWLFDOPRYHPHQWVZKLFKKDYHHPHUJHGDURXQG
WKHQHZDOWHUZRUOGPRYHPHQWVDQGWKHVRFLDOIRUXPV

7KHQH[XVEHWZHHQWKHPXOWLSOHJURXSVZLWKWKHVORJDQ2WUR0XQGR(V3RVLEOH$QRWKHU:RUOGLV
Possible, and the Trade Unions, main NGOs and political parties of the traditional left, has been repre-
sented by the VRFLDOIRUXPVVSHFLDOO\E\WKH6RFLDO)RUXPVRI3RUWR$OHJUHLQDQG7KHVHQHZ
forums have been developed from annual meetings into long term organizations, operating at different
OHYHOVQDWLRQDOORFDODQGZLWKGLIIHUHQWIRUPVVRPHRIWKHPDUHDOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\DFRPELQDWLRQRI
the acronyms of the organizations recognized by the institutions and others have succeeded in creating a
PRYHPHQWIRUXPZLWKDORWRISHRSOHDQGFROOHFWLYHVSDUWLFLSDWLQJGLUHFWO\
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 88

7KHPHHWLQJVRIWKHVRFLDOIRUXPVDUHQRWSURWHVWPRELOLVDWLRQVDUHVSRQVHWRWKHRIFLDOPHHWLQJVRU
counter-summits (as it occurred before), they are constituted by themselves as a nexus for the setting of
local and global alternatives. One of these World Alternative Meetings is the Forum of Local and Regional
Authorities in Porto Alegre, that since 2001 holds annual meetings at the same time that the Social Forum
DQGVLPLODUO\LQGLIIHUHQWFLWLHV7KLVLVDPHHWLQJSRLQWEHWZHHQORFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWKDWLQWHUFKDQJH
H[SHULHQFHVWRJHQHUDWHSURFHVVHVRIVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQZKRWKLQNWKDWPHWURSROLVDQGFLW\QHWZRUNVFDQ
FRXQWHUWKH6WDWHVDQGWKHZRUOGRUJDQL]DWLRQV

The success of meetings such as the counter-summit of Seattle (1999), Prague or Geneve (2001) has
IDYRXUHGWKHUHSHWLWLRQRIFHUWDLQFRPPRQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDPRQJWKHSDUWLFLSDWLQJDOWHUZRUOGJURXSV7KHLU
reivindications and operating procedures clearly remind us to those used by the 15M and other indignates
PRYHPHQWV0DQ\RIWKHLQQRYDWLRQVDQGQHZLGHDVDWWULEXWHGWRWKH0ZHUHDOUHDG\SUHVHQWLQWKHVH
JURXSV7KXVDOUHDG\LQZHPHQWLRQHGWKHIROORZLQJFRPPRQIHDWXUHV$OEHULFKD

$PRUHHTXDOLWDULDQDQGRSHQLGHRORJ\DGPLWWLQJGLIIHUHQFHDVDQHQULFKLQJIHDWXUHDVIDUDVWKHUH
LVDFRPPRQDJUHHPHQWRQWKHPDLQREMHFWLYHV$QHZHWKLFIRUWKHJURXSVLQPRYHPHQW is created.

1HZIRUPVRILQWHUQDORUJDQL]DWLRQPRUHH[LEOHQRQKLHUDUFKLFDORSHQDQGDVVHPEOHDU\VSDFHVLQ
OLQHZLWKWKHLGHRORJLFDODSSURDFKDGRSWHG

1HWZRUNDQGKRUL]RQWDOZRUN7KHSRVLWLRQVFKDQJHLQDURWDV\VWHP5HLYLQGLFDWLRQRILQWHUQDODQG
external participative democracy

)RUPORFDODFWLRQJOREDOWKLQNLQJDQGWKHDFWLRQDWDPLFUROHYHOWRWKHJOREDODFWLRQZLWKDORFDOWKLQNLQJ

&LYLOUHVLVWDQFHGLUHFWQRQYLROHQW$FWLRQ

6. To pay more attention to the analysis of the reality. Critical acceptance of the technological innova-
WLRQVSURPRWLQJDJRRGXVHRIWKHQHZWHFKQRORJLHVVSHFLDOO\LQWHUQHWPRELOHSKRQHV

3UDJPDWLFDFWLRQ6HDUFKIRUDQDOOLDQFHEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIRUJDQL]DWLRQV7KXVPRYHPHQWV
FRQVLGHUHGDVUDGLFDOKDYHFRLQFLGHGLQWKHXQLWDU\PRYHPHQWVDQGKDYHVHWPXWXDOVXSSRUWQHWZRUNV
ZLWKPRUHLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGDQGSURIHVVLRQDOL]HGRUJDQL]DWLRQVRYHUFRPLQJWKHPXWXDOGLVWUXVW,Q
PDQ\FDVHVWKHUROHVDUHGLVWULEXWHGDVIROORZVWKHELJ1*2VFDUU\RXWUHOLDEOHVWXGLHVDQGSURSRVDOV
WRWKHSXEOLFDGPLQLVWUDWLRQZKLFKZLOOSURYLGHDUJXPHQWVIRUWKHDFWLYLVWPRYHPHQWVZLWKZKLFKWKH\
ZLOOFRLQFLGHLQVRPHGHPRQVWUDWLRQV5DGLFDOFLWL]HQVPRYHPHQWVKDYHSXEOLFO\FRQYHUJHGLQ
the mobilisations, changing and overcoming to a great extent their bad social image.

6LPLODUO\WKHUHDUHVRPHZHDNQHVVHVLQWKHDOWHUJOREDOL]DWLRQPRYHPHQWVWKDWDUHUHSURGXFHGE\WKH
current indignates movements:

7KHPDQLSXODWLRQRUWKHSHUPDQHQWDWWHPSWWRPDQLSXODWHLQIRUPDWLRQE\WKHPDVVPHGLDPDVVIRU-
PDWLRQPHGLDDFFRUGLQJWR$JXVWtQ*DUFtD&DOYRZKLFKDPSOLI\FHUWDLQPRYHPHQWVDQGVLWXDWLRQV
WKHYLROHQFHWKHSDUDGR[LFDOWKHDQHFGRWHVDQGZKDWVQHZDQGRULJLQDODFFRUGLQJWRIDVKLRQWUHQGV
and leaves out others.
 89 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

7KHODFNRIRZQPDVVPHGLDRUFORVHWRWKHPRYHPHQWVZLWKVRFLDOLPSDFWDSDUWIURPWKHXVHRI

Internet.

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7KHORQJWHUPRUJDQL]DWLRQZHDNQHVVHV

)LQDOO\PRYHPHQWVKDYHPDGHDELJSURJUHVVLQWKHGHQRXQFHDQGSURWHVWDVSHFWVEXWQRWLQWKHIRU-
mulation of global, alternative and concrete proposals (such as the Tobin Tax proposal) (Alberich,
2007a:208).

Most of these features, either positive or not, are present in the current movements. For instance the easy
GLVSRVLWLRQWRWKHFULWLTXHWRGLVDJUHHZLWKWKHFXUUHQWVLWXDWLRQEXWWKHGLIFXOW\WRVHHNDOWHUQDWLYHVDQG
EXLOGDQHZFUHGLEOHSURMHFW7KLVZDVDOUHDG\QRWLFHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHPRYHPHQW5DPyQ&RWDUHOR
18th of May: The negative side of this program is clear (NOT to the existing situation) but the positive
VLGHWKHDOWHUQDWLYHVWRVXEVWLWXWHZKDWLVRXWGDWHGLVQRW,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRHODERUDWHQHZSURSRVDOVDQGD
devise to measure their possible social support. It is not easy to elaborate a program, but it is the only thing
that can give cohesion to the movement (Cotarelo, 2011:47).

The 15M and the differences with former movements.

2QHRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHVUHVSHFWIRUPHUPRYHPHQWVLVWKDWWKH0LVERUQZLWKWKHLQWHQWLRQWREHDVLQJOH
XQLWDU\PRYHPHQWZLWKFDSDFLW\RIDFWLRQ7KHDOWHUZRUOGPRYHPHQWVKDGEHHQWKHVXPRIPRYHPHQWV
DQGHQWLWLHVWKDWPDLQWDLQHGWKHLURZQQDPHVDQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW6RPHWKLQJVLPLODU
RFFXUUHGZLWKWKHSODWIRUPVDJDLQVW,UDNZDUDQGRWKHUVRFLDOIRUXPVZKLFKZRUNHGDVWKHPHHWLQJSRLQWRI
GLIIHUHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQVEXWDGPLWWLQJLQGLYLGXDOSDUWLFLSDQWVVLQFHZLWKWKHWLPHLWZDVGHFLGHGWRH[SDQG
these platforms, including collective and individual participants.

The 15M is not simply a sum of Spanish organizations such as Democracia Real, Juventud sin Fu-
turo, No le votes, etc (movements that constituted at the same time unitary platforms and called for the
15thRI0D\GHPRQVWUDWLRQV7KH0VLQFHWKHVDPHGD\RILWVRIFLDOELUWKZLWKWKHUVWPDVVLYHDV-
semblies and the camp sites of May 17thLVFUHDWHGDVDXQLWDU\PRYHPHQWLQZKLFKHDFKLQGLYLGXDOPXVW
SDUWLFLSDWHLQLWVRZQQDPHDQGRQO\LQKLVKHURZQUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRQHSHUVRQRQHYRWHDQGLISRVVLEOHQR
YRWLQJDWDOO7KLVRSHUDWLRQSURFHGXUHVZHUHSUHVHQWEHIRUHRQO\LQVRPHVPDOOHUHQWLWLHVVXFKDVVRPH
social forums (for instance the )RUR6RFLDOGHOD6LHUUDGH*XDGDUUDPD) or in the recently created 0HVDV
GH&RQYHUJHQFLD&LXGDGDQD (in 2010).

Also from the beginning it is clear the intention to blend in the leading organizations calling for the mo-
ELOL]DWLRQZLWKWKH0PRYHPHQWLWVHOIDYRLGLQJWKHYLVXDOL]DWLRQVRIDQ\V\PEROVDJVRUJDQL]DWLRQ
QDPHVVLJQHUVDOWKRXJKWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQVDUHQRWUHTXLUHGWRGLVVROYH7KLVLQYLVLELOL]DWLRQLVFULWL]HG
E\VRPHSDUWLFLSDQWVZKLFKUHMHFWVWDWHPHQWVVXFKDVZHDUHDSROLWLFDODQGRWKHUVWDWHPHQWVLPSO\LQJ
that WKLVLVVRPHWKLQJQHZWKDWKDVEHHQERUQRQWKHWKRI0D\IRUPHUPRYHPHQWVDUHXVHOHVV. Some of
them publicly criticize the intention to forget or delete the history of a great number of alternative social
RUPRYHPHQWVRIUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWWKHV\VWHP7KHDQVZHUVJLYHQOLWWOHE\OLWWOHZHUHFODULI\LQJWKHSUR-
cess: the 15M is DSDUWLGLVW (not associated to any political party), but it is not apolitical, and it is something
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 90

QHZEXWLWGRHVQRWEHJLQIURPVFUDWFKZHKDYHSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHVDQGZHPXVWWDNHDGYDQWDJHRI
WKHP7KHSDUWLFLSDWLRQV\PEROLQGLYLGXDOVZLWKWKHLURZQDFURQ\PVRIHDFKWRZQYLOODJHQHLJKERXU-
KRRGVDUHJUDGXDOO\DGPLWWHGRYHUFRPLQJROGTXDUUHOVDQGVWHUHRW\SHV%XWDOZD\VZLWKWKHSUHYDLOLQJRI
WKHLQGLYLGXDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQ,WLVLQWHQGHGWREXLOGQHZEULGJHVEHWZHHQWKHSHRSOHZKRKDGSUHYLRXVDQG
VRPHWLPHIUXVWUDWLQJH[SHULHQFHVDQGWKHLOOXVLRQRI\RXQJHUSHRSOH

$QRWKHUGLIIHUHQFHZLWKWKHDOWHUZRUOGPRYHPHQWVLVWKDWWKHVHPDQDJHGWRPRELOLVHWKRXVDQGVRI
people and had the public sympathy during a lot of years. But the violent incidents in Italy, performed by
the block black and police force repression against the Social Forum of Geneve, 2001 (one victim killed
E\JXQVKRWVWKHYLROHQWSROLFHUHSUHVVLRQLQ%DUFHORQDDQGWKHYLROHQWUHVSRQVHRIVRPHGHPRQVWUDWRUV
LGHQWLHGZLWKDQWLV\VWHPJURXSVZKLFKUHVXOWHGWREHLQOWUDWHGE\WKHORFDOSROLFHDJHQWVWKDWDFWHG
DVDJLWDWRUVDVLWZDVODWHUSURYHGHQGHGZLWKWKHLPDJHRISDFLFPRELOL]DWLRQVRIWKH6RFLDO)RUXPV
DQGOHGWRWKHLGHQWLFDWLRQRIWKHDQWLJOREDOL]DWLRQPRYHPHQWVDVYLROHQWDQGWKHJUDGXDOORVWRISXEOLF
VXSSRUW1RZWKH0KDVPDQDJHGWRPRELOL]HQRWMXVWWKRXVDQGVEXWKXQGUHGVRIWKRXVDQGVRISHRSOH
LQWRWKHVWUHHWVLQDSDFLFZD\,QVSLWHRILVRODWHGLQFLGHQWVDQGSURYRFDWLRQV7KHVORJDQSDFLFDOO\ZH
DUHVWURQJHUKDVFDXJKWRQ$FFRUGLQJWRVRPHVXUYH\VDQRIWKH6SDQLVKSRSXODWLRQV\PSDWKLVH
ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWDQGLWKDVEHHQVRXQWLOWKHHQGRILQVSLWHRIWKHGLVFUHGLWFDPSDLJQVRIXOWUD
conservative mass media that have labeled them as violent).

As other former movements the 15M emerges as a response to a negative situation (in this case the cri-
VLVEXWLWJRHVDVWHSIXUWKHUWRZDUGVSRVLWLYHDFWLRQLWLVQRWRQO\DQDQWLFULVLVPRYHPHQW%HFDXVHRQH
cannot be only against the crisis. We could say not to the NATO, not to Maastricht (not to the signing
RUMRLQLQJWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRUQRWWRWKH,UDNZDUQRWWRWKH6SDQLVKSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKH,UDNZDURU\HV
WRWKHGRQDWLRQRIWKHRIWKH*%3WRFRRSHUDWLRQDLGV%XWWKHUHLVQRVHQVHLQVD\LQJMXVWQRWWRWKH
crisis. The socioeconomic crisis is a complex and diffuse phenomenon and the systemic and cascade
QDWXUHRIWKLVFULVLVPDNHVLWVDQDO\VLVDQGWKHFRQFUHWLRQRIDOWHUQDWLYHVROXWLRQVPRUHGLIFXOW

Some consequences and future scenarios

The 15M movement is set up and organized as a social and political movement since it recognizes itself
as a transforming agent. It must be taken into account that:

,WKDVEHHQDEOHWRHVWDEOLVKJXLGHOLQHVLQWKHSROLWLFDJHQGDVGHEDWHVDERXWWKHFKDQJHRIWKHHOHFWRUDO
V\VWHPVRSHQOLVWVLQFRPSDWLELOLW\RIMREV

,WKDVDOVRPDQDJHGWRLPSURYHWKHLQWHUQDOGHPRFUDF\RISROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDQGWUDGHXQLRQVIRUFLQJ
them to include internal referendums, primary elections, to increase their democracy and reduce their
party machine.

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLWFODLPVIRUDUHPRELOL]DWLRQLQWKHQDWLRQDOSROLF\PRUHDFWLRQDQGOHVVRIIWKH
record negotiations and SDFWLVP

7KHFXUUHQWSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVZLOOFRQWLQXHLQRXUFRXQWULHVEXWQRERG\FDQSUHGLFWKHLUPD[LPXPDQG
PLQLPXPHOHFWRUDOTXRWDLQWKHVKRUWWHUPRULIQHZDOWHUQDWLYHSDUWLHVZLOOFDSWXUHDJUHDWSDUWRIWKH
 91 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

votes in the future (see changes that took place in Italy in the 90s. We have had in Spain a bipartidist
DQGVWDEOHHOHFWRUDOPDSXQWLOQRZ

The Future

7KHP0ZLOOVXUHO\SURGXFHDORWRIWKLQJVDVDQ\RWKHUUHYROXWLRQDU\PRYHPHQWRUSURFHVV$
JUHDWHUSDUWRIWKHDFWLYLVWVDUHQRWJRLQJWRVXSSRUWWKHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZSROLWLFDOSDUW\RUDQHOHFWRUDO
platform, although some may attempt it.

)URPWKHLQWHUQDOGHEDWHVDQGGRFXPHQWVLVVXHGE\WKHPRYHPHQWZHFRXOGGHGXFHWKDWPRVWDFWLY-
LVWVZDQWWRFRQVWLWXWHWKH0DVDVRFLRSROLWLFDQGHFRQRPLFSUHVVXUHJURXSSHUPDQHQWO\DFWLYH
%DVLFDOO\WKH\ZDQWWRFRQWLQXHDVQRZZLWKRXWUHMHFWLQJVRPHFKDQJHVDQGVXSSRUWLQJQHZLQLWLDWLYHV
IRULQVWDQFHQHZDVVRFLDWLRQVWKDWZLOOHPHUJHIURPWKH0VRFLDOQHWZRUNV

7KH0KDVFU\VWDOOL]HGLQQHZZD\VRIEHLQJDQGDFWLQJLQSROLWLFVLQVRFLHW\LWKDVFKDQJHGWKH
WKRXVDQGVRISHRSOHVZD\RIWKLQNLQJLWKDVSURGXFHGDQHZVRFLDOFOLPDWH)HUQiQGH]6DYDWHU
%XW+RZLVDVRFLDOFOLPDWHFUHDWHG"

Challenges

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SHDUVLQFHWKHUHDUHDORWRISHRSOHLQWHUHVWHGLQLWVFRQWLQXDWLRQ%XWZHVKRXOGEHDULQPLQGWKDW

$VVHPEOLHVDQGSHUPDQHQWGHEDWHDUHWLUHVRPH7KHVHKDYHGLVFRXUDJHGDORWRISDUWLFLSDQWV,WLVQHF-
HVVDU\WRVHHNPRUHHIFLHQWIRUPXODVRIZRUNDQGDFWLRQ7KLVFDQOHDGWRLQWHUQDOVSOLWVDQGUXSWXUHV

7KHPRYHPHQWKDVWRFUHDWHVHOIFRPPXQLFDWLRQPDVVPHGLD&DVWHOOLQRUGHUWRDFKLHYH

a participative and democratic self-organization, essentially horizontal and consolidated as a unitary
platform.

7KHVSHDNHUVRIWKHPRYHPHQWVKRXOGKDYHFRQWLQXLW\DOWKRXJKWKH\KDYHWREHSOXUDODQGHOHFWHGLQD
URWDV\VWHPLQRUGHUWRNHHSDXHQWUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHPDVVPHGLDIURPGLIIHUHQWWHQGHQFLHV

7KHEXLOGLQJRIDQHZSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKRWKHUVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDVVRFLDWLRQVDQGWUDGHXQLRQV
The 15M has gradually changed from a social movement integrating all the activists, to be another
VRFLDOPRYHPHQW7KLVGHPDQGVPRGHUDWLRQDQGWRNHHSUHODWLRQVZLWKRWKHUVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDWWKH
same level. The 15M movement has already supported other mobilizations such as the green tide
WHDFKHUVDQGVWXGHQWVSURWHVWVDJDLQVWVZHHSLQJEXGJHWFXWVLQHGXFDWLRQZKLFKUHSUHVHQWVDVWHS
IRUZDUGWRZDUGVWKLVGLUHFWLRQ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 92

References
15M Gabinete de prensa: 2011, Propuestas Acampada Sol 22.05.2011. En ,QGLJQDGRV0. Seleccin de materiales recopilados por
Fernando Cabal. Espaa, Mandala Ediciones.
Alberich, Toms: 1994, Poltica Local, Participacin y Asociacionismo. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
BD&RQWUDGLFFLRQHV\HYROXFLyQGHPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVHQ(VSDxD(Q'RFXPHQWDFLyQ6RFLDOQ0DGULG&iULWDV(VSDxROD
Ed.
BE$VRFLDFLRQHV\0RYLPLHQWRV6RFLDOHVHQ(VSDxDFXDWURGpFDGDVGHFDPELRV(Q-yYHQHVJOREDOL]DFLyQ\PRYLPLHQWRV
DOWHUPXQGLVWDVPRQRJUiFRGH5HYLVWDGH(VWXGLRVGH-XYHQWXGQ0DGULG,1-89(
Castells, Manuel: 1986, /DFLXGDG\ODVPDVDV, Alianza Universidad, Madrid.
B&RPXQLFDFLyQ\3RGHU. Madrid, Alianza Editorial.
&RWDUHOR5DPyQ(VWRHVVRORHOFRPLHQ]RGHPD\R(Q,QGLJQDGRV0. Seleccin de materiales recopilados por
Fernando Cabal. Espaa, Mandala Ediciones.
Bauman, Zygmunt: 2006, &RPXQLGDG(QEXVFDGHVHJXULGDGHQXQPXQGRKRVWLO. Madrid, Siglo XXI de Espaa Editores.
)HUQiQGH]6DYDWHU$PDGRUHQKWWSEORJVSXEOLFRHVIXHUDGHOXJDU&%)FRPRVHRUJDQL]DXQFOLPD
Tezanos, Jos Felix: 2011, conferencia en la Universidad Popular de Jan (25.10.11, no publicado).
 93 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

Continuities and Discontinuities in Recent Social

Mobilizations. From New Social Movements
to the Alter-Global Mobilizations and the 15M

BENJAMN TEJERINA and IGNACIA PERUGORRA

UPV-EHU and Rutgers University

Abstract
Our paper seeks to analyze the novel and long-term characteristics of the recent mobi-
OL]DWLRQVLQ6SDLQ2XUPDLQREMHFWLYHLVWRLGHQWLI\WKHGHQLQJWUDLWVRIFROOHFWLYHDF-
WLRQVFXUUHQWO\WDNLQJSODFHDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOFULVLVXQOHDVKHG
LQ:HZLOOIRFXVRQWKUHHPDLQDQDO\WLFDOD[HVDJHQWVLGHQWLW\DQGVSDFHWU\-
ing to establish their historicity, that is, their presence or absence in both former social
movements and current mobilizations.
The spatial dimension refers to the local versus global and co-presential versus virtual
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ7KLVDQDO\VLVLPSOLHVDIRFXVRQWKHPRELOL]DWLRQV
demands, the repertoire of actions, and the display of emotions. Emotions are also inter-
WZLQHGZLWKWKHSURFHVVRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGWKHFRQLFWXDOUHODWLRQ-
VKLSZLWKDJHQWVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQVLGHQWLHGDVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHFULVLV)LQDOO\ZHZLOO
give special attention to activists and social movement organizations, decision-making
processes and adaptability and resilience of organizational forms.
2XUGDWDZLOOFRPHIURPQHZVSDSHUDUWLFOHVWKH,QWHUQHWLQWHUYLHZVWRSDUWLFLSDQWVDQG
graphic material collected during ethnographic observations in camps (DFDPSDGDV) and
DVVHPEOLHV'DWDZDVJDWKHUHGIROORZLQJWKHSULQFLSOHVRIWKHRUHWLFDOVDPSOLQJ2XU
analysis of these data is in exploratory phase, and is constructed in order to develop a
preliminary analytical understanding of the phenomenon.

Keywords
social movements, 15M, identity, space.

Introduction
The global scenario of social mobilization is rapidly mutating. Periods of relative continuity and stabil-
ity are being altered in an abrupt fashion by moments of effervescence that seem to be marking a point of
IUDFWXUHZLWKWKHSDVW7KHVHUHFHQWFKDQJHVLQWKHG\QDPLFVRIFRQWHQWLRXVSROLWLFVDUHSDUWO\FDSWXUHGE\
WKHFRQFHSWRIF\FOHRISURWHVW7DUURZ

7KH\HDUZDVSDUWLFXODUO\IUXLWIXOLQWKHYLVXDOL]DWLRQRIDVHULHVRIPRELOL]DWLRQVWKDWPHDQWWR
H[SUHVVDGRXEOHGLVFRQWHQW)LUVWZLWKWKHFROODWHUDOHIIHFWVRIWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVWKDWLVWKHLQFUHDVLQJ
OHYHOVRIXQHPSOR\PHQWDQGWKHH[SDQVLRQRIVRFLDOLQHTXDOLWLHV$QGVHFRQGZLWKWKHPDQDJHPHQWRI
VRFLDOOLIHWKDWZDVEHLQJSHUIRUPHGE\SROLWLFDOpOLWHV7KHVHpOLWHVZHUHSHUFHLYHGDVERWKUHOXFWDQWWR
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 94

deepening or expanding democratic procedures, as fossilized by the rising bureaucratization of political

OLIHDQGDVFULSSOHGDQGFRUUXSWE\ZRUOGPDUNHWV

Given its multiple sources and diverse manifestations, the task of assessing and diagnosing the current
state of affairs is especially arduous. The realities of countries in Northern Africa such as Egypt, Tunisia,
/\ELD0RUURFFR$UJHORULQWKH0LGGOH(DVWVXFKDV,VUDHODQG6\ULDVKRZLPSRUWDQWQXDQFHVDPRQJ
WKHPVHOYHVDQGSURIRXQGGLIIHUHQFHVZLWKWKDWRIFRXQWULHVLQ6RXWKHUQ(XURSHVXFKDV3RUWXJDO)UDQFH
,WDO\RU6SDLQ7KH6SDQLVKFDVHLVSDUWLFXODUO\VLJQLFDQWGXHWRERWKWKHGUDVWLFFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKHHFR-
nomic crisis on social life and the labor market, and to the progressive erosion of the maneuver capacity
of governments and politicians. Moreover, the 15M movement has served as beacon for mobilizations in
RWKHU(XURSHDQDQG$PHULFDQFRXQWULHV7KHVHUHDVRQVDORQHZRXOGHQFRXUDJHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFKRODUV
to pay special attention to the characteristics and peculiarities of 15M.

,IZHKRZHYHUEURDGHQRXUIRFXVWRWKHHYROXWLRQRI6SDQLVKVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKHODVWIHZGHFDGHV
ZHQGDGGLWLRQDOHOHPHQWVWKDWJLYHDSDWLQDRIH[FHSWLRQDOVFLHQWLFDWWUDFWLYHQHVVWRWKH0$PRQJ
WKHVHWUDLWVDUH6SDLQVWUDQVLWLRQIURPDGLFWDWRULDOWRDGHPRFUDWLFUHJLPHWKHHQVXLQJSULYDWL]DWLRQRI
VRFLDOOLIHDQGSROLWLFDOGHPRELOL]DWLRQRIWKH6SDQLVKFLWL]HQU\WKHUHFRQFLOLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKH/HIWDQGWKH
5LJKWLQDIDLOHGDWWHPSWWRFORVHKLVWRULFDOKHDUWIHOWZRXQGVWKHSURFHVVRILQVWLWXWLRQDOGHFHQWUDOL]D-
WLRQGHULYHGIURPWKHULVLQJWHQVLRQVEHWZHHQ0DGULGDQGWKHQDWLRQDOLVWSHULSKHU\%DVTXH&RXQWU\DQG
&DWDORQLDPDLQO\WKHSUDFWLFHRIDUPHGVWUXJJOHRUWHUURULVPIRUSROLWLFDOSXUSRVHVDQGWKHDFWLYDWLRQRI
DVRFLDOEDVHDQGDSROLWLFDODUPWRVXSSRUWFRPSOHPHQWDQGOHJLWLPL]HWKDWXQGHUJURXQGDFWLYLW\DQG
QDOO\WKHHPHUJHQFHRIDQDOWHUJOREDOPRYHPHQWWKDWDVLQRWKHUFRXQWULHVFKDQJHGWKHUXOHVRIWKHVR-
FLDOPRYHPHQWGRPHVWLFJDPH:HZLOODQDO\]HWKLVFRPSOH[DQGIDVFLQDWLQJHYROXWLRQLQWKHUVWVHFWLRQ
of our paper.

%HIRUHGHOYLQJLQWRWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKH0ZHZLOORIIHUDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVRFLRKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[W
DQGWKHF\FOHRISURWHVWDPLGVWZKLFKLWHPHUJHG$VZHZLOOVKRZWKLVFRQWH[WSUHVHQWVQRWDEOHVSHFLFL-
WLHV2XUVWXG\RIWKH0ZLOOFRQFHQWUDWHLQWZRGLPHQVLRQV)LUVWWKHFRJQLWLYHDQGHPRWLRQDOSURFHVVHV
IHHGLQJWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWLGHQWLW\WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRILGHQWLW\ERXQGDULHVEHWZHHQ
DZHDQGDWKHPDJDLQVWZKLFKFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQKDVEHHQGLUHFWHGDQGWKHV\PEROLFDQGXWRSLDQHOH-
PHQWVFRQGHQVHGLQ0VORJDQVDQGPRWWRV6HFRQGZHZLOOIRFXVRQWKHVSDWLDOGLPHQVLRQRI0PR-
ELOL]DWLRQVDQGPRUHVSHFLFDOO\LQWKHWHQVLRQEHWZHHQDWHUULWRULDOL]HGZD\RIGRLQJSROLWLFVIURPWKH
bottom-up through the (re-)occupation of the public space, and a disembodied political praxis mediated
E\WKHSRVVLELOLWLHVDQGFRQVWUDLQWVRIIHUHGE\WKH,QWHUQHWDQGRQOLQHVRFLDOQHWZRUNV

Recent Evolution of Social Movements in Spain

7KHODVWIHZGHFDGHVKDYHVHHQVLJQLFDQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVLQWKHVKDSHFRQWHQWDQGFRXUVHRIJOREDO
mobilizations. In this regard, Spain has not been an exception. The democratization of political institu-
tions, the fall of the Soviet block, the ensuing socioeconomic crises, the process of globalization, and the
GLVVHPLQDWLRQRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHVKDYHJHQHUDWHGSURIRXQGUHFRQJXUDWLRQVLQWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWHOG
In trying to grasp these transformations, international scholars have distinguished three types of social
PRYHPHQWVWKHODERUPRYHPHQWQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVHJIHPLQLVWHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWDQGSDFLVWPRYH-
ments), and the alter-global mobilizations (Calle 2005).
 95 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

,IZHIRFXVRQWKHVHPRYHPHQWVVFRSHZHREVHUYHDVKLIWIURPDORFDOOHYHORIDFWLRQFLUFXPVFULEHG
E\WKHQDWLRQVWDWHWRDK\EULGORFDOJOREDOHOGRIRSHUDWLRQ:HDOVRVHHDSDVVDJHIURPXQLGLPHQVLRQDO
identities to plural and multi-dimensional ones, no longer interpreted as mutually exclusive but as comple-
PHQWDU\7HMHULQDHWDO,QDGGLWLRQVHYHUDOVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDYHFDOOHGWKHFLWL]HQU\
DVDZKROHDQGQRORQJHUDSDUWLFXODUFDWHJRULFDOJURXSWREHFRPHWKHDJHQWDQGPRWRURIVRFLDOFKDQJH

6ROLGKLHUDUFKLFDORUJDQL]DWLRQVZLWKFOHDUO\GHPDUFDWHGUXOHVRIEHORQJLQJKDYHDOVREHHQUHSODFHG
E\QHWZRUNVZLWKOD[HQWU\UHTXLUHPHQWVDQGQRGHVZLWKPXOWLSOHDQGRIWHQRYHUODSSLQJDIOLDWLRQV$G-
GLWLRQDOO\WKHIURQWLHUVHVWDEOLVKHGEHWZHHQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQVDUHQRORQJHUXQGHUVWRRGDV
LQVXSHUDEOHDQWDJRQLVPVEXWDVOLQHVGHPDUFDWLQJKLJKO\VSHFLDOL]HGHOGVRIDFWLRQ7KHVHERUGHUVDUH
QRQHWKHOHVVSHUPHDEOHDQGWKH\DUHWUHVSDVVHGZKHQHYHUWKHGLDJQRVWLFDQGSURJQRVWLFDQDO\VLVHODERUDWHG
by militants deems it necessary.

Public discourse is, in turn, no longer inspired by a stiff and self-contained system of ideas focusing on
PDWHULDOZHOIDUHEXWE\DQRSHQDQGRZLQJDPDOJDPRILGHRORJLFDOSRVWXODWHVLQFUHDVLQJO\FHQWHUHGRQ
the deepening of democracy in daily life and everyday practices (Tejerina 2010a). Revolutionary goals in-
scribed in trans-historical narratives have been replaced by reformist and, lately, rebellious, reactive, short-
WHUPDQGJHRJUDSKLFDOO\ERXQGVWUDWHJLHVDQGDFWLRQV1RW,Q0\%DFN<DUG1,0%<VRFLDOPRYH-
ments are perhaps the clearest example of the latter.

6WUDWHJLHVDQGWDFWLFVKDYHEHHQWRQHGGRZQDQGOLPLWHGWRDQDUUD\RIIRFDOWKRXJKKLJKO\VSHFWDFXODU
interventions characterized by episodic actions of civil disobedience and the short-term occupation of the
SXEOLFVSDFH,IZHFRXQWRXWWKHLQFRUSRUDWLRQRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHVHJPRELOHSKRQHVHOHFWURQLFPDLO
DQGVRFLDOPHGLDVXFKDV)DFHERRNDQG7ZLWWHUWKHUHSHUWRLUHRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQKDVQRWREVHUYHGPDMRU
LQQRYDWLRQV0DVVLYHGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDUHQRZFRPSOHPHQWHGE\GLJLWDOO\GULYHQDQGWKXVOHVVYLVLEOHVRIW
actions, but the format of pedagogical, denunciatory or pressure-exerting actions has been inherited from
previous militant generations.

7KHSUROHRIDFWLYLVWVKDVDOVRVXIIHUHGLPSRUWDQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRYHUWKHODVWIHZGHFDGHVWKH\FXU-
rently have higher levels of formal education, come from middle class households, have a tardier entrance
WRSROLWLFDOPLOLWDQF\DQGFRPSOHPHQWWKLVW\SHRIHQJDJHPHQWZLWKYDULRXVRWKHUV,QDGGLWLRQ\RXQJHU
PLOLWDQWVLQWKHODVWIHZ\HDUVKDYHWHQGHGWRJLYHDSROLWLFDOVHQVHWRWKHLUYLWDOSURMHFWV&RQYHUVHO\SDVW
DFWLYLVWVXVHGWRJLYHDYLWDOPHDQLQJWRWKHLUSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWSROLWLFVZDVDWWKHQXFOHXVRIWKHLUOLYHV
7KLVLQYHUVLRQEHWZHHQOLIHDQGSROLWLFVFRXOGEHVLJQDOLQJDFKDQJHLQWKHSURFHVVHVRISROLWLFDOVRFLDO-
L]DWLRQDQGLQWKHSULULRULWHVEHWZHHQSULYDWHOLIHDQGSXEOLFDFWLRQ

Additionally, the generational relief of militants has been marked by a steep decline in their gross num-
bers. This is probably explained by the shrinking of organizational structures and spaces of interaction that
XVHGWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHUHFUXLWPHQWRIV\PSDWKLVHUV.H\SHULRGVRIVRFLDOFRQLFWDQGHIIHUYHUVFHQFHVXFK
DVWKH,UDNZDUWKH3UHVWLJHHFRORJLFDOFULVLVDQGWKHWHUURULVWDWWDFNVRI0DUFKLQ0DGULGDSSHDU
as punctual oases cropping up in long-term mobilizational deserts. This discontinuity could be partially
accounted for by the gradual institutionalization of social protest and the proggressive normalization of
political life.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 96

Context of Emergence of 15M

%\6SDLQZDVEORVVRPLQJLWKDGDSXEOLFDFFRXQWVXUSOXVRIPRUHWKDQSHUFHQWRIWKH*'3
DQGWKHHFRQRP\ZDVJURZLQJE\SHUFHQW-XVWRQH\HDUODWHUWKHVXUSOXVKDGEHFRPHGHFLWJURZWK
KDGIDOOHQWROHVVWKDQSHUFHQWDQGWKH6SDQLVKHFRQRP\ZDVRIFLDOO\HQWHULQJUHFHVVLRQ$OWKRXJKWKH
HFRQRPLFGHFOLQHZDVUHODWHGWRDZRUOGZLGHQDQFLDOFULVLVLWDOVRUHVSRQGHGWRFOHDUO\LGHQWLDEOHGR-
mestic facts: the bursting of a decade-long real estate bubble, and the implosion of the associated lending
PDUNHW)ROORZLQJWKHOHDGRIRWKHUGHYHORSHGFRXQWULHVWKHJRYHUQPHQWUDSLGO\FUHDWHGDELOOLRQHXUR
bail-out fund and began to rescue vulnerable banks. In addition, it urged the merger of savings banks that
KDGOHQWKHDYLO\GXULQJWKHSURSHUW\ERRPLQOHVVWKDQRQH\HDUWKHQXPEHURIWKHVHEDQNVZDVFXWGRZQ
WRIURP,QDQDWWHPSWWRZHDWKHUWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFHIIHFWVRIWKHQDQFLDOVWRUPWKHJRYHUQPHQW
also adopted an economic stimulus plan. The pack included an 8 billion-euro investment in infrastructure,
WKHH[WHQVLRQRIMREOHVVVXEVLGLHVWRWKHORQJWHUPXQHPSOR\HGDQGDHXUR%DE\&KHFNIRUHDFK
QHZERUQFKLOG

The recession ravaged most Spaniards, but had a particularly severe impact on the young. Unemploy-
PHQWUDWHVVRDUHGWRPRUHWKDQSHUFHQWIRUWR\HDUROGVDERXWWZLFHWKHDOUHDG\DODUPLQJQD-
WLRQDODYHUDJHDQGWKHKLJKHVWIRU\RXQJHUSRSXODWLRQVLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ7KRVHZLWKMREVZHUH
KRZHYHUQRWPXFKEHWWHURIIGHVSLWHKDYLQJRQHRUPRUHXQLYHUVLW\GHJUHHVPDQ\RIWKHPZHUHFDXJKW
LQDV\VWHPRIWHPSRUDU\FRQWUDFWVDQGSRRUO\SDLGORZVWDWXVMREVFRPSOHWHO\XQUHODWHGWRZKDWWKH\
ZHUHWUDLQHGIRU$VVXFKWKH6SDQLVK\RXQJZDVIRUFHGWRUHVLJQWRDNH\WUDLWRIDGXOWKRRGLQODWH
DOPRVWSHUFHQWRIWKHWR\HDUROGVVWLOOOLYHGZLWKWKHLUSDUHQWV7KLVGHOD\HGLQGHSHQGHQFHZDV
LQDGGLWLRQSXWWLQJIXUWKHUSUHVVXUHRQWLJKWIDPLO\EXGJHWVDQGRYHUEXUGHQHGVXSSRUWQHWZRUNV

$IWHU LQLWLDOO\ GHQ\LQJ WKH 6SDQLVK HFRQRP\ ZDV LQ WURXEOH LQ 0D\  SUHVLGHQW =DSDWHUR DQ-
QRXQFHGDVOHZRIDGMXVWPHQWSROLFLHV7KHSDFNLQFOXGHGZDJHFXWVIRUFLYLOVHUYDQWVWKHHQGRIWKH
%DE\&KHFNDQGWKHIUHH]LQJRISHQVLRQLQFUHDVHV$VWDONVDERXW*UHHFHVSRWHQWLDOHFRQRPLFEDLORXW
EHJDQWRLQWHQVLI\DWWHQWLRQWXUQHGRQ6SDLQDPLGZRUULHVRYHULWVSXEOLFGHFLWSHUFHQWRILWV*'3
$VDUHVXOWWKHJRYHUQPHQWFRQWLQXHGWRSDVVDXVWHULW\PHDVXUHVFRPELQLQJWKHPZLWKDFRQVLGHUDEOH
ULVHLQWKH9DOXH$GGHG7D[,QDGGLWLRQDODERUPDUNHWUHIRUPZDVDSSURYHGLQ6HSWHPEHUSUHVHQWHG
DVDQHFHVVDU\PHDQVWRZDUGVUHGXFLQJMREOHVVQHVVWKHUHIRUPDFWXDOO\PDGHLWHDVLHUDQGFKHDSHUIRU
HPSOR\HUVWRKLUHDQGUHZRUNHUV,QODWH6HSWHPEHUWUDGHXQLRQVFDOOHGIRUWKHUVWJHQHUDOVWULNHLQDGH-
FDGHWRSURWHVWDJDLQVWWKHPHDVXUHGHVSLWHWKHEOHDNVWDWHRIDIIDLUVWKHPRELOL]DWLRQVLPSDFWZDVDOPRVW
negligible. In January 2011, the government passed a pension reform raising the retirement age from 65
WRWKXVKLQGHULQJWKHUHSOHQHVKLQJRIODERUSRVWV7KLVWLPHVXUSULVLQJO\WKHXQLRQVZHUHRQERDUG

In March 2011 university students called for a general strike. Thousands of students marched through-
out the country in protest against the unemployment rate, labor precariousness, the rise in tuition fees, the
%RORJQD3ODQDQGEXGJHWFXWVLQHGXFDWLRQ$IHZGD\VODWHUWKHSODWIRUP<RXWK:LWKRXW)XWXUH-XYHQ-
tud Sin Futuro) organized a demonstration against the economic crisis and the bipartisan PPSOE parti-
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VLQPLHGR7KHORQJVWDQGLQJUHSXGLDWLRQRIWKHJRYHUQPHQWVVRFLRHFRQRPLFDQGHGXFDWLRQDOSROLFLHV
ZDVVRRQWREHFRPELQHGZLWKDQRYHOIDFWRUWKHUDJHWULJJHUHGE\DPHDVXUHWKDWLQWHQGHGWRVXIIRFDWH
WKHIUHHFXOWXUHRIWKH,QWHUQHW,QHDUO\)HEUXDU\WKH,QWHUQHWEDVHGLQLWLDWLYHGRQRWYRWHIRUWKHP
(QROHVYRWHVFDOOHGWRZLWKGUDZYRWHVIURPWKHSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVWKDWKDGDSSURYHGWKHVRFDOOHG6LQGH
 97 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

/DZ33362(DQG&L8LQWKHIROORZLQJPXQLFLSDODQGUHJLRQDOHOHFWLRQV7KLVDQWLSLUDF\ELOODLPHG

DWVKXWWLQJGRZQSUHYLRXVO\OHJDOZHEVLWHVWKDWHQDEOHGWKHIUHHGRZQORDGRIPXVLFDQGOP

Figure 1. Youth Without Future Demonstration on April 6, 2011.
Note: The placard reads: Homeless Jobless Pensionless; Fearless Youth; Recovering Our Future!;
This is just the Beginning. The photograph is available online.

%XW6SDLQVLQWHUQDOUHVWOHVVQHVVGLGQRWDFWDORQHLWZDVERRVWHGE\DFKDLQRILQWHUQDWLRQDOIDFWRUV
$PRQJWKHPZHUHWKH$UDE6SULQJPRELOL]DWLRQVIRUSROLWLFDOUHIRUPVDQGFLYLOOLEHUWLHV,FHODQGVVLOHQW
revolution against neoliberal adjustment policies, and the mobilizations of the Portuguese Generation in
Trouble or Desperate Generation (*HUDomRj5DVFD), again, the young. The disclosure of WikiLeaks
GRFXPHQWVVKRZLQJ6SDQLVKJRYHUQPHQWRIFLDOVWREHOHVVWKDQIRUWKULJKWDQG6WpSKDQH+HVVHOVERRN
Time for Outrage! (,QGLJQH]YRXVDOVRFROODERUDWHGLQLQDPLQJ6SDQLVKSDVVLRQV7KHUHZDVQWDVLQJOH
RUQDOVWUDZEUHDNLQJWKHFDPHOVEDFN7KLVFRQMXQFWXUHRIXQFRRUGLQDWHGGRPHVWLFDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDO
HYHQWVZRUNHGLQDV\QHUJLFIDVKLRQSURPSWLQJDFROOHFWLYHRXWEXUVWRILQGLJQDWLRQ,QWKLVFRPEXVWLEOH
FRQWH[WWKHFDOOLVVXHGE\WKHGLJLWDOSODWIRUP5HDO'HPRFUDF\1RZ'5<'HPRFUDFLD5HDO<D) to take
WKHVWUHHWVZDVMXVWWKHVSDUNWKDWLJQLWHGWKHVRFDOOHGLQGLJQDGRV mobilizations.

8VLQJ7ZLWWHUDQG)DFHERRN'5<FDOOHGWKHXQHPSOR\HGWKHSRRUO\SDLGWKHVXEFRQWUDFWRUVWKHSUH-
FDULRXVWKH\RXQJSHRSOHWRWDNHWKH6SDQLVKVWUHHWVRQ0D\WKHZHHNSULRUWRUHJLRQDODQGPXQLFL-
SDOHOHFWLRQV7KHSURWHVWZDVFDOOHGXQGHUWKHPRWWRZHDUHQRWFRPPRGLWLHVLQWKHKDQGVRISROLWLFLDQV
DQGEDQNHUV. Despite being silenced by the corporate media channels, hundreds of thousands of people
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$PVWHUGDP,VWDQEXO%RORJQD3DULV/RQGRQDQG/LVERQ&RKHUHQWO\ZLWKWKHWKH\GRQWUHSUHVHQWXV
(QRQRVUHSUHVHQWDQVORJDQWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQVZHUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHDEVHQFHRIDJVDQGSROLWLFDO
or trade union acronyms.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 98

Figure 2. Real Democracy Now! Demonstration on May 15, 2011.
Note: The placard reads: Read Democracy Now! We are not commodities in the hands
of politicians and bankers. The photograph is available online.

7ULJJHUHGE\WKHSROLWLFDODQGSROLFHPLVPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH0PRELOL]DWLRQLQWKHIROORZLQJHYH-
QLQJVWKHFDOOLQJIRU5HDO'HPRFUDF\1RZTXLFNO\JDYHZD\WRDQ2FFXS\WKH6TXDUH7RPDOD
SOD]D) movement. Despite the explicit restrictions made by the electoral bodies and the constant threat
of evictions, the DFDPSDGDVKHOGWKHVTXDUHVLQVHYHUDO6SDQLVKFLWLHVXQWLOPLG-XO\WKHVHRFFXSDWLRQV
FRQVWLWXWHGWKHPRYHPHQWVPRVWHYLGHQWDFWRIFLYLOGLVREHGLHQFH&DPSHUVUDSLGO\HTXLSSHGWKHPVHOYHV
ZLWKRUJDQL]LQJFRPPLVVLRQVWKHPDWLFZRUNLQJJURXSVDQGDVVHPEOLHV7KHFRPPLVVLRQVGHDOWZLWKWKH
day-to-day functioning of the DFDPSDGDV WKH\ FRQFHQWUDWHG RQ LVVXHV VXFK DV FOHDQLQJ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH
LQUPDU\ QXWULWLRQ UHVSHFW DFWLRQ SHUIRUPDQFHV DQG FLYLO GLVREHGLHQFH DFWLYLWLHV H[WHQVLRQ DUW DQG
SODFDUGSDLQWLQJDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQ7KHZRUNLQJJURXSVLQVWHDGIRFXVHGRQWKHPHVVXFKDVHFRQRP\
sustainability, short-term and long-term politics, international liasons, etc.

Finally, the DFDPSDGDVKHOGWKHLURZQDVVHPEOLHVDQGDOVRJHQHUDODVVHPEOLHVIRUQRQFDPSLQJSDU-

ticipants. When the camps could no longer be held in mid-June, they gave rise and passed the torch to
GHFHQWUDOLVHGDVVHPEOLHVLQVPDOOYLOODJHVDQGQHLJKERXUKRRGVRIODUJHFLWLHV7KLVPRYHPHQWWRZDUGVWKH
ORFDOZDVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DVWHHSGHFUHDVHLQWKHQXPEHURISDUWLFLSDQWVDQGSDUDGR[LFDOO\LWZDVDF-
FRPSDQLHGE\DQLQWHUQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQRIWKHSURWHVW7KH00RYHPHQWDVLWFDPHWREHNQRZQRUWKDW
of the Spanish LQGLJQDGRVDVWKH\ZHUHWULYLDOO\ODEHOOHGE\WKHPDVVPHGLDZDVUDSLGO\FRS\FDWWHGLQ
WRZQVDQGFLWLHVDOORYHUWKHJOREH2Q2FWREHUPRUHWKDQFLWLHVLQFRXQWULHVWRRNWRWKH
VWUHHWVDQGVTXDUHVLQDJOREDOQRQYLROHQWSURWHVWJXLGHGE\WKHPRWWRXQLWHGIRUJOREDOFKDQJH
 99 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

Figure 3. Banners Utilized in the Occupy Demonstrations that Took Place all over the World on October 15, 2011.
Note: The placard on the left reads: Lets stop the cuts. Lets rescue persons NOW!!! United for global change.
Take the street. The placard on the right reads: #WorldRevolution. We need an ethical revolution,
a change of course. This system treats human beings as numbers and not as persons. Together we can change it.

'HVSLWHWKHVHPDVVLYHSRSXODUPRELOL]DWLRQV0DULDQR5DMR\VULJKWZLQJ3HRSOHV3DUW\333DUWLGR
3RSXODUZRQDODQGVOLGHYLFWRU\LQERWKWKH0D\PXQLFLSDODQGUHJLRQDODQG1RYHPEHUJHQHUDO
HOHFWLRQV$VYRWHUVSXQLVKHGWKHRXWJRLQJ6RFLDOLVWJRYHUQPHQWIRUWKHZRUVWHFRQRPLFFULVLVLQJHQHUD-
WLRQVDQGWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQVKLJKHVWMREOHVVUDWH5DMR\GHFODUHGWKDWWKHSXEOLFGHFLWIRUZRXOG
FRPHLQDWSHUFHQWRI*'3DQGWKDWWKHJRYHUQPHQWZRXOGEHIRUFHGWRSDVVQHZDXVWHULW\PHDVXUHV2Q
'HFHPEHUWKHSUHVLGHQWDQQRXQFHGDFXWLQWKHIROORZLQJ\HDUVSXEOLFVSHQGLQJE\ELOOLRQHXURV

Forging a 15M Identity

3UHYLRXVVWXGLHV)UHLGLQDQG3HUXJRUUtDKDYHSRLQWHGDWWKHGLIFXOWLHVLQYROYHGLQIRUJLQJFRO-
lective identities amidst social movements composed of publics (Mische 2005), that is, of interstitial
DFWLYLVWIRUXPVZKHUHSDUWLFLSDQWVEXLOGUHODWLRQVDQGSXUVXHMRLQWDFWLRQVWKURXJKWKHHTXDOL]DWLRQDQG
synchronization of multiple identities1)LJXUHVKRZVDFRQFHSWXDOPDSRI$FDPSDGD6RO ellaborated
E\WKHKDFNHUDQG0PHPEHU0DUJD3DGLOOD$OWKRXJKWKHPDSLVLQWHQGHGWRGHSLFW6ROVDFDPSDGD,
ZHZLOOXVHLWWRGHOYHLQWRWKHSURFHVVRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\FRQVWUXFWLRQWKDWLVEHLQJSHUIRUPHGZLWKLQWKH
15M. As Padilla puts it, 7KLVFRQFHSWXDOPDSLVRQO\DKHOSWRGHSLFWZKDWFDQQRWEHUHSUHVHQWHG,WLV
DKXPEOHXQQLVKHGPDSSUHFDULRXVDWLWVFRUH$QGQHHGHGDOOWKHVDPH

 :HXVHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWLGHQWLW\DVH[FKDQJHDEOHWHUPVWKHODWWHULVGHQHGDVWKHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\EDVHGRQVKDUHGPHP-
bership in a movement (Polletta and Jaspers 2001:289).
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 100

Figure 4. Conceptual Map of Acampada Sol, elaborated by Marga Padilla.

:HXQGHUVWDQGFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DVDQLQWHUDFWLYHDQGVKDUHGGHQLWLRQSURGXFHGE\DQXPEHURILQ-
GLYLGXDOVFRQFHUQLQJWKHRULHQWDWLRQVRIWKHLUDFWLRQDQGWKHHOGRIRSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGFRQVWUDLQWVLQ
ZKLFKVXFKDFWLRQLVWRWDNHSODFH0HOXFFL7KDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJXVXDOO\LQYROYHVDGHQLWLRQ
of the problematic situation and an attribution of blame (diagnostic framing), the articulation of a solution
to the problem and devising strategies to achieve that end (prognostic framing), and a call to arms or a
fundamental rationale to engage in collective actions tending to remediate the situation (motivational fram-
LQJ%HQIRUGDQG6QRZ
 101 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

$VPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUWKH0GHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVWKHVSDUNWKDWLJQLWHGWKHDFDPSDGDVDQGHQVXLQJ
PRELOL]DWLRQV$OWKRXJK '5< GHFRXSOHG IURP WKH DFDPSDGD DFFRUGLQJ WR 3DGLOODV FRQFHSWXDO PDS
WKHUHLVFRQWLQXLW\LQWKHPHVVDJH7KHSODFDUGVGHVLJQHGE\'5<IRUWKH0PDUFKKHOSXVXQGHUVWDQG
ZKDWWKDWPHVVDJHZDVDERXWSROLWLFDOFRUUXSWLRQFDSLWDOLVWJUHHGYLWDOQRWRQO\ODERUSUHFDULRXVQHVV
DQGVSHFLDOWUHDWVDZDUGHGE\WKH6SDQLVKJRYHUQPHQWWREDQNVDQGELJIRUWXQHVZKLOHFRPPRQSHRSOH
VXIIHUDGMXVWPHQWPHDVXUHVDQGWKHFXUWDLOPHQWRIWKHLUVRFLDOULJKWV7KLVGLDJQRVWLFIUDPLQJH[HPSOLHV
ZKDW*DPVRQGHQRPLQDWHVDQLQMXVWLFHIUDPHWKDWLVDQLQWHUSUHWLYHVFKHPHWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HV
WKHDFWLRQVRIDQDXWKRULW\V\VWHPDVXQMXVWDQGOHJLWLPDWHVLWVGLVREHGLHQFH6QRZHWDO$VVWDWHG
LQWKH0PDQLIHVWR+RZWR&RRND1RQ9LROHQW5HYROXWLRQ:HGRQWXQGHUVWDQGZK\ZHQHHGWRSD\
WKHELOOVRIDFULVLVZKRVHDXWKRUVFRQWLQXHWRHQMR\UHFRUGEHQHWV:HDUHIHGXSRILQMXVWLFHV,QZRUGV
of a 15M member, 7KH0KDVWXUQHGLQWRDFROOHFWLYHVXSHUKHURHWKDWJRHVZKHUHYHUWKHUHLVDQLQMXV
WLFH,QWHUYLHZWR=XOR7KLVIUDPLQJRILQMXVWLFHSURYLGHGDFRPPRQODQJXDJHLQZKLFKDFWLYLVWVIURP
GLIIHUHQWPRYHPHQWVDQGSHUVRQVZLWKQRSUHYLRXVSROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQFRXOGFRPPXQLFDWHDQGQG
common ground.

Figure 5. Real Democracy Now! Placards for the May 15, 2011 Demonstration..
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 102

'5<HQFRXUDJHGSHRSOHWRSXWDQHQGWRF\QLFLVPDQGDSDWK\,WFDOOHG6SDQLDUGVWRIHHODQGWRDFWLWV
slogans read take the street (WRPDODFDOOH), and be outraged (,QGtJQDWH%RUURZLQJIURP6WH-
SKDQH+HVVHOVYLUDOPDQXVFULSW'5<XWLOL]HGWKHHPRWLRQRIRXWUDJHRULQGLJQDWLRQDVDVWHSSLQJVWRQH
IRUWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHPRYHPHQWVFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\7KHIRUPDWLRQRIDFROOHFWLYHDFWRUQRWRQO\
involves cognitive agreements and negotiations such as those entailed in the framing tasks mentioned
above but also demands affective or emotional investments. Passion and emotions, as much as ideology
DQGLQWHUHVWVSXVKSHRSOHWRPRELOL]HDQGDFWWRJHWKHU*RRGZLQ-DVSHUDQG3ROOHWWD6HYHUDO0
PHPEHUVFRQFXUZLWK=\JPXQW%DXPDQVFRQWURYHUVLDOVWDWHPHQW7KH0LVDQHPRWLRQDOPRYHPHQW
,QWHUYLHZWR-DYLHUGHOD&XHYD

$IULHQGRIPLQHVDLGGXULQJWKHUVWGD\VRIWKHDFDPSDGD7KHUHLVQRF\QLFLVPKHUH(YHU\ERG\EHOLHYHVLQZKDWVKH
LVGRLQJ>@0D\EHWKDWVZKDW=LJPXQW%DXPDQPHDQWZKHQKHVDLGWKH0ZDVDERYHDOOHPRWLRQ>@:HDUH
DOLYHDQGZHDUHWRJHWKHU7KHUHLVDFKDQJHRIDWPRVSKHUH>FOLPD@DQGWKDWKDVDYHU\VWURQJHPRWLRQDOLQWHQVLW\$QG
\RXFDQVHQVHWKDWLQWKHERGLHVLQWKHIDFHV%XW,ZRXOGQWVD\WKDWLWLVMXVWDQHPRWLRQDOPRYHPHQWDQGWKDWWKHUHLV
QRWKLQNLQJLQYROYHG7KHUHLVWKRXJKWLQHPRWLRQVDQGZHDUHWKLQNLQJDORW,QWHUYLHZWR$PDGRU)HUQiQGH]6DYDWHU

7KH0LVDQHPRWLRQDOPRYHPHQWEXWGHVSLWHWKHPHGLDVWULYLDOODEHOOLQJWKLVTXRWHVKRZVWKDW
RXWUDJHZDVQRWWKHVROHHPRWLRQSXVKLQJLWIRUZDUG2QFHWKHXSULVLQJZDVLQPRWLRQDQGSHRSOHZHUH
WDNLQJWKHVWUHHWVDQGRFFXS\LQJVTXDUHVLQGLJQDWLRQZRXOGEHUHSODFHGRUDWOHDVWFRPSOHPHQWHGE\FRO-
lective enthusiasm and joy. As a 15M member put it, 7KHIHHOLQJGXULQJWKH0GHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVRI
KDSSLQHVV,QWHUYLHZWR/HLOD1DFKDZDWL2U>WKH0@LVDFU\FRPLQJIURPDVRFLHW\WKDWLVWLUHGIHG
XS,WVEHHQDFU\EXWDVPLOLQJRQH,QWHUYLHZWR-XOLR$OEDUUiQ

Despite this strong emotional component, the 15M did not emerge to accomplish a cathartic mission.
Social movements spring up to alleviate or alter situations that activists identify as problematic. Their
GLUHFWDFWLRQWKHUHIRUHGHSHQGVRQWKHLGHQWLFDWLRQRIWKHVRXUFHVRIWKHSUREOHPDQGUHOLHVRQERXQG-
DU\DQGDGYHUVDULDOIUDPLQJ%HQIRUGDQG6QRZ0DUJD3DGLOODVFRQFHSWXDOPDSDOORZVXVWR
UHFRQVWUXFWWKHLGHQWLW\ZRUNWKURXJKZKLFK0SDUWLFLSDQWVKDYHFUDIWHGDZHDQGDWKHP*DPVRQ
$PLQ]DGHDQG0F$GDP'LDQL7KHWKHPKDVLQFOXGHGWKRVHDQWDJRQLVWVLGHQWLHG
DVUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHVLWXDWLRQRILQMXVWLFHPDLQO\WKLHYLQJDQGVZLQGOHUEDQNHUVEDQTXHURVHVWDIDGRUHV
\ODGURQHVDQGFRUUXSWSROLWLFLDQV0PHPEHUVDUHXQLWHGE\WKHLUGLVFRPIRUWWRZDUGVWKHVHDFWRUV
WKHVHDUHWKHHQHPLHVDJDLQVWZKRPWKHLUFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQKDVEHHQGLUHFWHG

:HFDQYRWHEXWZHGRQWKDYHDYRLFHDQGZHDUHIUXVWUDWHGE\WKHSROLWLFLDQVODFNRIZLOOWRGHYHORSPHFKDQLVPVRI
GLUHFWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVVHV0HFKDQLVPVWKDWZRXOGSXWDQHQGWRFRUUXSWLRQDQGWRWKHODFNRI
WUDQVSDUHQF\LQSROLWLFVDQGSXEOLFLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWKDWZRXOGSODFHWKHFLWL]HQEHIRUHWKHPDUNHWVDQGRWKHUSULYDWH
LQWHUHVWV0PDQLIHVWR+RZWR&RRND1RQ9LROHQW5HYROXWLRQ

7KHZHLQWXUQKDVEHHQV\QWKHVL]HGLQWKHWHUPSHUVRQVQRWSHRSOHWKLVLVNH\WRXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
WKHSURFHVVRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\FRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKLQWKH00RVW0PHPEHUVGRQRWSRUWUD\WKHP-
VHOYHVDVDFWLYLVWVRUPLOLWDQWV,QWKHLUYLHZSRLQWWKHVHWHUPVDUHDVVRFLDWHGWRDQROGZD\RIGRLQJSROL
WLFV (ODYLHMDSROtWLFDEDVHGRQLGHRORJLFDORUSDUWLVDQDIOLDWLRQV0PHPEHUVUHMHFWWKHVHDFURQ\PV
DQGDJVEHFDXVHWKH\GLYLGH,QWHUYLHZWR0LJXHO$UDQD,QWXUQWKH\WKLQNRIWKHPVHOYHVDVPHPEHUV
of a community of persons.
 103 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

$PRYHPHQWZKRVHSURWDJRQLVWVZHUHQRWPLOLWDQWVWKDWGRHVQWKDYHDFRGLHGYRFDEXODU\RISURWHVWWKDWZDVYHU\
LQFOXVLYHWKDWZDVQWMXVWWDONLQJDERXWWKH/HIWWKDWGLGQWVSHDNDERXWUHYROXWLRQLQDFODVVLFDOVHQVH>@WKDWWULHV
WRKDYHHYHU\ERG\DQ\ERG\GRSROLWLFV6RPHPLOLWDQWIULHQGVXVHGWRWHOOPHWKH\DUHWDONLQJDERXWSHUVRQVDQG
WKDWLVQRWDSROLWLFDOFRQFHSW3HUVRQV,RQWKHFRQWUDU\VDZWKHSRZHUDVVRFLDWHGWRWDONLQJDERXWSHUVRQVZHDUH
DOOSHUVRQVDQGWDONLQJDERXWSHUVRQVDQGSHUVRQVSUREOHPVZHFDQEHWRJHWKHUDQGVWDUWWDONLQJ,QWHUYLHZWR
Amador Fernndez-Savater).

$VZLWKLQMXVWLFHIUDPHVWDONLQJDERXWSHUVRQVDOORZHGERWKSHRSOHZLWKQRSUHYLRXVSROLWLFDOSDU-
WLFLSDWLRQDQGZLWKGLIIHUHQWPLOLWDQWWUDMHFWRULHVWRIHHOSDUWRIDVDPHFROOHFWLYH7KLVWHUPV\QFKURQL]HG
GLIIHUHQW DQG SUREDEO\ RSSRVLQJ SROLWLFDO LGHRORJLHV LW DOVR EOXUUHG RWKHU SRWHQWLDOO\ DOLHQDWLQJ D[HV RI
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issued by Occupy Wall Street activists synthesized this principle of inclusiveness in a brilliant fashion.
So did the united by common sense (XQLGRVSRUHOVHQWLGRFRP~Q) motto that could be seen in banners
all across Spain..

:HDUHEULQJLQJXSWKHIDFWWKDWZHDUHWKHSHUFHQWWKDWZKDWXQLWHVXVDUHSUREOHPVDQGZD\VRIWKLQNLQJWKDW
DUHFRPPRQWRPDQ\SHRSOHLQDYHU\WUDQVYHUVDOZD\>@$OOWKHVHWKLQJVFDQEHFRPPRQWRPDQ\GLIIHUHQWSHRSOH
SHRSOHZKRGRQRWKDYHDFOHDULGHQWLW\:HQHHGWRVWDUWWKLQNLQJRYHUWKHEDVLVRIFRPPRQSUREOHPVLQOLHXRILGHQWL
WLHV>0V@,QFOXVLYHQHVVKDVWRGRZLWKWKLVLWLVDPRYHPHQWWKDWLVEDVHGRQSUREOHPVDQGQRWRQLGHQWLWLHV:H
ZDQWWREHJLQZLWKFRQFUHWHSUREOHPVQRWZLWKLGHRORJLHV:HZLOODUULYHWRWKDWRUQRWHYHQWXDOO\&RQFUHWHSUREOHPV
KDYLQJWRGRZLWKUHDOOLIHZLWKHYHU\ERG\VOLIHWKLVZD\WKHPRYHPHQWZLOOEHFRPHUHDOZLOOKDYHWRGRZLWKWKHOLYHV
ZHOHDGDQGQRWZLWKOXFXEUDWLRQVDERXWWKHZRUOGWKDWWKHQGRQRWEHDUDQ\UHODWLRQWRSUDFWLFHVWROLIH,QWHUYLHZ
to Amador Fernndez-Savater)

Having problems instead of ideologies or identities as a point of departure marked a path of in-
FOXVLYHQHVVIRUWKH0VLQFHLWVLQFHSWLRQ%XWWKHVHWUDQVYHUVDOSUREOHPVZHUHQWOLPLWHGWRWKHFULVLV
WUDLQDQGZHUHQWMXVWFROOHFWLYHWKH\DOVRKDGLQGLYLGXDOPDQLIHVWDWLRQVDQGERWKOHYHOVVHHPWREHLQWHU-
WZLQHGLQWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRI0PHPEHUV0DUJD3DGLOODVFRQFHSWXDOPDSIDQVRXWWKHVHFROOHFWLYHDQG
individual experiences that KDYHWRGRZLWK the emergence of Acampada Sol and the 15M.

$WWKHFROOHFWLYHOHYHOZHQGWUDGLWLRQDOVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVHJODERURUJDQL]DWLRQVQHZVRFLDOPRYH-

PHQWVHJIHPLQLVPLQGLJHQRXVPRYHPHQWVVTXDWWHUPRYHPHQWDQGXVLQJDQLQWHUYLHZHHVWHUPLQRO-
RJ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWKDWDUHQRWPRYHPHQWVHJ9GH9LYLHQGD$QRQ\PRXVGRQRWYRWHIRUWKHP
<RXWKZLWKRXW)XWXUHRIGLYHUVHNLQGV:HFDQDOVRREVHUYHHYHQWVHJ0D\DQG$UJHQWLQD
and even books or manifestos (eg. Indignez-vous!, Reacciona). This WKLQJVWKDWKDSSHQHGEHIRUH-section
RI3DGLOODVPDSFDQEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWJHQHDORJ\FRPSRVHGRIERWKLQWHUQDWLRQDODQG
domestic progenitors, of remote, more recent and even contemporary ancestry. It is, according to Polletta
(1998), a narrative of becoming.

$WWKHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHOLQWXUQWKHZHFUDIWHGE\0PHPEHUVLVLQWHJUDWHGE\SHUVRQVZKRIHHOGLV
FRPIRUWZLWKWKHLUSHUVRQDOOLYHV for GRLQJZKDWWKH\GRQWZDQWWRGRDELGLQJE\UXOHVWKH\GRQWZDQW
WRIROORZDQGZRUNLQJDWMREVWKH\GLVOLNH$VZLWKSUHYLRXVRUGHDOVFROOHFWLYHLQYROYHPHQWKDVSURYLGHG
DPLWLJDWLRQWRWKLVLQGLYLGXDOGLVWUHVV$FFRUGLQJWR3DGLOODVFRQFHSWXDOPDS$FDPSDGD6ROLVPDGHRI
SHRSOHZKRZDQWWREHDQGOLYHWRJHWKHU,QZRUGVRIDQLQWHUYLHZHH:LWK0ZHKDYHUHFRYHUHGWKDW
SDUWRISHUVRQZKRLVZLOOLQJWRVKDUHDSDUWZHKDGORQJIRUJRWWHQ,QWHUYLHZWR&DUROLQD*DUFtD7KLV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 104

VKDULQJRUEHLQJWRJHWKHULVDWWKHFRUHRIWKHSURJQRVWLFIUDPLQJSHUIRUPHGE\0PHPEHUVLWLV
VHHQDVDUVWVWHSLQWKHEXPS\DQGVLQXRXVURDGWRZDUGVQGLQJDVROXWLRQWRWKHPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOFULVLV
%HQIRUGDQG6QRZ,WLVWRRSDUWRIWKHPRWLYDWLRQGUDZLQJ0SDUWLFLSDQWVWRJHWLQYROYHG
LQDQGVXVWDLQWKHLUHQJDJHPHQWZLWKWKLVW\SHRIPRYHPHQWEHLQJWRJHWKHUKDVJLYHQWKHPDVHQVHRI
HPSRZHUPHQWHIFDF\DQGMR\)UHLGLQDQG3HUXJRUUtD

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GLVFRYHULQJWKHRWKHUDVDQDFFRPSOLFHDQGQRORQJHUDVDQREVWDFOHIURPF\QLFLVPWRZHFDQFKDQJHWKLQJVDQGZH
FDQEHSURWDJRQLVWVRIWKDWFKDQJH7KDWJHQHUDWHVDYHU\VWURQJHPRWLRQ,QWHUYLHZWR$PDGRU)HUQiQGH]6DYDWHU

0PHPEHUVGRQRWMXVWZDQWWREHWRJHWKHUWKLVLVQRWDSOD\GDWH7KH\VHHWKHPVHOYHVDVVHOI
FRQYHQHG persons that RFFXS\WKHVTXDUH WRGRUHDOGHPRFUDF\QRZ%XWZKDWGRHVUHDOGHPRFUDF\
UHDOO\PHDQ",Q3DGLOODVSHUVSHFWLYHGHPRFUDF\LVDVVRFLDWHGWRXVLQJZRUGVQRWYLROHQFH, and to a
IULHQGO\DWPRVSKHUH promoted by the act of OLVWHQLQJDQGUHVSHFW. It is also tied to HQJDJLQJZLWKFRP
PRQPDWWHUVZLWKSUREOHPVWKDWDIIHFWVRFLHW\DVDZKROH5HDOGHPRFUDF\LVDFKLHYHGZLWKFROOHFWLYH
LQWHOOLJHQFH, described as KHWHURJHQHRXV DQG LQFOXVLYH, LQWHUJHQHUDWLRQDO, and XQUHSUHVHQWDEOH
-that is, avoiding DFURQ\PVDQGDJVEHFDXVHWKH\GLYLGH-. As mentioned before, one of the outcomes of
this from-the-bottom-up democratic praxis is collective enthusiasm. So is JURZLQJVXSSRUW in other cities
DQGFRXQWULHVZKLFKLQWXUQJLYHVVWUHQJWKWR Acampada Sol.

15Ms Social Space, Beyond Alter-Global Mobilizations

The participation of groups, collectives and organisations in multiple levels of action and more than one
ORFDOHUVWHPHUJHGDVDFDUGLQDOWHQVLRQZLWKLQWKHDOWHUJOREDOPRYHPHQWDVLPLODUWHQVLRQLVSUHVHQWLQ
WKH02QWKHRQHKDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQJOREDODFWLRQVKDVDOORZHGDOWHUJOREDOPLOLWDQWVWRH[SHULHQFH
VRPHWLPHVYLUWXDOO\VRPHWLPHVSUHVHQWLDOO\PRPHQWVWKDWZHUHH[FHSWLRQDODQGVSHFWDFXODUDQGWR
HVWDEOLVKLQVSLULQJFRPSDULVRQVEHWZHHQWKHP2QWKHRWKHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQORFDODFWLRQVKDVJLYHQWKHPD
stronger sense of coherence and unanimity. The local ambit is immediate, accessible, visible, and therefore
DSSUHKHQVLEOHLWLVWKHVSDFHLQZKLFKGHPDQGVDUHGLVSOD\HGDQGZKHUHWKHZHJHWVFU\VWDOOL]HGWKURXJK
face-to-face encounters and relationships.

,QWU\LQJWRUHVROYHWKLVWHQVLRQEHWZHHQWKHJOREDODQGWKHORFDOWKHDOWHUJOREDOPRYHPHQWKDV
RSWHGIRUSXUVXLQJJORFDODFWLRQV$VDFRQVHTXHQFHLWKDVEHHQLQSHUPDQHQWRVFLOODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH
[HGKHUHDQGQRZDQGWKHPRELOHWKHUHDQGEHIRUHDIWHU7KLVRSWLRQKDVGHQHGWKHDOWHUJOREDOPRYH-
PHQWDQGJLYHQLWVSHFLFLW\ZKHQFRPSDUHGWRSUHYLRXVSURFHVVHVRIPRELOL]DWLRQ0DQ\0PLOLWDQWV
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importance of raising support in other countries, have participated in global actions such as the October
GHPRQVWUDWLRQDQGDUHLQFRQVWDQWFRQWDFWZLWKWKHLUIRUHLJQFRXQWHUSDUWVWKURXJKLQWHUQDWLRQDO
commissions. They stress the LPSRUWDQFHRIWKLQNLQJDQGDFWLQJJOREDOO\,QWHUYLHZWR0LJXHO$UDQD
+RZHYHUWKHPRYHPHQWDVDZKROHVHHPVWRKDYHVWUHQJWKHQHGWKHEHWIRUWKHORFDOLQGHWULPHQWRIWKH
global after its move to the neighborhoods. The construction of this local space as a place of physical
SUR[LPLW\KDVSURYLGHGDQRSHQHOGIRUWKHLQWHUDFWLRQH[FKDQJHDQGFUHDWLRQRIRUJDQL]DWLRQDOWRROVDQG
symbolic challenges.
 105 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

7KHVSDFHRIVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQLVWKHUHIRUHDWRQHWLPHVRFLDODQGV\PEROLF,WLVDSUDFWLFDOHOGD
VSDFHIRUVRFLDOH[SHULPHQWDWLRQLQZKLFKSURSRVDOVDUHGLVFXVVHGQHJRWLDWHGDQGUHKHDUVHG,QWKHFDVHRI
0LWLVWKHORFDOHZKHUHUHDOGHPRFUDF\LVGRQH$V3DGLOODVFRQFHSWXDOPDSVKRZVUHDOGHPRFUDF\
LVDFFRPSOLVKHGLQWZRGLIIHUHQWZD\VSUHVHQWLDOO\, in DFDPSDGDVDVVHPEOLHVWKHPDWLFZRUNLQJJURXSV
and commissions, and in a disembodied and deterritoriazed fashion through the use of online media (see
DOVR)LJXUH7KH0PDQLIHVWR+RZWR&RRND1RQ9LROHQW5HYROXWLRQDOOXGHVWRWKLVGRXEOH
embeddedness of collective action:

:HUHFRYHUHGDQGXWLOL]HWKHSXEOLFVSDFHZHRFFXSLHGWKHVTXDUHVDQGWKHVWUHHWVRIRXUFLWLHVWRPHHWDQGZRUNLQ
DFROOHFWLYHRSHQDQGYLVLEOHZD\:HLQIRUPDQGLQYLWHHYHU\FLWL]HQWRSDUWLFLSDWH:HGHEDWHDERXWSUREOHPVORRN
IRUVROXWLRQVDQGRUJDQL]HDFWLRQVDQGPRELOL]DWLRQV2XUGLJLWDOQHWZRUNVDQGWRROVDUHRSHQDOOWKHLQIRUPDWLRQLV
DYDLODEOHRQWKH,QWHUQHWLQWKHVWUHHWVDQGLQWKHVTXDUHV

7KH0WKXVFRPELQHVRQOLQHDFWLYLVPZLWKPRUHWUDGLWLRQDOIRUPVRIPLOLWDQF\2QWKHRQHKDQG
LWHPEUDFHVWKHGLJLWDODJHVRFLDELOLW\ZKHUHHYHU\ERG\LVJHWWLQJWRJHWKHULQVRFLDOPHGLDDQGZKHUH
JURXSVFDQRSHUDWHZLWKDPXOWLQDWLRQDOVVFRSHDQGDELUWKGD\SDUW\VLQIRUPDOLW\6KLUN\DQG
FDQ RUJDQL]H ZLWKRXW RUJDQL]DWLRQV LQ RUGHU WR FKDQJH WKH ZRUOG ZLWKRXW WDNLQJ SRZHU +ROORZD\
2002). This form of activism is inspired by the idea that grassroots organizing no longer needs an organizer,
DPHGLDWRULWIROORZVWKHGRLW\RXUVHOIZLWKRWKHUVVSLULW2QWKHRWKHUWKH0LVEDVHGRQWUDGLWLRQDO
repertoires: DFDPSDGDV, assemblies and demonstrations are characterized by the physicality of bodies be-
LQJSUHVHQWLQDVSDWLDOPHHWLQJSODFH*ODGZHOO0PHPEHUVFUHDWHJURXSFRPPRQDOLW\WKURXJK
IDFHWRIDFHVWURQJWLHRILQHDFWLYLVPEXWDOVRWKURXJKRQOLQHZHDNWLHDVVRFLDWLRQ7KHWZRDQNV
VWUHQJWKHQRQHDQRWKHUDGGLQJVSHHGDQHZGLPHQVLRQ0HUULHOG7KLVPXWXDOUHLQIRUFHPHQWLV
SUREDEO\IDFLOLWDWHGE\WKHDIQLW\RIPHWKRGVDVVHPEOLHVDQGRQOLQHQHWZRUNVDUHERWKFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\
direct participation, horizontality, and open deliberation.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 106

Figure 6. Puerta del Sol, Madrid: A Space for Indignation, Infography published by El Pas, on May 20, 2011.

0HUULHOGKDVDGYDQFHGWKHQRWLRQRIHQFRXQWHUWRUHIHUWRWKLVQHZGXDOW\SHRISROLWLFDOHQ-

JDJHPHQW7KHSROLWLFVRIWKHHQFRXQWHULVDSURFHVVZLWKRXWDVXEMHFWVSUHDGLQJOLNHZLOGUHLQZKLFK
FURZGVEHFRPHVSHHG\HQVHPEOHVRIERGLHVFUHDWHGYLDVSRQWDQHRXVRQOLQHDQGRILQHRUGHULQJ,QWKH
EHJLQQLQJVRIWKHPRELOL]DWLRQVDORWRIWKHDFWLYLVPDQGRUJDQL]LQJZDVGRQHGHWHUULWRULDOO\WKURXJK
7ZLWWHUDQG)DFHERRN+RZHYHUSURWHVWVHQFRXQWHUVXQIROGHGLQWKHKHDUWRI6SDQLVKFLWLHVUVWLQWKH
DFDPSDGDVDQGODWHURQLQWRZQDQGQHLJKERUKRRGVTXDUHVDQGRFFXSLHGVRFLDOFHQWHUVZKHUHPLOLWDQWV
KROGWKHLUDVVHPEO\PHHWLQJV'HVSLWHWKHLQFRUSRUDWLRQRIGLJLWDOFKDQQHOVHQFRXQWHUSROLWLFVLVDQGZLOO
 107 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

continue to be, based on an encounter VRPHZKHUH, for physical space is still a major battleground for politi-
FDOVWUXJJOH0HUULHOG0PHPEHUVVHHPWREHDZDUHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHVSDWLDOGLPHQVLRQ
RIWKHLUSUD[LVWKLVLVHYLGHQFHGE\WKHFDUWRJUDSKLFFRQVFLRXVQHVV$QGHUVRQWKH\KDYHGLVSOD\HG
LQWKHDOPRVWFRPSXOVRU\GHVLJQUHGHVLJQDQGUHIUHVKPHQWLQWKHFRPSXWHUVFLHQFHVHQVHRIWZRGLIIHUHQW
types of maps: of the internal organization of DFDPSDGDV (see Figure 7), and of the difussion of camps all
DURXQGWKHJOREHVHH)LJXUH7KHVHPDSVKDYHDFRPSDVVWRWKHZRUOGHOHPHQWEXWDOVRIXQFWLRQDV
ORJRPDSVWKDWLVLQVWDQWO\UHFRJQL]DEOHHYHU\ZKHUHYLVLEOHHPEOHPVWKDWSHQHWUDWHGHHSLQWRWKHSRSX-
ODULPDJLQDWLRQDQGDUHDYDLODEOHIRUWUDQVIHUWRSROLWLFDOEDQQHUVZHESDJHVHWF$QGHUVRQ

Figure 7. Maps of Acampada Sol and Acampada Plaa Catalunya. Note: On the left, a map of Acampada Sol, and on
the right, a hand-made map of Acampada Plaa Catalunya. The photographs are available online.

7KHVSDFHRIVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQLVDOVRDV\PEROLFHOGZKHUHWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSXEOLFDQG
private spheres is transformed and recreated. In a normative sense, the poli tics of the encounter can me-
GLDWHEHWZHHQWKHKLVWRULFDODQGOLYHGH[SHULHQFH$VSHRSOHQGRQHDQRWKHUWKH\VWDUWWRSLHFHWRJHWKHU
FRPPRQQRWLRQVDQGFRPPRQSUREOHPVWKH\XQLYHUVDOL]HZKDWRQWKHIDFHRILWVHHPVRQO\SULYDWHVSH-
FLF7KHVHQVHRIDIQLW\WKDWHPHUJHVIURPWKLVEHLQJWRJHWKHULQZRUGVRIRQHLQWHUYLHZHHEHFRPHV
the cement that bonds -perhaps only for a moment, but a moment that lingers-, people across barriers and
IURQWLHUV0HUULHG7KHHPHUJHQWDIQLW\JURXS%RRNFKLQDVTXRWHGLQ0HUULHGLVFKDU-
acterized by deeply empathetic human relationships-relationships nourished by common revolutionary
practice and ideas.

The aim of 15M DFDPSDGDVDQGGHPRQVWUDWLRQVZDVHVVHQWLDOO\V\PEROLFWKH\ZHUHUHKHDUVDOVIRU

UHYROXWLRQEXWQRWLQDVWUDWHJLFRUWDFWLFDOVHQVHWKH\ZHUHUDWKHUUHKHDUVDOVRIUHYROXWLRQDU\RUSHUKDSV
UHEHOOLRXVDZDUHQHVV0HUULHG0PHPEHUVZHUHUHMHFWLQJDOOWKDWWKH\KDELWXDOO\DQGGHVSLWH
themselves, accept, and beginning to form a cosmovision that gave sense to the crisis and their gener-
DOL]HG PDOFRQWHQW7KH\ ZHUH LGHQWLI\LQJ PHFKDQLVPV RI LQFOXVLRQH[FOXVLRQ HJ ODFN RI HPSOR\PHQW
FRQGLWLRQVRIH[SORLWDWLRQGRPLQDWLRQDQGLQHTXDOLW\PHFKDQLVPVRILPSRVLWLRQUHSUHVVLRQHJFRQFHQ-
WUDWLRQRISRZHUSULYDWLVDWLRQSROLFLHVXQFHUWDLQW\DQGODFNRIFRQWURORYHULPSRUWDQWDVSHFWVRIRQHVRZQ
OLIHDQGUHSUHVVLRQRIDOWHUQDWLYHOLIHVW\OHVDQGWKHSUDFWLFHVDJHQWVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQVWKDWZHUHVKDSLQJWKH
FRQLFWDWVWDNHHJWKHXQHPSOR\HGPXOWLQDWLRQDOVDQGQDQFLDOJURXSVPXOWLODWHUDORUJDQLVPVVWDWHV
DQGQDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQV7HMHULQDE,QWKHVHHQFRXQWHUV0SDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDOVRGLVFRYHULQJ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 108

WKHLURZQFUHDWLYLW\DQGSRZHUWRFKDQJHWKHSUREOHPDWLFVWDWHRIDIIDLUV7KH\ZHUHH[SUHVVLQJSROLWLFDO
ambitions before having formalized them, and before having created the necessary tools -like structures or
organizations- to make them real.

Figure 8. World Map of $FDPSDGDV, and Photograph of the World Map as Seen in Acampada Granada.
Note: The photo on the right is available in
KWWSZZZLFNUFRPSKRWRVJRUHIDFLRLQVHW

Conclusions
TThe 15M movement counts on different organizational precursors in the process of social mobiliza-
WLRQ <RXWK :LWKRXW )XWXUH DQG LQ WKH DUWLFXODWLRQ RI IRUPV RI RQOLQH GRQRWYRWHIRUWKHP RU K\EULG
RQOLQHRILQHSURWHVWV0DOHVWDURUJ$VZHKDYHSRLQWHGRXWLQWKLVSUHVHQWDWLRQWKHPRYHPHQWKDVLWV
LPPHGLDWHRULJLQLQWKHGRXEOHGLVFRQWHQWIHOWE\QXPHURXV6SDQLVKVHFWRUVZLWKWKHVRFLRHFRQRPLFFULVLV
DQGZLWKWKHSROLWLFDOPDQDJHPHQWRIFROOHFWLYHOLIHE\WKHPDMRUSROLWLFDOSDUWLHV+RZHYHUWKHUHDVRQWKDW
WULJJHUHGWKHSURFHVVRIRFFXSDWLRQRI3XHUWDGHO6RODQGODWHURQRIQXPHURXVVTXDUHVLQGLIIHUHQW6SDQLVK
cities, has its origin in the political and police mismanagement of the 15M mobilization.

The plural composition of the LQGLJQDGRVUHHFWVWKHUHMHFWLRQRIWKHPRVWQHJDWLYHFRQVHTXHQFHV

RIWKHSURFHVVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQWKHLQFUHDVHGOHYHOVRIVRFLDOLQHTXDOLW\DQGWKHSUHFDULRXVQHVVRIWKHOLIH
conditions of broad social sectors, especially, but not exclusively, the young. In addition, the 15M move-
PHQWWUDQVIHUVWRWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHDORQJWHUPGLVFRQWHQWZLWKWKHIXQFWLRQLQJRIWKH6SDQLVKGHPRFUDF\
and persistent demands for deeper democratization and transparency in the administration of public affairs.
,QWKHSHUFHSWLRQRI0PHPEHUVWKLVVLWXDWLRQDQGWKLVDXWKRULW\V\VWHPDUHGHQHGDVXQMXVWDQGLWLV
SUHFLVHO\WKLVLQMXVWLFHIUDPHZKDWKDVOHJLWLPDWHGLWVGLVREHGLHQFH

6HYHUDOPHPEHUVKDYHDJUHHGZLWKWKHVWDWHPHQWWKDWWKH0LVDQHPRWLRQDOPRYHPHQW7KHHPRWLRQ
 109 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

of outrage, or indignation, constituted a central stepping stone for the construction of a collective identity in
WKHEHJLQQLQJVRIWKHPRYHPHQW+RZHYHURQFHWKHXSULVLQJZDVLQPRWLRQLQGLJQDWLRQZDVUHSODFHGRU
at least complemented, by collective enthusiasm and joy derived from the experience of EHLQJWRJHWKHU.
$VRQHLQWHUYLHZHHSXWLW>WKH0@LVDFU\FRPLQJIURPDVRFLHW\WKDWLVWLUHGIHGXS,WVEHHQDFU\EXW
DVPLOLQJRQH.

Although 15M members have tried to build on common problems in lieu of available identities,
they have nonetheless performed prognostic, diagnostic and motivational framing tasks that have begun
WRFUDIWDQGVKDSHWKHLURZQQRYHOFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\7KHLUERXQGDU\DQGDGYHUVDULDOIUDPLQJKDVGHPDU-
FDWHGDWKHPDJDLQVWZKLFKFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQKDVEHHQGLUHFWHGPDLQO\WKLHYLQJDQGVZLQGOHUEDQNHUV
DQGFRUUXSWSROLWLFLDQV,WKDVDOVRIRUJHGDZHFRPSRVHGRISHUVRQVQRWSHRSOHQRWPLOLWDQWVXQLWHG
E\WKHLUGLVFRPIRUWWRZDUGVWKHVHDFWRUVEXWDOVRWRZDUGVWKHODEHOVDQGPHWKRGVFRPLQJIURPROG
time politics (ODYLHMDSROtWLFD7DONLQJDERXWSHUVRQVDOORZHGERWKSHRSOHZLWKQRSUHYLRXVSROLWLFDO
SDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGZLWKGLIIHUHQWPLOLWDQWWUDMHFWRULHVWRIHHOSDUWRIWKH0LWV\QFKURQL]HGGLIIHUHQWDQG
probably opposing political ideologies and blurred other potentially alienating axes of dissent.

0PHPEHUVKDYHDOVRFUDIWHGDQDUUDWLYHRIEHFRPLQJWKDWZHKDVDSUHVHQWDQGDIXWXUHEXWDOVR
has a traceable past. Participants have elaborated a social movement genealogy composed of both interna-
tional and domestic progenitors, of recent and also far-removed ascent. This family tree brings together
WUDGLWLRQDODQGQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGHYHQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWKDWDUHQRWPRYHPHQWVWRXVHDQ
LQWHUYLHZHHVH[SUHVVLRQWKDWEHORQJWRWKHSURJUHVVLYHHOG0PHPEHUVKDYHDOVRSURYLGHGWKHLU
QDUUDWLYHRIEHFRPLQJZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDOGLPHQVLRQ0PHPEHUVDUHSHUVRQVZKRXVHGWRIHHODGLV-
FRPIRUWZLWKWKHLULQGLYLGXDOOLYHVDQGZKRQRZZDQWWREHDQGOLYHWRJHWKHULQDIULHQGO\DWPRVSKHUH

%HLQJWRJHWKHUVKDULQJKDVDOORZHGWKHPWRXQLYHUVDOL]HWKHLUSHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFHVXQGHUVWDQG-
LQJVDQGHPRWLRQVDQGKDVJLYHQWKHPDVHQVHRIMR\HPSRZHUPHQWDQGHIFDF\,WLVWKXVDWWKHFRUHRI
WKHSURJQRVWLFIUDPLQJSHUIRUPHGE\0PHPEHUVDQGRIWKHPRWLYDWLRQGUDZLQJWKHPWRJHWLQYROYHG
and sustain their participation. This politics of the encounter has been facilitated and boosted by a mu-
WXDOO\UHLQIRUFLQJRILQHVWURQJWLHDFWLYLVPDQGRQOLQHZHDNWLHDVVRFLDWLRQERWKEDVHGRQDQRSHQ
KRUL]RQWDO DQG SDUWLFLSDWRU\ SKLORVRSK\ ,Q ZRUGV RI 0HUULHOG  VTXDUHV DQG GLJLWDO PHGLD KDYH
provided a scenario for an illicit rendezvous of human bonding and solidarity, a material, virtual, and emo-
WLRQDOWRSRJUDSK\LQZKLFKVRPHWKLQJGLVUXSWVDQGLQWHUYHQHVLQWKHSUHYLRXVSDUDO\VLV%XW0PHPEHUV
GRQRWMXVWZDQWWREHWRJHWKHUWKH\JDWKHUWRGRUHDOGHPRFUDF\5HDOGHPRFUDF\LVLQWHUSUHWHGDVDQ
engagement in common matters, an involvement thought of as inclusive, non-violent, and necessarily
GLUHFWRUXQUHSUHVHQWDEOH7KLVODVWHOHPHQWLVSUREDEO\GULYLQJWKHPRYHWRZDUGVWKHORFDOLQGHWULPHQW
of the global.

15M participants may have expressed political ambitions before creating the necessary means to make
WKHPUHDO,QWKHODVWIHZPRQWKVWKH\KDYHGLVFRYHUHGWKHLURZQFUHDWLYLW\DQGSRZHUDQGDOVRWKHLURZQ
limitations to generate the global and local change they demand. They have also begun to craft a cosmovi-
VLRQWKDWJDYHVHQVHWRWKHFULVLVWKHLUJHQHUDOL]HGPDOFRQWHQWDQGWKHLURZQSXUSRVHVDFWLRQVDQGRUJD-
QL]DWLRQ0PHPEHUVDSSHDUWREHFRQVFLRXVWKDWDWKURXJKWKHLUDFWLRQWKH\ZDQWWREXLOGWKHZLGHVW
SRVVLEOHPRYHPHQWEWKDWWKH\SHUVRQDOO\PRELOL]HWRRSSRVHHFRQRPLFGRPLQDWLRQWRDIUPPRUDOSULQ-
FLSOHVRIHTXDOLW\DQGMXVWLFHDQGWRWUDQVIRUPWKHSROLWLFDOVWUXFWXUHVDQGGHPRFUDF\FWKDWWKHLULQWHUHVW
LQXQLWLQJZLWKRWKHUVUHVWVRQWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDOWHULQJDQXQZDQWHGVRFLDOUHDOLW\JHQHUDWLQJVROLGDULW\
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 110

FRQVWUXFWLQJ FRPPRQ LQWHUHVWV DQG VKDULQJ GHPDQGV G WKDW WKH PRELOL]DWLRQ LV HIIHFWLYH EHFDXVH LW LV
FRQWULEXWLQJWRUDLVHDZDUHQHVVRIWKHULVNVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQDQGWRFKDQJHWKHSHUFHSWLRQVKHOGRILWDQGH
WKDWWKHPRVWSUREOHPDWLFDVSHFWVRIRUJDQL]LQJWKLVW\SHRIPRYHPHQWDUHSUHFLVHO\ZKDWPDNHLWPRVWDW-
tractive: diversity and plurality of its components, its horizontal and democratic character, and the fact that
LWGHDOVZLWKFRPPRQSUREOHPVWKDWLVZLWKTXHVWLRQVWKDWWUDQVFHQGVRFLDOIURQWLHUV

Abbreviations
362(6SDQLVK6RFLDOLVW:RUNHUV3DUW\3DUWLGR6RFLDOLVWD2EUHURGH(VSDxDFHQWHUOHIWZLQJSROLWLFDO
party in Spain.
333HRSOHV3DUW\3DUWLGR3RSXODUULJKWZLQJSROLWLFDOSDUW\LQ6SDLQ
&L8&RQYHUJHQFHDQG8QLRQ&RQYHUJqQFLDL8QLyFHQWHUULJKWZLQJHOHFWRUDOFRDOLWLRQLQ&DWDORQLD
6SDLQ,WLVWHFKQLFDOO\DIHGHUDWLRQRIWZRFRQVWLWXHQWSDUWLHVWKHODUJHU'HPRFUDWLF&RQYHUJHQFHRI
Catalonia (CDC) and its smaller counterpart, the Democratic Union of Catalonia (UDC). It is currently
OHGE\$UWXU0DVZKRLVWKHFXUUHQW3UHVLGHQWRIWKH&DWDODQ*RYHUQPHQW
'5<5HDO'HPRFUDF\1RZ'HPRFUDFLD5HDO<D

Data Sources
,QWHUYLHZVWR-XOLR$OEDUUiQ0LJXHO$UDQD-DYLHUGHOD&XHYD$PDGRU)HUQiQGH]6DYDWHU&DUROLQD*DUFtD/HLOD1DFKDZDWLDQG=XOR
conducted by Stphane M. Grueso, Patricia Horrillo and Pablo Soto during 2011 and 2012 for the project 15M.cc, available in http://15M.cc.
&RQFHSWXDOPDSDFDPSDGDVROYHODERUDWHGE\0DUJD3DGLOODDYDLODEOHLQKWWSZZZPFFPHWRGRORJLDGHWUDEDMRKWPO
0DQLIHVWR&yPRFRFLQDUXQDUHYROXFLyQQRYLROHQWD+RZWR&RRND1RQ9LROHQW5HYROXWLRQDYDLODEOHDWKWWSWDNHWKHVTXDUHQHW
es/2011/08/18/como-cocinar-una-revolucion-no-violenta/, accessed on 01/20/2012.
7H[WXDODQGJUDSKLFPDWHULDODYDLODEOHLQWKHIROORZLQJZHEVLWHV
KWWSWDNHWKHVTXDUHQHW
http://tomalaplaza.net/
http://madrid.tomalaplaza.net/
KWWSDFDPSDGDEFQZRUGSUHVVFRP
http://15october.net/

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$PLQ]DGH5DQG0F$GDP'(PRWLRQVDQG&RQWHQWLRXV3ROLWLFVLQ$PLQ]DGH5*ROGVWRQH-0F$GDP'3HUU\(6HZHOO
:7DUURZ6DQG7LOO\&K(GV6LOHQFHDQG9RLFHLQWKH6WXG\RI&RQWHQWLRXV3ROLWLFV&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV&DPEULGJH
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3ROOHWWD),W:DV/LNH$)HYHU1DUUDWLYHDQG,GHQWLW\LQ6RFLDO3URWHVW6RFLDO3UREOHPV
3ROOHWWD)DQG-DVSHUV-&ROOHFWLYH,GHQWLW\LQ&RQWHQWLRXV3ROLWLFVLQ$QQXDO5HYLHZRI6RFLRORJ\
6KLUN\&+HUH&RPHV(YHU\ERG\7KH3RZHURI2UJDQL]LQJZLWKRXW2UJDQL]DWLRQV3HQJXLQ%RRNV1HZ<RUN
6QRZ'%XUNH5RFKIRUG(:RUGHQ6DQG%HQIRUG5)UDPH$OLJQPHQW3URFHVVHV0LFURPRELOL]DWLRQDQG0RYHPHQW
3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQ0F$GDP'DQG6QRZ'(GV6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV5HDGLQJRQ7KHLU(PHUJHQFH0RELOL]DWLRQDQG'\QDPLFV
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7DUURZ63RZHULQ0RYHPHQW&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV&DPEULGJH
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7HMHULQD%0DUWtQH]GH$OEpQL],&DYLD%*6HJXHO$DQG$,]DROD2PRYLPHQWRSRU-XVWLoD*OREDOQD(VSDQKDDWLYLVWDV
LGHQWLGDGHHFDUWRJUDDSROtWLFDGDDOWHUJOREDOL]DoDR6RFLHGDGHH(VWDGRSS
7HMHULQD%0DUWtQH]GH$OEpQL],&DYLD%*6HJXHO$DQG$,]DROD6SDJQD,GHQWLWjHFDUWRJUDDSROLWLFDGHOPRYLPHQWR
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 112

The Assemblies of 15Th May Movement in Cceres: An

Example of Democracy School, a Road to Dialogic Society

BORJA RIVERO JIMNEZ

University of Extremadura

Abstract
This paper attempts to give a vision of democracy from dialogical perspective. From
WKHVQHZWUHQGVSDUWLFLSDWLYHGHOLEHUDWLYHRUUDGLFDOGHPRFUDF\KDYHDWWHPSWWR
RIIHUDUHQHZDODQGWRFUHDWHDGHPRFUDF\WKDWLQFUHDVLQJO\VHHPOHVVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRI
WKHFLWLQ]HQVKLS,QDVRFLDOFRQWH[WZKHUHSHRSOHWHQGWRDGDSWWRWKHGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWV
RIUHDOLW\ORYHIDPLO\RUHGXFDWLRQWKURXJKGLDORJXHZHZRXOGOLNHWRVD\WKDWWKH
GLDORJLFWUHQGWKLVWLPHDSSOLHGWRSROLWLFVLVUHHFWHGLQWKHIRUPRIWKHOLQNVHVWDE-
lished in the 15th0D\DVVHPEOLHV7KLVVWXG\DLPVDWSURYLGLQJDQRYHUYLHZRIVRPH
important features of the 15th0D\DVVHPEOLHVLQ&iFHUHVDQGDVZHOOHPSKDVL]LQJWKH
dialogical component that supported their proposals and discussions.

.H\ZRUGV
15th May Movement, assemblies, citizenship education, democratic renovation, dia-
logic democracy.

Introduction
On 15th May 2011, thousands of people took to the streets to demonstrate under the slogan We are not
PHUFKDQGLVHLQWKHKDQGVRISROLWLFLDQVDQGEDQNHUV7KLVHYHQWDQGWKHPRYHPHQWWKDWHPHUJHGDIWHUIDOOV
ZLWKLQDFRQWH[WRIHFRQRPLFSROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOQDWLRQDODQGJOREDOUHVSRQVHLQDVHULHVRISURWHVWVPRVW
RIWKHPRQPHGLWHUUDQHDQDUHD7KHPDLQUHDVRQSHRSOHKLWWKHVWUHHWVLVUHHFWHGLQWKHVWDWHPHQWWKDWKDV
EHHQKHDUGDWDQ\SRLQWZKHUHDJURXSRITXLQFHPD\LVWDVPHWWRWDONGRQRWUHSUHVHQWXV7KLVVORJDQ
SRLQWVWRSROLWLFLDQVDQGWKHLUZD\RIGRLQJSROLWLFVDVRQHRIWKHPDLQSUREOHPVDIIHFWLQJ6SDQLVKVRFLHW\
WRGD\7KLVVRFLHW\LVQRWUHSUHVHQWHGE\SROLWLFLDQVZKRGRQWWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHYLHZVRISHRSOHPDLQO\
EHFDXVH SXEOLF RSLQLRQ WKH GHEDWH RQ WKH UHV SXEOLFD DPRQJ FLWL]HQV LV DOPRVW QRQH[LVWHQW %DXPDQ
DIUPVWKDW

WKHEULGJHVEHWZHHQWKHSXEOLFOLIHDQGWKHSULYDWHOLIHDUHGLVPDQWOHGRUWKH\ZHUHQRWHYHQFRQVWUXFWHGHYHU
DQHDV\IRUPGRHVQRWH[LVWQRWREYLRXVRIWUDQVODWLQJWKHZRUULHVGHSULYHGLQSXEOLFWRSLFVDQGLQYHUVHO\RI
GLVFHUQLQJLQWKHSULYDWHZRUULHVWRSLFVRISXEOLFZRUU\

)URPWKHEHJLQQLQJWKLVPRYHPHQWIRFXVHGRQUHFRYHULQJSXEOLFVSDFHVVXFKDVVTXDUHVDQGSDUNV
WRRFFXS\WKHPRWKHUZLVH7KHVHVTXDUHVPRYHIURPEHLQJSODFHVRIHQWHUWDLQPHQWWREHFRPHSODFHVRI
SROLWLFDOFRQWHQWZKHUHHYHU\RQHFDQGLVFXVVWKDWDSSURDFKDVDQHTXDORQWKHGLIIHUHQWWRSLFVFRYHUHG
Bauman (ibid: 11) notes that one of the possibilities of change for our democratic society and improvement
OLHVLQWKHUHFRYHU\RIDJRUD)RU%DXPDQWKHDJRUDLV
 113 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

DVSDFHWKDWLVQHLWKHUSXEOLFQRUSULYDWHEXWPRUHH[DFWO\SXEOLFO\DQGGHSULYHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\7KHVSDFHLQZKLFK
WKHSULYDWHSUREOHPVPHHWLQDVLJQLFDQWZD\WRORRNIRUOHYHUVWKDWMRLQWO\DSSOLHGWXUQRXWWREHVXIFLHQWO\
SRZHUIXODVWRUDLVHWKHLQGLYLGXDOVRIKLVLQGLYLGXDOPLVHULHVZKHUHWKH\FDQEHERUQDQGUHFHLYHIRUPLGHDOVXFK
DVWKHFRPPRQJRRGWKHFRPSDQ\MRXVWVRUWKHFRPPRQYDOXHV

7KLVRFFXSDWLRQRIWKHVTXDUHVLVWZRIROGRQDKDQGLWEHFDPHDQDFWRIFLYLOGLVREHGLHQFHYHU\QRWLFH-
DEOHGXULQJWKHUHHFWLRQVGD\DGHIHQVHDJDLQVWWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\REYLRXVODFNRIFLWL]HQVKLSSDUWLFLSD-
WLRQLQSXEOLFGHEDWHRQWKHRWKHUEHFRPHVDNLQGRIDJRUDDEULGJHWKDWFRQQHFWVSULYDWHWURXEOHVWKDW
PDQ\ZHUHVXIIHULQJDQGPDNHVWKHPSXEOLFZLWKWKHUHVWRIWKHSRSXODWLRQSUHVHQWLQJWKHPIRUSXEOLF
GLVFXVVLRQ,Q&iFHUHVFDQSRLQWWRWKH3OD]D0D\RUDVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWSODFHRIth May movement,
DVLWVPDLQDJRUD7KHUHWKH\FRQGXFWHGWKHUVWFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRISURWHVWVDQGODWHUVHWWOHGWKHFDPS,Q
addition, all assemblies have been developed there.

Works main issue

7KHSXUSRVHRIWKLVVWXG\LVDQDQDO\VLVRIDVVHPEOLHVWKDWWRRNSODFHLQ&iFHUHVGHDOLQJZLWKWKHth
0D\PRYHPHQWDVWKHVHDUHWKHKLJKHVWGHFLVLRQPDNLQJDQGH[SUHVVLRQRIWKLVQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQW
ZLWKWKHQDOREMHFWLYHRIJHWWLQJFORVHUWRWKHUHDOLW\RIWKLVSKHQRPHQRQDQGWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWRIGLIIHU-
ent theories, trying to provide the insight observed.

Kind of work/methodology
2XUVWXG\LVDTXDOLWDWLYHHPSLULFDOUHVHDUFK(WQRJUDSK\EDVHGRQSDUWLFLSDQWREVHUYDWLRQDQGYLHZLQJ
and further analysis through data dump cards observed, and videotapes about assemblies of the 15th May
PRYHPHQWLQ&iFHUHV7KHUHVHDUFKZLOOEHIROORZHGE\DQH[KLELWLRQDQGGLVFXVVRIWKHUHVXOWVZLWKWKH
participant group in these assemblies in order to compare data an assess the opinion of the study for acting
OHDGHUV$WWKLVPRPHQWZHDQDO\]HGWKHYLGHRVRIWKLUWHHQDVVHPEOLHVZKLFKODVWDSSUR[LPDWHO\VL[WHHQ
KRXUV,QDGGLWLRQZHKDYHSDUWLFLSDWHGLQPRVWDVVHPEOLHVRUJDQL]HGNHHSLQJWUDFNRIZKDWLVREVHUYHG
LQDQRWHERRN:HEHOLHYHWKDWDTXDOLWDWLYHHWKQRJUDSKLFUHVHDUFKLVWKHEHVWFKRLFHIRURXUZRUNEHFDXVH
it directly involves research and acting leaders. We chose ethnography as methodology and results of the
LQYHVWLJDWLRQ,IWKHZRUGVPDNHWKHVSHHFKRIth May movement and one of its objectives is to regener-
DWHGHPRFUDF\WKURXJKVRFLDOGLDORJXHZHFRXOGPDNHDQDQDORJ\ZLWKWKHHWKQRJUDSKLFPHWKRGEHFDXVH
LWLVWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDOWRROZHXVHGWRDQDO\]HWKHUHDOLW\RIWKLVVRFLDOJURXSDQGDOVRWKHQDOSURGXFW
WKDWJLYHVXVWKLVDQDO\VLV7KHGDWDRQZKLFKHWKQRJUDSK\LVEDVHGDUHGUDZQIURPVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK
members of that social group through dialogue.

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WKHLQIRUPDWLRQH[WUDFWHGIURPWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGYLHZLQJYLGHRV,QWKHFDUGWKHUHDUHWZRFROXPQVRQH
ZLWKQRWHVWDNHQIURPWKHYLGHRVDQGWKHVHFRQGWRUHFRUGFRPPHQWVRQRWKHUDVSHFWVRIZRUN+HUHZH
H[SODLQEULH\WKHGLIIHUHQWVHFWLRQVWKDWZHXVHGWRUHFRUGLQIRUPDWLRQ

9LGHRLGHQWLFDWLRQQDPH(DFKYLGHRKDVDQLGHQWLFDWLRQQDPHZLWKPRQWKDQGGD\ZLWKDVVHPEOLHV
date. For example, the 18th0D\DVVHPEO\KDVWKHLGHQWLFDWLRQQDPH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 114

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9LGHROHQJWK7KHGXUDWLRQRIUHFRUGHGDVVHPEO\YLGHR6RPHDVVHPEOLHVDUHQWIXOO\UHFRUGHG

Participants number: The participants number is very interesting to analyze the different stages and also
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$VVHPEO\NLQG:HZDQWWRHPSKDVL]HZKDWLVWKHDVVHPEO\NLQG:HIRXQGGLIIHUHQWW\SHVOLQNHGIRU
H[DPSOHWKHJHQHUDOVXEMHFWWRZKLFKWKH\UHODWHRUDWWKHWLPHLQZKLFKWKH\KDSSHQ

Descriptive data:

$VVHPEO\FRQWHQWFRQWDLQVWKHRUGHUGD\WKHQHZSURSRVDOVZHUHDGGHGDQGZKRDGGHGWKLVSURSRVDO

6RFLRORJLFDOSUROHV2QWKHRQHKDQGLQWKLVVHFWLRQZHKDYHFROOHFWHGWKHGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIOHDGHUVKLS
WKDWZHREVHUYHGLQWKHDVVHPEOLHVWKHQDWXUHDQGW\SHRIWKLVSHRSOH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGZHFROOHFWHG
the citizenship type.

0RWLYDWLRQ:HZDQWHGWRFROOHFWDOVRZKDWZHUHWKHGLIIHUHQWPRWLYDWLRQVWKDWSHRSOHZHUHDSSURDFKHG
to participate in the assemblies.

Assemblies structure and dynamics:

Moderation and registration: Which people take care of moderate and take note of the facts, their age
DQGJHQGHU:HKLJKOLJKWHGWKHPRGHUDWRUSUROHDQGKRZKHDFWHG

,QWHUYHQWLRQGXUDWLRQDQGUHOHYDQFH:HZDQWHGWRSRLQWRXWKRZWKHUHDUHLQWHUYHQWLRQVWKHOHQJKWRI
this and if in fact they are related or unrelated to the topic at that time being treated.

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WDNHLWLQWRDFFRXQWZKHQPDNLQJWKHLUVWDWHPHQWV

3URSRVDOV:HKDYHDQDO\]HGDQGUHFRUGHGWKHYDULRXVSURSRVDOVFRQWDLQHGKRZWKH\GRKRZLVLWW\-
pology and if there are recurring themes.

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degree of execution they have.

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 115 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

Content and symbols of the assemblies:

Not verbal language. In this space, there are gathered different aspects of the not verbal language: if it is
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not, if groups appear, if solitary persons exist.

Capture of agreements. The typology of the different agreements, if there are agreements appellants
ZKLFKDUHRIWHQURXWLQHO\JHW

Debates and speeches. Which are the main supportive elements of the debates, if these elements belong
to the popular culture, to the political theory or if they are simply occurrences or stereotypes it brings
over of the topics that treat each other. What contradictions and coherences appear in the debates.

The individual thing, the collective thing. If the individual interests appear over the group or if it gives
priority to the common interest.

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group of people or person turns out to be made responsible for the problems.

Analysis and discussion

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7KHUHDUHIURPRXUSRLQWRIYLHZWKUHHVWDJHVIRUZKLFKWKHPRYHPHQWKDVKDSSHQHGVLQFHLWDSSHDUHG7KH
UVWRQHRIWKHVWDJHVZRXOGEHJLQZLWKWKHPDQLIHVWDWLRQRI5th0D\DQGLWZRXOGFRQFOXGHZLWKWKHFKRLFHV
of 22th0D\:HPLJKWQDPHKHUDVVWDJHRIH[SORVLRQ'XULQJWKLVUVWVWDJHWKH\EHJLQWRWDNHWKHUVW
VKRUWWHUPGHFLVLRQVOLNHIRUH[DPSOHWRHQFDPSLQLQGHQLWHWLPHLQ3OD]D0D\RU7KHDVVHPEOLHVRIWKLV
VWDJHZLOOEHYHU\QXPHURXVLQKRZPXFKWRDVVLVWDQWVLWUHFRXQWVEXWWKHSHUVRQVZKRWKHUHFRPHVWLOOGRQRW
KDYHDQDFWLYHWUHQGDWWKHPRPHQWRIWDNLQJSDUWLQWKHGHEDWHV,WLVDVWDJHZKHUHFHUWDLQLPSRUWDQFHUHFHLYHV
WKHOHDGHUVKLSWKDWWKHUHH[HUFLVHRQWKHJURXSWKRVHSHUVRQVZKRRUJDQL]HGWKHUVWRQHRIWKHPDQLIHVWDWLRQV
During this stage, there is a great abundance of people (up to 1000 in some acts like the organized one the day
RIUHHFWLRQSUREDEO\PRYHGDOVRRQWKHQDWLRQDOOHYHOIRUWKHERULQJHOHFWRUDOHQYLURQPHQWDQGIRUWKH
media coverage that they all begin to have the encamped ones in Spain (Taibo, 2011). We believe that during
this stage it takes priority over a clear feeling of necessary immediate change in the collective conscience,
LWSUREDEO\PRYHGE\WKHIHHOLQJVIRXQGLQWKHVTXDUHVLQDPRPHQWRIH[SORVLRQRIIHHOLQJV7KHVHFRQG
VWDJHZKLFKZHZLOOQDPHDVVWDJHRIVXPPLWIURPWKHFKRLFHVLVDVWDJHRISXEOLFVPLQRUDEXQGDQFH
EHWZHHQDQGSHUVRQVEXWLQWKDWWKHUHLVLQFUHDVHGWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIDQRWDEOHZD\IDFLOLWDWHGSURE-
DEO\E\WKLVSXEOLFVGHFUHDVH7KLVVWDJHZRXOGGHYHORSIURP2th May, until 8th June, day in the one that gets
XSWKHHQFDPSHGRQHRI3OD]D0D\RU$QRUJDQL]DWLRQDSSHDUVFRQFHUQLQJFRPPLVVLRQVDQGZRUNJURXSV
DQGDUHJXODWLRQDWWKHPRPHQWRIGHYHORSLQJWKHDVVHPEOLHV$PDQLIHVWLVDOVRZULWWHQE\YHSRLQWVZKLFK
ZLOOEHWKHSULQFLSDODLPVRIWKH5th0D\PRYHPHQWLQDEHJLQQLQJWKRXJKODWHUWKH\ZRXOGPHHWH[WHQGHG
One starts leaving of side the initial spontaneity and the assemblies begin to be summoned in a more formal
ZD\ZLWKRQHFRQFUHWHUHJXODUUHFXUUHQFHVXEMHFWWRDQRUGHURIWKHGD\,QWKLVVHFRQGVWDJHWKHSDUWLFLSD-
WLRQRIWKHSHUVRQVLVPDMRUDQGPRUHXLGDQGWKHGHEDWHVVWRSEHLQJPRQRORJXHVWKRXJKWKH\DOVREHJLQ
WRGHYHORSDF\VWLQWRSLFVWKDWZLOOEHYHU\DSSHOODQWVDQGSRODUL]HGHQRXJKIRUH[DPSOHWKHGLVFXVVLRQDQG
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 116

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&iFHUHV7KHGHFLVLRQVLQWHQGIRUDFWLRQVLQWKHVKRUWDQGPHGLXPWHUPLQRUGHUWRUHSRUWRIWKHIROORZLQJ
mobilizations and to develop actions of recovery in relation to the offers of change arisen. Finally, a third
VWDJHZKLFKZHZLOOEHFDOODVWDJHRIULSHQHVVZKLFKZRXOGEHJLQDIWHUWKHUDLVLQJRIWKHHQFDPSHGRQHRQ
8th-XO\DQGLWZRXOGFRLQFLGHZLWKWKHVXPPHUDUULYDODQGWKHH[RGXVRIYHU\PXFKVWXGHQWVRXWRIWKHFLW\
until 15th2FWREHUGD\RIWKHZRUOGPDQLIHVWDWLRQ*OREDO8QLWHGIRU&KDQJHVXPPRQHGIURP6SDLQ7KH
abundance to the assemblies meets diminished in number up to the half (30 or 40 persons maximum). The
WRSLFVWREHGLVFXVVHGLQWKHDVVHPEOLHVDQGGHFLVLRQPDNLQJZLOOEHIRFXVHGRQDFWLRQVRIDQHDUIXWXUHIRO-
ORZLQJWKHVXPPHUDQGWKHPRUHRUJDQL]DWLRQDODVSHFWVRIWKHPRYHPHQW2QHEHJLQVWRGHYHORSDRZFKDUW
LQRUGHUWRSURYLGHZLWKDPRUHFRQVLVWHQWVWUXFWXUHDQGRQHSURSRVHVWKHFUHDWLRQRIDUHJLRQDOFRRUGLQDWRURI
assemblies of 15th0D\PRYHPHQWLQ([WUHPDGXUD7KLVVWDJHPDUNVDQHQGRIGLVWDQFHDVZHWKRXJKWIURP
KHUHWKHIRXQGDWLRQVDUHODLGWRVWDUWFRYHULQJDQHZZD\LQDFRQWH[WEH\RQGWKHORFDODQGQDWLRQDOERUGHUV
VLQFH2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSHUVRQVPDVVLYHDEXQGDQFHLQGLYHUVHSDUWVRIWKHZRUOGWRWKH
VXPPRQVZLWKDPDMRUDFWRISUHVHQFHDQGDSRSXODUVXSSRUWLQ7KH8QLWHG6WDWHVDFURVVWKHPRYHPHQW

$WWHQGLQJWRKLVWHPSRUDOLW\ZHFDQGHQHWKUHHW\SHVRIDVVHPEOLHV7KH[HGDVVHPEO\RUGLQDU\FDOO
ZLWKDSHULRGLFLW\RIGD\VWKHDQGRIHYHU\PRQWK7KHUHLWGHDOZLWKWKHGLIIHUHQWWRSLFVWKDWDULVH
IURPWKHPHHWLQJFRRUGLQDWLRQRIJURXSVDQGWKRVHWKDWDQ\SHUVRQZDQWVWRFRQWULEXWH7KHH[WUDRUGLQDU\
DVVHPEO\ZLWKRXWPDUNHGSHULRGLFLW\,WLVUHDOL]HGRXWRIWKHUHJXODUGDWHVRIWKHRUGLQDU\DVVHPEOLHV,WLV
VXPPRQHGE\WKH&RPPLVVLRQRI&RRUGLQDWLRQRUIURPWKHDVVHPEO\LQRUGHUWRWUHDWVRPHWRSLFQHFHVVDU\
IRUWKHJRRGIXQFWLRQLQJ)LQDOO\WKHXUJHQWDVVHPEO\ZKLFKLVVXPPRQHGE\WKHQHHGWRWDNHDQLPPHGLDWH
FROOHFWLYHGHFLVLRQEHIRUHDKDSSHQHGIDFWRUIRUKDSSHQLQJDVIRUH[DPSOHLWZDVWKHFDVHIRUWKHOLIWLQJRIWKH
FDPSLQJIURP3OD]D0D\RURQth-XO\,QUHODWLRQWRWKHWRSLFVWKDWDUHJRLQJWRWUHDWZHFDQLQGLFDWHWKUHH
types of assemblies: informative, deliberative and of groups or commissions. In the informative assemblies,
it give any information about issues that are of interest to those attending. It is not taken decisions, rather they
FRPHWRGRWKHIXQFWLRQRIVSDFHRIUHHFWLRQ

$QH[DPSOHRIWKLVW\SHRIDVVHPEOLHVDUHWKRVHWKDWZHUHFHOHEUDWHGLQDEHJLQQLQJDVWKDWRIth May to
read the constitution and to report on near actions or that of 7th-XQHEULQJVRYHURIZKDWWKHVRFDOOHG3DFWR
GHO(XURZDVFRQVLVWLQJ,QFDVHRIWKHGHOLEHUDWLYHDVVHPEOLHVZKLFKLVWULHGLVWRGLVFXVVDQGWRGHEDWHRQ
GLIIHUHQWWRSLFVLQRUGHUWRWDNHSRVLWLRQVZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHVHRUWRFDUU\RXWDFWLRQV,QWKLVW\SRORJ\WKHUH
PLJKWEHWWHGWKHJUHDWPDMRULW\RIWKHDVVHPEOLHVWKDWZHWU\WRDQDO\]HDFURVVWKLVZRUN)LQDOO\ZHZRXOG
think the assemblies of groups and commissions, they try to give response to the different topics that concern
HYHU\JURXSDQGWKDWVHUYHWRIRUPXODWHRIIHUVWKDWZLOOEHODWHUGHEDWHGLQWKHJHQHUDODVVHPEO\E\WKHUHVWRI
WKHJURXS7KHFRQWHQWRIWKHDVVHPEOLHVKDVEHHQFKDQJLQJWKURXJKRXWWKHVHYHPRQWKVWKDWZHKDYHRE-
VHUYHG,QDEHJLQQLQJWKHWRSLFVIURPWKRVHZKRZHUHVSHDNLQJHDFKRWKHUZHUHFRPLQJPDUNHGE\ZKDWWKH
RUJDQL]LQJSHUVRQVRIWKHUVWPDQLIHVWDWLRQEHORQJLQJWRWKHSODWIRUP'HPRFUDFLD5HDO<DWKH\EHOLHYHG
more opportune, or for those civil offers that, shyly, began to appear. An agenda did not exist and the topics
ZHUHQRWFOHDUO\PDUNHGDQ\WKLQJWKDWZDVGRLQJWKDWWKHG\QDPLFVRIWKHDVVHPEOLHVVDZREVWUXFWHGDS-
SHDULQJRIWHQVSHHFKHVLWEULQJVRYHURIWKHVH[RIDQJHOVWRSLFVWKDWFRXOGVHHPWREHLQWHUHVWLQJIRUWKRVH
SHUVRQVZKRZHUHGHEDWLQJWKHPWKH\ZHUHQRWIRFXVHGRQWKHOLQHRIWKHFHQWUDOWRSLFWKDWZDVRFFXS\LQJ
in these moments the debate and that it could lead to the desperation and boredom of any of the persons as-
VLVWDQWV7KHGHEDWHVZHUHGLVSHUVLQJWKDWZD\DQGWKHPDUNHGDLPVZHUHJHWWLQJORVWIRUPRPHQWV+HUHE\
DQGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHH[FHVVLYHWLPHWKHUVWDVVHPEOLHVFRXOGPDQDJHWRRFFXS\LQRUGHUWRSURYLGHZLWK
DIRUPDOVWUXFWXUHWKHVDPHRQHVLWPDQDJHGWRUHPLQGDPDQXDORIDVVHPEO\,QWKLVPDQXDORUGHULWZDV
 117 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

WU\LQJWRSXWLQFHUWDLQDVSHFWVZKLFKFRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHGWREHVOLJKWO\RSHUDWLYH7KLVZD\WKHJXUHRIWKH
PRGHUDWLQJSHUVRQDSSHDUVWKHUHDVWKRVHRIWKHSHRSOHZKRWDNHWKHPLQXWHV7KHDJHQGDDOVRDSSHDUVIRUWKH
DVVHPEOLHVZKLFKLWZLOOPDNHFRQFUHWHZKLFKDUHWKHGLIIHUHQWWRSLFVWKDWZLOOEHGHEDWHGLQWKHDVVHPEOLHV
LQRUGHUWRSXEOLFL]HWKHPWRWKHZKROHFLWL]HQVKLSZKLFKZDQWVWRWDNHSDUWDQGDOVRWRFHQWHUWKHQRUPDO
GHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVDPHRQHV$PRQJWKHWKLUWHHQDVVHPEOLHVZHKDYHORRNHGWKURXJKYLGHRVZHDEOHWR
GHWHFWXSWRIRUW\VHYHQLWHPVRQWKHDJHQGDRIWKHGD\7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHWRSLFVDUHIRFXVHGRQWKHRZQRU-
JDQL]DWLRQRURQWKHFDSWXUHRIGHFLVLRQVLWEULQJVRYHURIQHDUDFWLRQV,QVLGHWKHVHWRSLFVZHFDQLQGLFDWHWKH
debates it brings over of the positioning before certain aspects from 15th0D\PRYHPHQWDVZKDWWRGRZLWK
UHJDUGWRWKHXQLRQVRUKRZWRIRFXVWKHSRVVLEOHDSSHDUDQFHRISROLWLFDOSURPLQHQWJXUHVLQDQDVVHPEO\
$OVRWRSLFVKDYHWUHDWHGHDFKRWKHULWEULQJVRYHURIWKHRSSRUWXQHWKLQJRUQRWRIFUHDWLQJDQHZZRUNJURXS
WKHFUHDWLRQRIDRZFKDUWWRSURYLGHZLWKDVWURQJHUVWUXFWXUHRUWKHGHQLWLYHUDLVLQJRIWKHHQFDPSHGRQHLQ
3OD]D0D\RU$OVRDSSHDUSXUHO\LQIRUPDWLRQDOWRSLFVVXFKDVWKHVWRU\E\RQHRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZRUNHGLQ
the different meetings at the level of national, or only organizational as the modals to the creation of a regional
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WKHGLIFXOW\RIEHLQJRUJDQL]HGRQWKHPDUFK7KHUHJXODWLRQXVHGIRUWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQLQ&iFHUHVGRHVQRW
FRPHLQYLHZRIEHIRUHLWLVERUQWKLVRQHEXWLWLVWKURXJKWKLVDFWLRQDVWKLVUHJXODWLRQZDVERUQ7KLVWXUQV
LWLQWRVRPHWKLQJLQIRUPHGE\DOOWKHSHUVRQVZKRFRPHDQGIRUPDSDUWRIWKLVVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRPHWKLQJ
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tive form of creation. It is not this regulation designed by a group of persons in order that to him a major
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It is the 15th0D\PRYHPHQWDVRFLDOW\SLFDOPRYHPHQWIRUKLVOHDGHUVODFN%XWDVLQDQ\VRFLDOJURXS
LWLVXQGHQLDEOHWKDWDSSHDUVWKRXJKWKHVHDFWLQWKHPDLQLQDGHPRFUDWLFZD\:HFDQVHHOLNHDORQJWKHDV-
semblies, and during his evolution, these leaders have been appearing and disappearing: there is no a person
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depending on the moment. In the beginning, the leaders form a part of the group of persons that it organized
the manifestation of 15th0D\EHORQJLQJWRWKHSODWIRUP'HPRFUDFLD5HDO<D:HPLJKWQDPHRUFDWDORJXH
WKHPDVRFFDVLRQDOOHDGHUVWKHP,QDPRPHQWRIH[SORVLRQRIWKHPRYHPHQWLQZKLFKHYHQ$VVHPEO\DQG
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From Social to Political.
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offers of consensus that basically gather everything controversial and look for an agreement that does not
leave dissatisfaction anybody. These people are recognized by the rest of participants, since some phrases ex-
tracted from the videos demonstrate it as Toms, for the consensuses Toms (assembly of 2th June) or If it
ZDVQRWIRU7RPiVZHDUHGLVFXVVLQJXQWLODPDVVHPEO\RIth October). Similar to this kind of leader it
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contributions are valued and estimated by the rest of the group. They are even asked to take charge organizing
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DQRWKHUVTXDUHDQGFDSWXUHRILQIRUPDWLRQRQth June. Another example of this type of leadership is the fact
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try, gave his proposals and speeches more attention and approval by the participants.

Marshall Ganz (2009), one of the most recognized and valued theoretical leadership in the last decade,
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to come to the concrete aims that the group has marked. It eliminates hereby the former conception of
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 119 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

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to organize the mobilization of 15th0D\,WLVQRWXQWLOPLGGOHRI-XQHLWZDVDOUHDG\GHYHORSHGQHDUWZHQW\
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rotary post or function of moderation: they are, in relation to the number of participants in the assemblies,
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as the family or friends, but the outbreak of 15th May also meant an explosion out of the humiliated ones
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of every time for major precarious of the company.

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individually they could be discussed, neither it had still hit the headlines of the public thing they had not
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ing step (it is necessary to take our recoveries to the party that gains in assembly of 19th0D\WKH\ZHUH
OHDUQLQJWKDWWKH\ZHUHPHDQLQJVRPHRIWKHPLWRIWKH6,&$9ZKDWLV"DVVHPEO\RIth May, one of the
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JURXSVWKDWEHVLGHGLVFXVVLQJGLIIHUHQWRIIHUVDVWKHZLWKGUDZDOVLQXUQVLQWKHRQth May morning and in
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to have form so much national as place. And these debates and this organization took a common element as
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our social relations across the dialog. Before, in the families, the main armchair of the house and the control
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From Social to Political.
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Nevertheless, in the last times, this decision begins to be negotiated by the rest of the family across the dialog.
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draft comes to underline the importance that takes the dialog in our company at the moment of taking agree-
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this draft dialogic is the fact that one expresses across the 15th0D\PRYHPHQWZKLFKWKHUHFRPHVWRTXHVWLRQ
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governments and political groups that, though, they are legitimized by voting every four years, enter neither
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RSSRVLWHWRZKDWth May movement are positioned, not in opposition to the democracy. And this movement
in turn, it presents the characteristic of looking for the dialog in his relations, of coming to agreements and
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tried to turn into public spaces of debate and civil interaction. Habermas sets out one of the main constituent
parts of the human experience is the communicative action, that bases on last instance on the central experi-
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the discussion and the dissent as the social assembled actors they can come to that one that joins them, since
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the communicative competition creates consensus through the dissent. Habermas (2001) raises a discursive
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spirit. We are not talking about a group of people that it meets to discuss it brings over of political expositions
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from there developing different actions that lead to the improvement of the company. These speeches look for
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in the 15th0D\PRYHPHQW,IDWWKHEHJLQQLQJWKHGHEDWHVDSSHDUHGDVIRUPRIH[SUHVVLRQDQGRIUHHFWLRQ
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 121 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

the transverse axis that crosses the process, so though it splits of the discussion of a series of problems, the
majority of the offers of solution of the same ones are directed to a major democratization of all the aspects
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different sources of information that the participants have, and promote, on the other hand, the possibility
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WKDWLWFRQVLVWVLQRUGHUWKDWWKHJURXSFRXOGGRDQLGHDWRKLPDERXWZKDWLWWUHDWVLWVHOI$IWHUWKLVLWEHJLQV
WKHGHEDWHZKHUHHYHU\SDUWLFLSDQWZLOOUHVWRUWKHRIIHUDGGLQJVKDGHVGLVFXVVLQJZHDNQHVVHVRUUHMHFWLQJ
LWFRPSOHWHO\7KHUVWSROORIRSLQLRQLVUHDOL]HGWRVHHZKLFKLVWKHVXSSRUWWKDWKDVWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHG
RIIHUZKLFKSUHFHGHVDQDUJXPHQWDWLRQRIWKRVHSHUVRQVZKRGRQRWDJUHHZLWKWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGWKLQJ
:LWKWKHVHDUJXPHQWDWLRQVWKHRIIHUVDUHUHHODERUDWHGDQGDUHV\QWKHVL]HGFRPLQJQDOO\WRDYRWLQJ,W
is in the capture of agreements that from 15th May movement in Caceres and for extension, on the national
OHYHOZKHUHKLVPRUHLPSRUWDQWSDUWLFXODULW\DSSHDUV7KHDVVHPEO\LVPWKDWWDNHVWKLVPRYHPHQWDVDIRUP
RIRUJDQL]DWLRQGULQNVEHWZHHQRWKHUVIURPWKHDQDUFKLVWLFODERUPRYHPHQWV5RPDQRV,WLVXQ-
GRXEWHGWRDGPLWWKDWWKLVRQHLVQRWDQHZIRUPXODLQYHQWHGE\WKLVVRFLDOPRYHPHQW

What if it is necessary to stand out and the really important of this type of capture of agreements is the diver-
VLW\RIRSLQLRQVDQGLGHRORJLHVWKDWIDFH,ILQWKHDVVHPEOLHVRIWKHDQDUFKLVWLFPRYHPHQWVZHFDQDIUPWKDWWKH
LGHRORJ\WKDWZDVDVVHPEOLQJDOOZLWKDOOWKHGLIIHUHQFHVWKDWFRXOGVWLOOGLVWLQJXLVKZDVWKHDQDUFKLVWLQWKHDV-
semblies of the 15th0D\PRYHPHQWWKHUHWDNHSDUWSHRSOHZKRKDYHDQLGHRORJ\WKDWFURVVHVWKHZKROHVSHFWUXP
of possibilities, enclosed the absence of her. Hereby, the capture of agreements on the basis of consensuses that
RQHSURGXFHVLVPXFKULFKHUDVIRUGHEDWHDQGHVSHFLDOO\ZHEHOLHYHWKDWLWLVYHU\GLIIHUHQWDVIRUGHPRFUDWLFFRQ-
WHQW7KRXJKDERXWWKHUVWRQHVWKRVHRIDQDUFKLVWLFXQLRQVZRXOGKDYHWREHGHFLGHGRQDVSHFWVWKDWFRQFHUQ
RQO\DOLQHRIWKRXJKWZHGRQRWEHOLHYHWKDWWKLVRQHLVQRWULFKLQVKDGHVLQWKHDVVHPEOLHVRIth May move-
PHQWWKHUHGHYHORSVDGHPRFUDWLFH[HUFLVHWKDWLWKDVWRVHHHYHQZLWKWKHYLVLRQWKDWLQDEHJLQQLQJFDQWXUQRXW
WREHVOLJKWO\UHFRQFLODEOHEXWWKDWDFURVVWKHWUDQVIHURIFHUWDLQLQGLYLGXDOWUHQGVFDQFRPHWRDFRPPRQFRQX-
HQFHRIWKRXJKWDQGDFWLRQ,QWKHFDSWXUHRIDJUHHPHQWVYLWDOFREUDLPSRUWDQFHWKHLGHDRIZKDWZHKDYHFRPHWR
FDOOOHDGHUVRIWKHFRQVHQVXVSHRSOHZKRWKURXJKWKHLUFDSDFLW\RIV\QWKHVLVDQGVFRXWDUHDEOHWRPDNLQJFRPH
together the different ideas that treat each other in the debate. We can observe as one of these people, in different
assemblies, he is kept silent after expressing his opinion and in attitude of scout, as compiling the different voices
WKDWH[SUHVV$IWHUWKLVLWWKURZVDQRIIHURIFRQVHQVXVWKDWJDWKHUVWKHGLIIHUHQWVKDGHVWKDWKDYHEHHQOLVWHQHG
PRGLI\LQJWKHLQLWLDORIIHU7KLVZD\ZHFDQUHODWHWKHVHFDSWXUHVRIDJUHHPHQWWRGLDORJLFVRFLDOWKHRULHV$XEHUW
HWDOLQGLFDWHVLQFHLQFUHDVLQJO\ZHWHQGWRQGFRQVHQVXVHVLQRXUUHODWLRQVDFURVVWKHGLDORJLQDOO
WKHDUHDVRIRXUOLIHIURPRXUUHODWLRQVLQGD\DIWHUGD\ZLWKWKHIDPLO\WKHIULHQGVKLSRUWKHSDLUXSWRPRUH
institutional levels (as the international politics or the labor relations). The same authoresses and authors highlight
like from the social sciences, across the theories of Beck (1998), Giddens (1995), Habermas (2001) or Flecha.
HWDOWKHUHLVGLVFXVVHGLQFUHDVLQJO\WKDWWKHIRUPHUDXWKRULWDULDQUHODWLRQVRISRZHUGRQRWVHUYHLQVLGHD
VRFLDOFRQWH[WLQZKLFKWKHGLDORJDWWKHPRPHQWRIWKHFDSWXUHRIGHFLVLRQVLVHYHU\WLPHPDMRUWHQGLQJWRSRVL-
WLRQVDQGFRPPXQLFDWLYHUHODWLRQVZKHUHWKHODQJXDJHUHFHLYHVDIXQGDPHQWDOLPSRUWDQFH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 122

Conclusions
'HVSLWHQRWKDYLQJFRPSOHWHGWKHUHVHDUFKZRUNZHFDQDQWLFLSDWHVRPHRIWKHFRQFOXVLRQVZKLFKZH
reached after the analysis of the data. The 15th0D\PRYHPHQWLQ&iFHUHVDQGZHEHOLHYHWKDWIRUH[WHQ-
sion, on the national level) comes to raise a series of needs and changes that the citizenship believes neces-
sary to have a better coexistence and to solve certain problems of the current importance. These offers of
FKDQJHFRPHJLYHQIURPWKHMRLQWGLDORJRIWKHFLWL]HQVKLSLQWKHSXEOLFVTXDUHVZKLFKIURPth May have
OOHGZLWKDPDMRUSROLWLFDOFRQWHQW7KHVHPDQLIHVWDWLRQVDQGSXEOLFGHEDWHVIRUPDSDUWRIDQHZIRUPRI
VRFLDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHLQGLYLGXDOVDQGWKHUHH[LVWVLQWKHPDQLQWHQWLRQRIGHPRFUDWLFLPSURYHPHQW
DQGDQLPSRUWDQWVWHSWRZDUGVDFRPSDQ\LQFUHDVLQJO\GLDORJLF

The assemblies of 15th0D\PRYHPHQWWXUQWKLVZD\LQWRVSDFHVZKHUHWKHFLWL]HQVKLSEHVLGHH[SUHVV-

ing, learns and develops these forms of interaction, it comes to consensuses and realizes offers of change.
:HFDQDIUPWKDWWKHVHDVVHPEOLHVDUHDOVRHGXFDWLRQDOVSDFHVZKHUHWKHPHHWLQJRIWKHSHUVRQVDQGWKH
SXEOLFGHEDWHKHOSVWRXQGHUVWDQGLQWXUQWKDWWKHFRQVHQVXVEHWZHHQWKHGLIIHUHQWSRVLWLRQVDQG\RXGHVLJQ
RQO\LWLVSRVVLEOHLIDOOWKHSHUVRQVZKRRIWKHPWDNHSDUWFDQH[SUHVVLQDIUHHDQGHTXDOVSDFH,IWKHDX-
WKRULWDULDQUHODWLRQVRISRZHUWKDWZHUHJLYHQGXULQJWKHIRUPHULQGXVWULDOFRPSDQ\DUHEHOLHYHGE\XVWKDW
WKH\DUHDOUHDG\REVROHWHWKDWWKH\GRQRWKHOSWRWKHLPSURYHPHQWRISHRSOHVOLIHDQGWKDWWKH\FDQQRW
FRQWLQXHH[LVWLQJLQDFRPSDQ\LQFUHDVLQJO\SOXUDODQGFRPSOH[ZHPXVWRSHQRXUVHOYHVWRZDUGVWKLVW\SH
RIGLDORJLFUHODWLRQVZKHUHWKHSRZHURIWKHDUJXPHQWVLVRYHUWKHDUJXPHQWVRIWKHSRZHU

References
Aubert, A., Flecha, A., Garca, C, Flecha, R., Racionero, S.: 2010, Aprendizaje dialgico en la sociedad de la informacin. (Hipatia: Barcelona.)
Bauman, Z.: 1999, En busca de la poltica, (Fondo de Cultura Econmico Argentino, Buenos Aires)
Beck, U.: 1998, La sociedad del riesgo: hacia una nueva modernidad, (Paids: Barcelona)
'tD]6DOD]DU50\04XpIXWXURSROtWLFRSRGHPRVFRQVWUXLU"(O9LHMR7RSR0DJD]LQH
Elboj, C., Puigdellvol, I., Soler, M. y Valls, R.: 2009, Comunidades de aprendizaje. Trasnformando la educacin, (Gra: Barcelona.)
Flecha, R., Gmez, J., Puigvert, L.: 2001, Teora sociolgica contempornea. (Paids: Barcelona)
Freire, P.:1995, Pedagoga del oprimido. (Siglo XXI: Madrid).
Ganz, M. (2009) Leading change. Leadership, Organization and Social Movements. Harvard Business Press Chapters.
Giddens, A.: 1995, Modernidad e identidad del yo. (Pennsula, Barcelona).
Habermas, J: 2001, Teora de la Accin Comunicativa. (Taurus, Madrid)
5DGO3KLOLSS5/DWHRUtDGHODFWXDUFRPXQLFDWLYRGH-UJHQ+DEHUPDVXQPDUFRSDUDHODQiOLVLVGHODVFRQGLFLRQHVVRFLDOL]DGRUDV
HQODVVRFLHGDGHVPRGHUQDV3DSHUV0DJD]LQHQS
5RPDQRV(GXDUGR(O0\ODGHPRFUDFLDGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV%RRNVDQG,GHDV1RYHPEHU,661;
85/KWWSZZZERRNVDQGLGHDVQHW(O0\ODGHPRFUDFLDGHORVKWPO
Taibo, C.: 2011, El 15M en sesenta preguntas, (Catarata, Madrid)
Webber, M.: 1977, Economa y sociedad. (Fondo de Cultura Econmica, Mxico)
 123 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

Entre los militantes y los laboratorios deliberativos:

el 15-M

HLOSE NEZ
Universit Paris 13

Resumen
Con la emergencia de nuevos movimientos sociales en los aos 1970, luego del mo-
YLPLHQWRSRUODMXVWLFLDJOREDODQDOHVGHORVDxRVODGHPRFUDFLDSDUWLFLSDWLYD
VHKDFHXQSULQFLSLRVXSHULRUGHODDFFLyQFROHFWLYDTXHTXHGDQRREVWDQWHUHVWULQJLGR
DXQDSUiFWLFDPLOLWDQWH(OGHPD\RGHHPHUJHHQ(VSDxDXQPRYLPLHQWRTXH
no sale directamente de los movimientos sociales y pone la deliberacin al centro de
todas sus acciones, en relacin con el giro deliberativo en la accin pblica local y el
creciente uso deliberativo de Internet y las redes sociales. Nuestro artculo trata de este
pasaje de la deliberacin de las microesferas de los movimientos sociales a la esfera p-
EOLFDFLXGDGDQDFXHVWLRQDQGRORVRUtJHQHVODVHVSHFLFLGDGHV\HOLPSDFWRGHODVSUiF-
ticas deliberativas experimentadas en las asambleas populares del 15-M. Con relacin
a otras movilizaciones, tres elementos diferencian el 15-M: la participacin individual,
la ausencia de un programa y de lderes, y el lugar central dado a la deliberacin. Si
otros movimientos ya reinvendicaban los principios de horizontalidad, de inclusin y
de transparencia, el 15-M se distingue tanto por el lugar de la deliberacin como por la
LQVWDXUDFLyQGHWpFQLFDVGLVFLSOLQDULDVTXHJDUDQWL]DQVXDSOLFDFLyQ0LHQWUDVTXHORV
modos tradicionales de movilizacin estan declinando, los indignados podran aportar
un nuevo soplo a la accin colectiva en Espaa, renovando a los militantes y poniendo
la cuestin de la deliberacin en el centro del repertorio de accin.

Palabras clave
Democracia deliberativa, espacio pblico, Espaa, movimientos sociales, 15-M.

Introduccin
La organizacin y las formas de democracia interna son centrales en la sociologa de los movimientos
VRFLDOHV3ODQWHDQXQUHWRQDGDGHVSUHFLDEOH&XDOTXLHUPRYLPLHQWRVRFLDOTXHSURFXUDLQVFULELUVHHQHO
WLHPSRSDUDDOFDQ]DUVXVREMHWLYRVWLHQHTXHGRWDUVHGHXQDRUJDQL]DFLyQSURSLDFRQHOQGHFRRUGLQDUVXV
DFFLRQHVGHUHXQLUUHFXUVRV\GHGHIHQGHUGHPDQHUDHFD]XQDFDXVD1HYHX(OSUREOHPDHVTXH
VHJ~QODOH\GHKLHUURGHODROLJDUTXtDSODQWHDGDSRU5REHUW0LFKHOVODVRUJDQL]DFLRQHVHYROX-
FLRQDQVLHPSUHKDFLDXQDIRUPDOL]DFLyQLQWHUQDROLJDUTXL]DFLyQTXHFRQFHQWUDHOSRGHUHQPDQRVGHXQRV
pocos profesionales y convierte a los socios en agentes pasivos. Al analizar el fenmeno de la delegacin
SROtWLFD3LHUUH%RXUGLHXLGHQWLFDEDXQHIHFWRRFLQDVHJ~QHOFXDOORVSURIHVLRQDOHV monopoli-
]DEDQSURJUHVLYDPHQWHHOSRGHUGHQWURGHODVRUJDQL]DFLRQHV<VHJ~QORVHVWXGLRVVREUHORVPRYLPLHQWRV
sociales, esta formalizacin suele adems empujar las organizaciones a la utilizacin creciente de formas
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 124

convencionales de presin poltica, as como una moderacin de las demandas del movimiento (Meyer y
7DUURZFLWDGRHQ-LPpQH]

/RVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVQRVRQVRUGRVDHVWHGLOHPD3RUHOORPXFKRVWUDWDQGHEXVFDUDOWHUQDWLYDVTXH
permitan conjugar la consecucin de objetivos estratgicos con un grado de organizacin ms participati-
YR(OUHFXUVRDOFRQVHQVRPiVELHQTXHDOYRWRPD\RULWDULRODLPSRUWDQFLDFRQFHGLGDDODGHOLEHUDFLyQR
ODDXVHQFLDGHSRUWDYR]VRQSUiFWLFDVDQWLJXDVTXHPDUFDURQORVPRYLPLHQWRVGHSURWHVWDGHVGHORVJUXSRV
DQDUTXLVWDVHXURSHRVDQDOHVGHOVLJOR;,;KDVWDODVFRRUGLQDFLRQHVTXHVHPXOWLSOLFDURQHQ)UDQFLDD
QDOHVGHORVDxRVRFKHQWDSDVDQGRSRUORVPRYLPLHQWRVDPHULFDQRVGHORVGHUHFKRVFLYLOHVHQORVDxRV
cincuenta (Agrikoliansky, 2007). Sin embargo, no es hasta la emergencia de nuevos movimientos socia-
les en los aos setenta (ecologistas y feministas principalmente) y el movimiento por la justicia global a
QDOHVGHORVDxRVQRYHQWDTXHODGHPRFUDFLDSDUWLFLSDWLYDVHFRQYLHUWHHQXQSULQFLSLRFHQWUDOGHODDFFLyQ
colectiva y el discurso de los movimientos sociales.

/RVWHyULFRVGHORVQXHYRVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVPXHVWUDQTXHXQDGHODVHVSHFLFLGDGHVGHODVPR-
vilizaciones sociales de los aos setenta resida en la promocin de estructuras de funcionamiento autno-
mas y descentralizadas, denunciando con ello la organizacin centralizada y representativa del movimiento
REUHUR\HOVLQGLFDOLVPR7RXUDLQH2IIH0HOXFFL/DGHVFRQDQ]DFRQUHVSHFWRDOD
delegacin de autoridad a representantes lejanos se haca en provecho de asambleas generales y de una
valorizacin fuerte de la democracia interna. Los trabajos sobre el movimiento por una justicia global (o
PRYLPLHQWRVDOWHUJOREDOL]DFLyQPXHVWUDQTXHODVOyJLFDVSDUWLFLSDWLYDVUHVSRQGtDQQRVyORDODDGKHVLyQD
XQVLVWHPDGHYDORUHVHVSHFtFRVFRPRODGHPRFUDFLDSDUWLFLSDWLYDGHOOD3RUWDVLQRWDPELpQDSUR-
EOHPDVSUiFWLFRVTXHHQFXHQWUDQORVDFWRUHVDOPRYLOL]DUVH$JULNROLDQVN\$JXLWRQ\&DUGRQ
6RPPLHU$OUHYpVGHORTXHSHQVDED0LFKHOVSDUDDOJXQRVODVOyJLFDVROLJiUTXLFDV\EXURFUiWLFDV
QRVHUHYHODQVLHPSUHPiVHFDFHVTXHORVSURFHGLPLHQWRVSDUWLFLSDWLYRVTXHSUHVHQWDQWDPELpQLQWHUHVHV
prcticos para los actores (Polletta, 2002). Si la deliberacin se vuelve, por razones en parte estratgicas, un
principio de la accin colectiva de los movimientos sociales, sta ha estado, no obstante, restringida siempre
a una prctica militante.

/DLPSRUWDQFLDTXHKDDGTXLULGRODSDUWLFLSDFLyQ\ODGHOLEHUDFLyQHQORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVQRHVGH
todas formas una cuestin aislada. En las esferas institucionales se multiplican los dispositivos de participa-
cin basados en principios deliberativos. Con ellos muchas administraciones intentan ampliar el sujeto pol-
tico de la participacin, contando con los ciudadanos ordinarios (ni elegidos, ni expertos, ni asociados) en
la elaboracin de las polticas pblicas. Estos procesos se difunden desde los aos noventa bajo formas muy
diversas (consejos de barrio, presupuestos participativos, jurados ciudadanos, etc.) a escala local en todo el
mundo1. No obstante, la idea no viene de ahora. La importancia de implicar los ciudadanos en las decisiones
TXHOHVDIHFWDQPiVDOOiGHODVHOHFFLRQHVVXUJHHQORVDxRVVHVHQWD\VHWHQWD.DXIPDQ3DWHPDQ
%DUEHUEDMRODLQXHQFLDGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVXUEDQRVTXHSUHFRQL]DQODDXWRJHVWLyQ\
ODGHPRFUDFLDGLUHFWD&DVWHOOV%RUMD&KHUNL\0HKO

$OLJXDOTXHRFXUUHHQORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVHVWRVQXHYRVGLVSRVLWLYRVDGPLQLVWUDWLYRVSXHVWRVHQPDU-
cha desde los aos noventa, tienen como objetivo la conciliacin de la toma de decisiones con una organizacin
ms participativa de la sociedad civil. Esto supone introducir una lgica deliberativa en el espacio de relaciones
 6REUHHVWRVGLVSRVLWLYRVSDUWLFLSDWLYRVYHUSDUWLFXODUPHQWH)RQWE6DQWRV)XQJ\:ULJKW%DFTXpHWDO%ORQGLDX[
6LQWRPHUHWDO6PLWK%DFTXpHWDO
 125 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

SROtWLFDVTXHVHGDEDHQWUHORVHTXLSRVGHJRELHUQRV\ORVUHSUHVHQWDQWHVGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVXUEDQRV
ampliando el sujeto poltico hacia la globalidad de la ciudadana. La mayora de estos procesos procura movili-
]DUHOVDEHUGHXVRGHORVKDELWDQWHVRHOVHQWLGRFRP~QGHORVFLXGDGDQRVRUGLQDULRV6LQWRPHU1H]
GHWDOPRGRTXHODVDVRFLDFLRQHVWUDGLFLRQDOHVODVSHUFLEHQFRPRXQHVSDFLRFRQFXUUHQWHRVHDXQPHGLR
GHURGHDUVXSHULWDMHFROHFWLYR\VXFDSDFLGDGGHFRQWUDSRGHU5XL\9LOOHFKDLVH'XSRQW+HQGULNV
Ganuza y Nez 2012). En general, estos dispositivos participativos, puestos en marcha por los poderes pblicos
locales, se encuentran hoy ampliamente desconectados de la dinmica de los movimientos sociales y no son ob-
MHWRGHPRYLOL]DFLRQHVIXHUWHV%ORQGLDX[DXQTXHHVWpQYROFDGRVHQODGHOLEHUDFLyQ\XQDRUJDQL]DFLyQ
PiVKRUL]RQWDOGHORVHVSDFLRVS~EOLFRV*DQX]D\)UDQFpV7DOSLQ

En este contexto, marcado por una creciente consideracin de la deliberacin tanto en los movimientos
VRFLDOHVFRPRHQODDFFLyQS~EOLFDORFDOVXUJHHO0TXHVLW~DODGHOLEHUDFLyQHQHOFHQWURGHVXVDFFLRQHV
con una organizacin basada en asambleas abiertas a todos. El anlisis del 15-M representa una contribucin
interesante a la literatura de los movimientos sociales, como a la democracia participativa y deliberativa, por
la capacidad singular del movimiento en articular ambas dimensiones. Con relacin a los procesos partici-
pativos institucionales, los indignados presentan un fuerte carcter ERWWRPXS (desde abajo haca arriba) al
revs de los dispositivos WRSGRZQGHODVDGPLQLVWUDFLRQHV\XQDGLPHQVLyQGHPRYLPLHQWRVRFLDOTXH
se encuentra desconectada de los dispositivos de participacin en Europa (Sintomer y Ganuza, 2011). Con
respecto a los movimientos sociales, los indignados parecen distinguirse por la importancia central de la
deliberacin en el proceso de elaboracin y de toma de decisiones, as como su capacidad para sobrepasar la
barrera de la militancia sin perder los rasgos participativos de su organizacin. El 15-M permite analizar bajo
XQQXHYRSULVPDODFXHVWLyQGHODGHOLEHUDFLyQHQXQPRYLPLHQWRVRFLDOGDGRTXHODGHOLEHUDFLyQQRVHOLPLWD
a una organizacin o a un conjunto de organizaciones (como en el caso de los foros sociales en el movimiento
SRUODMXVWLFLDJOREDOVLQRTXHVHGHVSOLHJDDPSOLDPHQWHHQODHVIHUDGHOHVSDFLRS~EOLFRORTXHLQFOX\HD
los no-militantes. Como subraya Eduardo Romanos el 15-M ha impulsado el traslado de las prcticas de
democracia deliberativa desde recintos ms o menos limitados (e.g., campamentos, foros sociales o centros
autogestionados) a las plazas, y esa parece ser una diferencia importante (Romanos, 2011: 9).

Nuestro artculo analiza este paso de la deliberacin de las microesferas de los movimientos sociales a la
HVIHUDS~EOLFDFLXGDGDQDDQDOL]DQGRORVRUtJHQHVODVHVSHFLFLGDGHV\HOLPSDFWRGHODVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUD-
tivas experimentadas en las asambleas populares del 15-M. De donde vienen los mtodos de deliberacin
SXHVWRVHQHMHFXFLyQSRUORVLQGLJQDGRV"6HSXHGHQQRWDUOLDFLRQHVFRQPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVSUHFHGHQWHV
RGLVSRVLWLYRVSDUWLFLSDWLYRVLQVWLWXFLRQDOHV"(QFXiOPHGLGDVHGLVWLQJXHHO0GHRWURVPRYLPLHQWRV
VRFLDOHV\GHVXVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDV"&yPRVHSHUFLEHHVWHPRYLPLHQWRHQODVHVIHUDVPLOLWDQWHV\TXp
LPSDFWRWLHQHVREUHODDFFLyQFROHFWLYDHQ(VSDxD"

3DUDUHVSRQGHUDHVWDVSUHJXQWDVQXHVWURDQiOLVLVVHDSR\DHQXQDLQYHVWLJDFLyQHWQRJUiFDUHDOL]DGD
GHVGHQDOHVGHPD\RGHHQ0DGULG+HPRVREVHUYDGRODGLQiPLFDGHODDFDPSDGDODVDVDPEOHDV
generales y las reuniones de comisiones y de grupos de trabajo llevadas por los indignados en Puerta del
6ROFRPRHQYDULRVEDUULRVGHODFDSLWDODVtTXHPDQLIHVWDFLRQHV\PDUFKDV(QODySWLFDGHDQDOL]DUODV
interacciones entre este movimiento y las organizaciones sociales y polticas existentes (partidos polticos,
sindicatos, asociaciones de vecinos), hemos seguido en particular las actividades del 15-M en Carabanchel
y Vallekas, dos barrios populares al Sur de Madrid caracterizados por una tradicin poltica fuerte enrai-
zada en el movimiento obrero. Hemos realizado entrevistas semi-directivas con diferentes actores impli-
FDGRVHQHO0SDUWLFLSDQWHVDFWLYRVGHXQDGHODVSODWDIRUPDVTXHODQ]DURQHO0'HPRFUDFLDUHDO
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 126

\DPLHPEURVDFWLYRVGHRWUDVRUJDQL]DFLRQHV\SDUWLFLSDQWHVTXHQRSHUWHQHFHQDQLQJ~QPRYLPLHQWR
)LQDOPHQWHKHPRVVHJXLGRUHJXODUPHQWHODFRPXQLFDFLyQTXHVHHIHFWXyHQ,QWHUQHWDWUDYpVGHODVUHGHV
VRFLDOHVSULQFLSDOPHQWH7ZLWWHU\)DFHERRNSHULyGLFRVHQOtQHD\EORJVSROtWLFRV

Los orgenes de las prcticas deliberativas del 15-M

/DVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDVGHO0QRVRQHVSRQWiQHDVSHURWDPSRFRSHQVDPRVTXHKD\DTXHUHPRQ-
WDUVHDODWUDGLFLyQKLVWyULFDGHORVFRQFHMRVDELHUWRVTXHGDWDQGHOD(GDGPHGLD%RWHOODHWDOSDUD
GDUXQDH[SOLFDFLyQSODXVLEOHGHVXHPHUJHQFLD$GHPiVGHXQHQWRUQRHFRQyPLFRTXHKDFDWDOL]DGRODV
protestas y un movimiento similar en los pases rabes meses antes, la desafeccin ciudadana hacia la pol-
WLFDHVXQHOHPHQWRWUDQVYHUVDODOPRYLPLHQWRSHURTXHOOHYDSUHVHQWHHQODVRFLHGDGPXFKRVDxRV/DFULVLV
econmica y poltica no es patrimonio de la sociedad espaola, sino algo muy presente en las democracias
contemporneas. Los movimientos similares al 15-M en Europa (Inglaterra, Portugal, Grecia o Francia),
HQ((88R,VUDHOFRPSDUWHQHVWDVPRWLYDFLRQHV3RUHVRODVLQJXODULGDGGHORVLQGLJQDGRVSHQVDPRVTXH
GHVFDQVDHQRWUDVODWLWXGHVSXHVQRHVXQVLPSOHPRYLPLHQWRGHSURWHVWDPiVVLQRTXHKDSODQWHDGRXQD
forma diferente de entender la protesta y con ello una manera distinta de concebir las relaciones polticas
1) entre los poderes pblicos y la sociedad civil y 2) dentro de la sociedad civil. Esta singularidad descan-
sa sobre todo en su propuesta de plantear un movimiento deliberativo estructurado en el espacio pblico,
cuando gran parte de la teora poltica contempornea aboga por un espacio pblico desestructurado, solo
articulado mediante la accin estratgica de las organizaciones sociales y los partidos polticos (Habermas,
/DSURSXHVWDGHO0SODQWHDSRUHOORXQPRGRGLVWLQWRGHSURWHVWDTXHSUHVXSRQHXQDVRFLHGDG
FLYLOGLIHUHQWHDODTXHKDVLGRKDELWXDOKDVWDDKRUD6HUHFKD]DODLPDJHQGHXQDVRFLHGDGFLYLOOLEHUDO
DLVODGDGHOGHYHQLUGHODSROtWLFDSHURWDPELpQVHQLHJDODSRVLELOLGDGGHXQDVRFLHGDGFLYLOUHSXEOLFDQD
EDVDGDHQYDORUHVFRPXQHV/DLQGLYLGXDOLGDGHQHO0PiVELHQODSOXUDOLGDGHVXQSUHUUHTXLVLWR6H
piensa la sociedad civil desde el individuo, pero, al contrario de los planteamientos del giro deliberativo de
la teora poltica, los intereses y las estrategias son pensados de forma colectiva en un medio pblico, fuera
GHODVRUJDQL]DFLRQHV'HVGHHOSXQWRGHYLVWDGHOJLURGHOLEHUDWLYRGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVDOQDOGHO
VLJORSDVDGRHO0KDIUDFWXUDGRODVIURQWHUDVHQODVTXHVHLQVHUWDEDODGHOLEHUDFLyQHQORVPRYLPLHQWRV
y ha sido capaz de empujarlas hacia fuera para implicar a la ciudadana en la deliberacin.

(VWRKDKHFKRTXHODGHOLEHUDFLyQVHDXQHOHPHQWRPHGXODUGHOPRYLPLHQWRTXHKDJHQHUDGRUHDFFLRQHV
contrarias en otras organizaciones y a su vez ha disciplinado todos los actos pblicos desde una perspectiva
concreta. En el 15-M, hay reglas claras de comportamiento poltico y de dilogo. La presencia de tcnicas
y procedimientos deliberativos es tan dominante en el movimiento (sus informes, sus actas, sus reuniones,
VXRUJDQL]DFLyQVXVHVWUDWHJLDVVXVFRQYHUVDFLRQHVHWFTXHODSUHJXQWDSRUVXVRUtJHQHVSUHWHQGHGLEXMDU
DOJXQDVKLSyWHVLVYLDEOHVTXHQRVSHUPLWDQFRPSUHQGHUPHMRUHOGHVDUUROORGHOLEHUDWLYRGHOPRYLPLHQWR
6LQRVDWHQHPRVDODVWpFQLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDVXWLOL]DGDVGHQWURGHODVDVDPEOHDVGHO0TXHVRQTXL]iODV
PiVHPEOHPiWLFDVSRUODVLPSOLFDFLRQHVTXHWLHQHDVDPEOHDVPXOWLWXGLQDULDVOH\GHOFRQVHQVRFRRUGLQD-
cin entre asambleas, etc), proponemos rastrearlas desde cuatro recorridos distintos: 1) la cultura poltica
de los centros sociales autogestionados, 2) una generacin de profesionales formados en cursos universita-
ULRVHVSHFLDOL]DGRVHQODSDUWLFLSDFLyQORVPRGRVGHGLVFXVLyQHQ,QWHUQHWDWUDYpVGHODVUHGHVVRFLDOHV
digitales y 4) una cultura poltica de la ciudadana abierta al dilogo.

1) Si no ha sido impulsado por los movimientos sociales tradicionales, las asociaciones o los sin-
 127 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

dicatos, ni tampoco por el movimiento alterglobalizacin, el 15-M est impregnado de una fuerte
FXOWXUD SROtWLFD DXWyQRPD TXH VH GHVDUUROOD SDUWLFXODUPHQWH HQ ORV FHQWURV VRFLDOHV DXWRJHVWLRQD-
dos, multiplicndose desde los aos ochenta con el impulso del movimiento okupa (Adell y Mar-
WtQH]  0DUWtQH]  6HJ~Q XQD GH ODV SHUVRQDV TXH LQLFLDURQ OD WRPD GH OD SOD]D OD QR-
che del 15 de mayo, las dinmicas deliberativas de los centros sociales se convirtieron en una
referencia en la organizacin desde el principio. La gente de los centros sociales no acudi hasta
el jueves, cuatro das ms tarde, cuando ya haba cientos de personas en la plaza y una organiza-
FLyQ LQFLSLHQWH HQ FRPLVLRQHV \ JUXSRV GH WUDEDMR<D VH KDEtDQ RUJDQL]DGR DVDPEOHDV \ VH KDEtD
DGTXLULGR HO FRQVHQVR \ OD QR YLROHQFLD FRPR SULQFLSLRV RUJDQL]DWLYRV 3HUR HV DOOt HQ ORV FHQWURV
sociales autogestionados, donde se aprenden tales tcnicas. El apoyo directo de los centros sociales
QR VH KL]R SUHVHQWH KDVWD TXH DSDUHFLHURQ ORV SUREOHPDV ORJtVWLFRV GHO PRYLPLHQWR HQ VXV LQLFLRV

(O0QRVHLQYHQWDODGHOLEHUDFLyQPiVELHQYLYHLQPHUVRHQXQFRQWH[WRHQHOTXHHVWiFRQVWDQ-
temente a debate. Tanto los movimientos sociales como las administraciones llevan tiempo hablando
de regenerar la poltica, de incrementar la participacin y el debate pblico. Los movimientos alterg-
lobalizacin la han teorizado y pretenden infundir a sus prcticas organizativas una lgica tanto deli-
EHUDWLYDFRPRSDUWLFLSDWLYDSRUORTXHVHUtDIiFLOPHQWHWUD]DEOHVXLQXHQFLDHQHOPRYLPLHQWRGHORV
LQGLJQDGRV,JXDOPHQWHQRKD\TXHROYLGDUODVPRYLOL]DFLRQHVVRFLDOHVUHFLHQWHVHQ(VSDxDFRPROD
movilizacin estudiantil contra el plan de Bolonia, el movimiento por una Vivienda digna o Juventud
6,1)XWXURTXHWDPELpQSUDFWLFDURQHOIXQFLRQDPLHQWRHQDVDPEOHDV3HURHVHQORVHVSDFLRVDXWyQR-
mos y autogestionados donde se experimenta con WpFQLFDV deliberativas dentro de las asambleas con
HOQGHJDUDQWL]DUHOEXHQIXQFLRQDPLHQWRGHXQGHEDWHVLQSHUGHUVXOyJLFDSDUWLFLSDWLYD6LYHPRVOD
organizacin de un centro social autogestionado como el de la Tabacalera en Madrid, es muy similar al
de la acampadasol, con asambleas generales, comisiones y grupos de trabajo (Botella, 2011). El apoyo
ORJtVWLFRGHORVFHQWURVVRFLDOHVIXHHOTXHDGHPiVD\XGDUtDDWUDVODGDUODGHOLEHUDFLyQGHORVPLFURHV-
pacios militantes al espacio pblico.

2WUDIXHQWHGHLQXHQFLDYLHQHGHMyYHQHVSURIHVLRQDOHVIRUPDGRVHQFXUVRVXQLYHUVLWDULRVHVSHFLDOL-
zados en participacin. El primero aparece en 1996 en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid dirigido
por el socilogo Tomas R. Villasante (1995). Su objetivo era ensear a estudiantes y a profesionales de
los municipios nuevas metodologas de trabajo sobre la participacin, basadas en la pedagoga de Paulo
Freire (1974) y la investigacin-accin participativa desarrollada en los aos 1970 y 1980 en Amrica
/DWLQDSDUDTXHORVSURSLRVFLXGDGDQRVGHFLGLHUDQODVDOWHUQDWLYDVSRVLEOHVDORVSUREOHPDVTXHFRP-
partan. Si los cursos universitarios puestos en marcha en Madrid, luego en Barcelona, en Sevilla y en
Bilbao, tuvieron una importancia considerable sobre el desarrollo de los presupuestos participativos en
Espaa (Ganuza y Francs, 2012), tambin desempean un papel no despreciable en la organizacin y
ODPRGHUDFLyQGHODVDVDPEOHDVGHO0(VWDLQXHQFLDSDVDSRUODLPSOLFDFLyQGHDQWLJXRVHVWXGLDQ-
WHVHQODVDVDPEOHDVSRSXODUHVTXHD\XGDQHQODVGLQiPLFDVDVDPEOHDULDVVHLPSOLFDQHQODVFRPLVLR-
QHVGHGLQDPL]DFLyQ\QRGXGDQHQDIURQWDUDVDPEOHDVPXOWLWXGLQDULDV3HURVXLQXHQFLDWDPELpQ
SDVDSRUODGLIXVLyQTXHVHKDKHFKRGHODSDUWLFLSDFLyQFRQOLEURVDUWtFXORVVHPLQDULRVFRQIHUHQFLDV
congresos y la confeccin, por ejemplo, de manuales gratuitos sobre mtodos participativos (Lorenza-
QDHWDOTXHFLUFXODQKDELWXDOPHQWHHQWUHRUJDQL]DFLRQHV\SURIHVLRQDOHVRGHJXtDVSUiFWLFDV
VREUHODGHOLEHUDFLyQTXHFLUFXODURQDPSOLDPHQWHSRUORVPHGLRVDXWyQRPRVGXUDQWHORV~OWLPRVDxRV
/RUHQ]R\0DUWtQH]/DSHUVSHFWLYDGHHVWRVFXUVRVVXDYL]DHOGLOHPDFRQHOTXHHPSH]iEDPRV
HVWHWUDEDMR6HSODQWHDQWpFQLFDVSDUWLFLSDWLYDVVRVWLFDGDVTXHWLHQHQHOREMHWLYRGHJDUDQWL]DUGHEDWHV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 128

y toma de decisiones cruciales para las organizaciones sin por ello perder las dinmicas deliberativas,
TXHLPSOLFDQODLQFOXVLyQGHWRGRVORVDIHFWDGRV\ODFRQVHFXFLyQGHDOWHUQDWLYDVUD]RQDGDV

(OSDSHOTXHWXYLHURQ,QWHUQHW\ODVUHGHVVRFLDOHVHVFUXFLDO/DVSODWDIRUPDVTXHODQ]DURQODFRQYR-
catoria para la manifestacin del 15 de mayo (Democracia real ya!, Juventud SIN futuro, Nolesvotes,
$QRQ\PRXV0DOHVWDUHWFVHFRQVWLWX\HURQSRUHVWHPHGLR1XPHURVDVSHUVRQDVTXHSDUWLFLSDQHQ
las asambleas del 15-M estn acostumbradas al espacio ciberntico, cuyo modo de funcionamiento
DELHUWR\SDUWLFLSDWLYRHQHOFDVRGHORVZLNLORVIRURVORVEORJVODVUHGHVVRFLDOHVHWFIDFLOLWDFRQ-
FHELUXQDRUJDQL]DFLyQRILQHSDUWLFLSDWLYD0XFKRVSDUWLFLSDQWHVVXHOHQLURQL]DUFRQHVWR\KDEODQ
GHODFUHDFLyQGHXQHVSDFLRRILQHDLPDJHQGHODVUHGHVRQOLQH(OHVStULWXGHLQWHUQHWTXHDSXQWD
como los espacios autnomos, a experimentar sin tomar el poder (Cardon, 2010), pudo estimular una
QXHYDIRUPDGHSHQVDU\GHDFWXDUHQODSURWHVWD(Op[LWRVHUHHMDHQODFDSDFLGDGGHPRYLOL]DFLyQ
del movimiento. Joan Subirats (2011: 67) subraya este papel de internet en la emergencia del 15-M:
El movimiento generado por la posibilidad de compartir, de construir en comn, de colaborar para
generar bienes y conocimientos basados en la agregacin y cooperacin entre personas. Ms all del
DSUHQGL]DMHGHWpFQLFDVUHODFLRQDOHVGHGHEDWH\GHFLVLyQTXHIDFLOLWDURQODFRRUGLQDFLyQGHODDFFLyQ
entre los participantes y la moderacin de las asambleas, la utilizacin de las redes sociales fue esen-
cial en la evolucin de los modos de organizacin de las asambleas. La retransmisin de asambleas
en Internet con millares de espectadores facilit la adopcin de innovaciones, ampli la audiencia y
permiti la transferencia de tcnicas deliberativas de una asamblea a otra de forma sencilla y rpida.

3RU~OWLPRKD\TXHPHQFLRQDUODFXOWXUDSROtWLFDGHODFLXGDGDQtD6HUtDLPSRVLEOHSHQVDUODJORED-
lizacin de un procedimiento tan exigente como la deliberacin sin la existencia previa de una cultura
SROtWLFDVHQVLEOHDHVWRVPHFDQLVPRV(QWpUPLQRVUDFLRQDOHVFXHVWDSHQVDUTXHXQDDVDPEOHDGHPiV
GHPLOSHUVRQDVFRPRODVTXHWXYLHURQOXJDUUHLWHUDGDPHQWHHQ6ROODVSULPHUDVVHPDQDVVHSXHGDOOH-
YDUDFDERGHOLEHUDWLYDPHQWH&RPRUHVXOWDLQJHQXRSHQVDUTXHXQPRYLPLHQWRSXHGHDOFDQ]DUXQDDX-
GLHQFLDItVLFDFHUFDQDDORVPLOORQHVGHSHUVRQDVVLPSOHPHQWHSRUTXHKDDFHUWDGRHQVXVHVWUDWHJLDV
Lo crucial de este desarrollo fue la aceptacin inmediata de la organizacin deliberativa por todos los
SUHVHQWHV\ODFDSDFLGDGTXHWXYRSDUDHQURODUDQXHYRVSDUWLFLSDQWHV(VWRFRQVLJXLyURPSHUODEDUUHUD
de la militancia y plantear un movimiento conformado mayoritariamente por no-militantes. Al princi-
pio, la deliberacin gener reticencias entre los militantes tradicionales, pues implicaba un civismo y
XQDFXOWXUDGHOUHVSHWRSRFRXVXDOHQWUHORVPRYLPLHQWRVGHL]TXLHUGD6LQHPEDUJRORVFRQLFWRVDO-
rededor de la disciplina deliberativa nunca supusieron un debate serio dentro del movimiento. Incluso
cuando se retir una pancarta feminista de la asamblea de Sol al principio, el problema nunca fue ms
DOOiGHXQGHEDWHHQODVUHGHVVRFLDOHVGLJLWDOHV/DGHOLEHUDFLyQ\WRGRORTXHHOODVXSRQHVHDFHSWy
tal cual: respeto al otro y a sus propuestas, no levantar la voz, siempre argumentar, lenguaje de signos
SDUDH[SUHVDUGHVDFXHUGR\WRPDGHGHFLVLRQHVFROHFWLYD6HDFHSWyHOKHFKRGHTXHQRKXELHUDOtGHUHV
\TXHWRGDODHVWUDWHJLDVHUHDOL]DUDGHIRUPDFRQVHQVXDGD/DSRVLELOLGDGGHODGHOLEHUDFLyQVHOHYDQWD
en el imaginario de la ciudadana frente a las actitudes no deliberativas de los partidos polticos o el
VLVWHPDSROtWLFRHQJHQHUDO8QDLPDJHQTXHHVWiEDVWDQWHH[WHQGLGDHQWUHODSREODFLyQHVSDxRODVLYH-
mos estudios de opinin pblica del CIS a lo largo de los aos2. Frente a un medio caracterizado como
 (QORVEDUyPHWURVGHRSLQLyQS~EOLFDGHO&,6ODFLXGDGDQtDGHVFRQItDPXFKRGHORVSROtWLFRVSLHQVDTXHQRH[SOLFDQVXVGHFLVLRQHV\TXHQRVHWLHQHHQ
cuenta a la ciudadana para tomarlas. En un estudio reciente con grupos de discusin en toda Espaa sobre la calidad de la democracia, realizado justo
DQWHVGHO0HQPDU]RGHOODPD\RUtDGHORVJUXSRVFULWLFDQHOHVFDVRFDUiFWHUGHOLEHUDWLYRGHOVLVWHPDSROtWLFR\ORVSDUWLGRV(VWRHVORTXHQRV
KDFHSHQVDUTXHHO0KD\DDOFDQ]DGRXQJUDGRGHDSUREDFLyQGHPiVGHOGHODFLXGDGDQtDHVSDxRODEDUyPHWUR&,6MXOLR\H[SOLFDHQSDUWH
el xito de la movilizacin, as como los resortes de ese xito.
 129 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

HOLWLVWD\ROLJiUTXLFRDMHQRDOGHEDWHS~EOLFR\SUHRFXSDGRSRUVDFDUDGHODQWHVXVGHFLVLRQHVDQWHV
TXHGHEDWLUODVHQHOHVSDFLRS~EOLFRHO0UHLYLQGLFDHOHVSDFLRS~EOLFRHOEHQHFLRGHGHEDWLUDOOt
ODVGHFLVLRQHVTXHDIHFWDQDWRGRHOPXQGRSURSRQLHQGRXQDRUJDQL]DFLyQSOHQDPHQWHGHOLEHUDWLYD
0XFKDVRUJDQL]DFLRQHVGHL]TXLHUGDVQRWDUGDURQHQDSHODUHOPRYLPLHQWRGHUHIRUPLVWD6LQHPEDUJR
su capacidad de movilizacin, as como su presencia en casi todas las capitales de provincia y multitud
GHPXQLFLSLRVKL]RTXHPXFKRVRWURVGHIHQGLHUDQHVHFLYLVPRGHOLEHUDWLYR

De las organizaciones militantes a la esfera pblica ciudadana

Si las prcticas deliberativas de los indignados vienen en parte de medios militantes (en general de los
PRYLPLHQWRVSRUODMXVWLFLDJOREDOHQSDUWLFXODUGHORVFHQWURVVRFLDOHVDXWRJHVWLRQDGRVDTXpOODVQRVH
restringen a ese mundo y sobrepasan rpidamente sus crculos. El movimiento se distingue por su capaci-
dad de crear un espacio deliberativo estructurado en el espacio pblico, pero adems de los militantes, hay
TXHFRQVLGHUDUODSUHVHQFLDGHXQDFXOWXUDSURIHVLRQDOYLQFXODGDDODVPHWRGRORJtDVSDUWLFLSDWLYDV\XQXVR
FRODERUDWLYRHQODVUHGHVVRFLDOHVPX\H[WHQGLGRHQWUHORVLQGLJQDGRV(QHVWHVHQWLGRHO0GHQHXQ
WHUULWRULRQXHYRDSDUWLUGHHVDFRQXHQFLDTXHSHUPLWLyODFRRUGLQDFLyQGHSHUOHVGHSHUVRQDVPX\GLIH-
rentes (profesionales, mileuristas, estudiantes y precarios). Con relacin a otras movilizaciones sociales,
KD\WUHVHOHPHQWRVTXHGLIHUHQFLDQHO0\TXHORGRWDQGHXQDVRQRPtDUHFRQRFLEOHHQWUHORVSURSLRV
indignados: la participacin individual YV la de los colectivos instituidos, la ausencia de un programa y de
lderes, y el lugar central dado a la deliberacin.

Se puede vincular la valorizacin del individuo en detrimiento de los grupos organizados con la indivi-
GXDOL]DFLyQFUHFLHQWHGHODVFRQGLFLRQHVGHH[LVWHQFLD\ODHOHYDFLyQGHOQLYHOGHHVWXGLRVTXHFRQGXFHORV
ciudadanos a privilegiar modos de compromiso ms individuales, distanciados y autnomos (Ion, 1997).
/RVSDUWLFLSDQWHVGHODDFDPSDGDVROVHSUHVHQWDQHQVXPDQLHVWRFRPRSHUVRQDVTXHKHPRVYHQLGR
OLEUH\YROXQWDULDPHQWH>@1RUHSUHVHQWDPRVDQLQJ~QSDUWLGRQLDVRFLDFLyQ1RVXQHXQDYRFDFLyQGH
cambio3. La toma de palabra es individual en las asambleas del 15-M, como lo explica esta participante:
&XDOTXLHUSHUVRQDSXHGHKDFHUXQDSURSXHVWDDWtWXORLQGLYLGXDOODDVDPEOHDHVODYR]GHORVLQGLYLGXRV
no organizados4. Los indignados retiraban sistemticamente las pancartas partidarias en la acampada,
GRQGHVHH[SUHVDXQDFUHDWLYLGDGLQGLYLGXDODWUDYpVGHODSURIXVLyQGHSHTXHxRVFDUWHOHVLPSURYLVDGRV\
HVFULWRVGHSXxR\OHWUD/RVSDUWLFLSDQWHVGHQXQFLDQLQPHGLDWDPHQWHFXDOTXLHUVLJQRLGHQWLWDULRFRPRHVWD
pancarta instalada en la plaza para la primera asamblea del barrio de Carabanchel, el 27 de mayo de 2011:
+D\TXHTXLWDUODSDQFDUWD'HPRFUDFLDUHDO\DHVHOPRYLPLHQWRGHWRGRVHVRHVHOQRPEUHGHXQDRU-
ganizacin! Las personas encargadas del respeto en las manifestaciones son invitadas a evitar toda pro-
paganda poltica, como lo explica el animador de un taller de respeto antes de la marcha del 23 de julio en
HOEDUULRGH9DOOHNDV6LVHUHSDUWHQSDQHWRVQRKD\TXHLPSHGLUORVSRUTXHQRVRPRVQLQJXQDDXWRULGDG
SDUDKDFHUORSHURKD\TXHGHFLUOHVDTXLHQHVORKDFHQODVUD]RQHVGHSRUTXpHOPRYLPLHQWRHVWiHQFRQWUD
En las manifestaciones, tambin dominan los carteles escritos de puo y letra, preparados individualmente
RHQJUXSR/RVVtPERORVGHSDUWLGRVRGHVLQGLFDWRVHVWiQFDVLDXVHQWHVPLHQWUDVTXHODVSRFDVEDQGHUDV
son las republicanas y palestinas. Si el movimiento se apoya as en las individualidades y no en los colec-
WLYRVSUHFRQVWLWXLGRVHVWRV~OWLPRVQRVHTXHGDQFRPSOHWDPHQWHDIXHUD1RVyORDOJXQRVGHVXVPLHPEURV

 KWWSPDGULGWRPDODSOD]DQHWPDQLHVWRFRQVXOWDGRHO
4 Observacin en la asamblea general de Puerta del Sol, el 17 de julio de 2011.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 130

VHLPSOLFDQHQODVDVDPEOHDVVLQRTXHSXHGHQWDPELpQHFKDUXQDPDQRSDUDFXHVWLRQHVRUJDQL]DWLYDV3RU
HMHPSORHVHO$WHQHR5HSXEOLFDQRGH9DOOHNDVXQDDVRFLDFLyQUHSXEOLFDQDDFWLYDORFDOPHQWHODTXHVH
encarga de la sonorizacin para la asamblea general del barrio y para varios eventos en Puerta del Sol.

3RURWURODGRPLHQWUDVTXHXQPRYLPLHQWRVRFLDOVHFDUDFWHUL]DWUDGLFLRQDOPHQWHSRUODGHQLFLyQGH
objetivos a alcanzar y de un adversario comn (Neveu, 2002), los indignados se niegan a elaborar un pro-
JUDPDTXHSXGLHUDUHXQLUORVIUHQWHDXQHQHPLJRGLItFLOGHDOFDQ]DUQRVyORHOJRELHUQRORVSDUWLGRVSR-
OtWLFRV\ORVVLQGLFDWRVTXHQRQRVUHSUHVHQWDQVLQRWDPELpQORVEDQTXHURVODVLQVWLWXFLRQHVQDQFLHUDV
internacionales y el sistema capitalista. La necesidad de adoptar o no un consenso de mnimos se convir-
WLyHQREMHWRGHQXPHURVRVGHEDWHVHQODVDVDPEOHDVGHODVSULPHUDVVHPDQDVGHODDFDPSDGDVRO+D\TXH
SRQHUVHGHDFXHUGRRQRVREUHXQDVHULHGHSURSXHVWDVTXHKDJDFRQVHQVRHQHOPRYLPLHQWR\GHQLUDVtXQ
SURJUDPDFRP~QGHDFFLRQHV"(OJUXSRGHWUDEDMRGHSROtWLFDDFRUWRSOD]RGHHQGHHVWDHVWUDWHJLD1HFH-
VLWDPRVXQPDQLHVWRTXHQRVUHSUHVHQWHQHFHVLWDPRVXQRVSLODUHVEiVLFRVSUHVHQWDQGRORTXHVRPRVKD\
TXHHODERUDUORV53RFRGHVSXpVHVWHJUXSRGHQLyFXDWURSURSXHVWDVGHPtQLPRVHQIRFDGDVDUHIRUPDU
el sistema poltico actual: reforma de la ley electoral, lucha contra la corrupcin, separacin efectiva de
los tres poderes, creacin de mecanismos de control ciudadano. No obstante, esta posicin estuvo lejos de
causar consenso en el movimiento. Incluso la adopcin de un consenso de mnimos no alcanz nunca el
UHVSDOGRGHODDVDPEOHDJHQHUDOGH6ROHQSDUWHSRUHOUHFKD]RTXHJHQHUDEDMHUDUTXL]DUODVSURSXHVWDV(V
PX\GLFLOHQFRQWUDUXQDPHWRGRORJtDSDUDSULRUL]DUQRVRPRVFDSDFHVGHGHVHFKDUSURSXHVWDVTXHRWURV
encontramos justas6(VWDVGLFXOWDGHVSDUDDOFDQ]DUFRQVHQVRVVRQVLQHPEDUJRDFHSWDGDV,PSOLFDQ
DSUHQGL]DMH\UHVSHWRDXQTXHOOHYHDSDUHMDGRFLHUWRLQPRYLOLVPR(QHOIRQGRSDUDPXFKRVHVODOtQHDLPD-
JLQDULDTXHVHSDUDHOPRYLPLHQWRGHXQDRUJDQL]DFLyQORTXHVXSRQGUtDFDHUHQODIRUPDOL]DFLyQLQWHUQD
3RUHVRPXFKRVSLHQVDQTXHDKtUHVLGHODIXHU]DGHO0&RPRGHFtDXQSDUWLFLSDQWHHQHOSULPHUIRUR
VRFLDOLQGLJQDGRHOGHMXOLRGHHO0HVWDQSOXUDOTXHQXQFDSRGUtDVHUXQPRYLPLHQWRSROtWLFR
FRQXQSURJUDPDSROtWLFRSHURSRGUtDPRVWHQHUDOLDGRVSROtWLFRVTXHGHQWURGHODVLQVWLWXFLRQHVGHIHQGLH-
UDQORTXHHVHO01RREVWDQWHFXDQGRVHDFHUFDURQODVHOHFFLRQHVJHQHUDOHVGHOGHQRYLHPEUHGH
2011, los indignados no slo se negaron a adoptar un programa y a designar lderes, sino tambin a apoyar
FXDOTXLHUFDQGLGDWRXRUJDQL]DFLyQSROtWLFD

/DLGHDGHFRQVHQVRHVFRQGHODVEUDVGHO0SXHVHVSUHFLVDPHQWHDTXpOODODTXHSHUPLWHVLWXDUOD
deliberacin como base de su organizacin interna. En Madrid, todas las asambleas respetan una serie de
reglas comunes, resumidas en la propuesta metodolgica transmitida por la asamblea general de Puerta del
Sol a los barrios y los pueblos cuando se descentraliz el movimiento a partir del 28 de mayo de 2011: El
objetivo ser promover en todas las asambleas del movimiento un funcionamiento transparente, horizontal,
\TXHSHUPLWDDWRGDVODVSHUVRQDVSDUWLFLSDUHQLJXDOGDGGHFRQGLFLRQHV7. Se ponen por delante cuatro
SULQFLSLRVIXQGDPHQWDOHVHQODySWLFDGHGHQLUXQDQXHYDOHJLWLPLGDGGHPRFUiWLFDODKRUL]RQWDOLGDGOD
LQFOXVLyQHOUHVSHWR\HOSHQVDPLHQWRFROHFWLYR)UHQWHDXQDGHPRFUDFLDUHSUHVHQWDWLYDTXHQRQRVUHSUH-
VHQWDORVLQGLJQDGRVSURFXUDQDVtFRQVWUXLUXQDYR]FROHFWLYDTXHVHDSR\HHQODGLYHUVLGDGGHODVRSLQLR-
nes de la poblacin. Se pone rpidamente en marcha un sistema de democracia directa, desde el primer da
GHODDFDPSDGDODQRFKHGHOGHPD\R/DVGLYHUVDVFRPLVLRQHVTXHVHRUJDQL]DQGHLQIUDHVWUXFWXUDVGH
DOLPHQWDFLyQGHVDOXGHWFDGPLQLVWUDQSUREOHPDVSUiFWLFRVGHHVWHHVSDFLRDXWRJHVWLRQDGRPLHQWUDVTXH

5 Intervencin en la reunin de los portavoces de las comisiones y grupos de trabajo de la asamblea general de Sol, el 27 de mayo de 2011.
6 Intervencin del portavoz del grupo de trabajo sobre los derechos animales en la reunin del 27 de mayo de 2011.
7 http://madrid.tomalosbarrios.net/metodologia-asamblearia/ (consultado el 06.01.2012).
 131 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

los grupos de trabajo (economa, poltica, educacin, medio ambiente, etc.) se enfocan ms hacia la accin
en la perspectiva de un cambio de sociedad. Se renen en asamblea pblica, una o varias veces a la semana,
HQODVSOD]DVFHUFDQDVSDUDSUHSDUDUORVSXQWRVTXHGLVFXWLU\ODVGHFLVLRQHVTXHWRPDUHQDVDPEOHDJHQHUDO
(VWDHVWUXFWXUDKRUL]RQWDOTXHVHPDQWLHQHHQ3XHUWDGHO6ROGHVSXpVGHOOHYDQWDPLHQWRGHODDFDPSDGDHO
GHMXQLRGHFRQHYROXFLRQHVHQHOULWPRGHODVDVDPEOHDVTXHGHGLDULRVHYXHOYHVHPDQDO\HQ
las temticas de ciertos grupos), es tambin adoptada en cada barrio y pueblo de la comunidad autnoma
con la descentralizacin del movimiento (Nez, 2011). Si movimientos sociales precedentes ya reinvendi-
caban los principios de horizontalidad, de inclusin y de transparencia, el 15-M se distingue tanto por el
OXJDUFHQWUDOTXHFRQFHGHDODGHOLEHUDFLyQFRPRSRUODLQVWDXUDFLyQGHWpFQLFDVGLVFLSOLQDULDVGHVWLQDGDV
a garantizar su aplicacin.

Deliberar en el espacio pblico

El paso de la deliberacin de las microesferas de las organizaciones militantes hacia la esfera pblica
FLXGDGDQDVHWUDGXFHHQSULPHUOXJDUHQXQDRFXSDFLyQGHOHVSDFLRS~EOLFRORTXHWLHQHXQLPSDFWRQR
despreciable sobre las prcticas deliberativas puestas en ejecucin. A pesar de la escasez de investigaciones
empricas sobre la dimensin espacial de las movilizaciones sociales, el espacio y el lugar se perciben cada
vez ms como esencial en el anlisis de la contestacin (Auyero, 2005). Ms all de la ocupacin de la
FDOOHTXHFRQVWLWX\HXQPRGRFOiVLFRGHSURWHVWDHQODVPDQLIHVWDFLRQHV\EDUULFDGDV7LOO\*RXOG
)LOOLHXOHGLIHUHQWHVWUDEDMRVPRVWUDURQFyPRHOHVSDFLRSXHGHWDPELpQFRQVWLWXLUXQUHFXUVR
RXQDFRDFFLyQHQODVPRYLOL]DFLRQHVFROHFWLYDV=KDR+PHG(ODQiOLVLVGHO0QRVLQYLWD
a establecer vnculos entre la inscripcin espacial de un movimiento social y sus prcticas deliberativas.
Los trabajos sobre los procesos participativos se interesaron relativamente poco por su dimensin espacial
VyORPRVWUDQGRTXHODHOHFFLyQGHORVOXJDUHVGHUHXQLyQ\ODFRQJXUDFLyQGHODVDXODVSXHGHQHVWLPXODU
RQRODSDUWLFLSDFLyQHQHOFDVRSRUHMHPSORGHORVFRQVHMRVGHEDUULRHQ)UDQFLD%ORQGLDX[\/pYrTXH
1999). No obstante, la gua metodolgica sobre las reuniones y asambleas de Ana Rosa Lorenzo y Miguel
Martnez (2001: 30) dedica un apartado especial sobre la organizacin del espacio: No atender a la dis-
WULEXFLyQHVSDFLDOHQODVUHXQLRQHVSXHGHWUDGXFLUVHHQTXHVHHQWRUSH]FDIXHUWHPHQWHVXGHVDUUROOR1R
VLUYHFXDOTXLHUOXJDUQLVLTXLHUDHOPLVPROXJDUSXHGHVHUDSURSULDGRSDUDUHXQLRQHVFRQGLVWLQWRQ~PHUR
de participantes. En el caso del 15-M, la eleccin deliberada de la calle y de las plazas para organizar las
acampadas y las asambleas aparece central en la promocin de prcticas participativas y deliberativas,
SRUODDSHUWXUDODSXEOLFLGDG\ODWUDQVSDUHQFLDGHORVGHEDWHVTXHHVWRVOXJDUHVLPSOLFDQ6HHVWLPXODDVt
ODSDUWLFLSDFLyQSRUTXHFLHUWDVEDUUHUDVYLQFXODGDVDORVHVSDFLRVFHUUDGRVGHVDSDUHFHQHVSRVLEOHSRU
ejemplo, asistir a una asamblea con los nios o los animales de compaa. Se reducen en este sentido los
FRVWHVGHODSDUWLFLSDFLyQ(OHVSDFLRS~EOLFRDSDUHFHSXHVFRPRXQOXJDUPHQRVUHJODPHQWDGRTXHORV
JHQHUDOPHQWHXWLOL]DGRVHQORVSURFHVRVLQVWLWXFLRQDOHVGHSDUWLFLSDFLyQFRPRODVDXODVGHHVFXHODORTXH
atrae a nuevos pblicos como los jvenes, menos propensos a venir a lugares institucionales. El espacio
pblico constituye pues un recurso para la accin colectiva, favoreciendo una diversidad de participantes,
eliminando fronteras a la participacin y dando una visibilidad al movimiento. Favorece tambin la efecti-
YLGDGGHOSULQFLSLRGHLJXDOGDG\DTXHWRGDVODVSHUVRQDVVHQWDGDVHQHOVXHORVHHQFXHQWUDQDOPLVPRQLYHO
VLQTXHVHHVWDEOH]FDQMHUDUTXtDV

Adems del argumento de la autonoma con respecto a los colectivos ya constituidos, los indignados
VHRSRQHQUHJXODUPHQWHDRWUDVSURSXHVWDVGHOXJDUHVGHUHXQLyQTXHQRWHQJDQHVWDGLPHQVLyQS~EOLFD
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 132

como locales de asociaciones de vecinos, centros sociales autogestionados o instalaciones culturales de

EDUULR/RVHVSDFLRVS~EOLFRVSUHVHQWDQQRREVWDQWHFRDFFLRQHVYLQFXODGDVDORVSRWHQFLDOHVFRQLFWRVGH
XVRGHOWHUULWRULR\DODVFRQGLFLRQHVFOLPiWLFDV$FDPSDUXRUJDQL]DUXQDDVDPEOHDHQXQDSOD]DVLJQLFD
en primer lugar, compartir el territorio con otras personas (comerciantes, vendedores o artistas ambulan-
WHVWUDQVH~QWHVSHUVRQDVLQKRJDUHWFFX\DVDFWLYLGDGHVSXHGHQHQWUDUHQFRQLFWRFRQODVGHODJRUD
FRQVWLWXLGD/RUHQ]R\0DUWtQH]SRUHMHPSORDGYLHUWHQTXHODVUHXQLRQHVGHEHUtDQKDFHUVHHQ
HVSDFLRVGRQGHQRVHHVWpUHDOL]DQGRDOPLVPRWLHPSRQLQJXQDRWUDDFWLYLGDGTXHSXHGDHQWRUSHFHU/DV
asambleas pblicas en las plazas se confrontan as con otros usos, particularmente comerciales y ldicos.
Las limitaciones de estos lugares pblicos dependen tambin de las condiciones meteorolgicas, por ejem-
plo, la lluvia o el sol puede hacer difcil o imposible el desarrollo de los debates. La llegada del invierno a
0DGULGIRU]yDORVLQGLJQDGRVDFDPELDUVXVOXJDUHVGHUHXQLyQORTXHWXYRXQLPSDFWRVREUHODDPSOLWXG
de la participacin y las prcticas de deliberacin. Por ejemplo, el desplazamiento de varias asambleas de
ORVJUXSRVGHWUDEDMRGH3XHUWDGHO6RODFDVDVRNXSDFRPRHO+RWHO0DGULGRFXSDGRDOQDOGHODPD-
QLIHVWDFLyQGHOGHRFWXEUHGHGHVDQLPyODSDUWLFLSDFLyQGHORVTXHQRHVWDEDQDFRVWXPEUDGRVD
pasar la puerta de tales lugares ilegales. Esta evolucin espacial de los lugares de asamblea tiene tambin
XQLPSDFWRVREUHODVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDVODFRQJXUDFLyQGHFLHUWRVOXJDUHVFHUUDGRVRSULYDGRVLQFLWDQ
PHQRVHOGHEDWH\ODGLVFXVLyQTXHORVHVSDFLRVS~EOLFRVGRQGHVHSXHGHVLVWHPiWLFDPHQWHRUJDQL]DUXQD
FRQJXUDFLyQFLUFXODUSDUDIDFLOLWDUODGHOLEHUDFLyQ

La instauracin de tcnicas disciplinarias

Adems de la ocupacin del espacio pblico, el 15-M se distingue de otros movimientos sociales por el
JUDGRGHIRUPDOL]DFLyQGHODGHOLEHUDFLyQFRQHOQGHHYLWDUODVWHQWDWLYDVGHFRQFHQWUDFLyQGHOSRGHU\OD
SURGXFFLyQGHMHUDUTXtDVGHQWURGHOPRYLPLHQWR(OSULPHUHOHPHQWRHVODURWDFLyQGHWRGDVODVIXQFLRQHV
instituida en oposicin a las lgicas de representacin y de delegacin poltica. Una comisin de dinamiza-
cin asegura la preparacin y la organizacin de las asambleas generales Puerta del Sol. En asambleas pbli-
FDVDELHUWDVDWRGRVGHQHHORUGHQGHOGtD\GHVLJQDDODVSHUVRQDVHQFDUJDGDVGHPRGHUDUODDVDPEOHDGH
WRPDUORVWXUQRVGHSDODEUDGHUHGDFWDUODVDFWDV\GHIDFLOLWDUODPRGHUDFLyQ(QODVDVDPEOHDVPiVSHTXH-
xDVFXDOTXLHUSDUWLFLSDQWHSXHGHVHUYROXQWDULRDOLQLFLRGHODUHXQLyQSDUDDVXPLUHVWDVIXQFLRQHVTXHVRQ
WRGDVURWDWLYDV/DURWDFLyQGHOPRGHUDGRUHVSDUWLFXODUPHQWHLPSRUWDQWHSRUTXHHMHUFHXQDLQXHQFLDQR
despreciable sobre el desarrollo de las asambleas, decidiendo por ejemplo abrir o no un turno de palabra. Por
otra parte, no hay representantes sino un sistema de portavoca rotativo, nicamente habilitados para trans-
mitir las decisiones de la asamblea en otros espacios, particularmente meditico. Se organizan as rotaciones
para responder a las preguntas de la prensa y representar el movimiento afuera. Este sistema de portavoca
rotativo funciona tambin internamente, para constituir por ejemplo la asamblea popular de Madrid (APM)
TXHSUHWHQGHGHQLUHVWUDWHJLDVGHDFFLyQFRP~QHQWUHORVEDUULRV\SXHEORVGHODFRPXQLGDGDXWyQRPD

$GHPiVHOGHVDUUROORGHODVDVDPEOHDVGHVFDQVDHQUHJODVFODUDVORTXHHYLWDTXHHOHTXLSRGHGLQD-
mizacin tenga un peso desmesurado. Antes de empezar, los moderadores siempre exponen las reglas
cvicas de un debate: respetar a la pluralidad, a los turnos de palabra, nunca elevar el tono de voz, siempre
argumentar y evitar discursos autocomplacientes. Una vez iniciada la sesin, todos los participantes se con-
vierten en vigilantes de la deliberacin a travs del lenguaje de signos creado para ello. En cuanto alguien
levanta la voz, adems del moderador, otros participantes suelen expresar directamente con sus manos el
descontento con dicha actitud. La deliberacin en el 15-M no es por ello un ideal de relacin poltica, sino
 133 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

XQFRPSHQGLRGHUHJODVTXHGLVFLSOLQDODVUHXQLRQHVDELHUWDV\TXHKDVLGRDFHSWDGRSRUWRGRVFRQYLUWLpQ-
dose cada participante en un vigilante del civismo deliberativo.

Una de las principales caractersticas de las asambleas madrileas es su funcionamiento por consenso
y no segn la lgica del voto mayoritario. Este modo de toma de decisiones ha sido objeto de debates
amplios y reiterados en el 15-M desde su nacimiento. An hoy sigue siendo una lnea de debate abierta y
el movimiento en Madrid todava no ha alcanzado un consenso a este respecto. A pesar de las situaciones
GH EORTXHR TXH SURYRFD VXV GHIHQVRUHV VHxDODQ DUGLHQWHPHQWH HO HVStULWX GHO PRYLPLHQWR FRQWUD HO
VLVWHPDGHVLHPSUHGHOTXHQRTXHUHPRVPiV8. Antes de validar una propuesta sondeando el conjunto de
ORVSDUWLFLSDQWHVHOPRGHUDGRUSLGHVLVWHPiWLFDPHQWHVLKD\XQDSHUVRQDUDGLFDOPHQWHHQFRQWUDRTXH
desea aportar matices. Si la propuesta genera oposicin, se abren turnos de palabra (limitados en nmero
\HQGXUDFLyQSDUDHVFXFKDUORVDUJXPHQWRVDIDYRU\HQFRQWUD3DUDWRPDUXQDGHFLVLyQKDFHIDOWDTXH
VHDDFHSWDGDSRUHOFRQMXQWRGHORVSDUWLFLSDQWHVHVGHFLUTXHQLQJ~QGLVHQVRDUJXPHQWDGRVHH[SUHVHHQ
la asamblea. Este mtodo implica intentar convencer al otro, y si no est de acuerdo, de presentarlo de
manera constructiva, como lo expresa un participante en una asamblea de barrio. Se trata pues de inter-
cambiar argumentos y contra-argumentos con el objetivo de formular y de reformular las propuestas, hasta
HQFRQWUDUQDOPHQWHXQDFXHUGRORTXHH[LJHWLHPSRFRPRORVXJLHUHODGLYLVDGHOPRYLPLHQWR9DPRV
OHQWRVSRUTXHYDPRVOHMRV(OREMHWLYRVLHPSUHSODQWHDGRDOLQLFLRGHODVDVDPEOHDVHVFRQVWUXLUSURJUH-
VLYDPHQWHXQSHQVDPLHQWRFRP~QTXHVHDLQFOXVLYRWRPDQGRHQFRQVLGHUDFLyQODRSLQLyQGHODVPLQRUtDV
\TXHEXVTXHHOELHQFRP~Q(OOHQJXDMHJHVWXDOD\XGDDODLQFOXVLyQSXHVSHUPLWHPDQLIHVWDUXQDSRVLFLyQ
sin perturbar la toma de palabra: levantando las manos en el aire, cruzndolas o haciendo el signo de una
rodadura, todo el mundo puede manifestar su acuerdo, su desacuerdo o su cansancio con respecto a una
intervencin. Se invitan tambin a los participantes a utilizar un lenguaje inclusivo, sistematizando por
HMHPSORHOJpQHURIHPHQLQRWRGDV>ODVSHUVRQDV@PiVELHQTXHWRGRVPLHQWUDVTXHVHJHQHUDOL]DOD
traduccin en lengua de signos en las grandes asambleas.

(VWDIRUPDOL]DFLyQGHODVUHJODVGHSDUWLFLSDFLyQ\GHGHOLEHUDFLyQHQODVDVDPEOHDVORJUDHYLWDUTXH
unos grupos organizados monopolicen la palabra, como pudo ser el caso en otros episodios histricos9.
Los miembros de organizaciones polticas, sociales o sindicales no llegan a imponer su punto de vista en
ODVDVDPEOHDVJHQHUDOHVSRUTXHODUHJODPHQWDFLyQGHORVWXUQRVGHSDODEUD\ODWRPDGHGHFLVLRQHVSRU
FRQVHQVRQROHVGDPiVSHVRHQODGLVFXVLyQTXHDFXDOTXLHURWURLQGLYLGXR3RUHMHPSORORVPLHPEURVGHO
JUXSRGHWUDEDMRODERUDOHQ9DOOHNDVTXHVRQPLHPEURVGHVLQGLFDWRVLQWHQWDQUHSHWLGDVYHFHVLPSRQHUXQD
LGHQWLGDGHOPRYLPLHQWRREUHUR\PRGRVGHDFFLyQFRPRODKXHOJDJHQHUDOTXHQRFRQVLJXHQDOFDQ]DU
un consenso en la asamblea general. Si los debates son a menudo largos y agitados entre los miembros de
este grupo de trabajo y los dems participantes, las reglas de la deliberacin no les permiten imponerse
en este espacio. Adems, el principio de rotacin de las funciones, particularmente las de moderador y de
SRUWDYR]HYLWDTXHHPHUMDQFDEH]DVYLVLEOHVGHOPRYLPLHQWRTXHSRGUtDQRWRUJDUVHHOGHUHFKRDKDEODU
HQVXQRPEUH(QODDVDPEOHDJHQHUDOGH3XHUWDGHO6RODH[FHSFLyQGHODEXHORGHODUHYROXFLyQTXH
buscan a menudo los medios de comunicacin por su implicacin diaria con ms de ochenta aos, nadie se
LGHQWLFDFODUDPHQWHFRPRUHSUHVHQWDQWHGHO0$XQTXHODDXVHQFLDGHUHJODVFODUDVVREUHODIXQFLyQ
GHSRUWDYR]LQWURGX]FDOyJLFDVGHUHSUHVHQWDFLyQ\GHGHOHJDFLyQSROtWLFDHQRUJDQL]DFLRQHVTXHSRQHQHQ
YDORUVLQHPEDUJRODGHOLEHUDFLyQHQVXIXQFLRQDPLHQWRLQWHUQR0RXFKDUGODFODULFDFLyQGHODV
8 Intervenciones de un grupo de jvenes a favor del consenso en la asamblea general de Sol, el 3 de julio, dedicada al debate sobre el funcionamiento por
FRQVHQVRRSRUPD\RUtDGHFXDWURTXLQWRV
9 Ver particularmente, sobre la burocratizacin de los sovietes en el momento de la revolucin rusa, Ferro (1980).
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 134

reglas de juego por los indignados garantiza el respeto de los principios de horizontalidad, de transparencia
y de inclusin.

Los militantes frente al 15-M

La deliberacin as formalizada crea un punto de divergencia entre los indignados y los colectivos ins-
tituidos. Los representantes polticos, sindicales y asociativos sienten la concurrencia por la emergencia de
otras fuentes de legitimidad en las asambleas populares, como ya es el caso en los dispositivos participati-
YRVIXQGDGRVVREUHXQDSDUWLFLSDFLyQLQGLYLGXDO\XQLYHUVDO*DQX]D\1H]/RVFRQLFWRVUHFXUUHQ-
WHVTXHRSRQHQORVPLHPEURVGHOJUXSRGHWUDEDMRODERUDODRWURVSDUWLFLSDQWHVGHODDVDPEOHDJHQHUDOGH
Puente de Vallekas revelan las tensiones entre el 15-M y las organizaciones tradicionales. La oposicin es
VLVWHPiWLFDHQODVDVDPEOHDVGHHVWHEDUULRHQWUHDOJXQRVKRPEUHVGHVHVHQWDDxRVTXHVHLPSOLFDQHQHVWH
JUXSRGHWUDEDMRDSDUWLUGHXQDH[SHULHQFLDGHOVLQGLFDOLVPRREUHUR\HOUHVWRGHODDVDPEOHDTXHGHHQGH
una identidad ms amplia, como lo expresa este participante:

/RTXHKHHQWHQGLGRHVTXHQRVHVLHQWHUHSUHVHQWDGR>HOSRUWDYR]HOJUXSRGHWUDEDMRGHQXQFLDODVDFWDVGHODDVDPEOHD
DQWHULRU@SHUR\RQRPHVLHQWRUHSUHVHQWDGRSRUYRVRWURV(OPRYLPLHQWRREUHURHVWiELHQSHURKD\JHQWHQRREUHUDDTXt
somos artistas, autnomos, etc. Estoy harto de siempre los obreros, no me siento representado por vosotros, lo siento10!

/RVFRQLFWRVVHUHHUHQQRVyORDORVPHGLRVGHDFFLyQODKXHOJDJHQHUDO\ODLGHQWLGDGHOPRYLPLHQWR

obrero) propuestos por este grupo de trabajo, sino tambin sobre el mtodo deliberativo en s. Los miembros
GHHVWHJUXSRSRQHQHQWHODGHMXLFLRHOKHFKRGHWHQHUTXHLQVFULELUVHSDUDWRPDUODSDODEUD\UHVSHWDUODUHJOD
GHORVWXUQRVGHSDODEUDOLPLWDGRVDORTXHORVMyYHQHVSDUWLFLSDQWHVGHODDVDPEOHDOHVUHVSRQGHQTXHSXH-
GHQWRPDUODSDODEUDSHURQRHQFXDOTXLHUPRPHQWR\VLHPSUHVHJ~QODVUHJODVGHQLGDVSUHYLDPHQWH11.

(VWDVWHQVLRQHVHQWUHGRVJHQHUDFLRQHVGHPLOLWDQWHVWUDGXFHQFRQLFWRVGHOHJLWLPLGDGHQWUHORVPRGH-
ORVGHGHPRFUDFLDSDUWLFLSDWLYD\UHSUHVHQWDWLYD3XHGHTXHVHDQSDUWLFXODUPHQWHYLVLEOHVHQ9DOOHNDVSRU
la historia del movimiento social en el barrio. Pero las encontramos tambin en otras asambleas de barrio
del 15-M o en las asambleas generales en Puerta del Sol. Adems, el civismo deliberativo de los indignados
ha sobrepasado sus propias fronteras, contaminando otros movimientos como el de los profesores de la en-
seanza secundaria. Estos se organizan desde el mes de julio de 2011 en contra de los recortes en el presu-
puesto de la educacin de la comunidad autnoma de Madrid, inspirndose en el modo de funcionamiento
de los indignados. Los intercambios entre una profesora de unos treinta aos y dos responsables sindicales
treinta aos mayores, en una reunin de profesores en la corona metropolitana del Sur de Madrid, el 13 de
RFWXEUHGHUHYHODQORVFRQLFWRVGHOHJLWLPLGDG\GHSRGHUYLQFXODGRVDODDGRSFLyQGHXQPRGRGH
RUJDQL]DFLyQPiVSDUWLFLSDWLYRTXHUHSUHVHQWDWLYR

/DSURIHVRUD/RVVLQGLFDWRVPD\RULWDULRVKDQGHFLGLGR>HOQ~PHURGHGtDVGHKXHOJDV@VLQFRQVXOWDUDORVSURIHVRUHV
6HQRVQLQJXQHDDORVSURIHVRUHV(VWiQORVVLQGLFDWRVSHURORVSURIHVRUHVTXHUHPRVXQVLVWHPDDVDPEOHDULRQRWRGRV
estamos en sindicatos pero tenemos derecho a opinar.

10 Intervencin en la asamblea general de Puente de Vallekas, el 16 de julio de 2011.

11 2EVHUYDFLyQGHXQDDOWHUFDFLyQHQWUHORVPLHPEURVGHOJUXSRGHWUDEDMRODERUDO\MyYHQHVSDUWLFLSDQWHVDOQDOGHODDVDPEOHDJHQHUDOGHOGHMXOLRGH
2011.
 135 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

La dirigente sindical: Hablamos de mayoras cuando en Comisiones Obreras nos han votado 11.000 personas en las
~OWLPDVHOHFFLRQHVUHSUHVHQWDPRVDPiVGHDOLDGRV/DVPD\RUtDVVRQPX\UHODWLYDV>@6RPRVORVTXHTXH
tienen ms representacin en la primaria para impulsar un movimiento fuerte. Tenemos la experiencia, sin nosotros,
QRWHQpLVIXHU]DVXFLHQWH

(OGLULJHQWHVLQGLFDO<RUHFLERPXFKDVFUtWLFDVFRQWUDORVVLQGLFDWRV\ORVSDUWLGRVSHURKDQYRWDGRHOGHORV
YRWDQWHVORVVLQGLFDWRVWLHQHQUHSUHVHQWDWLYLGDG1RVHSXHGHGHFLUDORVWUHVVLQGLFDWRVTXHQRQRVKDFHQFDVR<ORV
TXHQRVKDQYRWDGRTXLpQOHVUHSUHVHQWD"

0iVDOOiGHHVWRVFRQLFWRVGHOHJLWLPLGDGHQWUHGRVFRQFHSFLRQHVGHODGHPRFUDFLDHOPRYLPLHQWRGH
ODHQVHxDQ]DVHFXQGDULDHQODFRPXQLGDGDXWyQRPDGH0DGULGPXHVWUDTXHHOPRGRGHRUJDQL]DFLyQGH
los indignados y las tcnicas deliberativas utilizadas en las asambleas populares comenzaron a difundirse
HQRWURVVHFWRUHVVRFLDOHV1RVyORHVHOOHQJXDMHJHVWXDOGHO0TXHVHDGRSWDUiSLGDPHQWHHQDVDP-
EOHDJHQHUDOHVSRUUD]RQHVSUiFWLFDVIUHQWHDXQDJUDQDXHQFLDGHSURIHVRUHVDODQXQFLRGHORVUHFRUWHV
SUHVXSXHVWDULRVVLQRWDPELpQHOPRGRGHODDVDPEOHDDGLIHUHQWHVHVFDODVLQVWLWXWRVVHFWRUHVJHRJUiFRV
FRPXQLGDGDXWyQRPDGH0DGULG\ODVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDVTXHORDFRPSDxDQPRGHUDFLyQH[WHULRUD
los sindicatos, rotacin de las funciones, igualdad en las tomas de palabra, etc.). En esta movilizacin de la
enseanza secundaria, se pone progresivamente en marcha un sistema de democracia directa, en paralelo
GHODFOiVLFDUHSUHVHQWDFLyQVLQGLFDO3HQVDPRVTXHHO0HVDVtVXVFHSWLEOHGHDEULUXQQXHYRFLFORGH
PRYLOL]DFLyQWDOFRPRORGHQH6LGQH\7DUURZXQDRODFUHFLHQWHOXHJRGHFUHFLHQWHGHDFFLR-
QHVFROHFWLYDVHVWUHFKDPHQWHUHODFLRQDGDV\GHUHDFFLRQHVDpVWDVTXHVHFDUDFWHUL]DSRUODLQWHQVLFDFLyQ
GHOFRQLFWRVXGLIXVLyQJHRJUiFD\VRFLDOODDSDULFLyQGHDFFLRQHVHVSRQWiQHDV\GHQXHYDVRUJDQL]DFLR-
QHVODFUHDFLyQGHQXHYRVUHIHUHQWHVLGHROyJLFRV\ODH[WHQVLyQGHOUHSHUWRULRGHDFFLyQ0LHQWUDVTXHORV
modos tradicionales de movilizacin, como los sindicatos y las asociaciones de vecinos, estan declinando
1DYDUUR)RQWD6XELUDWVORVLQGLJQDGRVSRGUtDQDVtDSRUWDUXQQXHYRVRSORDODDFFLyQ
colectiva en Espaa, renovando a los militantes y poniendo la cuestin de la deliberacin en el centro del
repertorio de accin.

Conclusin
La extensin de la deliberacin ms all de las esferas militantes se explica por la originalidad del 15-
0TXHVHLQVSLUDHQSDUWHGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVH[LVWHQWHV\GHODFXOWXUDSROtWLFDDXWyQRPDSHUR
WDPELpQGHRWUDVFXOWXUDVSURIHVLRQDOHV\FLXGDGDQDV+D\TXHUHODFLRQDUDVtODVSUiFWLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDV
DGRSWDGDVHQODVDVDPEOHDVGHO0FRQHOJLURGHOLEHUDWLYRTXHVHSURGXMRQRVRORHQORVPRYLPLHQWRV
VRFLDOHVVLQRWDPELpQHQODDFFLyQS~EOLFDORFDOFRQODVIRUPDFLRQHVSURIHVLRQDOHVTXHOHDFRPSDxDQ\
PiVDPSOLDPHQWHHQHOXVRFRODERUDWLYRGH,QWHUQHW\GHODVUHGHVVRFLDOHV/DJHQHDORJtDPX\HVSHFtFD
GHHVWDPRYLOL]DFLyQTXHQRKDVLGRFRQYRFDGDSRUODVRUJDQL]DFLRQHVWUDGLFLRQDOHVVLQRSRUSODWDIRUPDV
recientemente constituidas en Internet, explica sus principales caractersticas: la valorizacin del individuo
FRQWUDWRGDIRUPDGHFROHFWLYRLQVWLWXLGRHOUHFKD]RGHGHQLUXQSURJUDPD\GHHVFRJHUDOtGHUHV\HO
lugar central concedido a la deliberacin para toda accin y toma de decisiones. De este modo los indig-
nados han hecho posible construir un espacio pblico amplio, incluyendo al conjunto de la ciudadana,
y un espacio deliberativo, es decir, atravesado por procedimientos disciplinarios orientados a proteger la
GHOLEHUDFLyQ(VWRKDVLGRSRVLEOHSRUTXHORUHDOPHQWHGLVWLQWLYRGHVXVSODQWHDPLHQWRVFtYLFRVKDVLGROD
ocupacin del espacio pblico para transformarlo en espacio poltico y la fuerza disciplinaria, en trminos
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 136

GHOLEHUDWLYRVFRQODTXHHOPRYLPLHQWRORVKDOOHYDGRDFDER(O0SRQHDVtHQHYLGHQFLDODLPSRUWDQ-
cia de formalizar las tcnicas deliberativas para hacer efectiva la deliberacin en un movimiento social y
RSRQHUVHDODOH\GHKLHUURGHODROLJDUTXtDDXQTXHVHQRWDQWDPELpQIRUPDVGHLQVWLWXFLRQDOL]DFLyQGHO
movimiento al paso del tiempo.

La permanencia en el tiempo de este sistema de democracia directa provoca inevitablemente formas

de rutinizacin de las prcticas participativas y deliberativas, como lo hemos observado siguiendo durante
ms de ocho meses las asambleas madrileas. La multiplicacin de las asambleas, de las comisiones y de
los grupos de trabajo, a todas las escalas, pone a prueba el principio de horizontalidad. Poco a poco se di-
IXQGHODLPSUHVLyQHQORVEDUULRV\SXHEORVTXHODDVDPEOHDJHQHUDOGH3XHUWDGHO6ROVHLQVFULEHDUULEDGH
las dems asambleas, por su visibilidad popular: Introducimos una centralizacin dentro de la toma de de-
cisin cuando ponemos la asamblea de Sol como un elemento central en comparacin con los barrios. Es el
primer paso hacia una estructura vertical del poder12. La disminucin regular del nmero de participantes
HQODVDVDPEOHDVHQ3XHUWDGHO6ROFRPRHQORVEDUULRVGLFXOWDWDPELpQHOUHVSHWRGHODUHJODGHURWDFLyQ
GHORVSRUWDYRFHV\GHORVHTXLSRVGHPRGHUDFLyQSRUIDOWDGHYROXQWDULRV/RVPLHPEURVGHODVFRPLVLR-
nes de dinamizacin de las asambleas, conscientes de esta deriva, hacen convocatorias regulares para una
URWDFLyQGHVXVHTXLSRV4XHYHQJDJHQWHDGLQDPL]DFLyQ+R\WXYLPRVSRUSULPHUDYH]TXHUHSHWLUXQ
PRGHUDGRUQRHVEXHQRYHUVLHPSUHODVPLVPDVFDUDVODGLQDPL]DFLyQWLHQHTXHURWDUSDUDTXHQRSDUH]-
camos como los dirigentes de la asamblea131RREVWDQWHQRVSDUHFHTXHODGLVPLQXFLyQGHOQ~PHURGH
participantes en las comisiones y los grupos de trabajo no est sin relacin con el modo de decisin por con-
senso, cuya lentitud aumenta los costes de la participacin y penaliza a los participantes menos politizados.
(QORVEDUULRV\ORVSXHEORVODVKRUDVGHGHEDWHGHGLFDGDVDODGHQLFLyQGHODRUJDQL]DFLyQSUiFWLFDGHOD
asamblea, luego las discusiones interminables sobre tal o tal punto al orden del da, desanima a las personas
menos acostumbradas a la accin colectiva. Paradjicamente, contra la identidad misma del movimiento,
las asambleas del 15-M corren el peligro de transformarse en asambleas de activistas (Castells, 2012),
PLHQWUDVTXHVXVWpFQLFDVGHOLEHUDWLYDVHVWiQGLIXGLpQGRVHHQODVPRYLOL]DFLRQHVGHRWURVVHFWRUHVVRFLDOHV

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 137 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS

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139 15M AND INDIGNADO MOBILIZATIONS
INTERNATIONALIZATION
OF PROTESTS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 142

The notion of the Multitude and lessons from the present

cycle of struggles: the case of Greece

NIKOS SOTIRAKOPOULOS
University of Kent

Abstract
7KH0XOWLWXGHDVDFRQFHSWDQDO\]HGE\+DUGWDQG1HJULKDVWZRPHDQLQJV7KHUVW
LVDVDFODVVQRWLRQGHVFULELQJWKHZLGHQHGIRUPDWLRQRIWKHSUROHWDULDWLQWKHHUDRI
post-Fordist capitalism. In addition, it can be understood as the unmediated biopoliti-
FDOSURGXFWLRQRIDSRWHQWLDOO\UHYROXWLRQDU\VXEMHFWZKLFKGXHWRWKHVRFLDOL]DWLRQRI
SURGXFWLRQDQGWKHULVHRIJHQHUDOLQWHOOHFWDVDGULYLQJIRUFHLQWRGD\VFDSLWDOLVPKDV
constituted capital a parasitic relationship, useless in all parts of the productive schema
DQGDVRRQWRGLVDSSHDUGHJHQHUDWHGDQWLTXH%RWKDVDFODVVGHVFULSWLRQDQGDVDSROLWL-
cal project, the Multitude seems to be based on an overly optimistic and incomplete
DQDO\VLV7KHUHFHQWF\FOHRIVWUXJJOHVKHUHH[SORULQJWKHFDVHRI*UHHFHKDVVKRZQ
WKDWHYHQLI WKH 0XOWLWXGH LV LQGHHG DQ H[LVWLQJ VRFLDO VXEMHFW ZKLFK LV WKH SRWHQWLDO
EHDUHURISRVWFDSLWDOLVWHPDQFLSDWLRQDQXQZLOOLQJQHVVWRHQJDJHZLWKSROLWLFVDQGWKH
abandonment of some traditional forms of political organization, such as the party or
DIURQWFODLPLQJSRZHUVHULRXVO\KLQGHUVWKHSURVSHFWRIUHDOUDGLFDOFKDQJHDQGRQO\
ensures defeat.

Keywords
Greece, Hardt, Multitude, Negri, Syntagma

7KHQRWLRQRIWKH0XOWLWXGHDVDVRFLDOVXEMHFWXQLI\LQJWKRVHOLYLQJDQGZRUNLQJXQGHUFDSLWDOZKLFK
has the potential to become the bearer of social change in the globalized era of the 21st century, has been
TXLWHLQXHQWLDOLQDFDGHPLFDQGUDGLFDOFLUFOHVIRUWKHSDVWWHQ\HDUV$SSHDULQJDVSDUWRIDFKDLQLQDORQJ
SKLORVRSKLFDODQGSROLWLFDOWUDGLWLRQZKLFKKDVLWVURRWVLQ,WDOLDQDXWRQRPLVW0DU[LVPLWLVVXSSRVHGWR
NHHSWKHPRPHQWXPRIUDGLFDOWKHRU\DOLYHZKLOHDWWKHVDPHWLPHDYRLGLQJWKHGRJPDVRIWKHSDVWZKLFK
are considered outdated and pass. The aim of this paper is to examine these assumptions through the prism
RIWKHF\FOHRIVWUXJJOHVWKDWWKHZRUOGKDVH[SHULHQFHGRYHUWKHODVW\HDUV

From the large protests of the anti-globalization movement to the revolt in Greece in December 2008,
DQGIURP7DKULU6TXDUHWRWKH2FFXS\PRYHPHQWVLQWKHPHWURSROHLVRIWKHZHVWHUQZRUOGLWKDVEHHQ
DUJXHGE\YDULRXVVFKRODUVWKDWZKDWZHDUHREVHUYLQJLVWKHPDWHULDOL]DWLRQHYHQLQDQHPEU\RQLFIRUP
RIWKHUDGLFDOSRWHQWLDORIWKH0XOWLWXGH+RZHYHUZKDWVHHPVWREHPLVVLQJLVDSUDJPDWLFHYDOXDWLRQRI
WKHVHVWUXJJOHV:KDWFRQFOXVLRQVFDQEHGUDZQIURPVXFKDULFKH[SHULHQFH"$UHWKHVHPRYHPHQWVWREH
celebrated as an explosion of energy and resistance from the grassroots level, or should their lack of tan-
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ZLWKWKHWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNVWKDWXQGHUSLQWKHP"
 143 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

,ZLOOEHJLQP\DQDO\VLVE\SUHVHQWLQJDVKRUWUHYLHZRIWKHQRWLRQRIWKH0XOWLWXGHLWVKLVWRULFDOURRWV
DQGKRZLWKDVEHHQDUWLFXODWHGDQGSUHVHQWHGDVWKHUDGLFDOFRQFHSWSDUH[FHOOHQFH for the struggles of the
early 21stFHQWXU\7KHQLWVDSSOLFDWLRQZLOOEHWHVWHGLQWKHFDVHVWXG\RI*UHHFH7KHDQDO\VLVZLOOIRFXV
RQWKHF\FOHRIVWUXJJOHVRIWKHODVWWKUHH\HDUVLQ*UHHFHEHJLQQLQJZLWKWKHWXUEXOHQWGD\VZKLFKIRO-
ORZHGWKHSROLFHVKRRWLQJRIDVWXGHQWLQ'HFHPEHUDQGFRQWLQXLQJZLWKWKHPXOWLIDULRXVVWUXJJOHV
against the imposition of extreme-austerity measures by the International Monetary Fund, the European
8QLRQDQGWKH(XURSHDQ&HQWUDO%DQNRUWKHWURLNDDVLWKDVEHFRPHFRPPRQO\NQRZQDQGWKH*UHHN
JRYHUQPHQWV0RUHHPSKDVLVZLOOEHJLYHQWRWKHSHDNRIWKLVVWUXJJOHZKLFKWRRNSODFHLQWKHVXPPHURI
ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWRIWKH)UXVWUDWHGWKHHTXLYDOHQWRIWKH6SDQLVKLQGLJQDGRVDQGWKHEXLOGLQJ
RIDPRYHPHQWFHQWUHGLQWKHRFFXSLHG6\QWDJPD6TXDUH

,WZLOOEHVKRZQWKDWZKLOHWKHQRWLRQRIWKH0XOWLWXGHFDQEHDTXLWHXVHIXODQDO\WLFDOWRROIRUWKHXQGHU-
VWDQGLQJRIWKHPRGHUQWHFKQLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQRIODERXUDQGWRZDUGVGUDZLQJDPRGHUQPDSRIUHVLVWDQFH
QHWZRUNVLWLVDWOHDVWIRUWKHPRPHQWLQDGHTXDWHDVDEHDUHURIUDGLFDOVRFLRSROLWLFDOFKDQJH7KXVTXHV-
WLRQVDULVHDVWRZKHWKHUSROLWLFDOFRQFHSWVWKDWKDYHEHHQORQJGHFODUHGLQHIIHFWLYHRUHYHQXQZHOFRPH
such as the party or the political front, should be re-evaluated in light of the current capitalist crisis and the
LQDELOLW\RIWKHVRFLDOVWUDWDDIIHFWHGE\LWWREXLOGVXIFLHQWIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFHDQGFRXQWHUDWWDFN

On the notion of the Multitude

Multitude as a class concept and as a political potentiality

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having as the main characteristic that links its subjects the symbolic common code that language offers. Virno
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 144

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With the intellectual companionship of Michael Hardt, over the last decade Negri has developed the
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immaterial labour and biopolitical production.

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For them, labour has undergone an important transformation in the post-Fordist paradigm. The major char-
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compared to the peasants or the small craftsmanship, this class and its accompanying mode of production
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These very same characteristics seem to engulf social areas beyond the sphere of immaterial production,
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though that immaterial production is becoming the prevailing paradigm in the present stage of capitalism,
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 145 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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the ability of the state and capital to produce social life itself, besides controlling material production (Hardt
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penetrates every aspect of everyday life and transforms it according to its needs (Curcio and Franceschini,
2007). :HDUHKHUHGHDOLQJZLWKWKHUHDOVXEVXPSWLRQQRWRQO\RIODERXUEXWRIOLIHLWVHOIXQGHUFDSLWDO. The
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laboration, the Multitude creates, besides commodities, forms of subjectivity and even social life itself.
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tion at its purest.

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hards of Marxian sociology. Most importantly, for its advocates, it is also a political concept. It has to be
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according to Hardt and Negri, one preserves his individuality by participating in the biopolitical production
of the Multitude. Instead of a homogenous mass, the Multitude in its potential as a political actor is better
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1970s (see his Books for Burning, 2005), he and Hardt argue that since the form of the political subject
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union belong to the past. According to Hardt and Negri, in the era of the free and unmediated biopolitical
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idea of representation is objected to, since ...it eclipses or homogenizes singularities in the construction
of identity, restricts the production of the common by undermining the necessary freedom and plurality
(Hardt and Negri, 2011a, p. 305). Accordingly, the Multitude is indifferent to the taking of the state, as its
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of capitalist domination have changed. Hardt and Negri claim that the direct extraction of surplus value,
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 146

although it still takes place2LVQRWWKHVROHVRXUFHRISURWIRUWKHFDSLWDO:KDWLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWLVWKHH[-

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appropriate the value of the product. The importance of this shift is enormous for Hardt and Negri. Since
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Theoretical problems with the concept of the Multitude

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is not a subject that is already existing. It is a procedure under never-ending realization. As the authors
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its demise or, moreover, create an alternative to capitalist rule. (...) We can bet on the rupture of the relation of capital
and build politically on the emerging autonomy of biopolitical labour. The open social relation presented by capital

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to be distinguished from non-labour time (Hardt and Negri, 2006:145)
 147 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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izing their actually existing perceptions of political action as extremely problematic. Having rejected the
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speak of exodus (2004).

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explanations of the exodus concept are far from persuading.

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This brings to mind the exhausted notion of the Temporary Autonomous Zone, popular in countercultural
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LQJ3RZHUWKH0HDQLQJRI5HYROXWLRQ7RGD\ (2005) and &UDFN&DSLWDOLVP (2010), argues that the radical
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DQVZHURQZK\WKHVWDWHDQGFDSLWDOZRXOGHYHUDOORZWKHHYHQHYROXWLRQDU\DVRSSRVHGWRUHYROXWLRQDU\
FUHDWLRQRIVXFKFRXQWHUVRFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQV$QGWKHUHDUHDOZD\VWKHELJTXHVWLRQVRIZKHWKHURUQRWWKHVH
SURMHFWVDFWXDOO\DLPWRFRPSOHWHO\RYHUWKURZWKHFDSLWDOUHODWLRQZLWKDOOLWVFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRUZKHWKHU
EHKLQGDIDQF\ZUDSSLQJWKHUHLVRQO\DQLPDJLQHGFDSLWDOLVPZLWKDPRUHKXPDQIDFH

Besides the problematic detachment of the Multitude to any practical political project, criticisms of
+DUGWDQG1HJULJRIXUWKHUWRPRUHWKHRUHWLFDODVSHFWV+RZPXFKLVLPPDWHULDOODERXUZLWKDOOWKHFKDU-
DFWHULVWLFVDWWULEXWHGWRLWDFWXDOO\GRPLQDQWLQUHDOOLIH"7UXHVRPHRQHZRUNLQJLQDXQLYHUVLW\RUDODZ\HU
PLJKWH[SHULHQFHWKHORVVRIGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQODERXUDQGQRQODERXUWLPHRUKDVLQGHHGDFHUWDLQGHJUHH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 148

RIDXWRQRP\LQKLVELRSROLWLFDOSURGXFWLRQZKLFKLVRQO\ODWHUKLMDFNHGE\FDSLWDO%XWZKDWDERXWYDULRXV
RWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHZRUNLQJFODVVVXFKDVWKHSUHFDULRXVZRUNHUVLQFDOOFHQWUHV"$XIKHEHQ",Q-
GHHGWKHSURGXFWRIWKHLUODERXULVLPPDWHULDOEXWEHVLGHVWKHREYLRXVTXDQWLWDWLYHVKLIWDUDSLGULVHLQWKH
FUHDWLRQRILPPDWHULDOSURGXFWVLVWKHUHDQ\UHDOTXDOLWDWLYHSDUDGLJPVKLIW",WKDVWREHDGGHGWKRXJK
WKDW+DUGWDQG1HJULKDYHPDGHH[SOLFLWWKURXJKRXWWKHLUZRUNWKDWWKH\DUHGHVFULELQJPRUHRIDWHQGHQF\
and a procedure, rather than a settled reality.

In addition, it appears that Hardt and Negri are overly optimistic in their analysis. By considering the
WUDQVLWLRQIURP)RUGLVPWRSRVW)RUGLVPDYHULFDWLRQRIZRUNLQJFODVVYLFWRU\LQWKHFODVVVWUXJJOHVGXU-
LQJWKHSUHYLRXVFDSLWDOVF\FOHRIDFFXPXODWLRQWKH\DUHKLQWLQJDWDSRVVLEOHYLFWRU\DOVRLQWKHSUHVHQW
WLPHZKHUHWKHVRFLDOL]DWLRQRIODERXULVXQSUHFHGHQWHGZLWKRXWKRZHYHUIXUWKHUH[SODLQLQJKRZVXFK
DQRXWFRPHZRXOGEHFRPHSRVVLEOH6RWLULVLVULJKWWRSRLQWRXWKRZWKHWZRWKLQNHUVRPLWWKHGDUN
VLGHRIWKLVUHDOLW\WKDWLVKRZWKHSUROHWDULDWLVQRZPRUHXLGPRUHLVRODWHGZLWKRXWDVHQVHRILGHQWLW\
DQGLQDSHULRGRIFULVLVVWUXJJOLQJIRULWVPDWHULDOVXUYLYDO,QDGGLWLRQ6RWLULVVD\VWKHGRZQJUDGLQJRI
WKHSROLWLFDOXQGHUWKHHFRQRPLFDQGSURGXFWLYHSURFHVVFRPELQHGZLWKDQDEVWUDFWGHVFULSWLRQRIWKH0XO-
titude, detached from any national or cultural reality, actually distances even further the prospects of any
radical rupture in the body of capital (Sotiris, 2005).

/DVWEXWQRWOHDVW+DUGWVDQG1HJULVRYHURSWLPLVPLVHYLGHQWLQWKHLUFODLPWKDWFDSLWDOQHHGVWKHWRWDO-
LW\RI0XOWLWXGHDVSURGXFHUVDQGDVFRQVXPHUV+RZHYHUWKLVVHHPVWREHHYLGHQWO\IDUIURP
true. Due to many factors, ranging from structural tendencies such as the organic composition of capital to
WKHGHFOLQHLQWKHZHOIDUHVWDWHDQGWKHUDSLGERRVWLQFDSLWDOVQDQFLDOL]DWLRQZHH[SHULHQFHJOREDOO\WKH
FUHDWLRQRIDVXUSOXVSRSXODWLRQWKDWLVRIOLWWOHXVHWRWKHFDSLWDODVLWQHHGVOHVVZRUNHUVDQGDOVRZRUNLQJ
FODVVFRQVXPSWLRQLVDFWXDOO\UDWKHUOLPLWHGDVDVRXUFHIRUFDSLWDOVSURWPDNLQJ%ODXPDFKHQD

7RVXPXSIHZFDQGHQ\WKDW+DUGWDQG1HJULVQRWLRQRIWKH0XOWLWXGHDVZHOODVWKHLUDQDO\VLVLQJHQ-
HUDOKDVKDGDUHYLWDOLVLQJHIIHFWRQUDGLFDOWKRXJKWHVSHFLDOO\LQDSHULRGRIUHODWLYHWKHRUHWLFDOGURXJKW
DWWKHWXUQRIWKHPLOOHQQLXP'UDZLQJLQVSLUDWLRQIURP1HJULV0DU[LDQEDFNJURXQGWKH\DWWHPSWHGDKR-
listic systemic analysis based on historic trends. The Multitude as a class notion is an attempt to understand
WKHFXUUHQWFRPSRVLWLRQRIODERXUDQGDOVRWKHFXUUHQWVWDJHRIFDSLWDOVF\FOHRIDFFXPXODWLRQUXQQLQJ
IURPWKHVXQWLOSUHVHQW+RZHYHUTXHVWLRQVDUHUDLVHGDVWRKRZDFFXUDWHWKH0XOWLWXGHDVDFODVV
GHVFULSWLRQFDQEHZKHQLWFRXOGLQFOXGHHYHU\RQHIURPDVDQVSDSLHUV and an immigrant proletarian, to a
ORZUDQNPDQDJHULQDPXOWLQDWLRQDOFRUSRUDWLRQDVORQJDVWKHODWWHUDOVROLYHVDQGZRUNVXQGHUWKHUXOH
RIFDSLWDOFUHDWLQJGLUHFWO\RULQGLUHFWO\VXUSOXVYDOXH6LWXDWLRQEHFRPHVHYHQPRUHSUREOHPDWLFZKHQ
the Multitude turns from a class concept into a political subject. But if things are unclear at the theoretical
level, then perhaps the historical experience of the present cycle of struggles on the eve of and during the
FDSLWDOLVWFULVLVFRXOGVKHGOLJKWRQWKH0XOWLWXGHVSRWHQWLDODVDQDXWRQRPRXVVXEMHFWDQGDVWKHSRWHQWLDO
bearer of post-capitalist emancipation.

The case of Greece: the cycle of struggles around the capitalist crisis

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LQ*UHHFH,QVWHDGLWVHHNVWRSUHVHQWDFDVHVWXG\RIKRZWKHQRWLRQRIWKH0XOWLWXGHFDQEHDSSOLHGWR
struggles at the centre of the current crisis of capitalism. Greece is very useful as a case study for a number
of reasons.
 149 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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at the forefront, in 2010 the social-democratic government of PASOK has asked for the intervention of
WKH,0)WKH(8DQGWKH(&%WKHWURLND7KHWURLNDVXEVHTXHQWO\SURYLGHGPDVVLYHORDQVWRWKH*UHHN
government, mainly for the repayment of older loans, and demanded the imposition of strict economic
measures, high taxation, severe cuts and general deregulation that threatens to seriously change the class
composition of Greece, that has for the last decades been a nation of an enlarged petite bourgeoisie, mainly
occupied in the service sector.

In addition, Greece has a long tradition of radical and contentious politics. From the communist-led
resistance in the Second World War to the student uprising in 1973 against the military dictatorship and
WKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHODUJHVWRUWKRGR[&RPPXQLVW3DUW\DQGDQDUFKLVWPLOLHXLQ(XURSHLQWKHODVWGHFDGHV
*UHHFHLVFRQVLGHUHGRQHRIWKHODVWSODFHVZKHUHUDGLFDOSROLWLFVDQGJUDQGQDUUDWLYHVRIVRFLDOWUDQVIRUPD-
tion are still on the agenda. As Kouvelakis (2011) has pointed out, revolting is deeply part of the Greek
national psyche.

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WRGD\VUDGLFDOPRYHPHQWVLVKRZSRO\PRUSKRXVWKHVWUXJJOHKDVEHHQWKHUHZLWKDULFKUHSHUWRLUHRIDF-
WLRQDQGWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIDOPRVWDOOSRVVLEOHPHDQV6LQFHZKHQWKHQDQFLDOUHFHVVLRQEHJDQWR
PDWHULDOL]HWRWKHSUHVHQWZKHQLWLVDWWKHFHQWUHRIDPDVVLYHVRFLRHFRQRPLFFULVLV*UHHFHKDVH[SHUL-
HQFHGDKXJHDQGVXFFHVVIXOVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWRSSRVLQJDUHIRUPDWLRQLQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQWKUHHZHHNV
of riots in December 2008 (considered by some commentators as a revolt), more than 20 general strikes,
some accompanied by major violence and even the death of a protester in one case (October 2011), the
UHDSSHDUDQFHRIXUEDQJXHUULOODJURXSVYLROHQW1,0%<ORFDOVWUXJJOHVDQGDPXOWLIRUPPRYHPHQWDJDLQVW
WKHWURLNDDQGWKHJRYHUQPHQWLPSRVHGDXVWHULW\KDYLQJDVLWVFHQWUHWKHRFFXSDWLRQRI6\QWDJPD6TXDUH
)URPWKLVULFKUHSHUWRLUH,ZLOOIRFXVRQ'HFHPEHUUHYROWDQGWKHPRYHPHQWRIWKH*UHHN)UXVWUDWHG
DURXQG6\QWDJPD6TXDUHLQWKHVXPPHURI7KHUHDVRQLVWKDWWKHVHWZRSKHQRPHQDVHHPWRFRPSO\
PRUHZLWKWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHSROLWLFDODFWLRQWKDWWKH0XOWLWXGHLVDEOHWRXQGHUWDNH,WZLOOEHVKRZQ
WKDWWKHWKHRUHWLFDOOLPLWVRIWKH0XOWLWXGHVHHPWRFRUUHODWHWRWKHOLPLWVRIWKHVWUXJJOHVZKLFKKDYHWDNHQ
its characteristic form.

The days and nights of Alexis

The December 2008 uprising started on the evening of December 6thZKHQD\HDUROGVWXGHQW$OH[LV

*ULJRURSRXORVZDVVKRWE\DSROLFH6SHFLDO*XDUGZLWKRXWDQ\HYLGHQWUHDVRQLQWKHOLEHUWDULDQFRXQWHU-
FXOWXUDOVWURQJKROGRI([KDUKLDLQWKHFHQWUHRI$WKHQV:LWKLQKRXUVRIWKHVKRRWLQJWKHQHZVVSUHDGYLD
,QWHUQHWDQGPRELOHSKRQHVDQGWKHUVWVSRQWDQHRXVSURWHVWVEURNHRXWLQ$WKHQVDQGRWKHU*UHHNFLWLHV
3HRSOHZKRKDGEHHQHQMR\LQJWKHLU6DWXUGD\QLJKWGULQNLQWKHFHQWUHRIWRZQWRRNWRWKHVWUHHWVLQDQJHU
2Q6XQGD\DSURWHVWDWWKHSROLFHKHDGTXDUWHUVHQGHGLQULRWLQJDQGVKRSVVPDVKLQJWKDWODVWHGIRUKRXUV
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DQGWKHWUDGHXQLRQFRQIHGHUDWLRQVKHDGTXDUWHUV7KHUHZHUHLQWHUUXSWLRQVLQPDQ\WKHDWULFDOSOD\VZKHUH
VWXGHQWVLQWHUYHQHGDQGDVNHGIRUVROLGDULW\LQWKHLUXSULVLQJ3URWHVWHUVHYHQLQWHUUXSWHGWKH79QHZVE\
HQWHULQJWKHVWXGLRRIWKH*UHHNSXEOLFWHOHYLVLRQVWDWLRQ$JLDQWEDQQHUZDVKXQJRYHUWKH3DUWKHQRQGLV-
SOD\LQJWKHZRUGUHVLVWDQFHLQVHYHUDOODQJXDJHV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 150

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SDWLVWDVLFRQLFJXUH6XEFRPPDQGDQWH0DUFRVJDYHDVROLGDULW\PHVVDJHLQ*UHHN&ORVHUWR*UHHFHLQ
France, President Sarkozy postponed his scheduled reform of the education system, fearing that the Greek
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RIWKH*UHHNUHEHOOLRQZLWKDVLJQLFDQWDUWLFOHHQWLWOHG:HDUHDOO*UHHNV+RZHYHUDVWKHGD\VSDVVHG
WKHUHWXUQWRQRUPDOLW\ZDVPRUHDQGPRUHLUUHYHUVLEOH$IWHUWKUHHZHHNVWKHUHZHUHIHZUHPLQGHUVOHIWRI
WKHWXUEXOHQWGD\VDQGQLJKWVRI$OH[LVDVWKHHYHQWVZHUHSRSXODUO\UHIHUUHGWRWKHUHDIWHU

'HFHPEHU ZDV D FKDUDFWHULVWLF PRPHQW RI ZKDW WKH UHVLVWDQFH RI D WKUHDWHQHG DQG GHVSHUDWH SDUW RI
WKH0XOWLWXGHORRNVOLNH)RUVRPHVFKRODUVOLNH.LRXSNLROLVWKHUVWDSSHDUDQFHRIWKH0XOWLWXGHRQWKH
SXEOLFVFHQHRFFXUUHGRQH\HDUHDUOLHULQWKHVXPPHURI)ROORZLQJDKXJHHQYLURQPHQWDODQGVRFLDO
FDWDVWURSKHWKDWWRRNWKHIRUPRIZLGHVSUHDGUHVVZHHSLQJDFURVV*UHHFHZKLFKFRVWWKHOLYHVRIPRUH
WKDQSHRSOHEORJJHUVDQGRWKHUSDUWVRIFLYLOVRFLHW\VXFKDV1*2VFDOOHGIRUDQGRUJDQL]HGJDWKHU-
ings in the centre of Athens (Kioupkiolis, 2011:55-60). There, a multitude in the traditional sense of the
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FDODQGIRUEDGHDQ\WKLQJRWKHUWKDQGHFODUDWLRQVRIVHQWLPHQW+RZHYHU,FODLPWKDWWKHPHUHIDFWWKDWD
JURXSRISHRSOHLVJDWKHUHGLQDSODFHZLWKRXWPHGLDWLRQE\WUDGLWLRQDODFWRUVOLNHDSROLWLFDOSDUW\GRHVQRW
FRQVWLWXWHDQDSSHDUDQFHRIWKH0XOWLWXGHLQ+DUGWDQG1HJULVVHQVHDVHOHPHQWVO\LQJLQWKHFRUHRIWKHLU
QRWLRQVXFKDVWKHFODVVGLPHQVLRQDQGWKHFUHDWLYHSURFHGXUHVRIELRSROLWLFDOSURGXFWLRQZHUHPLVVLQJ

%XWZK\FRXOGWKH'HFHPEHUUHYROWEHFRQVLGHUHGDQDSSHDUDQFHRIDWOHDVWSDUWVRIWKH0XOWLWXGHLQ

WKHFHQWUDOVFHQH"7KHUVWHOHPHQWKDVWRGRZLWKWKHFODVVIRUPDWLRQRIWKRVHSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHHYHQWV
7KHSURWDJRQLVWRI'HFHPEHUZHUHWKRVHDWWKHIRUHIURQWRIWKHQHZIRUPRISUROHWDULDWWKRVHZKRDUHWKH
ZHDNOLQNRIWKH0XOWLWXGHEXWZKRDUHIRUWKHVDPHUHDVRQDOVRLWVKHDY\DUWLOOHU\\RXQJSUHFDULRXV
ZRUNHUVDQGWKHXQHPSOR\HG\RXQJLPPLJUDQWVVWXGHQWVDQGRQO\DPDUJLQDOSDUWRIWKHWUDGLWLRQDOZRUN-
LQJFODVV%\LWVDFWLRQWKLVPRWOH\FUHZKDVFKDOOHQJHGELRSRZHULQDOOLWVIRUPVWKHFRPPRGLW\ORRWLQJ
and attacks on shops in the centre of Athens), the state (the police as an obvious target) and capital in gen-
eral (various arsons of banks) (Blaumachen, 2009).

$OWKRXJKWKHQDQFLDOFULVLVZDVQRWVWLOOLQLWVIXOOH[SUHVVLRQWKHVHSDUWVRIWKHZLGHQHGSUROHWDULDWKDG
DOUHDG\VHQVHGLW<RXQJVWXGHQWVDQGSUHFDULRXVZRUNHUVFRXOGVHQVHWKDWWKHUHZDVQRWPXFKIXWXUHIRU
WKHPLQDFDSLWDOLVPIDFLQJDKXJHFULVLVDQGUHFRQVWLWXWLQJLWVHOILQVXFKDZD\DVWRPDNHWKHSUROHWDULDWV
RZQUHSURGXFWLRQPRUHDQGPRUHGLIFXOW3HUKDSVWKLVLVDUHDVRQZK\PRUHWUDGLWLRQDOSDUWVRIWKHZRUN-
LQJFODVVDQGVWDEOHZRUNHUVGLGQRWSOD\VXFKDODUJHUROHLQ'HFHPEHUDVWKH\VHQVHGWKDWWKH\VWLOOKDG
WKLQJVWRORVHDVRSSRVHGWRWKHZLOGSUROHWDULDQVZKRKDGOLWWOHRUQRWKLQJWRORVH$OOWKHDERYHH[SODLQWKH
almost complete lack of demands in the December revolt. The Multitude does not have many expectations
IURPDVWDWHZKRVHUROHLVEHFRPLQJPRUHDQGPRUHSXUHO\VXSSUHVVLYH'HFHPEHUPDLQO\GHQLHGDOVRWKH
notion of political mediation. Groups and parties of the Left played only a peripheral role in trying to give
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from the events, considering them degenerative.

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FKLVWLFQDWXUHDQGWKHIDFWWKDWLWZDVEDVHGPDLQO\LQWKHDFWLRQVRIVPDOOJURXSV7KHVHJURXSVKRZHYHU
VRPHKRZPDQDJHGWRV\QFKURQL]HWKHLUDFWLRQEULQJLQJEDFNWRRXUPLQGWKHQRWLRQRIWKHVZDUPWKDW
 151 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

Hardt and Negri have introduced in explaining the combative marching of the Multitude. Douzinas also
HPSKDVL]HVKRZWKH0XOWLWXGHLQ'HFHPEHURUJDQL]HGLWVRZQWHPSRUDOGLPHQVLRQLQDQDSRWKHRVLVRILWV
FDSDFLW\IRUELRSROLWLFDOSURGXFWLRQ'HFHPEHUZDVQRORQJHUDERXWSUHSDUDWLRQVIRU&KULVW-
PDVWKHUHZDVDIHVWLYHDQGRUJ\OLNHDWPRVSKHUHLQWKHFHQWUHRI$WKHQVEXWQRZLWZDVWKHXSULVLQJWKDW
ZDVFHOHEUDWHG+HQFHRQHRIWKHPRVWSRSXODUVORJDQVRIWKHVHGD\VSURFODLPHG&KULVWPDVLVSRVWSRQHG
ZHDUHRQUHYROW7KHDUVRQRIWKH&KULVWPDVWUHHLQWKHFHQWUHRI$WKHQVEHFDPHWKHPRVWIDPRXVLPDJH
RIWKH'HFHPEHUXSULVLQJGHFODULQJKRZWKH0XOWLWXGHLVVHWWLQJLWVRZQV\PEROVDQGUXOHV

'HVSLWHLWVLPDJLQDWLRQDQGGHWHUPLQDWLRQKRZHYHUWKHSROLWLFDODFWLYLW\RIWKH0XOWLWXGHLVFRQFHUQHG
SUREOHPDWLFDWERWKWKHSUDFWLFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOOHYHOV%HVLGHVWKHIUHQ]LHGSDVVLRQRIWKHVHGD\VZKDW
GLG'HFHPEHUOHDYHEHKLQG":DVWKHVLWXDWLRQDQ\EHWWHULQWKHPRUQLQJDIWHUDV=L]HNOLNHVWRUHIHUWR
the situation concerning the imaginary explosion of freedom in sublime enthusiasm, the magic moment of
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KRZHYHULW\HWVHHPVFRPSOHWHO\LQFDSDEOHRIWUDQVIRUPLQJWKHVHVLWXDWLRQVLQWRDFWXDOSUDFWLFDOJDLQV

The Multitude meets in Syntagma Square

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7KHEDFNJURXQGZRXOGHDVLO\IRUHVKDGRZZKDWZRXOGIROORZEHJXQZLWKXSULVLQJVLQDVHULHV
RI1RUWK$IULFDQFRXQWULHVZKHUH(J\SWV7DKULU6TXDUHEHFDPHDV\PERORIUHVLVWDQFHDQGRISRSXODU
GHWHUPLQDWLRQ7KHEDWRQZDVSDVVHGWR6SDLQZKHUHWKH,QGLJQDGRVLQ3XHUWDGHO6ROVTXDUHRI0DGULG
FDPSHGIRUZHHNVZLWKXQFOHDUGHPDQGVEXWZLWKDGHWHUPLQDWLRQWRH[SUHVVFODLPVIRUDFKDQJHWRZDUGV
D PRUH VXEVWDQWLDO GHPRFUDF\:LWK *UHHFH H[SHULHQFLQJ DQ XQSUHFHGHQWHG QDQFLDO UHFHVVLRQ DQG WKH
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times taking the form of small-scale guerrilla battles, of the citizens of the village of Keratea for months
DJDLQVWWKHULRWSROLFHJXDUGLQJDQLOOHJDOZDVWHFHQWUHWKHKXQJHUVWULNHRIKXQGUHGVRILOOHJDOLPPLJUDQWV
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to circulate in social media and the blogosphere that one of the placards of the Spaniards in Puerta del Sol
PHQWLRQHGVKKEHTXLHWZHPLJKWZDNHXSWKH*UHHNV7KLVSODFDUGZDVSURYHQQHYHUWRKDYHH[LVWHG
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opposite from the Greek Parliament, for the 25thRI0D\7KHHVWLPDWHGSHRSOHZKRJDWKHUHGWKDW
HYHQLQJDW6\QWDJPDZDVMXVWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIDPRYHPHQWWKDWZRXOGODVWIRUPRUHWKDQWZRPRQWKVSRV-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 152

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the movement.3$VDUHVXOWLWVFODVVFRPSRVLWLRQZDVDOVRZLGHZKLFKSURGXFHGDODUJHDPRXQWRIWHQVLRQ
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in a situation of imminent proletarization. It is not a coincidence that many direct-action struggles in Greece
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damaging ticket control devices on the Athens tube. As the theoretical journal %ODXPDFKHQ mentioned in
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dominant role attributed to it for the last several decades (Blaumachen, 2011b). Class diversity had also a
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national sovereignty (the imposition of an unelected banker as Prime Minister in late 2011 being only the
symbolic completion). The procedure has been so holistic, grasping all aspects of social, economic and even
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 153 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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tude and a demos, in the old Athenian sense, but not because different people in the apolitical upper or in
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by their interactions (idem: 221).

It is true that the Multitude in Syntagma not only managed to produce a turbulent socio-political situ-
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a government, leading even to the resignation of the then Prime Minister Papandreou on the 26th of June,
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becoming the sites for the revival of the ancient demos, the gathering of the citizens in the open assemblies
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 154

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strike of the 15thRI-XQHOHIWSDUWLHVDQGWUDGHXQLRQVPHWWKH)UXVWUDWHGLQWKHVTXDUHDQGIDFHGDZLOG
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Genoa in 2001) that ended in more than 500 injured people, attacks on the ad hoc medical centres of the
protesters and the hunting of protesters by policemen on motorcycles in all the neighbourhoods surround-
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the Multitude is capable of producing inspiring events, to give determinate struggles and to make its pres-
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pillars of capital.

The resistance by the Greek people to the harsh austerity measures decomposing the Greek society has
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spontaneous rage and their attempt at grassroots organization, at the level of civil disobedience movements
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 155 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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political narrative, besides verbalisms for direct democracy and a full political catharsis. This should give
rise to much critical thought and re-evaluation of existing practices.

Some general conclusions from the global present cycle of struggles

The historic momentum and the capitalist crisis has created an almost global unrest that is on the one
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although different in character, massiveness and importance, from Egypt to Syria and from Greece to the
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Ali and Mubarak in Tunisia and Egypt, threaten the rule of Assad in Syria and put pressure on the Greek
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beyond capitalism. 7KLVPDNHVFOHDUWKHQHHGIRUDSROLWLFDOVXEMHFWWKDWZLOOPDWHULDOL]HDQGHVWDEOLVKDWD
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setting of such a socio-political alliance. Needless to say, the Left can and should play a hegemonic role in
this procedure.

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by a progressive and in a socialist direction government, as in cases of Venezuela and Bolivia (Douzinas,
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coming its limits and dialectically producing an unprecedented potential for radical social change.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 156

Epilogue
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to be. We could argue that their attempt for a theoretical and practical guide for the struggles of the 21st
FHQWXU\LVDOVR\HWWREHDQGQHHGVPRUHDQGGLIFXOWWKHRUHWLFDOZRUNOLQNHGZLWKUDGLFDOSROLWLFDODFWLY-
ity. Because as it currently stands, Zizek is right to point out that the limits of the concept of the Multitude
seem also to be the limits of existing radical movements (Zizek, 2005).

Abbreviations
ECB: European Central Bank
EU: European Union
IMF: International Monetary Fund
1,0%< not in my backyard (commonly referred to local protests against the imposition of an unpleasant project)

References
$XIKHEHQ-RXUQDO7KH/DQJXDJHRI5HWUHDW5HYLHZRI9LUQRV$JUDPPDURIWKH0XOWLWXGH
KWWSOLEFRPRUJOLEUDU\ODQJXDJHUHWUHDWUHYLHZYLUQRVJUDPPDUPXOWLWXGHIRRWQRWHBSEPTSR>DFFHVVHGDW
Bey, H.: 2004, T.A.Z.: The Temporal Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Second Edition, Autonomedia
%ODXPDFKHQ'HFHPEHU*UHHFHDQ$WWHPSWWR'HWHFWWKH3RZHUDQGWKH/LPLWVRIRXU6WUXJJOH
KWWSZZZEODXPDFKHQJUGHFHPEHUJUHHFHDQDWWHPSWWRGHWHFWWKHSRZHUDQGWKHOLPLWVRIRXUVWUXJJOH
>DFFHVVHGDW@
%ODXPDFKHQD7KH(UDRI5LRWV6XPPHU$WKHQV
%ODXPDFKHQE7KH,QGLJQDGRV0RYHPHQWLQ*UHHFH
KWWSZZZEODXPDFKHQJUWKH(LQGLJQDGRV(PRYHPHQWLQJUHHFH>DFFHVVHGDW@
&XU]LR5DQG)UDQFHVFKLQL$'URSVRI6XQLQWKH&XUVHG&LW\(SDQLNLRSLLVL
Publications, Athens
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'RX]LQDV&5HVLVWDQFHDQG3KLORVRSK\GXULQJWKH&ULVLV
Politics, Ethics and Syntagma Stop),Alexandreia Publications, Athens
)RXFDXOW03RZHU(VVHQWLDOZRUNVRI)RXFDXOW9ROXPH3HQJXLQ%RRNV
)UDQW]LV3:HWKH3HRSOH$ULVWHUR9LPDKWWSDULVWHURYLPDJUEORJSKS"LG 
>DFFHVVHGDW
Hardt, M. and Negri, T.: 2000, Empire, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England: Harvard University Press
Hardt, M. and Negri, A.: 2006, Multitude, Penguin Books
+DUGW0DQG1HJUL$D&RPPRQZHDOWK&DPEULGJH0DVVDFKXVHWWV/RQGRQ(QJODQG7KH%HONQDS3UHVVRI+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\
Press
Hardt,M. and Negri, A.: 2011b, The Fight for real Democracy at the Heart of Occupy Wall Street, Foreign Affairs,
KWWSZZZIRUHLJQDIIDLUVFRPDUWLFOHVPLFKDHOKDUGWDQGDQWRQLRQHJULWKHJKWIRUUHDOGHPRFUDF\DWWKHKHDUWRIRFFXS\
ZDOOVWUHHW"SDJH VKRZ>DFFHVVHGDW
+ROORZD\-&KDQJHWKH:RUOG:LWKRXW7DNLQJ3RZHUWKH0HDQLQJRI5HYROXWLRQ7RGD\1HZ(GLWLRQ/RQGRQ$QQ$UERU0,
Pluto Press
+ROORZD\-&UDFN&DSLWDOLVP3OXWR3UHVV
.LRXSNLROLV$3ROLWLFV
of Freedom: Militant Democracy, Post-Anarchist Utopias and the Rising of the Multitude), Ekkremes Publications, Athens
.RXYHODNLV66L[3RLQWVRQWKH5HYROW-XQH'URPRVWLV$ULVWHUDV
QHZVSDSHU$WKHQV
1HJUL$0XOWLWXGHRU:RUNLQJ&ODVV"VSHHFKRQWKH6RFLDO)RUXPRI3DULV
KWWSOLEFRPRUJOLEUDU\PXOWLWXGHRUZRUNLQJFODVVDQWRQLRQHJUL>DFFHVVHGDW@
1HJUL$%RRNVIRU%XUQLQJ%HWZHHQ&LYLO:DUDQG'HPRFUDF\LQV,WDO\9HUVR/RQGRQ1HZ<RUN
1HJUL$)URP0DVV:RUNHUWR6RFLDO:RUNHU(QDOODNWLNHV(NGRVHLV$WKHQV
Negri, A.: 2009, Goodbye Mr Socialism, Eleftheriaki Koultoura Publications, Athens
6RWLULV31HJUL+DUGW&RQWUDGLFWLRQVRID
GHPRFUDWLF8WRSLD1RWHVRQ1HJULVDQG+DUGWV0XOWLWXGH7KHVHLV0DJD]LQH9ROXPH$SULO-XQH
KWWSZZZWKHVHLVFRPLQGH[SKS"RSWLRQ FRPBFRQWHQWDQGWDVN YLHZDQGLG DQG,WHPLG >DFFHVVHGDW@
Virno, P.: 2004, A grammar of the Multitude, Semiotexte
=L]HN65HYROXWLRQDWWKH*DWHV6HOHFWHG:ULWLQJVRI/HQLQIURP9HUVR/RQGRQ1HZ<RUN
Zizek, S.: 2005, Objet a as Inherent Limit to Capitalism: On Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri,
KWWSZZZODFDQFRP]L]PXOWLWXGHKWP>DFFHVVHGDW@
=L]HN6D,Q'HIHQVHRI/RVW&DXVHV9HUVR/RQGRQ1HZ<RUN
=L]HN6E)LUVWDV7UDJHG\WKHQDV)DUFH9HUVR/RQGRQ1HZ<RUN
=L]HN6+RZWR%HJLQIURPWKH%HJLQQLQJLQ'RX]LQDV&DQG=L]HN6HGV7KHLGHDRI&RPPXQLVP9HUVR/RQGRQ1HZ
<RUNSS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 158

Occupy: A New New Social Movement

LAUREN LANGMAN
Department of Sociology, Loyola University

Introduction
+RZFDQZHH[SODLQWKHUHFHQWZDYHRISURJUHVVLYHVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQVIURP7DKLU6TXDUHWR2FFXS\
:DOO6WUHHW"6XUHO\WKHUHDUHPDQ\IDFWRUVVWDUWLQJRIFRXUVHZLWKWKHPXOWLSOHVWUXFWXUDOFULVHVRIQHROLE-
HUDOLVPLQHTXDOLW\ZDJHVWDJQDWLRQMREORVVUHGXFWLRQVLQVRFLDOVSHQGLQJSULYDWL]DWLRQ0RUHRYHUVPDOO
EXWFRUHFRQVWLWXHQFLHVRI\RXQJFROOHJHHGXFDWHGW\SLFDOO\XQGHUHPSOR\HGXQHPSOR\HG\RXWKZKRZLWK
computer access and savvy, have acted as catalysts igniting but not really leading protests and mobili-
]DWLRQV7KH\RXWKZKRUVWPRELOL]HGDUWLFXODWHGZLGHVSUHDGJULHYDQFHVDQGVRRQDWWUDFWHGPDQ\RWKHU
JURXSVFODVVHVDQGDJHFRKRUWV%XWWKLVPXFKLVFOHDUWRPRVWSHRSOHZKRDUHH[SHULHQFLQJWKHFRQVH-
TXHQFHVRIWKHDGYHUVHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIQHROLEHUDOLVPRYHUWKHSDVWIHZGHFDGHVWKHPHOWGRZQDQG
VXEVHTXHQWJOREDOVOXPS0F1DOO\

0DQ\REVHUYHUVDQGMRXUQDOLVWVKDYHVDLGDVPXFKLQGHHGPDQ\DVNZKDWWRRNVRORQJIRUSHRSOHWR
protest given the combination of declining mobility and greater disparities of rich and poor, governments
WKDWDUHLQGLIIHUHQWDWEHVWGXSOLFLWRXVDWZRUVWDQGFORVHGWRSRSXODUFRQFHUQVRUSUHVVXUHV)RUWKHVRFLDO
VFLHQWLVWKRZHYHUWKHTXHVWLRQVRIZKRKRZDQGZK\PRELOL]DWLRQVRFFXUDUHQRWVRVLPSOHWKHUHDUHVSH-
FLFSUREOHPDWLFVRIPHGLDWLRQEHWZHHQVWUXFWXUHVWUXFWXUDOFRQGLWLRQVDQGLQGLYLGXDORUFROOHFWLYHDJHQF\
,QWKHHVVD\WRIROORZ,ZRXOGOLNHWRDUJXHWKDWWKHVHQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVZKLOHFOHDUO\SUHFLSLWDWHG
E\VSHFLFLVVXHVVXFKDVMREVRSSRUWXQLW\EORFNHGPRELOLW\SULYDWL]DWLRQRIUHVRXUFHVVHUYLFHHWFDUH
EHVWXQGHUVWRRGWKURXJK1HZ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWWKHRU\1600RUHVSHFLFDOO\ZKLOHURRWHGLQWKHQHR
0DU[LVW)UDQNIXUW6FKRRO160GRHVQRWVHHWKHVHPRYHPHQWVDVSUROHWDULDQVWUXJJOHVZLWKWKHERXUJHRL-
VLHRYHUZDJHVEHQHWVDQGVDIHW\0RUHRYHUWKHHFRQRPLFUHGXFWLRQLVPRIRUWKRGR[0DU[LVPWKDWPD\
KDYHEHHQPRUHUHOHYDQWLQHDUOLHUWLPHVKDVOHVVVDOLHQFHLQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\SRVWLQGXVWULDOQHWZRUNHG
ZRUOGRIJOREDOFDSLWDO1RUZKLOHSURPSWHGE\WKHFULVLVWKHVHPRYHPHQWVDUHQRWVLPSO\LVVXHGULYHQSHU
VH5DWKHUDVZLOOEHDUJXHG these movements, of the excluded, if the indignant, as contestations over
cultural meanings and recognition of new lifestyles and identities seek cultural transformations of
identity-informed by participatory, democratic dialogues and with visions of alternative possibili-
ties of subjectivity for the society.7KXVIHPLQLVPRUJD\ULJKWVPRYHPHQWVZHUHQRWRYHUGLVFULPLQDWRU\
legislation, but granting the heretofore subordinates and indeed often marginalized if not scapegoated,
UHFRJQLWLRQDVGLJQLHGKXPDQEHLQJVHTXDOWRDOORWKHUV

Part I: explaining social movements

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WXUDOIDFWRUVDQGFRQWUDGLFWLRQVRUORRNDWSROLWLFDORSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGDVVXPHWKDWWKHUHDUHDOZD\VIRUFHV
DQGSUHVVXUHVDQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWHQWUHSUHQHXUVUHDG\WROHDGPRELOL]DWLRQV$VZLOOEHDUJXHGWKHVH
PRYHPHQWVFDQEHEHVWXQGHUVWRRGE\FRQVLGHULQJYHPRPHQWVWKDWZLOODUHFHQWUDOHOHPHQWVLQDWKHRU\
 159 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

of mobilization, 1) legitimation crises, 2) identity, 3) emotions, 4) morality, and 5) vision-all of are

located within spatial, interactional information and matrices.

Legitimation Crises

For Habermas (1975) a crisis has objective aspect, the system, and subjective moments, the life world
ZKHUHPRWLYDWHGLGHQWLWLHVDUHH[SHULHQFHGDQGSHUIRUPHG7KXVDSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFOHJLWLPDWLRQFULVLV
VXFKDVWKHPHOWGRZQDQGLPSORVLRQVWDJQDWLRQLVQRWOLPLWHGWRWKHHFRQRP\DQGRUSROLW\EXWOHDGV
WRFULVHVRIFXOWXUHDQGPHDQLQJVDVSHRSOHZLWKGUDZFRPPLWPHQWWRWKHVRFLDORUGHUFUHDWLQJVSDFHVIRUDO-
WHUQDWLYHYLHZVDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJV%XWDVZLOOEHQRWHGZKLOHWKHSURJUHVVLYHPRYHPHQWVRIWRGD\DUHLQ
response to the economic conditions, these conditions do not lead to social movements per se. Crises need
to arouse collective emotions, they must be interpreted, alternative understandings and visions must be
QHJRWLDWHGDQGLIJURXSVRISHRSOHFKRRVHWRDFWVWUDWHJLHVPXVWEHFKRVHQ$VZLOOEHDUJXHGWKHFRQFHSW
of moral shock (Jaspers, 1997) can apply as much to political economic crises as human/animal rights.

Economic crises as structural problems such as contradictions and implosions of the economy that cre-
ate unemployment or underemployment, sudden price hikes-especially of basic commodities (food, oil,
utilities), retrenchments of entitlements etc, that threaten survival or maintenance of living standards, or
social status, undermines the legitimacy of political leadership and legitimating ideologies. But at the same
WLPHWKHVHPDFURFRQGLWLRQVLPSDFWWKHOLIHZRUOGWKHPLFUROHYHORIIHHOLQJVLGHQWLWLHVDQGYDOXHV$V
ZLOOEHQRWHGLGHQWLWLHVLQGLYLGXDOO\DQGFROOHFWLYHO\PHGLDWHEHWZHHQVWUXFWXUDOFRQGLWLRQVHJOHJLWLPD-
tion crises and either social mobilizations (left or right), or retreatist escapism.

7LPHVRIFULVLVWKHUHDUHPRPHQWVZKHQQHZLGHQWLWLHVFDQEHUHQHJRWLDWHG7RSDUDSKUDVH0DU[WKHUH
FRPHWLPHVZKHQWKHROGLGHQWLWLHVDFWDVEUDNHVXSRQWKHQHZSROLWLFDOHFRQRP\DQGPXVWEHGLVFDUGHG
6RPHPD\ZLWKGUDZIURPWKHVRFLHW\DQGEHFRPHGHSROLWLFL]HGDVIRUH[DPSOHWKHP\ULDGVRI\RXWKZKR
RFNWRWKHDXGLHQFHVKLSVDQGIDQGRPVRISRSXODUFXOWXUH6RPHPD\EHFRPHSROLWLFDOO\PRELOL]HGDQG
seek social change or transformations that may be reactionary or progressive. But the key factor here is that
ZKHQWKHFXOWXUDOV\VWHPTXDIUDPHZRUNVRIPHDQLQJDQGLGHQWLW\WKDWW\SLFDOO\VXSSRUWVDQGUHSURGXFHV
the system are undermined or challenged by crises in the system and becomes dysfunctional, there are often
LQWHQVHHPRWLRQDOUHDFWLRQVWKDWDUHPHGLDWHGE\LQWHUSUHWHGWKURXJKDQGUHDFWHGWRRQWKHEDVHVRIRQHV
identity . Moreover, that identity is located at particular social locations and nodules of interaction chains
(Collins, 2005)

Identity

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:LWKLQWKHRZRIWLPHLGHQWLW\ORFDWHVWKHDFWRULQKLVWRU\HJELRJUDSK\DQGFROOHFWLYHKLVWRU\PHPRU\
LQWKHFXUUHQWPRPHQWDQGHQYLVLRQVDIXWXUH,WGHQHVDSHUVRQJURXSDVGLVWLQFWIURPRWKHUVLQQRUPV
YDOXHVOLIHVW\OHVVRFLDOSUDFWLFHVDQGDHVWKHWLFWDVWHV0RUHRYHULGHQWLW\PHGLDWHVEHWZHHQWKHODUJHUVR-
FLHW\DQGVSHFLFWKRXJKWVDQGDFWLRQVRIWKHVRFLDODFWRU,WDFWVDVDOWHUWKDWSURYLGHVVHOHFWLYHDWWHQWLRQ
WRH[WHUQDOHYHQWVVRPHSHRSOHPD\SD\DWWHQWLRQWRVRFFHURWKHUVWRSROLWLFVDQGVWLOORWKHUVWRSRSXODU
FXOWXUH%XWLGHQWLW\LVQRWVLPSO\DVHWRIFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVHVLWLVDFTXLUHGWKURXJKVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQV
DQGWLHVWRJURXSVLWLVDQFKRUHGE\SRZHUIXOHPRWLRQV7KXVVDOLHQWHYHQWVPHGLDWHGWKURXJKLGHQWLW\FDQ
HQJHQGHUHPRWLRQDOUHDFWLRQVVHHEHORZ
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 160

Given the limitations of RM theory, social movement theory began a move from class and interests to
WKHVDOLHQFHRIFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\WRFRQVLGHUZK\DFWRUVFRPHLQWREHLQJZKDWPRWLYDWHGWKHPWRDFW
WKHVHFRQFHUQVZLWKVHOIKRRGVXEMHFWLYLW\DQGLGHQWLW\UDWKHUWKDQVWUDWHJLFFKRLFHHPSKDVL]HGFXOWXUH
DQGPHDQLQJUDWKHUWKDQPRUHUDWLRQDOFRQFHUQVZLWKSROLFLHVVWUDWHJLHVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOUHIRUPVDQG
FRQFHUQVZLWKLGHQWLW\ZHUHDVPXFKLIQRWPRUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHLUFXOWXUDOHIIHFWVWKDWVSHFLFIRUPVRI
legislation (Cf. Polleta and Jaspers, 2001).

Emotions

One of the great shortcomings of the rational choice/resource mobilization theories of motivation and
mobilization has been the valorization of Reason as basis for social organization and social behavior. While
WKHFULWLTXHRIWKHIUDLOW\LUUDWLRQDOLW\RI5HDVRQFDQEHVHHQLQ1LHW]VFKH)UHXGDQG:HEHUQRWWRVSHDN
RI/XNDFVDQGWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRROVFULWLTXHRIRQHGLPHQVLRQDOWKRXJKW5HDVRQVHUYHVDQLPSRUWDQW
LGHRORJLFDOIXQFWLRQIRUHFRQRPLFVDQGSV\FKRORJ\,WMXVWLHVFDSLWDOLVPDVEDVHGRQVHOILQWHUHVWHGKX-
PDQQDWXUHWKDWUDWLRQDOO\SXUVXHVPD[LPL]LQJKLVKHUVHOILQWHUHVWDVZHOODVEHLQJWKHPRVWUDWLRQDO
ZD\ WR RUJDQL]H DQ HFRQRP\ It offers a clear, simple and wrong understanding of motivation for
sociologists and psychologists. Rather, one could argue that understanding emotions is far more salient.
(PRWLRQVDUHURRWHGLQRXUYHU\'1$ZHDUHERUQZLWKDQLQKHUHQWDIIHFWV\VWHPWKDWRQFHVHUYHGORZHU
species as a means of communication. But given human consciousness, and in turn our socialization and
internalization of collective norms, our cues or releasers to use the term ethologists like, are more likely
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HPRWLRQVPD\EHH[SHULHQFHGDVIHHOLQJVRUVXSSUHVVHGDQG\HWLQXHQFHSHUFHSWLRQVMXGJPHQWVDQGLQ
turn actions. Gaining an identity, individually or collectively, is an interpersonal process and thus involves
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RQLGHQWLFDWLRQZLWKDJJUHVVRULQERWKFDVHVRQHVFKDUDFWHUZDVLQIRUPHGE\WKHDOOHYLDWLRQRIDQ[LHW\
Collective identities are also the result of similar processes. Moreover, collective identities mediate events
that evoke many of the same emotions and individuals feel. For Durkheim, religion provided a collective
HIRUHVFHQFH7KHZRUNRI-DVSHUV-DVSHUVDQG3ROOHQWDLQUHFODLPLQJVDOLHQWUROHVIRUHPR-
WLRQVLGHQWLW\DQGFXOWXUDOPHDQLQJVDVHVVHQWLDOWRXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHFXUUHQWZDYHRIPRELOL]DWLRQV

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WLRQVZKLFKLQWXUQGLVSRVHMRLQLQJVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV:KHQJRYHUQPHQWVZKHWKHUHOHFWHGRUGLFWDWRU-
VKLSVIDLOWRSURYLGHWKHFRQGLWLRQVIRUHFRQRPLFJURZWKIRULWVSRSXODWLRQVDQGRUUHWUHQFKHVLWVSURJUDPV
IURPHGXFDWLRQWRKHDOWKFDUHWRUHWLUHPHQWSHQVLRQVZKLOHWKHJURZLQJZHDOWKDQGSROLWLFDOSRZHURIHOLWHV
is especially visible, people experience a moral shock.

a transgression of all the sentiments, values, beliefs, feelings, emotions and ideas that people hold about themselves,
WKHLUOHDGHUVDQGWKHLUVRFLHW\$EUHDFKLI\RXZLOOLQWKHERXQGDULHVRIZKDWLVFROOHFWLYHO\FRQVLGHUHGGHFHQWDQG
courteous and an irreparable break in the routines of social relations (Jaspers, 1997) .

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WKURXJKDPRUDOSULVPLQZKLFKWKHHFRQRPLFHOLWHVDUHGLUHFWO\WREODPHIRUWKHORQJWHUPVWDJQDWLRQDQG
VKRUWWHUPFULVLV7KHORVVRIZRUNXQGHUHPSOR\PHQWDQGORFNHGPRELOLW\WKHFUDVKRIDPDUNHWDIDOOHQ
JRYHUQPHQWDQDWWDFNE\DQHQHP\FDQHOLFLWYHU\SULPDOIHDUVRIRQHVYHU\VXUYLYDODQGTXLWHRIWHQDQ-
 161 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

ger at those believed responsible-and often scapegoated targets to blame. :KHQSHRSOHQGWKHPVHOYHV

facing sudden economic reversals (job loss, foreclosure, bankruptcy), when they feel marginalized
as either workers without work or underemployed and/or politically powerless, they are likely to be
angry, frustrated, anxious about the future and impelled to seek amelioration. In most cases, in late
modern societies, people are likely to feel indignant, humiliated over the lack of recognition and in many
FDVHVWKLVLVH[SHULHQFHGDVEORZWRRQHVVHOIHVWHHP7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\WKHFDVHLQVRFLHWLHVLQZKLFKWKHUH
ZDVDWDFLWVRFLDOFRQWUDFWWKDWLVSHUFHLYHGDVKDYLQJEHHQEURNHQ5XELQ

While the cumulative effects of neo liberal globalization have been ever more evident for the last several
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PXFKZHDOWKDVWKHERWWRPKDOIRIWKHZRUOG%XWWKHLQKHUHQWFRQWUDGLFWLRQVRIJOREDOFDSLWDOLVPLQWKH
:HVWZHUHHVSHFLDOO\HYLGHQWZLWKLWVPRYHWRQDQFLDOL]DWLRQFDVLQRFDSLWDOLVP6WUDQJHDVLWVSULPDU\
VRXUFHRISURWVWKDWFXOPLQDWHGLQLWVPDVVLYHLPSORVLRQLQ7KHUHIROORZHGDPDVVLYHSOXPPHWLQ
EXVLQHVVDFWLYLWLHVEDQNUXSWFLHVKXJHOD\RIIVRIZRUNHUVDQGVXEVHTXHQWHFRQRPLFVWDJQDWLRQLIQRWGH-
FOLQHIRUPDQ\RIWKRVHLQYXOQHUDEOHSRVLWLRQVZKRKDYHEHHQFDOOHGWKHSUHFDULDWH0DQ\\RXQJSHRSOH
HQWHULQJWKHODERUIRUFHIDFHXQHPSOR\PHQWDQGRUXQGHUHPSOR\PHQWPDVVLYHGHEWDQGQGWKHFRVWVRI
OLYLQJXQDIIRUGDEOH0DQ\ROGHUSHRSOHKDGMREVWKDWKDYHGLVDSSHDUHGDQGZLOOQRWFRPHEDFN7KLVKDV
evoked a great deal of frustration, anger and resentment at those elites deemed responsible. Moreover, the
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US government bailouts of its banks (and some European ones) and the austerity measures of the Eurozone
that attempt to save the bankers.

To paraphrase Marx, global capital has laid bare the domination of society by the capitalist class, it has
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OREE\LVWVDQGRWKHUZLVHVHOHFWDQGHOHFWWKRVHZKRZRXOGLWVELGGLQJ7KHGRPLQDWLRQRIWKHHQWLUH6WDWHLWV
OHJLVODWLYHMXGLFLDU\DQGH[HFXWLYHEUDQFKHVRIJRYHUQDQFHDUHQRZEHKROGHQWKHFDSWDLQVRIFRPPHUFH
2WKHUZLVHVDLGZHQRZOLYHLQDVWDWHRILQYHUWHGIDVFLVPZKHUHGHPRFUDF\SURYLGHVHQWHUWDLQPHQWDQG
carnivals to assuage the people (Wolin, 2008) and fragment the society that might offer resistance.

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VSKHUHWKH\RSHUDWHLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHWRDWWHPSWWRLPSDFWWKHFXOWXUHWKDWLQWXUQZRXOGWRLPSDFWSROLWLFV

Morality

While little addressed by social movement scholars, contemporary social movements are less guided
by particular interests than by moral claims. These movements do not attempts to establish minimum
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arrangements simply on interests of even fairness, but on the fundamental morality of the concentra-
tion of wealth and power that is so evident-and equally evident is the growth of poverty and degrada-
tion7KLVLVQRWDQHZREVHUYDWLRQ-HVXVFKDVHGWKHKHGJHIXQGPDQDJHUVDQGYHQWXUHFDSLWDOLVWVRXWRIWKH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 162

temple and preached an elementary socialism-or at least a message of sharing.

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bodies a different utopian politics that delivers a nation from degradation, serves as a barometer of future progress
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ance of ambiguity, vs. being autonomous, creative, open to experience and self-realization. In contemporary
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is a basic polarity of the strict father vs. nurturant parent moralities. The former stresses self-discipline,
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empathy, sharing, compassion and creativity. In a similar vein, Haidt ((2012) has argued that people have
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People differ over care/compassion, liberty/fairness and loyalty authority and sanctity.1)RURXUSXUSRVHVZH
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is an important moral stance and that there is far too little compassion in either the corporate.

Vision-that are located within spatial and interactional matrices.

Social movement research has considered framing an essential aspect of mobilization and claim stak-
ing and the goals of social movements. Movements depend on the shared interpretations of events and
FRQGLWLRQVDQGLQWXUQJRDOVWREHDWWDLQHGDQGVWUDWHJLHVWRDWWDLQWKHP,QRUGHUWRDIUPWKHERQGVRI
VROLGDULW\EHWZHHQPHPEHUVDQGDWWUDFWQHZPHPEHUVLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRIUDPHUHDOLW\LQZD\VWKDWDSSHDO
WRWKHHPRWLRQDOQHHGVRIPHPEHUVDQGSRWHQWLDOPHPEHUVDVZHOOWKHLUPRUDORXWORRNVBut that said,
we would then argue the fundamental question raised by the contemporary social movements is the
nature of vision-indeed hope and the good life. Sociology, rooted in the Enlightenment valorization of
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PDQ\RIWKHRFFXSLHUVZHUHERUQ)URPWKH%URNHQ&RYHQDQW to +DELWVRIWKH+HDUW to the *RRG6RFLHW\,

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 163 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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IRUWKHIHZZKLOHPDQ\IDFHXQHPSOR\PHQWXQGHUHPSOR\PHQWKRPHOHVVQHVVXQWUHDWHGLOOQHVVDGHFD\-
ing infrastructure and devastating environmental degradation. A ruthless, market oriented individualism has
pervaded the entire society and undermined any shared purpose, public spirit or concerns for the unfortunate-
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military consumes almost half of our income taxes and has been used to support imperialist interventions in
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the good life has been seen in terms of freedom to pursue personal satisfactions and achievements apart
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this freedom from social concerns and indifference to less fortunate others is itself a virtue to be celebrated.

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and a resurrection of utopian thinking. As Shostak (2001) put it :

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appear to promote utopian gains include the cultivation of artistry, caring, creativity, curiosity, empathy, faith, honor, hu-
mor, love, sensitivity, and other virtues celebrated by healthy, life-appreciating people everywhere2. (emphasis mine).

:H PLJKW QDOO\ UHFDOO WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI KRSH DQG YLVLRQ LQ WKH ZRUN RI (UQVW %ORFN3 For Bloch,
)UHXGVQRWLRQRIWKHGUHDPDVZLVKIXOOOPHQWEHFRPHVWKHHVVHQWLDOPRWLYHIRUKRSHZKLFKSHUPHDWHV
myths, dreams, religions and utopian thought often dismissed as ideology by some Marxists. But for Bloch,
this hope for a better life

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tory and socio-economic developments point to socialism as the realization of humanities deepest dreams and hopes,
and that encourages us to look for the progressive and emancipatory content of cultural artifacts (Kellner, p.2). For
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used to criticize failures to satisfy these needs and to realize these desires in the current society. (Kellner)

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understood in the dominant perspectives of either social movement analysis, or main stream politics. With-
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morality, social movement theory is as empty and vacuous as the one dimensional society that has given
rise to the great refusals. Similarly, pundits and politicians fail to see that the messages and demands, and
Utopian visions are expressed in the very existence-not formal petitions or attempts to engage in partisan
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 164

Occupy Wall Street

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The Legitimation Crisis

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QDQFHLQGXVWULHVKDGUHFRYHUHGLQGHHGDPDVVHGPRUHZHDOWKWKDWWKDQHYHUEHIRUHZKLOHLWVHOLWHVZHUH
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5ROOLQJ6WRQH, or internet media such as 'DLO\.RV$OWHUQHW7UXWKRXWRU7UXWK'LJWKHUHZDVOLWWOHFULWLTXH
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ism. The mass media focused on the bizarre constumes and silly slogans of the Tea Party. But neverthe-
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and the 18 days of Tahir.

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JUDPRIWKH%XVKDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWKDWSXPSHGWULOOLRQVRIGROODUVLQWRWKHLQVROYHQWEDQNVIROORZHGE\WKH
Obama Stimulus program5$QGZKLOHWKHJRYHUQPHQWUHVFXHKDOWHGWKHSOXPPHWDQGLQGHHGWKHQDQFLDO
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cated.
 165 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

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and society (Standing, 2012)

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election of an African American president and his socialist plans to provide health care to everyone and
subsidize the parasitic classes (Langman, 2011).

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prescient, Frances Fox Piven noted that Obama needed a social movement to insure a progressive agenda
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summer of 2011, the irreverent Canadian $GEXVWHU magazine called for an occupation of Wall Street on Sept
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most of the Occupiers clearly see that the Democratic Party had been just as complicit in sustaining Wall
St, if not more so, than the Republic party6.

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 166

Identity

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and marginalized, but their fundamental sense of self has been assaulted. In American society, for many
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of self-esteem and in some cases, aggression to self or others. Such conditions of prolonged joblessness
humiliate people rob people of their dignity, of their humanity.

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cations. Participation in identity granting/recognizing communities of meaning from Churches to gangs,
SURYLGHSHRSOHZLWKWKHIXQGDPHQWDOEDVLVIRUDJRRGOLIH

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Emotions

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JHUDQ[LHW\DQGUHVHQWPHQW%XWIRU2FFXSLHUVWKHPRYHPHQWUHSODFHVGHVSDLUZLWKKRSHSURYLGHVZD\V
RIRYHUFRPLQJDOLHQDWLRQDQGFKDQQHOLQJZKDWWKH\VHHDVOHJLWLPDWHDQJHUWRZDUGSURGXFWLYHHQGVWKH
transformation of society.

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HPRWLRQDOJUDWLFDWLRQVHVSHFLDOO\IHHOLQJVRIFRPPXQLW\ZLWKRWKHUVIHHOLQJRIDJHQF\DQGHPSRZHU-
PHQWWKDWRQHLVGRLQJVRPHDFWLQJRQWKHZRUOGLQVWHDGRISDVVLYHUHVLJQDWLRQIHHOLQJVRIUHFRJQLWLRQ
DQGGLJQLW\DQGQDOO\IHHOLQJWKDWRQHVLGHQWLW\HYHQLIRUHVSHFLDOO\LILWLVUHFRJQL]HGDVDPRYHPHQW
LGHQWLW\SURYLGHVDVHQVHRIGLJQLHGVHOIKRRGQRWSURYLGHGE\WKHODUJHUVRFLHW\

Morality

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WLRQVRI,QWKH86ZHFRXOGDUJXHWKDWWKHUHH[LVWEDVLFPRUDOYLVLRQVRIIDLUQHVV7KH/RFNHDQSXUVXLWRI
XQIHWWHUHGVHOILQWHUHVWLQDGDQJHURXVFRPSHWLWLYHZRUOGRIZLQQHUVDQGORVHUVGHPDQGIDLUQHVVRIRSSRU-
WXQLWLHVVRWKDWDOOPD\FRPSHWHHTXDOO\$QGPDQ\RIWKHZLQQHUVZLQELJDQGLIRQHGRHVQRWZRUNKDUG
HQRXJKRUGRHVQRWPDLQWDLQFHUWDLQNLQGVRIPRUDOVVKHZLOOORVHRXWDQGQRWKDYHDQ\RQHHOVHWREODPH
 167 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

)DLUQHVVDWOHDVWWRWKHZLQQHUVPHDQVWKDWVRFLHW\VKRXOGQRWUHZDUGLWVORVHUVZLWKDQ\EHQHWVZKLFK
ZLOOWKHQFUHDWHDQDWLRQRILPPRUDOSDUDVLWHVOLYLQJRIIWKHODERUVRIRWKHUV

%XWIRURWKHUSHRSOHRQHVEDVLFPRUDOSRVWXUHLVEDVHGRQFDULQJVKDULQJDQGFRPSDVVLRQHPSDWK\
DQGPXWXDOVXSSRUW)DLUQHVVLVDERXWVHHLQJWKDWLQDZRUOGRISOHQW\DOOVKRXOGEHQHWIn deed and
word, the Occupiers have embraced and articulated the sharing and caring morality-as not simply
desirable-but the very survival of the world depends on changing life styles, identities and values. It
ZDVQRWE\DFFLGHQWWKDWWKHLQLWLDOWDUJHWZDV:DOO6WUHHWWKH8UV\PERORIWKHJUHHGSRZHUDQGZHDOWKRI
a small number of people that is grossly unfair. . As Lakoff (2011) put it:

'HPRFUDF\VWDUWVZLWKFLWL]HQVFDULQJDERXWRQHDQRWKHUDQGDFWLQJUHVSRQVLEO\RQWKDWVHQVHRIFDUHWDNLQJUHVSRQVL-
ELOLW\ERWKIRURQHVHOIDQGIRURQHVIDPLO\FRPPXQLW\FRXQWU\SHRSOHLQJHQHUDODQGWKHSODQHW7KHUROHRIJRYHUQ-
PHQWLVWRSURWHFWDQGHPSRZHUDOOFLWL]HQVHTXDOO\YLD7KH3XEOLFSXEOLFLQIUDVWUXFWXUHODZVDQGHQIRUFHPHQWKHDOWK
HGXFDWLRQVFLHQWLFUHVHDUFKSURWHFWLRQSXEOLFODQGVWUDQVSRUWDWLRQUHVRXUFHVDUWDQGFXOWXUHWUDGHSROLFLHVVDIHW\
QHWVDQGRQDQGRQ1RERG\PDNHVLWRQHWKHLURZQ,I\RXJRWZHDOWK\\RXGHSHQGHGRQ7KH3XEOLFDQG\RXKDYHD
UHVSRQVLELOLW\WRFRQWULEXWHVLJQLFDQWO\WR7KH3XEOLFVRWKDWRWKHUVFDQEHQHWLQWKHIXWXUH0RUHRYHUWKHZHDOWK\
GHSHQGRQWKRVHZKRZRUNDQGZKRGHVHUYHDIDLUUHWXUQIRUWKHLUFRQWULEXWLRQWRRXUQDWLRQDOOLIH

,WKLQNLWLVDJRRGWKLQJWKDWWKHRFFXSDWLRQPRYHPHQWLVQRWPDNLQJVSHFLFSROLF\GHPDQGV,ILWGLGWKHPRYHPHQW
ZRXOGEHFRPHDERXWWKRVHGHPDQGV,IWKHGHPDQGVZHUHQRWPHWWKHPRYHPHQWZRXOGEHVHHQDVKDYLQJIDLOHG,W
VHHPVWRPHWKDWWKH2:6PRYHPHQWLVPRUDOLQQDWXUHWKDWRFFXSLHUVZDQWWKHFRXQWU\WRFKDQJHLWVPRUDOIRFXV,WLV
HDV\WRQGXVHIXOSROLFLHVKXQGUHGVKDYHEHHQVXJJHVWHG,WLVKDUGHUWRQGDPRUDOIRFXVDQGVWLFNWRLW,IWKHPRYH-
ment is to frame itself, it should be on the basis of its moral focus, not a particular agenda or list of policy demands. If
WKHPRUDOIRFXVRI$PHULFDFKDQJHVQHZSHRSOHZLOOEHHOHFWHGDQGWKHSROLFLHVZLOOIROORZ

,WLVHYLGHQWWKDWZKLOHWKLVYLHZLVKLJKO\FRQWHVWHGHYHQYHKHPHQWO\UHSXGLDWHGE\VRPHLWUHVWVRQ
EDVLFHPRWLRQDOGLVSRVLWLRQVWKDWGHQHIDLUQHVV6XFKHPRWLRQDOVWDQFHVDUHOLWWOHLPSDFWHGE\IDFWVRU
HYLGHQFH%XWLWHTXDOO\HYLGHQWWKDWHPSKDVLVRQWKHXQIHWWHUHGLQGLYLGXDOJDLQRIWKHIHZDQGFRUSRUDWH
greed-and let others be damned, has not only fostered the decline of the United States economy and its
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WHQGPDMRUHFRORJLFDOFROODSVHPRUHFDWDVWURSKLFZHDWKHUDQGULVLQJVHDOHYHOV$WOHDVWZHPD\QRWIDFH
locusts or frogs-they, like many other species are becoming extinct.

Vision

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various religious communities and communes such as the Shakers, political experiments such as kibbutzim
and of course the Marxist revolutions of 1917 and 1949. But most Utopian communities either faded or
turned into brutal dictatorships that betrayed the hopes and promises of their visionaries. But that said, the
Occupy movements ask us to rethink the role of vision in social movements, and indeed, bring Utopia in.
:KLOH8WRSLDQWKRXJKWKDVOLWWOHLPSDFWHGVRFLDOUHVHDUFKZHPXVWUHFDOOIROORZLQJ7RXUDLQHWKDW160V
ZHUHQRWDWWHPSWVWRFKDQJHSDUWLFXODUSROLWLFDOVWUDWHJLHVRURYHUWXUQODZVLQWKHQHDUWHUPEXWWRFKDQJH
the very nature of the society in the long term by challenging meanings and values and changing identity
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demise of Utopian thought- that the future could fundamentally surpass the present. Politics had become
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 168

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FDQ)DOOWKH2FFXS\PRYHPHQWVUHTXLUHWKDWZHUHWKLQNWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI8WRSLDQYLVLRQV

Conclusion: social movements in the 21st Century

At the end of the 20th&LWZDVHYLGHQWKRZWKH,QWHUQHWKDGEHFRPHWKHEDVLVRIYLUWXDOSXEOLFVSKHUHV
DQGLQWHUQHWZRUNHGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV&I0HOXFFL/DQJPDQ6XUHO\WKHJOREDOMXVWLFHPRYH-
PHQWVZHUHFOHDULQGLFDWLRQVRIDQHZPRYHPHQWRIPRYHPHQWVLQWKHVSDFHRIRZVWKDWOLQNVXSGLVWDQW
locales around shared functions and meanings on the basis of electronic circuits and fast transportation
FRUULGRUVZKLOHLVRODWLQJDQGVXEGXLQJWKHORJLFRIH[SHULHQFHHPERGLHGLQWKHVSDFHRISODFHV&DVWHOOV
%XWWKHSRZHURIWKHLQWHUQHWDQGLQGHHGWKHRXULVKLQJRIVRFLDOPHGLDDFFHVVLEOHYLDVPDUWSKRQHV
KDVDPSOLHGWKHSRZHURIWKHZHDNDQGHQDEOHGWKHPDVVHVWRFRQIURQWWKHSRZHURIWKHIHZ$V5XVKNRII
(2011) has put it:

WKLVLVQRWDPRYHPHQWZLWKDWUDGLWLRQDOQDUUDWLYHDUF$VWKHSURGXFWRIWKHGHFHQWUDOL]HGQHWZRUNHGHUDFXOWXUHLW
LVOHVVDERXWYLFWRU\WKDQVXVWDLQDELOLW\,WLVQRWDERXWRQHSRLQWHGQHVVEXWLQFOXVLRQDQGJURSLQJWRZDUGFRQVHQVXV
,WLVQRWOLNHDERRNLWLVOLNHWKH,QWHUQHW2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWLVPHDQWPRUHDVDZD\RIOLIHWKDWVSUHDGVWKURXJK
FRQWDJLRQFUHDWHVDVPDQ\TXHVWLRQVDVLWDQVZHUVDLPVWRIRUFHDUHFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIWKHZD\WKHQDWLRQGRHVEXVLQHVV
DQGRIIHUVKRSHWRWKRVHRIXVZKRSUHYLRXVO\IHOWDORQHLQRXUEHOLHIWKDWWKHFXUUHQWHFRQRPLFV\VWHPLVEURNHQ%XW
XQOLNHDWUDGLWLRQDOSURWHVWZKLFKLGHQWLHVWKHHQHP\DQGJKWVIRUDSDUWLFXODUVROXWLRQ2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWMXVWVLWV
WKHUHWDONLQJZLWKLWVHOIGHEDWLQJLWVRZQZRUWKUHFRJQL]LQJLWVLQWHUQDOLQFRQVLVWHQFLHVDQGWKHQFRQWLQXLQJRQDVLI
WKLVZHUHVRPHVRUWRIQHZQRUPDO,WPRGHOVDQHZFROOHFWLYLVPSLFNLQJXSRQWKHVXVWDLQDEOHSURWHVWYLOODJHRIWKH
PRYHPHQWV(J\SWLDQFRXQWHUSDUWVZLWKIRRGUVWDLGDQGDOLEUDU\7KHPHPEHUVRI2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWPD\EH
DVXQZLHOG\SDUDGR[LFDODQGLQFRQVLVWHQWDVWKRVHRIXVOLYLQJLQWKHUHDOZRUOG%XWWKDWLVSUHFLVHO\ZK\WKHLUQHZ
DSSURDFKWRSURWHVWLVPRUHDSSOLFDEOHVXVWDLQDEOHDQGDFWLRQDEOHWKDQZKDWSDVVHVIRUSROLWLFVWRGD\7KH\DUHVXJ-
JHVWLQJWKDWWKHVFDORSHUDWLQJV\VWHPRQZKLFKZHDUHDWWHPSWLQJWRUXQRXUHFRQRP\LVQRORQJHUDSSURSULDWHWR
WKHWDVN7KH\PHDQWRVKRZWKDWWKHUHLVDQLQDSSURSULDWHDQGFRUUHFWDEOHGLVFRQQHFWEHWZHHQWKHDEXQGDQFH$PHULFD
SURGXFHVDQGWKHVFDUFLW\LWVPDUNHWVPDQXIDFWXUH$QGLQWKHSURFHVVWKH\DUHSRLQWLQJWKHZD\WRZDUGVRPHWKLQJ
HQWLUHO\GLIIHUHQWWKDQWKH]HURVXPJDPHRIDUWLFLDOVFDUFLW\IDYRULQJWRSGRZQLQYHVWRUVDQGPHGLDPDNHUVDOLNH

From all that has been said, the movements of the 21st&DUHQRW\RXUIDWKHUVVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRUIRU
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event or single adversity, they are not episodic gatherings, but enduring as testaments to the enduring nature
of the contemporary economic system. We cannot analyze these movements using the tools and concepts of
the 20th C-although as I argued, a number of traditions in critical theory, NSM theory and sociology of emo-
WLRQVHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQFRQMRLQHGZLWKLVVXHVRIPRUDOLW\FDQSURYLGHLPSRUWDQWVWDUWLQJSRLQWV$VQRWHGWKH
ZRUNRI-DVSHUVDQG3ROOHWDZKLOHEDVHGRQPRYHPHQWVVXFKDVDQLPDOULJKWVQHYHUWKHOHVVKDVSURYLGHG
some very useful starting points. This essay has attempted to continue that discussion.
 169 INTERNATIONALIZATION OF PROTESTS

Epilogue
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WKRVHZKRDVNDUHLQGHHGTXLWHXQDZDUHRIMXVWKRZPXFKKDVKDSSHQHG)URPWKHHQFDPSPHQWRI=XF-
FRWWL6TXDUHPRQWKVODWHUWKHUHDUHQRZSOXVRFFXSDWLRQVQDWLRQDOO\DQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOO\0RUHRYHU
LQWKDWWLPHWKHFRQFHUQVZLWKWKHEOHDWLQJVRIWKHWHDSDUW\KDYHJRQHEHORZWKHUDGDUDQGWKHQDWLRQDO
GLVFXVVLRQKDYHWXUQHGIURPDXVWHULW\GHEWUHGXFWLRQDQGUHWUHQFKPHQWVWRIDLUQHVVLQHTXDOLW\DQGWKHLP-
portance of job creation. And the recent positive, if anemic, economic picture has tended to support those
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JURZWK7KHPDVVPHGLDKDVJRQHIURPYHU\IHZGLVFXVVLRQVRILQHTXDOLW\WRWKRXVDQGVRIDUWLFOHVVWRULHV
DQGWHOHYLVLRQQHZVELWV0RUHRYHUDVPDQ\FULWLFVQRWHGPDQ\SDUWVRI2EDPDV6WDWHRIWKH8QLRQ$G-
GUHVVFRXOGKDYHEHHQZULWWHQE\2FFXSLHUV6PRQJWKHFOHDUUHVXOWVRI2FFXS\3HZ5HVHDUFKQRWVKRZV
WKDWRI$PHULFDQVQRZVHHWKDWWKHUHLVDJURZLQJDPRXQWRILQHTXDOLW\DUHZLOOLQJWRGHPDQGJUHDWHU
government support, economic investment, and that the that the rich pay higher taxes. Despite inclement
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7KH\DUHWKHSURGXFWRIFDSLWDOLVWFRQWUDGLFWLRQVWKDWZLOOQRWVRRQFKDQJH0RUHRYHUTXLWHXQGHUWKHUDGDU
WKH\KDYHEHHQIRUJLQJOLQNVZLWKODERUDFWLYLVWVDQWLIRUHFORVXUHJURXSVFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLVWVDQGPLQRULW\
FRPPXQLWLHVWKDWGHVSLWHPDQ\GLIIHUHQFHVDUHDOOLPSDFWHGE\WKHLQHTXDOLW\DQGXQIDLUQHVVDQGXQGHU-
VWDQGWKDW:DOO6WUHHWKDVWKHZHDOWKDQGEX\VWKHSRZHUEXWZKDWWKH\GRQWKDYHLVWKHSRSXODWLRQ7KH
2FFXS\PRYHPHQWVKDYHEHHQEXV\IRUJLQJDOOLDQFHV%XWWRIXOO\XQGHUVWDQGWKHVHPRYHPHQWVZHPXVW
occupy social movement theory.
YOUTH AND STUDENT
MOBILIZATIONS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 172

The New Wave of Student Mobilizations in Europe

Explained as a Fordist-Posfordist Transition

JOSEBA FERNNDEZ
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Abstract
The transformation of the historical functions and goals of the European university
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WUDLQLQJ+RZHYHU,FODLPWKDWWKLVZDYHRIPRELOL]DWLRQFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\WKHFKDU-
acteristics of the Fordist model that still applies to the European university. This model
of university in extinction has facilitated a student response that can be characterized
in terms of the classical Fordist patterns of collective action. At the same time, these
patterns of action are being adapted to the emergence of the post-Fordist corporate-
XQLYHUVLW\WKURXJKVSHFLFUHSHUWRLUHVRIDFWLRQ

Keywords
FRUSRUDWHXQLYHUVLW\SRVW)RUGLVPSUHFDULRXVZRUNVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWXGHQWPRYH-
ment.

Introduction
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7KHFXUUHQWPXWDWLRQRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQKDVSURYRNHGDZDYHRIVWXGHQWPRELOL]DWLRQVDJDLQVWWKH%ROR-
JQD3URFHVV7KLVQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWKDVRSHQHGDEURDGGHEDWHRQWKHVLWXDWLRQRI(XURSHDQXQLYHUVL-
WLHVDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\RQWKHVWXGHQWFRQGLWLRQZKLFKLVYHU\GLIIHUHQWIURPKRZLWZDVLQSUHYLRXVVWXGHQW
cycles of mobilization (mainly the one of 1968).

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YHUVLW\LVSURGXFLQJWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPPDVVXQLYHUVLW\WRZKDWKDVEHHQFDOOHGFRUSRUDWHXQLYHUVLW\6HYLOOD
,FODLPWKDWWKLVWUDQVLWLRQVKRZVUHPDUNDEOHSDUDOOHOLVPVZLWKWKH)RUGLVP3RVW)RUGLVPHYROXWLRQLQ
WKHZRUNLQJZRUOG:LWKWKLVDLP,ZLOOH[DPLQHKRZWKHQHZIXQFWLRQVRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\DUHDLPHGDWSURYLGLQJ
VHUYLFHVDQGSUHFDULRXVZRUNHUVWRWKHODERUVWUXFWXUHRI3RVW)RUGLVP)XUWKHUPRUHWKLVPXWDWLRQPLUURULQJWKH
$QJOR6D[RQPRGHORIXQLYHUVLW\KDVSURYRNHGKXJHVWXGHQWSURWHVWV7KHQHZVWXGHQWFULWLFLVPKDVEHHQPDLQO\
directed against the mercantilist orientation of the university, but also against the assimilation of the university as
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KDVEHHQFODLPHGWREHEDVHGLQWKHHPHUJHQFHRIDQHZVWXGHQWVXEMHFWLYLW\WKDWRIWKHSUHFDULRXVLQWUDLQLQJ
 173 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

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facilitated a student response that can be characterized in terms of classical Fordist patterns of collective action. At
the same time, these patterns of action are being adapted to the emergence of the Post-Fordist corporate-university.

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LQVLGHWKH)RUGLVWXQLYHUVLW\DQGDQWLFLSDWHVDWWKHVDPHWLPHVRPHHOHPHQWVRQKRZWKHVWXGHQWVWUXJJOHV
ZLOOEHLQWKHQHZFRQWH[WRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\DVDGHYLFHRIH[LEOHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJH

The transformation of University:

towards a University in service of postfordism
Since the oil crisis of 1973 and the later neoliberal reorientation of economy, capitalism has experi-
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WLRQRIZRUNDQGWKHQHZZD\VIRUFDSLWDODSSUHFLDWLRQ:LWKLQWKLVFRQWH[WLQWKHODVW\HDUVVRPHWKHRULVWV
have developed the idea of FRJQLWLYHFDSLWDOLVP1WRH[SODLQWKHQHZHUDRIFDSLWDOLVPDQGWKHLQFUHDVLQJ
LPSRUWDQFHRINQRZOHGJHDQGDIIHFWVIRUWKHFDSLWDOLVWDFFXPXODWLRQ0RVWRIWKHVHWKHRULVWVEHORQJWRWKH
SRVWZRUNHULVWWUDGLWLRQ1HJUL9LUQR)XPDJDOOLRU0H]]DGUDDPRQJRWKHUVDQGDUHLQXHQFHGE\WKH
ZRUNHULVWHPSKDVLVRQWKHUHDOVXEVXPSWLRQRIODERU,QWKLVVXEVXPSWLRQWKHFROOHFWLYHVRFLDOLQWHOOHFWXDO
productive ability is one of the main subjects of exploitation, including the collective cognitive capability
ZKDW0DU[UHIHUUHGWRDVWKH*HQHUDO,QWHOOHFWLQWKH*UXQGULVVH fragment on machines. This idea leads
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FDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVDFRJQLWLYHSURFHVV$FFRUGLQJWRWKHVHLGHDVWKHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJHSOD\VD
FHQWUDOUROHIRUWKHFDSLWDOLVWDFFXPXODWLRQ:LWKLQWKLVWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNXQLYHUVLWLHVEHFRPHDVWUD-
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On the other hand, the deregulation of the labor market has led to a degradation of labor, specially for
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ture context for their lives.

Because of this transformation of labor, the transition from Fordism to Post-Fordism (from material to
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edge as a basic strategy for accumulation, the University has become a central institution in this transforma-
tion. In this sense, the deep transformation of the labor market and the changes produced inside the industrial
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GHSHQGHQWODERURQZKLFKWKHH[WUDFWLRQRIVXUSOXVODERULVIRXQGHGLLWKHWHUPFRJQLWLYHHPSKDVL]HVWKHQHZQDWXUHRIWKHFRQLFWXDOUHODWLRQRIFDSL-
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 174

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the University has also had to face the tensions derived from the general transition from Fordism to Post-
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How university adapts to Post-fordism: the importance of neoliberalism

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restructuring of the labor market, the implementation of neoliberal policies oriented to reduce the public
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scribed by de Sousa Santos (2005:20): (1) a high reduction of public investment in universities, and (2) the
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necessary to be in competence.

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3.- A institutional crisis, because of the increasing pressure to subjecting university to the criteria of
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racy, the project of university is under struggle. As Sotiris (2011) claims:

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being turned into private businesses, but as the condensation of class strategies related to the imperatives of hegemony
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 175 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

How mass-university becomes corporate-university

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capitalism (namely, factory, school and family) (Zizek 2011: 166). In the case of education, lifelong learn-
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glorious years after the II World War) as both the product and the site of the real subsumption of labor that
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the mass university is functional to the designs of both the state and private managers of this real subsumption, but
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as a post-Fordist device. In this sense, there are some nuclear elements of the corporate-university that con-
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VRPHRIWKHVHHOHPHQWVZRXOGEH

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PDQGVRILQWHOOHFWXDOZRUN

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cilitate the use of trained technicians.

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to shift job very easily.

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 176

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student (or educational) debt42QHRIWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWKHQHZHUDRIFDSLWDOLVPLVLWVQDQ]LDOL]D-
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RIQDQFLDOL]DWLRQRIWKHHFRQRP\DQGVHFRQGO\DVDFKDQFHWRRSHQDQHZSURFHVVHVRIVWXGHQWUHVLVWDQFH
DVZHFDQVHHWKHVHGD\VLQVHYHUDOXQLYHUVLWLHVRIWKH865). Moreover, the problem of the educational
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The new wave of student movement

and the fordist-postfordist transition
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SURWHVWV:HFDQORFDWHWKHV\PEROLFEHJLQQLQJRIWKLVZDYHLQWKHVRFDOOHGPLOOHQQLXPVWULNHWKDWZDV
RUJDQL]HGE\WKH*HQHUDO6WULNH&RXQFLO&*+LQ0H[LFRLQ7KLVVWULNHZDVDEOHWRNHHSSDUDO\]HG
the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) during nine months. Since that time, several stu-
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had the common goal of facing the neoliberal model applied to higher education. And also in clear harmony
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transnational coordination (in this case, European) and the contentious repertoire of protest.

The transition from the mass university to the corporate-university has caused a cycle of transnational
student mobilization6,QWKLVQHZVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWZDYHWKHIDFWRUVIDFLOLWDWLQJWKHHPHUJHQFHRIPR-
bilizations have varied -inevitably- from one context to another, and in terms of intensity, objectives and
PRWLYDWLRQV+RZHYHU,EHOLHYHWKDWWKHUHLVDFHUWDLQVKDUHGFRUSXV and heritage among all the protests of
UHFHQW\HDUVZKLFKLVOLQNHGWRWKHVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQDQGSRVLWLRQRISUHFDULRXVZRUNHUVLQIRUPDWLRQ.

Looking for a possible genealogy of the new wave of student mobilizations

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 6HHKWWSVRFLHGDGHOSDLVFRPVRFLHGDGDFWXDOLGDGBKWPO
 6HHKWWSZZZGLDJRQDOSHULRGLFRQHW(OSUREOHPDGHODGHXGDKWPODQGWKHZHEVLWHRIWKHFDPSDLJQKWWSZZZRFFXS\VWXGHQWGHEWFDPSDLJQRUJ
 $F\FOHWKDWEHJLQVLQ0H[LFRZLWKWKH*HQHUDO6WULNHRIWKH$XWRQRPRXV8QLYHUVLW\RI0H[LFRLQDQGVWLOOJRHVRQZLWKWKHRSHQDQGGHHSVWXGHQW
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 177 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) during nine months. Since that time, several stu-
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%HQVDwG7KHVHUHVLVWDQFHVZHUHGHYHORSHGLQSDUWLFXODUVFHQDULRVDQGVLWXDWLRQVEXWDOORIWKHP
had the common goal of facing the neoliberal model applied to higher education. And also in clear harmony
ZLWKWKUHHDVSHFWVRIWKHDQWLJOREDOL]DWLRQPRYHPHQWWKHFULWLFLVPWRQHROLEHUDOFDSLWDOLVPWKHHPHUJLQJ
transnational coordination (in this case, European) and the contentious repertoire of protest.

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movement start to be developed. Indeed, the process of the European Social Forum (ESF), becomes for
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spondents claimed to belong to student groups. This process created the conditions for a Europeanization
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On the other hand, the dynamics of sectionalism ESF (health, education, migrants, climate change, pub-
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VHQVLWLYLWLHVRIWKHPRYHPHQWWKHVWXGHQWXQLRQV(XURSHDQ6WXGHQW8QLRQDQGWHDFKHUVXQLRQV

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WKH(XURSHDQ)RUXPIRU(GXFDWLRQZDVGHYHORSHG,WVUVWHGLWLRQWRRNSODFHLQ%HUOLQLQLQWKHVDPH
GD\VWKDWWKHRIFLDOVXPPLWRIHGXFDWLRQPLQLVWHUVRIWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ7KHVHFRQGHGLWLRQDVFRXQWHU
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ence 2002, Paris 2003, London 2004, Athens 2006, Malm 2008), and the development of the European
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Bologna process and the birth of a European coordination of the movement beyond the traditional stu-
dent union structured in the ESU.

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WKH(XURSHDQVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWVFDPHEDFNRQVWDJH,QWKLVDFDGHPLF\HDUZHDWWHQGHGWKHIRO-
ORZLQJGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDJDLQVWVFKRRODQGFROOHJHUHIRUPLQ,WDO\DJDLQVWWKH%RORJQDSURFHVV
LQWKH6SDQLVK6WDWHDJDLQVWUHIRUPSURKLELWVFROOHFWLYHFROOHJHH[DPVLQ'HQPDUNZLWK
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.RXYHODNLVDJDLQVWWKHODZRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLQ*UHHFH

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DJDLQVWWKH3pFUHVVH/DZRI$XWRQRP\RIXQLYHUVLWLHVLQ)UDQFHWKHFRQWLQXLW\RIWKHVWUXJJOHLQGHIHQVH
of free public university in Greece and the focus of resistance to the implementation of the Bologna
process in the Spanish State.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 178

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movement after the murder of the teenager Alexander Grigoropoulos by the police in December 2008, led
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Last year, mainly England but also Italy and other peripheral countries of EU (such as Serbia) led the
protests against the educations cuts of the austerity measures dictated by the governments. In both cases, a
QHZV\PEROLFUHSHUWRLUHRIWKHPRYHPHQWZDVFUHDWHGWKHERRNEORFN7ZKLFKDVZHZLOOVHHLVDSHUIHFW
DQGYLVXDOH[DPSOHRIWKHFRQLFWDURXQGNQRZOHGJHSUHFDULW\DQGHGXFDWLRQ

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gle in Chile8KDVEHHQRQHRIWKHPRVWLQWHQVLYHSURWHVWVLQWKHFRXQWU\VLQFHWKHEUHDNGRZQRI3LQRFKHWV
dictatorship. Also in Colombia there has been a huge mobilization against the marketization of higher edu-
FDWLRQ$IWHUWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKH,QGLJQDGRVPRYHPHQWLQ6SDLQZHKDYHDOVRVHHQWKHELUWKRIDQHZ
JOREDOUHEHOF\FOHZLWKPRELOL]DWLRQVLQVHYHUDOFRXQWULHVDQGFRQWH[WV,QWKHVHGLIIHUHQWPRYHPHQWVZH
FDQVHHWKHNH\UROHSOD\HGE\VWXGHQWDFWLYLVPDQGLQJHQHUDOE\DQHZJHQHUDWLRQRIVRFLDODFWLYLVWVXQ-
KDSS\ZLWKWKHLUVLWXDWLRQXQGHUFDSLWDOLVP,QIDFWWKHVHODVWPRELOL]DWLRQVKDYHSODFHGWKHSUHFDULRXVQHVV
and the huge problem of the student debt in the public debate.

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of the student movement in each country, Roggero9DUJXHVWKDWLWLVSRVVLEOHWRQGFRPPRQHOHPHQWVWRDOO
WKHVHVWXGHQWSURWHVWVQDPHO\LWKHDVVHUWLRQRIDQHZK\EULGJXUHRIVWXGHQWZKRPRYHVSHUPDQHQWO\
EHWZHHQOLIHORQJOHDUQLQJDQGWKHODERUPDUNHWLLWKHSUHFDULRXVQHVVDVWKHFRQWH[WXDOIUDPHZRUNDQG
DOVRDVDIDFWRUIRUDQHZVWXGHQWVXEMHFWLYLW\LLLWKHGRZQJUDGLQJSURFHVVHVDQGWKHVHYHUDOPHFKDQLVPV
RIGLIIHUHQWLDOLQFOXVLRQZKHUHWKHGLVWLQFWLYHIDFWRULVQRORQJHUZKDWLWKDVEHHQVWXGLHGEXWSULPDULO\
ZKHUHLYDQGQDOO\WKHUHFRQJXUDWLRQRIWKHVSDFHWLPHLQWKHSURGXFWLRQRIDXWRQRPRXVNQRZOHGJH
WKURXJKPHDVXUHVRULHQWHGWRFRQWURODQGTXDQWLI\WKHSURGXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJH

+RZHYHURYHUDQGDERYHGHVFULELQJWKHVHPRELOL]DWLRQVDQGWKHLUFRPPRQHOHPHQWVZKDWLVUHDOO\
LPSRUWDQWKHUHLVWRREVHUYHKRZWKHVWXGHQW\RXWKPRELOL]DWLRQVKDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGEHIRUHWKHJHQHUDO
PRELOL]DWLRQVRIRWKHUVRFLDODFWRUV7KLVDOORZVXVWRFODLPWKDWGXULQJUHFHQW\HDUVDQGDVLWKDSSHQHG
during the 1968 cycle), the student/youth mobilizations have acted as a tactical vanguard and as a catalyst
for social antagonisms in very different demographic contexts and political situations (such as Arab coun-
WULHV)UDQFH(QJODQG3RUWXJDORU6SDLQRUWKH86$QGLWVKDSSHQLQJEHFDXVHDWWKLVWLPHWKHIROORZLQJ
changes have turned into mobilizing factors: On the one hand, the rise of cultural capital of youth, that
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 6HHKWWSZZZIXQGDFLRQEHWLNRRUJLQGH[SKSHVDQRVPRYLOL]DFLRQHVHVWXGLDQWLOHVHQFKLOH
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 179 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

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becoming a legitimizer for contentious mobilization. For instance, in the Spanish case, the appeal to the
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)XWXUR<RXWKZLWKRXWIXWXUHVWXGHQWSODWIRUP10 on April the 7th. In this case, the term youth, acting
DVDQHPSW\VLJQLHUHQFDSVXODWHGPXFKRIWKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\DQGWKHFROOHFWLYHLPDJLQDWLRQWKDWDOORZHG
WRMXVWLI\VXFKDPRELOL]DWLRQ7KLVXVHZDVDOVRDSSOLHGLQ3RUWXJDOE\WKH*HUDFDRD5DVFD movement.
7KHVHH[DPSOHVVKRZWKDWLQWKHEDWWOHIRUOHJLWLPDF\DQGVRFLDOKHJHPRQ\WKHUROHRIWKHVWXGHQWPRYH-
ment and youth in general is still key. In the last months, the appeal to the condition of youth has been
instrumental in articulating broad movements that undermine the dominant discourse on the economical
crisis and the austerity measures.

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The chances of the mass university for student activism

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WRFODLPWKDW8QLYHUVLW\QRZDGD\VLVDWRWDOSRVW)RUGLVWFRQWH[WZKHUHWKHVRFLDOERQGVKDYHGLVVDSHDUHG
and the individualization of relationships is total. Thus, some structural and inherent elements of University
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,QWKLVVHQVHWKHQHZHPHUJHQFHRIWKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\VHYHUDOUHDVRQV$PRQJ
the different approaches existing for the social movements study, the resource mobilization perspective
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Thus, the persistent mass university offers tangible and intangible resources (Freeman: 1979:170) for the
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taken by student movements, in the last years, as a tactical vanguard (Mandel, 1973: 33) in the mobiliza-
tion process in Europe or in other regional areas.

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interests shared by the students inside the faculties. This fact is really interesting because as Toscano claims
(2011: 83): $WRQFHUHHFWLQJDQGDWWLPHVH[DFHUEDWLQJWKHGLYLVLRQVDQGFRQWUDGLFWLRQVLQVRFLHW\DW
ODUJHWKHXQLYHUVLW\FDQDOVRXQLI\VWXGHQWVLQZD\VWKDWFRUSRUDWLYLVWRUIUDJPHQWHGLQWHUHVWFDQQRW.

Obviously, as Bourdieu (2004) claimed, the education is a central institution for the social reproduction
RIVRFLDOGLYLVLRQVZKHUHWKHVWXGHQWPDLQO\DFFXPXODWHDV\PEROLFDQGUHODWLRQDOFDSLWDO%XWWKLVLVQRW
FRQWUDGLFWRU\ZLWKWKHLGHDGHIHQGHGE\UHVHDUFKHUVDV6HYLOOD

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LQWHOOHFWXDOZRUNHUVZKRWKHPRPHQWWKH\JDLQVHOIFRQVFLRXVQHVVDVDFRPPXQLW\DUHGLVSHUVHGDQGQGWKHPVHOYHV
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enormous political impulse in country after country.

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 180

On the other hand, the tangible resources available for the student movements are directly linked to the
VWXGHQWHQYLURQPHQW,QWKLVFDVHWKHWZRPDLQUHVRXUFHVDUHWKHDYDLODEOHWLPHDQGWKHVKDUHGSK\VLFDO
space. Both of them imply a great chance to achieve the goal of organizing and mobilizing students.

Regarding WLPHWKHSDUWLFXODUVWXGHQWFRQGLWLRQDOORZVPDQ\VWXGHQWVWRKDYHWKHLURZQWLPHUHOHDVHG
IURPZRUNQRWDOLHQDWHGWLPHZKLFKEHFRPHVDQRSSRUWXQLW\IRUFROOHFWLYHVHOIRUJDQL]DWLRQWRGHYHORSD
FROOHFWLYHGLDJQRVWLFDQGGLVFRXUVHRQWKHLURZQLQWHUHVWVDQGWRKDYHHQRXJKWLPHWRDJUHHRQDUHSHUWRLUH
of actions to be displayed in order to defense these common interests. Indeed, the introduction of ECTS
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UDWHVRIVWXG\WKDWDUHLQIDFWUK\WKPVRIZRUN7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRI(&76FUHGLWVLVOHDGLQJWRWKHVXFFHVVLRQ
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LQWLPH assembly line.

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VWXGHQWVOLIHWLPHLVWKHFHQWUDOHOHPHQWIRUPDQGFRQWHQWRIWKHQHZVWXGHQWFRQGLWLRQ7KLVGRPLQLRQRYHU
WKHOLIHWLPHKDVWZRPDLQPHDQLQJV)LUVWO\WKHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHVWXGLHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHVSHFLDOUHTXLUH-
PHQWVRIFRUSRUDWLRQVZKDWPHDQVWKDWVSHFLFVNLOOVVKRXOGEHGHYHORSHGE\WKHZRUNIRUFHWREHPDUNHW-
DEOH6HFRQGO\WKHFHQWUDOHOHPHQWLQSUDFWLFHLVWRGLVFLSOLQHWKHIXWXUHZRUNIRUFHDQGWKHHOLPLQDWLRQRI
WKHULJKWWRRUJDQL]HWKHRZQOLIH,QJHQHUDOWHUPVZHFDQVD\WKDWVWXGLHVDUHRULHQWDWHGWROHDUQKRZWREH
SUHFDULRXVDQGDERYHDOOKRZWREHDYDLODEOHIRUDQ\MRE

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGZHQGWKHDYDLODELOLW\RID FRPPRQSK\VLFDOVSDFH. located in universities and

faculties. This shared space makes easier for students to be in touch, to establish relationships and bonds
ZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWDQGWRGHYHORSIRUPDODQGLQIRUPDOQHWZRUNVRIDFWLYLVWV,QWXUQWKLVPDNHVHDVLHU
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of consensus seems to be elaborated easier than in the individualization of labor relations.

This individual disconnection and fragmentation caused by neoliberalism and post-Fordism has had a
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from the social origins or the common uncertain future. Rather, the mass student shares a social space
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self-organization. In the fragmentation of society caused by instability and precariousness, this is a com-
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DJHQWLQVRFLDOFRQLFWVVWLOOQRZZLWKVRPHUHVRXUFHVGLIFXOWO\QGDEOHLQWKHFXUUHQWODERUPDUNHWVSH-
FLDOO\IRUSUHFDULRXVDQGZRUNLQJSRRUV,FODLPWKDWZHFDQXQGHUVWDQGWKHVHUHVRXUFHVDVWKHUHPLQLVFHQF-
es of the Fordism still alive in University. According to this thesis, it might be said that the late transition of

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 181 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

the University to the post-Fordist labor market means, through the evolution of the university into a model
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XVHGWRRUJDQL]HWKHPVHOYHV+RZHYHUWKHVXUYLYDORIVKDUHGVXEFXOWXUHVDQGRIWKHSK\VLFDOVSDFHVVWLOO
PDLQWDLQVWKHFKDQFHVWRGHQHFRPPRQLGHQWLWLHVDQGLQWHUHVWVZKLFKDUHNH\WRHQVXULQJWKHRUJDQL]D-
tional forms of the student response.

Facing the knowledge factory: precarious in training

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sistance undertaken by student movements against the deep mutations of the functions of the University.
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student movement is oriented against the precariousness offered in and after the years at the University12.

In fact, as claimed by Kouvelakis (2006), during the student struggle against the First Employee Con-
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demands, to create forms of solidarity. Student movements are not just a reaction to the devaluation of degrees but
are a part of greater social mobilization against the neoliberal restructuring of the totality of capital labor relations.

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university students. Because of that, differently to the 1968 movement, this transformation has not only
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WKHQHZIXQFWLRQVRIXQLYHUVLWLHV

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in training) through the old lens of Fordism: that is, thinking in the student as an inactive and unproductive
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OHVVRIWKHFRQFUHWHH[LVWHQFHRIDZRUNLQJUHODWLRQVKLS7RGD\WKHVWXGHQWLVLPPHGLDWHO\SUHFDULRXVDVD
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UDU\ZRUNHUVZLWKFRVW]HURLQWKHPDQGDWRU\SUDFWLFHVRULQWKHWKRXVDQGVRISUHFDULRXVMREVZLWKQRULJKWVWRZKLFK
have been constrained. But above all, they are a good of production, a particular commodity.

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12 1HHGOHVVWRVD\WKDWZKDWLVUHDOO\GLIIHUHQWDPRQJWKHWZRF\FOHVLVWKHPDWHULDOVLWXDWLRQRIWKHWZRJHQHUDWLRQV$V%HQVDLGH[SODLQHGZHFDQQG
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 182

high-school degree13. Thus, University is becoming a factory of precariousness for most of the students
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VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWDFWLYLVWVDVDJHQHUDOIUDPHZRUNRILQMXVWLFH

The repertoire of action of the new student mobilizations

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displays a non-institutionalized political action, and, on the other hand, because student movement devel-
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academic regularities, development of several forms of counter-information, and so on (Gonzlez Calleja,
2009:53). In the last period of mobilization of the student movement, these repertoires have evolved and
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LQQRYDWLRQVLQWKHIRUPVRIDFWLRQ7KLVVKRZVWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQDOH[LELOLW\RIWKHPRYHPHQWDQGWKHDELOLW\
WRLQWHUSUHWWKHVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WDVZHOODVWKHRSSRUWXQLWLHVLWSURYLGHV

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DQGWKHKLJKGLIIXVLRQWKH\KDYHKDG,ZLOODWWHQGWRWZRRIWKHUHSHUWRLUHVWKDWKDYHEHHQUHSHDWHGLQGLIIHUHQW
contexts: (1) the faculty occupations and blockades, and (2) the development of the initiative of the book block.

Faculty occupations and blockades

The occupation of faculties have been a symbol of the movement and, in the case of Europe, they have had
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Spain etc.14,QHYHU\FRXQWU\ZKHUHWKHUHKDVEHHQDVWXGHQWPRELOL]DWLRQWKLVKDVEHHQWKHPRVWUHSHDWHG
UHSHUWRLUH$VZHKDYHSUHYLRXVO\VHHQWKHH[SURSULDWLRQRIWLPHLVDFHQWUDOHOHPHQWLQWKHQHZVWXGHQWDQG
precarious) condition. Through the occupations, the student movements tried to free time for themselves and
for social activism. As activists recognize, in the case of the protests against the Bolonia Process, occupations
ZHUHDOVRWKHZD\WRKDYHHQRXJKWLPHWRVWXG\WKHHGXFDWLRQUHIRUPVZLWKDYHU\WHFKQLFDOFRQWHQWDQGDV
WKHPRYHPHQWVFULWLFL]HGPRVWO\DSSURYHGLQDQRQGHPRFUDWLFZD\'HYHORSHGDV-DSDQHVHVWULNHVLQWKH
Spanish case), these occupations had the goal to achieve the social time necessary to articulate the protest
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Furthermore, occupations acted as a mechanism to build up the movement and the opposition discourse.

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LVWVGHFLGHGWROHDYHXQLYHUVLWLHVWRSUROHWDUL]HWKHPVHOYHVZRUNLQJLQELJIDFWRULHVDQGFKDQJLQJWKHLUOLIHFRQGLWLRQVDQGWKHLUVRFLDOH[SHFWDWLRQV
14 $PDSRIXQLYHUVLWLHVRFFXSLHGLQ(XURSHLQ1RYHPEHURIFDQEHIRXQGKHUHKWWSPDSVJRRJOHFRPPDSVPV"KO GHDQGLH 87)DQGRH 87)DQGV
ource=embedandmsa=0andmsid=116283369278129786033.0004778dfa81fb402d565andll=49.781264,12.348633andspn=13.632758,28.125andz=5
 183 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

The book block

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7KLVUHSHUWRLUHZDVUVWO\SXWLQWRSUDFWLFHE\,WDOLDQDFWLYLVWVLQ/DWHULWVSUHDGWRRWKHUFRXQWULHV
EHLQJDGDSWHGE\VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWVLQ0DGULGRU/RQGRQLQZKDWLVDFOHDUFDVHRIGLIIXVLRQDQGWUDQV-
QDWLRQDODFWLYLVP7DUURZ$VRQHRIWKHDFWLYLVWVRI-XYHQWXG6LQ)XWXURLQ0DGULGH[SODLQVWKH
meaning of this repertoire:

is a nod to the various student struggles and precarious youth that have developed around Europe and that have also
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WKLQJVRIXQGDPHQWDODVDERRNDQGWKHGHIHQVHRIFXOWXUHDQGNQRZOHGJHDJDLQVWWKHPDUNHWL]DWLRQRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\15.

0RUHRYHUWKLVUHSHUWRLUHLVWKRXJKWIRUXUEDQGHPRQVWUDWLRQVIRUXUEDQFRQLFWVDQGDVDZD\WRGHIHQG
DFWLYLVWVIURPSROLFHDOZD\VDVDFWLYHQRQYLROHQWGLVREHGLHQFH16 Symbolically strong, the book block
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DVWKHV\PERORIDJHQHUDWLRQZLWKKLJKOHYHOVRIHGXFDWLRQEXWGRRPHGWRSUHFDULRXVQHVV7KHV\PEROLVP
of the book block and its sense also means that the contradictions involved in the University cannot be
solved, exclusively, inside the university itself. And this is because the subsumption of university inside the
JOREDOPDUNHWRINQRZOHGJHPDNHVLWLPSRVVLEOHDQGEHFDXVHWKHFRQGLWLRQRISUHFDULRXVGHYHORSVLQVLGH
and, even more, outside university.

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SRVW)RUGLVWWUDQVLWLRQRIWKHODERUPDUNHWDWOHDVWLQWKHQHZPDQDJHPHQWDQGJRDOVRIXQLYHUVLWLHV,KDYH
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expressed and organized because of the resources available for students, specially the time and the common
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student movements objective chances to organize social protest. In fact, the mass university associated to
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tious social mobilization. In fact, the student protests have acted as a catalyst movement for a broader
processes of social mobilization. At the same time, the construction of a common identity (precarious
LQWUDLQLQJKDVDOVRDOORZHGWKLVHPHUJHQFHRIDQHZVWXGHQWFROOHFWLYHVXEMHFWDQHZLGHQWLW\IRUQHZ
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New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 184

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corporate-university.

References
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Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J.C : 2004: Los herederos. Los estudiantes y la cultura. )Siglo XX editores. Buenos Aires),
%RXVTXHW0+RZWKH8QLYHUVLW\ZRUNV+LJKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGWKHORZZDJHQDWLRQ1HZ<RUN8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVS
&DOHOOD*8QLYHUVLWjIDEEULFDHVWXGHQWLPHUFHLQ&DOHOODHWDOHGV/RQGDDQRPDOD$OODULFHUFDGHOODXWRSROLWLFD(GL]LRQL
Alegre, Roma), p.75.
&RKQ%HQGLW''XWHXLO-3*pUDUG%DQG*UDQDXWLHU%:K\VRFLRORJLVWV"LQ&RFNEXUQ$%ODFNEXUQ5HGV6WXGHQW
SRZHU3UREOHPV'LDJQRVLV$FWLRQ3HQJXLQ1HZ/HIW5HYLHZ/RQGRQS
'HOOD3RUWD'6XUJLPLHQWRGHPRYLPLHQWRVHXURSHRV"6RFLHGDGFLYLO\8QLyQ(XURSHD$JRUD5HYLVWDGH&LHQFLDV6RFLDOHVQ
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(6&DWHOLHURFFXSDWR7HVLVXOOXQLYHUVLWiULIRUPDWDZZZHVFDWHOLHUQHW
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McCarthy J.D., The dynamics of social movements. (Winthrop Publishers Cambridge, Massachusetts).
Gonzlez Calleja, E.: 2009, Rebelin en las aulas. Movilizacin y protesta estudiantil en la Espaa contempornea: 1865-2008. (Alianza
Editorial. Madrid), p.53.
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.RXYHODNLV6)UDQFHIURPUHYROWWRDOWHUQDWLYH,QWHUQDWLRQDO6RFLDOLVW7HQGHQF\'LVFXVVLRQ%XOOHWLQQRZZZLVWHQGHQF\QHWS
Laclau, E.:1996, Emancipation(s). (Verso Books, London)
Mandel, E.: 1973, La proletarizacin del trabajo intelectual y la crisis de la produccin capitalista en la Rebelin estudiantil y la sociedad contempornea.
0F$GDP'0FFDUWK\-'=DOG0HG0RYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVSHUVSHFWLYDVFRPSDUDGDV(G,VWPR0DGULG
0F$GDP'7DUURZ67LOO\&K'LQiPLFDGHODFRQWLHQGDSROtWLFD(G+DFHU%DUFHORQD
6HYLOOD&/DIiEULFDGHOFRQRFLPLHQWR/DXQLYHUVLGDGHPSUHVDHQODSURGXFFLyQH[LEOH(GLWRULDO(O9LHMR7RSR%DUFHORQD
Sevilla, C. y Urbn, M.: 2008, Tesis sobre la universidad y el movimiento estudiantil, in Asamblea Ciencias Sociales Crticas,
Movimientos estudiantiles: resistir, imaginar, crear en la universidad, (Ed. Gakoa, Hondarribia), pp.61-101.
6ODXJKWHU6DQG5KRDGHV*$FDGHPLFFDSLWDOLVPDQGWKHQHZHFRQRP\0DUNHWV6WDWHDQG+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ7KH-RKQ+RSNLQV
University Press, Baltimore).
6RWLULV37KHRUL]LQJWKH(QWUHSUHQHXULDO8QLYHUVLW\2SHQTXHVWLRQVDQGSRVVLEOHDQVZHUV3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO
Conference on Critical Education, Athens 12-16 July 2011)
de Sousa Santos, B.: 2005, La universidad en el siglo XXI. Para una reforma democrtica y emancipadora de la universidad. (Ed.
Laboratorio de Polticas Pblicas. Buenos Aires),p.20.
7DUURZ6(OSRGHUHQPRYLPLHQWR/RVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVODDFFLyQFROHFWLYD\ODSROtWLFD(G$OLDQ]D0DGULG
7DUURZ61XHYRDFWLYLVPRWUDVQDFLRQDO(G+DFHU%DUFHORQD
Tilly, Ch.: 2009, Los movimientos sociales, 1768-2008. Desde sus orgenes a Facebook. (Ed. Crtica.,Barcelona)
Toscano, A.: 2011, The university as a Political Space in The Assault on Universities: A manifesto for Resistance (edited by Michael Bailey
 185 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

and Des Freedman)( Ed. Pluto Press, London),

Toscano, A.: 2011, The Limits of Autonomy: Cognitive capitalism and university struggles in Peters, M.A., Bulut, E. (editors), Cognitive
FDSLWDOLVPHGXFDWLRQDQGGLJLWDOODERU3HWHU/DQJ3XEOLVKLQJ,QF1HZ<RUN
Vercellone, C.: 2007, From formal subsumption to general intellect: elements for a marxist reading of the thesis of cognitive capitalism, in
Historical Materialism , 15, 1: 13-36.
:LOOLDPV-/DSHGDJRJtDGHODGHXGDLQ(GX)DFWRU\DQG8QLYHUVLGDG1yPDGDFRPSV/D8QLYHUVLGDGHQ&RQLFWRFDSWXUDV\
IXJDVHQHOPHUFDGRJOREDOGHOVDEHU(G7UDFDQWHVGH6XHxRV0DGULG
Zizek, S.: 2011, Primero como farsa, despus como tragedia. (Ed. Akal. Madrid), p.166.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 186

Precarious present, uncertain future:

multiples dimensions of precarity as a symbolic tool
and resource in the Italian university mobilisation

LORENZO ZAMPONI
European University Institute

Introduction
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RIFRQLFWIRFXVLQJLQSDUWLFXODURQWKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQW

The idea of going out of my comfort zone and approaching this topic came to me and my friend and col-
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RIRWKHUDFDGHPLFFRPPLWPHQWVLQSUHVVHGE\WKHXUJHQF\RIWKHWRSLF$VGRFWRUDOVWXGHQWVZHDUH
DFWXDOO\OLYLQJWKLVFRQGLWLRQRISUHFDULW\LQRXUUHVHDUFKZRUNDQGZHKDYHSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHXQLYHUVLW\
PRELOLVDWLRQVRIWKHODVWIHZ\HDUV7KHUHIRUHZHWKRXJKWZHVKRXOGVWDUWWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKLVPDWWHUERWK
DVUHVHDUFKHUVDQGDVDFWLYLVWVLQRUGHUWRLPSURYHWKHVFKRODUO\NQRZOHGJHRQWKLVHOGDQGWRFRQWULEXWH
RIWKHVHOIDZDUHQHVVRIWKHVRFLDODFWRUVLQYROYHGLQWKLVSURFHVV

7KLVLVDZRUNLQJSDSHUWKHVWDUWRIP\LQYHVWLJDWLRQLQWKLVHOG,DPPDLQO\LQWHUHVWHGLQSUHFDULW\DVD
V\PEROLFUHVRXUFHDQGWRRODEOHWRWUDQVFHQGWKHVRFLDOHOGRIODERXUDQGWRWDNHRQDZLGHUPHDQLQJDQG
UROHLQGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOSURFHVVHV,QWKHVHFRQGVHFWLRQRIWKLVSDSHU,EULH\GHVFULEHWKHV\PEROLFHOG,DP
LQWHUHVWHGLQUHFRQVWUXFWLQJVRPHWUDLWVRIWKHVKLIWIURPWKHH[LELOLW\GLVFRXUVHWRWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVH
In the third section, I analyse the main contents of the precarity discourse in the context of the university
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and in the fourth I try to individuate the most useful theoretical lenses for the further research on the role of
WKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHVWDUWLQJIURPWKHUHVXOWVRIWKLVUVWHPSLULFDODQDO\VLV

Epistemological and ethical aspects

Doing research on social movements involves various kind of ethical, methodological and epistemo-
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Furthermore, I address the object of study both as a researcher and as an activist. I have been engaged in
the student movement since 2001 and I am actually a member of the national executive committee of Rete
della Conoscenza, the largest Italian student union.

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 187 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

concerns data gathering, data analysis and capacity of comprehension of the internal dynamics of the
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are the references to the events that characterised the university mobilisation of 2009-2010: in those cases,
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The symbolic dimension of collective action

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RILQGLYLGXDOVJURXSVRUDVVRFLDWLRQVHQJDJHGLQSROLWLFDORUFXOWXUDOFRQLFWRQWKHEDVLVRIDVKDUHGFRO-
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collective identity) in the making of a social movement (Touraine 1981, Melucci 1996).

Collective identity is considered a strategic device for both the setting of borders for the group member-
ship and the motivation of individuals to action. It links the actors to each other, it grants patterns to go over
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KDVZRUNHGRQWKHLGHQWLW\EXLOGLQJSURFHVVRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKHODVWGHFDGHDQGVRPHRIWKHP
UHIHUUHGWRWKHXVHE\DFWLYLVWVRIHYRFDWLYHFXOWXUDOV\PEROVUHVRQDWLQJZLWKWKHRQHVEHORQJLQJWRWKH
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VLWXDWLRQWKHLUSUHFRQFHSWLRQVWKHLULPSOLFLWDVVXPSWLRQVDERXWVRFLDOOLIHDQGLWVJXLGLQJSULQFLSOHVDERXWZKDWLV
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bedded. Social agency is indeed at the same time oriented on the reproduction of its constraining structures, and the
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From Social to Political.
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In that debate and in other occasions, Francesca Polletta called for a different conceptualization of cul-
ture, as the symbolic dimension of all structures, institutions, and practices (political, economic, educa-
WLRQDOHWF3ROOHWWD7KHUHLVDVKDUHGHIIRUWLQUHFHQWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFKRODUVKLSDLPLQJDW
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building process (Polletta and Jasper 2001, Tilly 2002, della Porta and Diani 2006).

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2008).

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of capitalism. (CSALE 2010)

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bank Mario Draghi1 and then-premier Silvio Berlusconi2. In fact, the change in the terms of the debate is

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 189 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

shared by different social actors and does not seem directly related to their position in the topic. A clear
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WKHPXVHGSUHFDULDW3.

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on social action (Couldry 2008), using the set of instruments typical of critical discourse analysis usually
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trality, excessive rationalism, exclusion of household and economy and monism (Garnham 1992), others
have denounced the fragmentation of the contemporary public sphere (Gitlin 1998), others have described
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the precarity discourse, that is clearly visible and analysable in the mainstream public sphere, probably as
a result of more complex and articulated processes that happened out of it or in its margins. Others have
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develop in the arena of the mainstream media, that is the mediatised public sphere.

)RUWKHVHUHDVRQV,ZLOOIRFXVSULPDULO\RQPDLQVWUHDPLQGHSHQGHQWFRPPHUFLDOQHZVSDSHUVJLYHQWKH
level of public legitimacy they have and they can give (Cavallari 1990).

7KHUVWVWHSRIWKLVUHVHDUFKLVFRQVWLWXWHGE\DGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVKLIWLQWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHIURP
H[LELOLW\WRSUHFDULW\,QRUGHUWRVKRZWKLVSURFHVV,KDYHDQDO\VHGWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIWKHZRUGV
HVVLEOLWjDQGSUHFDULHWjFRXQWLQJDOVRWKHYDULDQWSUHFDULDWRLQWKHGLJLWDODUFKLYHVRIWKHWZRPRVW
LPSRUWDQW,WDOLDQQHZVSDSHUVERWKLQWHUPVRIGLVWULEXWLRQDQGRIFXOWXUDOUHOHYDQFHWKDWDUH/D5HSXEEOLFD
and ,O&RUULHUHGHOODVHUD7KHZRUGVDUHXVHGDVLQGH[HVRIWKHGLIIHUHQWLQWHUSUHWLYHSDFNDJHV*DPVRQ
DQG0RGLJOLDQLXVHGWRDGGUHVVWKHWRSLFRIODERXU,QWKHQH[WVHFWLRQV,ZLOOWU\WRUHFRQVWUXFWWKH
traits that constitute one of these packages and to elaborate some hypotheses for further research on the role
of these symbolic elements in the processes of mobilisation in the university.

DOO8QLRQHHXURSHD,O)DWWR4XRWLGLDQR>RQOLQH@2FW$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZLOIDWWRTXRWLGLDQRLWLOWHVWRLQWHJUDOHGHOODOHWWHUDGHO
JRYHUQRLWDOLDQRDOOXQLRQHHXURSHD!>$FFHVVHG1RYHPEHU@
 ,FKLQR3&RQWURLOSUHFDULDWRXQQXRYRGLULWWRGHOODYRUR3LHWUR,FKLQR>RQOLQH@)HE$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZSLHWURLFKLQRLW"S !
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 190

7DEOH2FFXUUHQFHVSHU\HDURIWKHZRUGVHVVLELOLWjDQGSUHFDULHWjRUSUHFDULDWR
in /D5HSXEEOLFD, from 1992 to 2011

7DEOH2FFXUUHQFHVSHU\HDURIWKHZRUGVHVVLELOLWjDQGSUHFDULHWjRUSUHFDULDWR
in ,O&RUULHUHGHOODVHUD, from 1992 to 2011

7KHUHDUHVRPHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHQHZVSDSHUVLQ,O&RUULHUHGHOODVHUDWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ
WKHWZRZRUGVLQWKHVLVODUJHUWKDQLQ/D5HSXEEOLFDZKLOHWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHRSSRVLWHVHQVHLQWKH
ODWHVW\HDUVLVVPDOOHU%XWWKHWUHQGLVVLPLODUDFOHDUSUHYDOHQFHRIH[LELOLW\LQWKHVDQGRISUHFDU-
LW\LQWKHV

%XWWKHVHJXUHVPLJKWEHPLVXQGHUVWRRGJLYHQWKDWWKHXVHRIERWKWKHZRUGVLVDOPRVWFRQVWDQWO\LQ-
FUHDVLQJDQGWKHDEVROXWHQXPEHURIRFFXUUHQFHVRIDZRUGFDQGHSHQGRQWKHSDUWLFXODUIRFXVRIDQHZVSD-
SHURQDWRSLFLQDFHUWDLQSHULRGRIWLPH,IZHDUHLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHUHODWLYHJURZWKRIWKHXVHRISUHFDULW\
RYHUH[LELOLW\DPRUHHIIHFWLYHYLHZPLJKWVKRZQE\WKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHUDWLRRIRFFXUUHQFHVRI
SUHFDULW\WRRFFXUUHQFHVRIH[LELOLW\
 191 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

7DEOH5DWLRRIRFFXUUHQFHVRISUHFDULHWjRUSUHFDULDWRWRRFFXUUHQFHVRIHVVLELOLWj
In /D5HSXEEOLFD and ,O&RUULHUHGHOODVHUD, from 1992 to 2011

This chart gives the best possible image of the evolution of the public discourse in the mainstream
PHGLDWKHUDWLRLVHTXDOO\ORZLQERWKWKHQHZVSDSHUVLQWKHVDQGWKHQLWVWDUWVLQFUHDVLQJWKHWUHQG
SURFHHGVLQWKHVDPHZD\ZLWKDGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHQHZVSDSHUVWKDWUHPDLQVVWDEOHSHDNLQJLQ
DQGWKHQGHFUHDVLQJ7KHODUJHVWGLIIHUHQFHLVLQWKHODVWWZR\HDUV

7KLVWUDMHFWRULHVFDQEHLQWHUSUHWHGLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VWKHSHDNFRPHVDWWKHHQGRIWKHUVWZDYHRI
mobilisation on precarity (Mattoni 2009), during the period of the center-left government led by Romano
3URGLZKHQWKHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVODERXUZDVDQLQWHQVHWRSLFRIGHEDWHLQWKHPDMRULW\FRDOLWLRQWKHGH-
FUHDVHDIWHUPLJKWEHOLQNHGWRDJHQHUDOVKLIWWRZDUGVWKHULJKWRIWKH,WDOLDQSROLWLFDOHOGZLWKWKH
liberal turn imposed by Walter Veltroni to the center-left coalition, the disappearance from the parliament
RIWKHUDGLFDOOHIWDQGWKHVWDUWRIDQHZULJKWJRYHUQPHQWOHGE\6LOYLR%HUOXVFRQLEXWDUHOHYDQWUROHPLJKW
DOVREHSOD\HGE\WKHQDQFLDOFULVLVZKLFKFRQWULEXWHGWRVKLIWWKHPHGLDDWWHQWLRQIURPODERXUUHODWHGWR
PDUNHWRULHQWHGWRSLFVDQGYLHZV

$OOWKHVHK\SRWKHVHVQHHGWREHYHULHGLQIXUWKHUUHVHDUFK:KDWLVFOHDUHYHQIURPWKLVVNHWFK\TXDQWL-
WDWLYHDQDO\VLVLVWKHJHQHUDOHYROXWLRQRIWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHLQWKHPDLQVWUHDPQHZVSDSHUVZLWKDYLVLEOH
VKLIWIURPWKHH[LELOLW\GLVFRXUVHWRWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVH

7KHUHDUHTXDVLREYLRXVVWUXFWXUDOUHDVRQVIRUWKLVVKLIWURRWHGLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHHYROXWLRQ
RIWKH,WDOLDQODERXUPDUNHWDQGWKHFKDQJLQJJOREDOHFRQRPLFSKDVH7KHOLWHUDWXUHVKRZVKRZSUHFDU-
LW\KDVEHFRPHDTXDVLXELTXLWRXVFRQGLWLRQIRUPRVW,WDOLDQ\RXWKSRLQWLQJRXWGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWVRIWKLV
SKHQRPHQRQODFNRIULJKWVDQGZHOIDUH,5(6IUHTXHQWDQGJURZLQJXQHPSOR\PHQW,67$7
EUROSTAT 2010), etc.

But there is a symbolic side of this phenomenon that cannot be overlooked. The literature on social
movements has already underlined the role of narratives, identities, frames and ideologies in collective ac-
WLRQDQGHYHQVWUXFWXUDOIDFWRUVQHHGV\PEROLFLQVWUXPHQWVWRLQXHQFHWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 192

7KLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\LQWHUHVWLQJLQDFRQWH[WLQZKLFKWUDGLWLRQDOIRUPVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQGRQRWVXFFHHG
LQEXLOGLQJDQHIFLHQWUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRISUHFDULRXVODERXUVDQGZRUNHUVDUHFRPPLWWHGLQQGLQJQHZDQG
GLIIHUHQWZD\VWRPRELOLVHDQGDFKLHYHWKHLUJRDOV0XUJLDDQG6HOPL,WORRNVOLNHSUHFDULRXVZRUN-
HUVWKDWKDYHQRWEHHQDEOHWRZLQWKHLUVWUXJJOHDWWKHDFWXDOOHYHO\HW=DQHWWLKDYHVFRUHGVRPH
points at the symbolic level. Precarity, this is my hypothesis, has not yet succeeded in producing massive
forms of organisation of social struggles, but it has succeeded in imposing itself in the public discourse,
LQYROYLQJDZLGHVHWRIDFWRUVDQGLQGLYLGXDOV

:HDOUHDG\NQRZVRPHWKLQJDERXWWKHGLVFRXUVHRQSUHFDULW\GHYHORSHGLQWKHPRYHPHQWV0DWWRQL
%XWZKDWLVSUHFDULW\LQWKHPDLQVWUHDPSXEOLFVSKHUH":KDWGLVFRXUVHGRWKHJXUHVLQWDEOHV
DQGUHIHUWR"

,QRUGHUWRVWDUWDQVZHULQJWKHVHTXHVWLRQV,ZLOODQDO\VHWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHLQWKHPDLQVWUHDPSXE-
lic sphere in a particular case: the university mobilisation of 2009-2010.

The precarity discourse in action: the case of the mobilisation

against the university reform
7KHFDVHLQZKLFK,FKRRVHWRDQDO\VHWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQLVWKH
mobilisation against the university reform proposed by the cabinet lead by Silvio Berlusconi (the so-called
*HOPLQLODZIURPWKHQDPHRIWKHPLQLVWHURIHGXFDWLRQ7KHELOOZDVSURSRVHGE\WKHJRYHUQPHQWRQ
October 28thDQGQDOO\DSSURYHGE\WKHSDUOLDPHQWRQ'HFHPEHU3th, 2010.

,QWKHUVWPRQWKVWKHJHQHUDOUHDFWLRQRIWKHPHGLDWRWKHUHIRUPZDVSUHWW\IDYRXUDEOHDQGVWXGHQWV
ZHUHDORQHLQWKHRSSRVLWLRQZKLOHLQWKH6SULQJWKHPRELOLVDWLRQRIUHVHDUFKHUVJHQHUDWHGDVWURQJWXUQLQ
WKHPHGLDFRYHUDJHDQGWKHKXJHPRELOLVDWLRQVRI2FWREHU1RYHPEHUDQG'HFHPEHUZHUHJHQHUDOO\
supported by the mainstream media (Zamponi 2011).

3UHFDULW\ZDVRQHRIWKHPDLQWRSLFVRIPRELOLVDWLRQDQG,DUJXHWKDWLWKDVEHHQXVHGLQDPXFKEURDGHU
VHQVHWKDQEHIRUHEHFRPLQJDXVHIXOUHVRXUFHDQGWRROIRUWKHPRYHPHQWLQDZD\WKDWFDQEHDQDO\VHG
WKURXJKGLIIHUHQWFRQFHSWXDOOHQVHV,QWKHQH[WVHFWLRQ,ZLOOWU\DQGOLVWVRPHRIWKHVHOHQVHVZKLOHLQWKLV
,XVHWKHODEHOVRIGLVFRXUVHDQGIUDPHZLWKRXWDQ\SDUWLFXODUWKHRUHWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQV

,QWKLVVHFWLRQ,EULH\DQDO\VHWKHPRVWIUHTXHQWXVHVRISUHFDULW\DQGSUHFDULDWLQUHIHUHQFHZLWK
the university, during the 14 months of the anti-Gelmini mobilisation. The dataset I use is constituted by the
DUWLFOHVFRQWDLQLQJWKHZRUGVSUHFDULHWjRUSUHFDULDWRDQGXQLYHUVLWjLQ/D5HSXEEOLFD from October
28th, 2009 to December 24th, 2010.

,FKRRVHWRIRFXVRQWKHPDLQVWUHDPPHGLDDQGRQDSHULRGRIWLPHWKDWFRPHVDIWHUWKHVKLIWEHWZHHQWKH
H[LELOLW\DQGWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHVEHFDXVHP\JRDOLVQRWWRDQDO\VHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVRFLDOPRYH-
ments and media in the construction of a public discourse about precarity (for an analysis of that process, see
Mattoni 2009), but to examine the result of this process, to reconstruct the symbolic bricks of the precarity
GLVFRXUVHZKHQLWLVDOUHDG\HVWDEOLVKHGLQDSXEOLFGLVFRXUVH:KDW,DQDO\VHLVQRWWKHPRYHPHQWGLVFRXUVH
RQSUHFDULW\EXWWKHUHVXOWRILWVKHJHPRQLFZRUNWKHSURGXFWRILWVLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKWKHPHGLDPHFKDQLVPV
 193 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

,QWKHVHDUWLFOHVSUHFDULW\LVXVHGLQGLIIHUHQWO\E\DFWLYLVWVDQGMRXUQDOLVWVDQGWKHVKDUHGGLVFRXUVH
WKDWHPHUJHVLWLVDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKHUHVXOWRIDQLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHPDQGDFRPPRQV\PEROLFUHSRVL-
WRU\IURPZKLFKERWKDFWLYLVWVDQGMRXUQDOLVWVGUDZLPDJHVDQGDUJXPHQWV

,QWKHUVWIRXUVXEVHFWLRQV,GHVFULEHWKHUHIHUHQFHVWRSUHFDULW\LQWKHDUWLFOHVUHJDUGLQJWKHPRELOLVD-
WLRQRIGLIIHUHQWVRFLDODFWRUVZKLOHLQWKHIROORZLQJWKUHHVXEVHFWLRQV,DQDO\VHWKUHHGLIIHUHQWNLQGRI
DUWLFOHVQRWUHIHUULQJGLUHFWO\WRWKHXQLYHUVLW\PRELOLVDWLRQEXWFRQWDLQLQJWKHZRUGXQLYHUVLWjDUJXLQJ
that the public discourse on university constitutes the symbolic environment for the mobilisation and it is
FRQVWUXFWHGZLWKFRQWLQXLQJLQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWIUDPHVQDUUDWLYHVDQGVRFLDODFWRUV

The mobilisation of precarious researchers

3UHFDULW\LVDUHDOLVVXHLQWKHXQLYHUVLW\PRELOLVDWLRQDQGSUHFDULRXVXQLYHUVLW\ZRUNHUVDUHDPRQJ
the actors that participate in the movement, succeeding in gaining some representation in the press. In the
UVWKDOIRIHVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKH6SULQJWKDWLVWKHSHULRGLQZKLFKWKHPRELOLVDWLRQRIUHVHDUFKHUV
VWDUWVFKDQJLQJWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHRQWKHXQLYHUVLW\UHIRUPWKHDUWLFOHVJHQHUDOO\GHDOZLWKWKHFRQGL-
WLRQRISUHFDULRXVUHVHDUFKHUVDQGHPSOR\HHVLQWKH,WDOLDQXQLYHUVLWLHV7KH\GHVFULEHWKHGLIFXOWZRUN
VDODU\DQGOLIHFRQGLWLRQVRISUHFDULRXVXQLYHUVLW\ZRUNHUVLQUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHLUFRPSODLQVDERXWWKH
university reform and their actions of protest40RVWRIWKHPDUHSXEOLVKHGLQWKHORFDOQHZVVHFWLRQRIWKH
QHZVSDSHU5ZKLOHRQO\DIHZRIWKHPJHWWRWKHQDWLRQDOVHFWLRQV6. In the second half of the year, especially
from October, they tend to focus more on protest events and on the evolution of the mobilisation.7

The precarity frame in the mobilisation of students

7KHLQYROYHPHQWRIXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVLQWKHXVHRISUHFDULW\DVDPRELOLVDWLRQIUDPHKDVDOUHDG\EHHQ
GHVFULEHGDVDIUDPHH[WHQVLRQVSURFHVV%HQIRUGDQG6QRZUHIHUULQJWRWKHXQLYHUVLW\PRELOL-
VDWLRQRIE\0DWWRQL:KDWLQZDVDWKHRUHWLFDODVVXPSWLRQLQWKHSROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHRI
student activists, in 2010 is a concept commonly reported in the public discourse by the mainstream media.
 %RPSDQL0LFKHOD'HQLVHHWHUQDSUHFDULD,QSHQVLRQHFRQHXUR/D5HSXEEOLFD)HE/RQJKLQ'LHJR7HPRLOEORFFRGHOOHOH]LRQL
ma si sollevano giusti problemi, /D5HSXEEOLFD0DUS7RULQR$QRQ\PRXV5LFHUFDWRULOXQLFDYLDqDQGDUVHQHGDOO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD,
$SUS$QRQ\PRXV/DULIRUPD*HOPLQLDOOXQJDLOQRVWUROLPER/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS$QRQ\PRXV,SUHFDULXQLYHUVLWDULXQHV-
ercito di riserva, /D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS9HQWXUL,ODULD/DSURWHVWDJHQWLOHDQWL*HOPLQLLQUHWWRUDWRGRFHQWLHSUHFDUL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 19 May
S%RORJQD5DX*DLD$WHQHLODSURWHVWDVLDOODUJD/D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S)LUHQ]H5DX*DLD,OSLDQWRGHOVXSHUFHUYHOORQH/DPLD
ULFHUFDPRULUjFRQPH/D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S)LUHQ]H9DOIUq(QULFD3LRWWR,JRU/DPDQRYUDFROSLVFHPLODWRULQHVL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 6
-XQS7RULQR)XJQROL/DXUD3UHFDULHWjHWXUQLPDVVDFUDQWLLFDPLFLELDQFKLQRQVRJQDQRSL/D5HSXEEOLFD-XQS0LODQR0RQWDQDUL
/DXUD,OJULGRGDOODUPHGHOOD&UXVFD/D5HSXEEOLFD, 24 Jun. p.39
5 Longhin Diego 2010. Temo il blocco delle lezioni ma si sollevano giusti problemi, /D5HSXEEOLFD0DUS7RULQR9HQWXUL,ODULD/DSURWHVWD
gentile anti-Gelmini in rettorato docenti e precari, /D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S%RORJQD5DX*DLD$WHQHLODSURWHVWDVLDOODUJD/D5HSXEEOLFD, 19
0D\S)LUHQ]H5DX*DLD,OSLDQWRGHOVXSHUFHUYHOORQH/DPLDULFHUFDPRULUjFRQPH/D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S)LUHQ]H9DOIUq(QULFD
Piotto, Igor 2010. La manovra colpisce 90mila torinesi, /D5HSXEEOLFD-XQS7RULQR)XJQROL/DXUD3UHFDULHWjHWXUQLPDVVDFUDQWLLFDPLFL
ELDQFKLQRQVRJQDQRSL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 18 Jun. p.3 (Milano)
 %RPSDQL0LFKHOD'HQLVHHWHUQDSUHFDULD,QSHQVLRQHFRQHXUR/D5HSXEEOLFD)HE$QRQ\PRXV5LFHUFDWRULOXQLFDYLDq
DQGDUVHQHGDOO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS$QRQ\PRXV/DULIRUPD*HOPLQLDOOXQJDLOQRVWUROLPER/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS$QRQ\-
mous 2010. I precari universitari un esercito di riserva, /D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS0RQWDQDUL/DXUD,OJULGRGDOODUPHGHOOD&UXVFD/D5HSXE
EOLFD, 24 Jun. p.39
 9HQWXUL,ODULD$JUDULDODODGXUDGHOODSURWHVWD/D5HSXEEOLFD6HSS%RORJQD6SLQHOOD&ULVWRIRUR8QLYHUVLWjQHOEXLRODYYLRGHOOH
OH]LRQL6HLULFHUFDWRULVXGLHFL1RQLQVHJQHUHPR/D5HSXEEOLFD2FWS3DOHUPR&DSXD3DWUL]LD6FRQWULLOULFHUFDWRUHWRUQDOLEHUR/D
5HSXEEOLFD2FWS1DSROL0DQQD(ULFD%OLW]GHLSUHFDULDOOLQDXJXUD]LRQH3HUQRLORUL]]RQWHqXQPLUDJJLR/D5HSXEEOLFD, 30 Oct. p.9
*HQRYD3DUPHJJLDQQL6WHIDQLD6FXRODXQOXQJRPHUFROHGuGLSURWHVWD/D5HSXEEOLFD, 17 Nov. p.5 (Bologna), G., V., G., S. 2010. Sapienza, vita
senza futuro niente soldi per gli stipendi, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 25 Nov. p.3 (Roma)
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 194

$ODUJHQXPEHURIDUWLFOHVLQIDFWUHIHUWRSUHFDULW\RUSUHFDULDWGHDOLQJZLWKSURWHVWHYHQWVRUJDQ-
ised by students87KLVFRQFHSWLVXVHGLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VPRVWO\DVDODEHOWRGHQHDJHQHUDOFRQGLWLRQRI
distress in the university9LQUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHFRQFHSWRIIXWXUH10DQGZLWKWKHLGHDRIDVRFLDOFRDOL-
WLRQEHWZHHQVWXGHQWVDQGZRUNHUV117KHUHLVDOVRWKHIUHTXHQWUHIHUHQFHWRDVHWRIWRSLFVXVXDOO\OLQNHGWR
the precarity discourse in general, out of the university context, such as the need for a generational change,
WKHLQHTXDOLWLHVEHWZHHQRSHQHQGHGDQGSUHFDULRXVZRUNHUVWKHODFNRIZHOIDUHSURWHFWLRQ12

The precarity frame in the mobilisation of tenured researchers

3DUWLFXODUO\LQWHUHVWLQJLVWKHTXDQWLW\DQGTXDOLW\RIDUWLFOHVWKDWXVHWKHZRUGVSUHFDULW\RSUHFDULDW
ZKLOHUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHPRELOLVDWLRQRIWHQXUHGUHVHDUFKHUV7HQXUHGUHVHDUFKHUVUHSUHVHQWHGE\5HWH
$SULOHIDUIURPEHLQJWKHPRVWUHOHYDQWSDUWRIWKHPRYHPHQWIURPDTXDQWLWDWLYHSRLQWRIYLHZKDYHEHHQ
fundamental for the development of the mobilisation.

7KHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHUHVHDUFKHUVPRYHPHQWLQWKH6SULQJWRZKLFKZDVDGGHGWKHVSUHDGLQJRIVWXGHQWVSURWHVWLQWKH)DOOKDV
UHSUHVHQWHGXQGRXEWHGO\DQRYHOW\IRUWKH,WDOLDQDFDGHPLDEHFDXVHWKHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHSUHFDULRXVRQO\ZHUHSUHYLRXVO\PR-
ELOL]HG>@,QIDFWUHVHDUFKHUVDVVRFLDOFDWHJRU\UHSUHVHQWIHZZRUNHUVNQRZOHGJHRQO\ZKRZHUHQRWXVHGWRXQLRQDFWLYLW\
RUSURWHVWEHIRUHWKHUHFHQWPRELOL]DWLRQ1HYHUWKHOHVVPRVWRIWKHPZHUHDEOHWRJLYHULVHDQGWROHDGDPRYHPHQWDJJUHJDW-
LQJRWKHUXQLYHUVLW\FDWHJRULHVQRWMRLQLQJWKHH[LVWHQWXQLRQVRUFDWHJRU\DVVRFLDWLRQEXWFUHDWLQJDQHZQHWZRUNHGRUJDQL]D-
WLRQDQGLQYHQWLQJQHZIRUPVRISURWHVWRUDGDSWLQJWKRVHXVHGE\RWKHUZRUNHUVFDWHJRULHV,IWKHUHVHDUFKHUVIDLOHGWRSUHYHQW
WKHDSSURYDORIWKH%LOOWKH\ZHUHKRZHYHUDEOHWRDWWUDFWPHGLDDWWHQWLRQDQGLQXHQFHSXEOLFDQGSROLWLFDODJHQGDFDUU\LQJ
RQWKHPRELOL]DWLRQWKRXJKDWORZHULQWHQVLW\HYHQGXULQJWKHFXUUHQWSKDVHRILPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHUHIRUP3LD]]D

The role of tenured researchers has been fundamental for three main reasons: on the public discourse level,
WKHLUOHJLWLPDF\RIVFLHQWLVWVRISRWHQWLDOEUDLQVRQWKHUXQJDYHWKHSURWHVWDFUHGLELOLW\WKDWWKHVWXGHQWV
FDQQRWKDYHRQWKHVWUDWHJLFOHYHOWKHLUGHFLVLRQWRVWRSDOOWHDFKLQJDFWLYLWLHVSURGXFHGDWRWDOEORFNRIXQL-
YHUVLWLHVWKDWJDYHWKHVWDUWWRWKHJHQHUDOPRELOLVDWLRQRQHDUO\2FWREHU=DPSRQLRQWKHFROOHF-
WLYHLGHQWLW\OHYHOWKHLUSURWHVWKDGLWVDGGHGYDOXHLQWKHDELOLW\WREXLOGSURMHFWVDQGFRQFUHWHDFWLRQVZLWK
WKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWDQGWKHJDOD[\RISUHFDULRXVUHVHDUFKHUV0DLGD[LWUDQVODWHGE\3LD]]D
8 Anonymous 2009. Poli, prove di fusione con Milano, /D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS7RULQR$QRQ\PRXV6RWWR3DOD]]R9HFFKLROHXUODGHLSUHFDUL
QHKDQQRGLULWWRPDODVVXQ]LRQHQRQDUULYD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS)LUHQ]H'L*LXVHSSH)XOYLR6WXGHQWLHGLVRFFXSDWLVODODUDEELD/D
5HSXEEOLFD0DUS%DUL'L*LDFRPR$QWRQLR4XLSRVVRQRULQDVFHUHLQRVWULVRJQL/D5HSXEEOLFD-XQS%DUL*LDQQROL9LROD
1RDWDJOLDOORVWXGLRHSUHFDULDWRHFFRLODVKPREGLVWXGHQWLHSURI/D5HSXEEOLFDS5RPD%UXQHWWR&ODXGLD%OLW]HVWULVFLRQLVWXGHQWLLQ
rivolta, /D5HSXEEOLFD2FWS3DOHUPR*LX20HORQLHYLWDLOFRQIURQWRFRQO8QLYHUVLWj/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS7RULQR6WXGHQWL
/LQNH&ROOHWWLYR/HWWHUH,WDJOLDOOXQLYHUVLWjSUHVLGHQWHLQWHUYHQJD/D5HSXEEOLFD)HES%DUL%UXQHWWR&ODXGLD6WXGHQWLLQFRUWHR
a scuola autunno caldo, /D5HSXEEOLFD2FWS3DOHUPR*LXVWHWWL2WWDYLD$UULYD6DFFRQLXQLYHUVLWjEOLQGDWD/D5HSXEEOLFD, 9 Nov. p.9
7RULQR)RUJQRQH9DOHULD*UDWWRJJL6DUD8QLYHUVLWDULHOLFHDOLVODQRLQPLOD/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS5RPD9HWWRUL(PLOLR
3DOD]]R&DPSDQDVGDOD*HOPLQL'RPDQLRFFXSLDPRVWUDGHHXQLYHUVLWj/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS7RULQR*LDQQROL9LROD*UDWWRJJL6DUD/
assemblea degli studenti Contro la riforma Gelmini in piazza il 22 dicembre, /D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS5RPD3''RWWRUDQGRVXLFLGDFRQWURL
EDURQL*HORVXOOLQWHUYHQWRGHOOD*HOPLQL/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS3DOHUPR6RIUL$GULDQR,UDJD]]LFRQLSHQVLRQDWL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 30 Nov.
S'H)D]LR%LDQFD/XQLYHUVLWjWUDOHPDFHULHGL3RPSHL/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS1DSROL$QRQ\PRXV1XRYDRQGDWDGLVFXROHRF-
cupate, /D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS3DOHUPR0DOWHVH&XU]LR/DSURWHVWDGHOOHFKLWDUUHULGDWHFLLOIXWXUR/D5HSXEEOLFD, 23 Dec. p.1.
9 Anonymous 2009. Poli, prove di fusione con Milano, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 12 Nov. p.8 (Torino).
10 *LDQQROL9LROD*UDWWRJJL6DUD/DVVHPEOHDGHJOLVWXGHQWL&RQWURODULIRUPD*HOPLQLLQSLD]]DLOGLFHPEUH/D5HSXEEOLFD, 17 Dec. p.2 (Roma).
11 *LDQQROL9LROD1RDWDJOLDOORVWXGLRHSUHFDULDWRHFFRLODVKPREGLVWXGHQWLHSURI/D5HSXEEOLFDS5RPD6RIUL$GULDQR,UDJD]]LFRQ
i pensionati, /D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS'H)D]LR%LDQFD/XQLYHUVLWjWUDOHPDFHULHGL3RPSHL/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS1DSROL$QRQ\-
mous 2010. Nuova ondata di scuole occupate, /D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS3DOHUPR0DOWHVH&XU]LR/DSURWHVWDGHOOHFKLWDUUHULGDWHFLLOIXWXUR
/D5HSXEEOLFD, 23 Dec. p.1.
12 $QRQ\PRXV6RWWR3DOD]]R9HFFKLROHXUODGHLSUHFDULQHKDQQRGLULWWRPDODVVXQ]LRQHQRQDUULYD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS)LUHQ]H
 195 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

For a reconstruction of the mobilisation of tenured researchers in the Italian university movement of
2010, see Ferretti (2011), Maida (2011) and Piazza (2011). What is relevant in the context of this paper is
WKHIUHTXHQF\RIDUWLFOHVLQZKLFKWHQXUHGUHVHDUFKHUVHYHQLIWKH\DUHQRWSUHFDULRXVVWULFWRVHQVX, use
SUHFDULW\DVDIUDPHWRSUHVHQWWKHLUFRQGLWLRQVFRPSODLQVDQGSURSRVDOVLQWKHSXEOLFHOG

These articles are mainly concentrated in the Spring13ZKHQWKHUHVHDUFKHUVVWDUWRUJDQLVLQJDQGIRUP

WKHLUQDWLRQDOQHWZRUNDQGLQWKH)DOODWWKHDSH[RIWKHSURWHVW14.

5HVHDUFKHUVXVHSUHFDULW\DVDFRQFHSWDEOHWRGHVFULEHWKHLUFRQGLWLRQLQDVHQVHWKDWLVZLGHUWKDQ
WKHVWULFWGHQLWLRQRIWKHFRQWUDFW7KHSKHQRPHQRQLVTXLWHVLPLODUWRWKHRQHGHVFULEHGLQWKHSUHYLRXV
VXEVHFWLRQUHIHUULQJWRWKHVWXGHQWVWKHIUDPHLVH[WHQGHGERWKKRUL]RQWDOO\FRPSUHKHQGLQJDZLGHVHWRI
meaning related to different aspects of the labour conditions of researchers (that in other times might have
EHHQLQWHUSUHWHGZLWKRWKHUZRUGVVXFKDVH[SORLWDWLRQDQGYHUWLFDOO\GHVFULELQJSUHFDULW\VWULFWRVHQVX
DVDSDVWWKDWWHQXUHGUHVHDUFKHUVNQRZDQGZDQWWRUHPHPEHUDQGUHGHHP0RVWRIWKHPKDGSUHFDULRXV
contracts for year, before the tenure, and the representation of that condition is still part of the collective
identity they are building15.

Precarity as a frame to address the movement from outside

7KHKHJHPRQLFIXQFWLRQRIWKHSUHFDULW\IUDPHWKHXVHRIZKLFKKDVWDQJLEOHUHVXOWVLQWKHSXEOLFGLV-
course, is proved by the fact that, from a certain moment on, different social actors start to use it to refer to
the university movement.

This phenomenon, a part from one case16 that anticipates all the others, happens in the Fall of 2010, at
WKHDSH[RIWKHPRELOLVDWLRQZKHQDV,VKRZHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVVXEVHFWLRQVWKHUHLVDOUHDG\DSUHFDULW\
GLVFRXUVHGHYHORSHGDQGVKDUHGE\GLIIHUHQWDFWRUVLQWKHHOG

Politicians from different parties address the issue of the university mobilisation, referring mainly to
VWXGHQWVDQGXVLQJWKHZRUGVSUHFDULHWjRUSUHFDULDWR7KHUVWLV1LFKL9HQGROD17, leader of the eco-
socialist party 6LQLVWUD(FRORJLDH/LEHUWjWKHQWKHVDPHZRUGVDUHXVHGIURPGLIIHUHQWSRLQWRIYLHZVE\
Giorgia Meloni18, minister of youth and member of the conservative party 3RSRORGHOOD/LEHUWj, Maurizio

13 Bompani, Michela 2010. Ricercatori pronti allo sciopero delle lezioni, /D5HSXEEOLFD0DUS*HQRYD%RPSDQL0LFKHOD5LFHUFDWRULVLDO-
ODUJDODSURWHVWDOXQLYHUVLWjYHUVRLOEORFFR/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS*HQRYD$QRQ\PRXV,SUHFDULXQLYHUVLWDULXQHVHUFLWRGLULVHUYD/D5HSXE
EOLFD$SUS5DX*DLD,ULFHUFDWRULULWLUDQRODGLVSRQLELOLWjDLQVHJQDUH/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS)LUHQ]H5XVVL)UDQFHVFD$WHQHR
e Politecnico, rischio paralisi da domani si fermano 900 ricercatori, /D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S%DUL5DX*DLD$WHQHLODSURWHVWDVLDOODUJD/D
5HSXEEOLFD0D\S)LUHQ]H$OWLHUL/HRQDUGR7DVVLQDUL*LRUJLR9HFFKL5REHUWR=DSSROL6HUJLR/HXQLYHUVLWjQRQIDFFLDQRODQHGHOOH
aziende sanitarie, /D5HSXEEOLFD0D\S%RORJQD$QRQ\PRXV/8QLYHUVLWjGL3DUPDLQGLIHVDGHOOD&RVWLWX]LRQH/D5HSXEEOLFD, 25 May
p.11.
14 Venturi, Ilaria 2010. Ateneo, la mobilitazione al potere, /D5HSXEEOLFD6HSS%RORJQD&RLQ)UDQFHVFD&DUD*HOPLQLQRQFLIDFFLDIXJJLUH
dalle Universit, /D5HSXEEOLFDS9HQWXUL,ODULD*OLXQLYHUVLWDULGDQQRODVYHJOLDDOODFLWWj/D5HSXEEOLFD, 30 Nov. p.7 (Bologna).
15 9HQWXUL,ODULD$JUDULDODODGXUDGHOODSURWHVWD/D5HSXEEOLFD6HSS%RORJQD
16 $QRQ\PRXV,OVDFULFLRGHLSLPDWXUL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 16 Jun. p.1 (Firenze)
17 $QRQ\PRXV/DYLGHROHWWHUDGL9HQGROD3UHFDULqRUDGLULYROWDUVL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 16 Oct. p.4 (Bari)
18 *LX20HORQLHYLWDLOFRQIURQWRFRQO8QLYHUVLWj/D5HSXEEOLFD, 6 Nov. p.13 (Torino)
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 196

Sacconi19, minister of labour and member of the same party, Vendola again20, the center-left 3DUWLWR'HPR
FUDWLFR, the president of the republic Giorgio Napolitano22 and then-major of Turin Sergio Chiamparino23
(3DUWLWR'HPRFUDWLFR).

A similar attitude is adopted, at the beginning of December, 2010, that is the moment of highest popu-
larity of the movement (Zamponi 2011), by pundits, that start identifying precarity as one of the main and
most legitimate reasons of the protest. In /D5HSXEEOLFD this happens four times24LQRQHZHHNWKHUVW
ZHHNRI'HFHPEHU7KH)ORUHQWLQHHGLWLRQRI/D5HSXEEOLFDLQFOXGHVDQDQRQ\PRXVXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQW
DVDSRVVLEOHSHUVRQRIWKH\HDUEHFDXVHRILWVXQFHUWDLQIXWXUHPDGHRIFXWVDQGSUHFDULW\25

Brains on the run

$FRPPRQWRSLFTXLWHIUHTXHQWLQWKHDUWLFOHVUHJDUGVWKHVRFDOOHGEUDLQVRQWKHUXQWKH,WDOLDQUH-
VHDUFKHUVZRUNLQJDEURDG7KHWKHPHLVSDUWLFXODUO\SRSXODUEHWZHHQWKHHQGRIDQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRI
LQRFFDVLRQRIWKHSXEOLFGHEDWHWKDWIROORZVWKHRSHQOHWWHULQZKLFK3LHUOXLJL&HOOLJHQHUDOGLUHFWRU
of the private university Luiss, advises his son to go abroad26.

7KHFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHSHRSOHZKRGHFLGHWRHPLJUDWHLVGHVFULEHGDVFKDUDFWHULVHGE\SUHFDULW\DQG
ZRUU\27DVVRFLDWLQJSUHFDULW\ZLWKDYHU\JHQHUDOGHQLWLRQRIGLVWUHVV$VWKHSUHYLRXVVXEVHFWLRQVKDYH
VKRZQWKHZRUGSUHFDULW\LVJUDGXDOO\LQFUHDVLQJLWVSRO\VHPLFQDWXUHLWLVWKHDFWXDOSUHFDULW\RIODERXU
of researchers, it is the precarity of labour that the students expect from their future, it is also the uncertainty
on the future of university for tenured researchers. The concept becomes larger than itself, and becomes a
SRZHUIXOV\PEROFKDUJHGZLWKDPHDQLQJWKDWJRHVEH\RQGDQ\SXQFWXDOGHQLWLRQDEOHWRUHSUHVHQWWKH
general condition of a generation.

The lost generation

$QRWKHUJURXSRIDUWLFOHVUHIHUVPRUHJHQHUDOO\ZLWKSUHFDULW\DVDFRQGLWLRQRIGLVWUHVVWKDWFKDUDFWHU-
LVHV\RXQJSHRSOHVRPHWLPHVGHVFULELQJWKHDFWXDOVRFLDOSUREOHPVFRQQHFWHGZLWKODERXUDQGZHOIDUH
VRPHWLPHVIRFXVLQJPRUHVXSHUFLDOO\RQGLIIHUHQWVWHUHRW\SHVUHJDUGLQJWKH,WDOLDQ\RXWK

19 Giustetti, Ottavia 2010. Arriva Sacconi, universit blindata, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 9 Nov. p.9 (Torino)
20 Casadio, Giovanna 2010. Giusto ribellarsi, sono senza futuro ma la guerriglia un vicolo cieco, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 17 Dec. p.14
21 6DQQLQR&RQFKLWD%LQGLFRQ%HUVDQL3ULPDOHDOOHDQ]H/D5HSXEEOLFD, 19 Dec. p.1 (Napoli)
22 Zunino, Corrado 2010. Napolitano riceve gli studenti Solo lui ci ha ascoltato davvero, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 23 Dec. p.2
23 Griseri, Paolo 2010. Se il movimento vuole un futuro dica basta a violenza e vecchi slogan, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 23 Dec p.7
24 *DOOL&DUOR/LVWUX]LRQHSUHFDULD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS&ROHWWL9LWWRULR/DOHJJHGHOOLJQRUDQ]D/D5HSXEEOLFD, 5 Dec. p.1 (Geno-
YD&HFFDULQL/XLJL3RFKLIRQGLHSUHFDULDWROHUDJLRQLGHOODSURWHVWD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS'LDPDQWL,OYR5DJD]]LULEHOOL/DPDUFLD
GHLSLJLRYDQL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 6 Dec. pp-27-28-29
25 5DX*DLD3HUVRQDJJLRGHOODQQR/D5HSXEEOLFD, 28 Dec. p.10 (Firenze)
26 $QRQ\PRXV/DIXJDGLFHUYHOOLULJXDUGDDQFKHJOLH[WUDFRPXQLWDUL1RXUHGLQQHVSLHJD7DKDLOPDURFFKLQR4XLPLODXUHRSHUOLPSLHJRGRYUz
ODVFLDUHO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS7RULQR&HOOL3LHUOXLJL,RPLRJOLRHODUWHGHOODIXJD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS$QRQ\PRXV
1DSROLWDQRJLRYDQLQRQODVFLDWHO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS$XJLDV&RUUDGR/DWHQWD]LRQHGLIXJJLUHGDXQSDHVHSHUYHFFKL/D5H
SXEEOLFD, 10 Feb. p.44.
27 $QRQ\PRXV/DIXJDGLFHUYHOOLULJXDUGDDQFKHJOLH[WUDFRPXQLWDUL1RXUHGLQQHVSLHJD7DKDLOPDURFFKLQR4XLPLODXUHRSHUOLPSLHJRGRYUz
ODVFLDUHO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD, 24 Nov. p.3 (Torino)
 197 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

$FRPPRQWRSLFLQWKHVHDUWLFOHVLVWKHUHIHUHQFHWRWKHLQVXIFLHQF\RIWKH,WDOLDQZHOIDUHV\VWHPQRW
DEOHWRGHDOZLWKVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQVWKDWDUHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHWUDGLWLRQDORSHQHQGHGFRQWUDFW28. There are
DOVRIUHTXHQWFRPSDULVRQVZLWKRWKHU(XURSHDQFRXQWULHV29DQGUHIHUHQFHVWRWKHZRUGEDPERFFLRQL30,
ZLWKZKLFKWKHQPLQLVWHURIHFRQRP\7RPPDVR3DGRD6FKLRSSDLQGHQHG\RXQJ,WDOLDQVZKROLYH
ZLWKWKHLUSDUHQWV)XUWKHUPRUHVRPHDUWLFOHVIRFXVRQWKHGLIFXOWLHVRIIRUPLQJDIDPLO\31 and on the use-
lessness of higher education in the job market32([SUHVVLRQVOLNHSUHFDULHWjHVLVWHQ]LDOH33 and precariet
GLYLWD34 are used, and it is generally conveyed the idea of a common condition of distress and hopeless-
QHVVVKDUHGE\DZKROHJHQHUDWLRQWKHERUGHUVRIZKLFKDUHXQGHQHGDQGZKLFKLVFDOOHGZLWKGLIIHUHQW
ODEHOVJHQHUD]LRQHVHQ]DSRVWRVVR35JHQHUDWLRQZLWKRXWDVWDEOHMREJHQHUD]LRQHGHLSUHFDUL36
JHQHUDWLRQRISUHFDULRXVJHQHUD]LRQH37JHQHUD]LRQHVDQGZLFK38. This shared condition is so
JHQHUDOO\DFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWLWEHFRPHVSDUWRIWKHSRSXODUFXOWXUHWRZKLFKWKHPHGLDUHIHUHYHQZKHQ
GHDOLQJZLWKWRSLFVIDUIURPFRQQHFWHGZLWKODERXU39.

From the lips of the enemy

7KHODVWJURXSRIDUWLFOHVLQFOXGHVWKHFDVHVLQZKLFKWKHZRUGVSUHFDULW\RUSUHFDULDWDUHXVHGE\
social and political actors that are on the opposite side of the struggle fought by the university movement.
,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWLFHKRZWKHVHDUWLFOHVDUHFRQFHQWUDWHGDURXQGWKHHQGRI$SULOZKHQWKHUHVHDUFKHUV
PRELOLVDWLRQJHWVIRUWKHUVWWLPHPHGLDDWWHQWLRQDQG1RYHPEHUGXULQJWKHPRVWLQWHQVHVWXGHQWSURWHVW

7KHJDOOHU\RIFKDUDFWHUVLVTXLWHYDULRXV3LHU/XLJL&HOOL40, general director of the private university

/8,66SUDLVHVWKH*HOPLQLODZEXWUHIHUWRSUHFDULW\DVZHOODVSXQGLW0DULR3LUDQL41*LDQIUDQFR
Fini, co-founder of the conservative party 3RSRORGHOOD/LEHUWjFLWHVWKHVWUXJJOHDJDLQVWSUHFDULW\DV
one of the priorities that the government he supports must assume42/XFD&RUGHURGL0RQWH]HPRORSUHVL-

28 6FKLDYD]]L9HUD)LJOLG(XURSD/D5HSXEEOLFD-DQS'H/XFD0DULD1RYHOOD/HIDPLJOLHGHOZHHNHQG,IRU]DWLGHOOHFRSSLHD
distanza, /D5HSXEEOLFD0DUSS$QRQ\PRXV5LFHUFDWRULOXQLFDYLDqDQGDUVHQHGDOO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS6DVVR&LQ-
]LD&RVuVLVDOYHUjODJHQHUD]LRQH/D5HSXEEOLFDSS$QRQ\PRXV'LDPDQWLVWXGLDODJHQHUD]LRQHGHLSUHFDUL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 8
0D\S'H5LFFDUGLV6DQGUR6HVWXGLDUHGLSLGLYHQWDXQKDQGLFDS/D5HSXEEOLFD,, 15 Sep. p.1.
29 $QRQ\PRXV5LFHUFDWRULOXQLFDYLDqDQGDUVHQHGDOO,WDOLD/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS6DVVR&LQ]LD&RVuVLVDOYHUjODJHQHUD]LRQH/D
5HSXEEOLFDSS'H5LFFDUGLV6DQGUR6HVWXGLDUHGLSLGLYHQWDXQKDQGLFDS/D5HSXEEOLFD,, 15 Sep. p.1.
30 6FKLDYD]]L9HUD)LJOLG(XURSD/D5HSXEEOLFD-DQS$QRQ\PRXV'LDPDQWLVWXGLDODJHQHUD]LRQHGHLSUHFDUL/D5HSXEEOLFD, 8
May p.10.
31 $QRQ\PRXV9RFLGDOODJHQHUD]LRQHVHQ]DSRVWRVVR/D5HSXEEOLFD'HFS)LUHQ]H'H/XFD0DULD1RYHOOD/HIDPLJOLHGHOZHHNHQG
I forzati delle coppie a distanza, /D5HSXEEOLFD0DUSS
32 Visitilli, Giancarlo 2009. In cattedra la resa dei genitori, /D5HSXEEOLFD1RYS%DUL'H5LFFDUGLV6DQGUR6HVWXGLDUHGLSLGLYHQWDXQKDQGL-
cap, /D5HSXEEOLFD,, 15 Sep. p.1.
33 'H/XFD0DULD1RYHOOD/HIDPLJOLHGHOZHHNHQG,IRU]DWLGHOOHFRSSLHDGLVWDQ]D/D5HSXEEOLFD0DUSS
34 6DVVR&LQ]LD&RVuVLVDOYHUjODJHQHUD]LRQH/D5HSXEEOLFD, pp.29-30-31
35 $QRQ\PRXV9RFLGDOODJHQHUD]LRQHVHQ]DSRVWRVVR/D5HSXEEOLFD, 15 Dec. p.3 (Firenze)
36 Anonymous 2010. Diamanti studia la generazione dei precari, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 8 May p.10
37 6DVVR&LQ]LD&RVuVLVDOYHUjODJHQHUD]LRQH/D5HSXEEOLFD, pp.29-30-31
38 *DOLPEHUWL*HQHUD]LRQHVDQGZLFK/D5HSXEEOLFD, 27 Jan. p.49.
39 5DPSLQL)HGHULFR+RPRIDEHULOULWRUQRDOODPDQXDOLWjSHUFKpRJJLqGLPRGDOXRPRDUWLJLDQR/D5HSXEEOLFD, 6 Mar. p.49.
40 &HOOL3LHU/XLJL,OULVFDWWRGHOPDGHLQ,WDO\GHYHSDUWLUHGDOOXQLYHUVLWj/D5HSXEEOLFD$SUS$IIDULHQDQ]D
41 Pirani, Mario 2010. Liberare la ricerca dalle mani dei boiardi, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 19 Apr. p.22.
42 %HL)UDQFHVFR/XOWLPDWXPGL*LDQIUDQFR%HUOXVFRQLVLGHYHGLPHWWHUH/D5HSXEEOLFD, 7 Nov. p.3.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 198

GHQWRI)HUUDULDQGIRUPHUSUHVLGHQWRIWKH,WDOLDQHPSOR\HUVRUJDQLVDWLRQ&RQQGXVWULDSURSRVHVDJHQ-
HUDWLRQDOSDFWDJDLQVWSUHFDULW\43.

)LQDOO\ FORVLQJ WKH F\FOH D ERRN RQ H[LELOLW\ LV WLWOHG (ORJLR GHOOD SUHFDULHWj 7KH SUDLVH RI
SUHFDULW\447KHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHKDVJDLQHGVXFKSRVLWLRQLQWKHSXEOLFHOGWKDWHYHQWRFULWLFLVHLWLW
is easier to assume than to deny it.

Multiples conceptual lenses to interpret the multiples dimensions

of a phenomenon
7KHV\PEROLFVXFFHVVRIWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHHPHUJHVTXLWHYLVLEO\IURPWKHSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQV%XW
WKHUHDVRQVRIWKLVVXFFHVVWKHPHFKDQLVPVZKLFKPDGHSUHFDULW\DV\PEROLFWRRODQGUHVRXUFHLQWKHPR-
bilisation of Italian university students and researchers and the potential implications of this process in the
future of Italian contentious politics need further analysis.

$OLFH0DWWRQLVZRUNWKDW,KDYHFLWHGPDQ\WLPHVSRLQWVRXWWKHUROHRIWKHPHGLDLQWKLVSURFHVV
DQGLQSDUWLFXODUWKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQDFWLYLVWVDQGPHGLDLQVRFLDOO\FRQVWUXFWLQJWKHPHDQLQJRIWKH
VWUXJJOHVRISUHFDULRXVZRUNHUV7KLVLVZK\,GRQRWGHQHSUHFDULW\RQO\DVDV\PEROLFUHVRXUFHIRUVRFLDO
actors, but also as a symbolic tool, in order to underline the active role of social movements in the construc-
WLRQRIWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHRQSUHFDULW\DOUHDG\DFNQRZOHGJHGE\WKHOLWHUDWXUH

Different conceptual lenses can be useful to interpret this phenomenon. Each of them enlightens some
aspects of it, and at the same points out obscure ares that need further investigation.

3UHFDULW\ZRUNVDVDGLDJQRVWLFIUDPH6QRZDQG%HQIRUG6RFLDODFWRUVKDYHEHHQDEOHWRUHFRJQLVH

WKHPDWWHUDSSURSULDWHLWDQGSXEOLFLVHLWDVDVRFLDOSUREOHP:KDWLQWKHVZDVDFRQFHSWJHQHUDOO\XQ-
NQRZQDV,KDYHVKRZHGLQWKHVHFRQGVHFWLRQKDVEHFRPHDFRPPRQZD\WRLQWHUSUHWWKHDFWXDOFRQGLWLRQ
of labour. Social and political actors have played a fundamental role in this process, developing and spreading
WKLVIUDPHDVDQH[SODQDWRU\WRROIRUDFRQGLWLRQVKDUHGE\DQLQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURISHRSOH$V,KDYHVKRZHG
in the third section, this frame, in the context of the university mobilisation, has been extended from precari-
RXVZRUNHUVWRVWXGHQWVDQGWHQXUHGUHVHDUFKHUV%XWWKLVSURFHVVLVQRWZLWKRXWFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUWKHIUDPH
itself: extending it to different actors, its meaning has been stretched horizontally and vertically, in time and
VSDFH:KLFKDUHWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHVHSURFHVVRQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWVRFLDODFWRUVWKDW
PLJKWXVHWKHVDPHIUDPHZLWKYHU\GLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJV":KHUHDUHWKHOLPLWVRIWKLVH[WHQVLRQ":KLFKDUHWKH
FRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKLVFKDQJHVLQWKHHIFDF\RIWKLVIUDPHDVDV\PEROLFUHVRXUFHIRUPRELOLVDWLRQ"

At the same time, precarity has become a FROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\ (Polletta and Jasper 2001), able to activate
PHFKDQLVPVRIUHFRJQLWLRQDQGEHORQJLQJLQDZLGHVSHFWUXPRIVRFLDODFWRUV6WXGHQWVDQGUHVHDUFKHUV
ZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHPRELOLVDWLRQKDYHGLIIHUHQWSRVLWLRQVDQGRIWHQGLIIHUHQWLQWHUHVWVLQVLGHWKHXQLYHU-
sity, but they feel part of a collective entity, and, in our hypothesis, the main common trait they recognise
LVSUHFDULW\ZLWKERWKVRFLDODQGJHQHUDWLRQDOFRQQRWDWLRQV,KDYHH[DPLQHGWKHVRFLDOFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKLV

43 Mania, Roberto 2010. Tagliamo le tasse ai giovani lavoratori il patto generazionale di Montezemolo, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 24 Nov. p.25.
44 Anonymous 2010. Appuntamenti, /D5HSXEEOLFD, 21 Dec. p.18 (Napoli)
 199 YOUTH AND STUDENT MOBILIZATIONS

FROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\LQWKHPDLQVWUHDPPHGLDEXWKRZGRHVWKLVSURFHVVZRUNDWWKHPLFUROHYHO"+RZGRHV
WKHSUHFDULRXVLGHQWLW\HYROYHLQGLIIHUHQWWLPHVDQGGLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WV"$QGZKRLVRXWRIWKHERUGHUVRI
WKLVFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\"

This process has brought up a QDUUDWLYH (Polletta 2006) of precarity, that is a common set of stories that
DUHWROGLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHGHVFULELQJWKHODERXUPDUNHWIURPWKHSRLQWRIYLHZRI\RXQJZRUNHUVDQG
SRLQWLQJRXWWKHGLIFXOWLHVRIWKHLUOLYHVDOOJDWKHUHGDURXQGWKHFHQWUDOFRQFHSWXDOQRGHRISUHFDULW\7KLV
QDUUDWLYHFRPSHWHVLQWKHSXEOLFGLVFRXUVHZLWKWKHQDUUDWLYHRIH[LELOLW\DQGWKLVFRPSHWLWLRQLVDERXW
VWRU\WHOOLQJIDFWRUVDVPXFKDVIDFWXDOIDFWRUV$V,KDYHVKRZHGLQWKHWKLUGVHFWLRQLQGLYLGXDOVWRULHVUH-
IHUULQJWREUDLQVRQWKHUXQWRVFLHQWLVWVDQGWRIDPLOLHVWKDWQHHGZHOIDUHSURWHFWLRQDUHIXQGDPHQWDO
SDUWVRIWKHSUHFDULW\GLVFRXUVHLQWKHPHGLDWLVHGSXEOLFVSKHUH%XWKRZGRHVWKHQDUUDWLYHIRUPDWLQWHUDFW
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carity suggests that precarity might also be analysed as a PDVWHUIUDPH (della Porta and Diani 2006: 79-81),
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DERXWWKHGLIFXOWOLIHRI\RXQJSHRSOHLVPXFKHDVLHUWKDWDVVXPHDSUHFDULW\EDVHGDQGWKHUHIRUHODERXU
EDVHGJHQHUDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIRXUVRFLHW\7KLVSURFHVVLVDOOEXWQHXWUDOIURPDSROLWLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZ
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the frame extension process I have already described.

These characteristics make precarity a useful resource and tool in the struggle for KHJHPRQ\VRFLDODQG
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political relevance and to create the conditions for social change. Some recent literature has already tried
to use hegemony and other Gramscian concept to analyse the university movement (Caruso 2010). But
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LIWKHUHDUHPXOWLSOHVSXEOLFVSKHUH"

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DFWRUVDQGEULQJWRGLIIHUHQWTXHVWLRQVIRUWKHHYROXWLRQRIUHVHDUFKRQWKLVWRSLF

:KDWLVYLVLEOHHYHQIURPWKLVUVWVWHSRQWKLVSDWKLVWKDWSUHFDULW\KDVEHHQDV\PEROLFHOHPHQWDEOH
to transcend the matters merely related to the duration of a job contract, and to become a factor of common
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PRWHDJHQHUDOPHVVDJHWREXLOGFRQQHFWLRQVZLWKZRUNHUVWRRSHQDJHQHUDOGHEDWHDERXWWKHIXWXUH7KH
label of SUHFDULRXVKDVEHFRPHUHOHYDQWDQGFKDUJHGZLWKDVWURQJXQLI\LQJSRZHUDOVRRXWVLGHWKHVWULFWO\
ODERXUUHODWHGHOGLWKDVEHFRPHDJHQHUDWLRQDOODEHOFKDUJHGZLWKVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOFRQQRWDWLRQV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 200

,QWKHPRQWKVLPPHGLDWHO\IROORZLQJWKHXQLYHUVLW\PRELOLVDWLRQ,WDO\KDVVHHQVRPHVLJQDOVWKDWSRLQWWR-
ZDUGVWKHHPHUJHQFHRIDQHZPRELOLVDWLRQRQSUHFDULW\LQYROYLQJVWXGHQWVDQGZRUNHUVEH\RQGWKHERUGHUV
of the university. This mobilisation might become one of the protagonists of the traditionally contentious Ital-
LDQSXEOLFHOGDQGUHVHDUFKVKRXOGEHSUHSDUHGZLWKWKHULJKWDQDO\WLFDOWRROVWRXQGHUVWDQGZKDWKDSSHQV

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26: 611-639
&DUXVR//DSROLWLFLVPRGHOO2QGDXQLQWHUSUHWD]LRQHJUDPVFLDQD,Q&DUXVR/*LRUJL$0DWWRQL$3LD]]D*$OODULFHUFD
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*RRGZLQ-HIIDQG-DVSHU-DPHV0HGV5HWKLQNLQJ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV6WUXFWXUH0HDQLQJDQG(PRWLRQV/DQKDP5RZPDQDQG
/LWWOHHOG
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7DUURZ6HGV)URPVWUXFWXUHWRDFWLRQ-$,3UHVV*UHHQZLFK
6QRZ'$DQG0F$GDP',GHQWLW\ZRUNSURFHVVHVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFODULI\LQJWKHLGHQWLW\PRYHPHQWQH[XV. In
6WU\NHU6DQG2ZHQV7-DQG:KLWH5:HGV6HOILGHQWLW\DQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV8QLYHUVLW\RI0LQQHVRWD3UHVV0LQQHDSROLV
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(eds), )UDPHVRI3URWHVW6RFLDO0RYHPHQWVDQGWKH)UDPLQJ3HUVSHFWLYH, Lanham: Boulder
:RGDN5DQG.U]\]DQRZVNL0HGV4XDOLWDWLYH'LVFRXUVH$QDO\VLVLQWKH6RFLDO6FLHQFHV3DOJUDYH0DFPLOODQ1HZ<RUN
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97 (1):12240.
EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 204

Transforming the Ominous into Happiness:

How Antinuclear Drive Was Tamed in the Post-war
Japan?1

DAISHIRO NOMIYA
Sophia University, Japan

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pets and livestock remained to be found.

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We can illuminate the meaning of this decision more clearly by placing the disaster into historical
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2 Atomic Bomb Victim Memorial Stone. Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park.
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fering and moreover the horror that is brought by the use of the atom and by its malfunction. Perhaps they
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Toward the use of nuclear energy

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nuclear energy policy. The international situation Japan faced at that time, domestic political trends, and
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the US and the Soviet Union. This appeared as a contest of military strength. The dropping of the atomic
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stricted the military use of nuclear technologies by other countries and moreover took measures to prevent
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aimed at cooperative international control of nuclear technology.

Though it may have referred to the peaceful use of nuclear technology, the US had no intention to dis-
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present have not been applied to American military facilities. In fact, several months after its address to the
UN, the US carried out a test of the hydrogen bomb on the Bikini Atoll.
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allocated uranium from a country like the US. Japan joined nations such as West Germany, Italy, and South
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all over Japan, speaking of peaceful utilization.

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same year, the nuclear energy research budget passed the House of Representatives, and the Special Com-
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that actively backed the nuclear energy development system. The visit to Japan of the above-mentioned mis-
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 EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS
207 IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

The conversion of civil society

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it have entered into our daily lives.

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trace the footprints left by this change.

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ety divided into three parts. Namely, these are the intellectuals, the people of learning and experience, and
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Japanese civil society in the three domains mentioned above.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 208

***

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of the 1940s. The scientists at that time in occupied Japan had a nave, utopian understanding of nuclear
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(1949)4 dreamed of creating large-scale canals and lakes, changing ocean currents, moving great mountains
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nuclear energy. Further, Watanabe (1949)5SUHGLFWHGWKHDUULYDORIDQHUDLQZKLFKPDFKLQHVFRXOGSURGXFH
anything and advocated that nuclear fuel be used as an energy source instead of fossil fuels.

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ZDVEHLQJHVWDEOLVKHGDVWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIDIXWXUHXWRSLDQVRFLHW\

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WKH866RYLHWUDFHIRUQXFOHDUGHYHORSPHQWKDGFRQWLQXHGWRDGYDQFHWKHZRUOGVELSRODUL]DWLRQ7HQVLRQV
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misgivings about nuclear energy research and development rose. For example, at the 13th General Meeting
of the Science Council of Japan, Mimura argued, Until the use for peaceful purposes is settled upon, until
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ment should be advanced at the hands of the Japanese people also for the sake of the spirits of those killed
E\WKHERPEV7KDWLVKHIHOWWKDWUHVHDUFKLQWRQXFOHDUGHYHORSPHQWZDVDOVRIRUWKHVDNHRIWKRVHZKR
lost their lives by nuclear technology.6

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5 Satoshi Watanabe. The atomic age and morality. Shisou no Kagaku Kenkyuukai. Gendaibunmei no hihan. Academia Press (Japan) (1949), p. 67.
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 EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS
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model nuclear reactor, the ground under Tokai village, the countermeasures against accidents and disaster
damage, and the maximum permissible amounts of radiation. But it seems that the logic of, The homeland
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put a lid on the voices raising such doubts.7

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efforts. Both Takeda and Oe gathered information at Tokai.9+RZHYHUWKH\GLGQRWWRXFKWKHSURVDQGFRQV
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%XWWKHPHDQLQJRIWKLVWUHDWPHQWRIWKHLUVLVFOHDU1DPHO\LWZDVWKHFUHDWLRQRIQHZFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQ
WKHQXFOHDUDQGSHRSOHVOLYHVDQGFRPPXQLWLHV7KH\UHYHUVHGWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHQXFOHDUE\GHVFULE-
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voting themselves to a noble mission and the vitality of young people gambling their lives as researchers.
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als. In a process of extraordinary naivet, nuclear energy has been removed from the context of Hiroshima,
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mourning the victims of Hiroshima by supporting the peaceful use of nuclear technology. The active use
of Hiroshima, a source of agony, as the basis for nuclear technology amounted to a reversal in meaning
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8 Taijun Takeda. Tokai Observation Record. Chuuoukouron. Chuuoukouron Company, July 9, 1957, pp.182-90.
 .HQ]DEXUR2H<RXQJPDUULHGQXFOHDUVFLHQWLVWV0DLQLFKL*UDSK0DLQLFKL1HZVSDSHU&RPSDQ\6HSWHPEHUSS
10 Taijun Takeda. Work mentioned above, p. 190.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 210

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ment became legitimized among intellectuals and researchers.

***

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signature-collecting campaign. It is said that the National Conference Signature Campaign for an Atomic
and Hydrogen Bomb Ban that formed in August, 1954 collected 20 million signatures by the end of that
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campaign seemed to indicate a clear recognition by large numbers of people that the atom-hydrogen bomb
issue had an impact on their daily lives.

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of insecurity in everyday life. Of course I am not suggesting this to be negative. But a movement touched
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RIWKHPRYHPHQWIURPWKHLVVXHVRIQXFOHDUHQHUJ\DQGQXFOHDUGHYHORSPHQWFDQEHXQGHUVWRRGLIZHWDNH

11 $NLKLUR<DPDPRWR$IWHUWKHDWRPLFERPELQJEHIRUHDQWLQXFOHDUSRZHU*HQGDL6KLVRXYRO6HLGRVKDSS

 EMOTIONS AND AFFECTS
211 IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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the core mentality of the atom-hydrogen bomb opposition movement. More than that, it is reasonable to
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WKHSHDFHIXOXVHRIQXFOHDUSRZHU

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DQRSSRVLWLRQPRYHPHQWFDUULHGRXWZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDQH[SHULPHQWDOQXFOHDUUHVHDUFK
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to business damage from negative publicity. Because of that, an opposition movement arose. In response,
the city council of Uji, in June, 1957, declared its opposition to receiving the nuclear reactor. After that and
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them met local opposition and failed to materialize.

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gained strength in the context of a common enemy that stirred up extreme insecurity in everyday life. On
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manner.

Differing from the atom-hydrogen bomb opposition movement several years before, the opposition
movement to the establishment of an experimental nuclear research reactor actually advocated an anti-
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nation damage sites.

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their fears is removed.
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reason, moreover, neither the opposition movement to atomic and hydrogen bombs nor that to the establish-
ment of an experimental nuclear research reactor actively made an issue out of nuclear energy and the ac-
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dreamed of discovering a vein of uranium ore and making a fortune selling it to the nation. Walking around
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posit bigger than that of the Ogamo mine. Then, Old Man Uranium set up a uranium mining company that
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and development.

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became decontextualized. The nuclear escaped the connotation assigned to it by its connection to 1945,
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contribution to personal health.

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kind of thing occurred in the social domain. The discourse on using the energy from atomic bombs for
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emony. The electric scoreboard inside the convention area displayed the message, This is electricity from
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could easily be connected to the national policies of that time. Namely, riding a series of policy measures
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symbol of societal progress.

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The road to Fukushima: How did we come to accept the nuclear?

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insecurity on a global scale due to radioactive pollution to the environment and food supply. In this regard,
Fukushima is no different from Hiroshima. Only in one regard does Fukushima differ from Hiroshima.
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from Hiroshima. The very existence of the nuclear to exclude necessitated a process to legitimize the
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Japanese society, and as a support for the bright future of Japanese society.

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 218

Aproximacin a los Movimientos Sociales

como Sujetos de Emancipacin

ZESAR MARTNEZ, BEATRIZ CASADO and PEDRO IBARRA

UPV-EHU

Abstract
(VWHSDSHUIRUPDSDUWHGHXQWUDEDMRPiVDPSOLRTXHWLHQHSRUREMHWLYRUHDOL]DUXQHQ-
PDUTXHWHyULFRGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVFRPRVXMHWRVGHHPDQFLSDFLyQDQDOL]DQGR
ODVDSRUWDFLRQHVFRJQLWLYDVUHODFLRQDOHV\PDWHULDOHVTXHFRQVWUX\HQORVPRYLPLHQWRV
HQVXVSURFHVRVGHE~VTXHGDGHHVWUDWHJLDVSDUDVXSHUDUODVUHDOLGDGHVGHVXERUGLQD-
cin. El proyecto aspira tambin a cuestionar y replantear el papel de la produccin de
conocimiento acadmico en esos procesos de emancipacin. En este paper realizamos
XQEUHYHUHFRUULGRFUtWLFRSRUORVGLIHUHQWHVHQIRTXHV\SHUVSHFWLYDVDQDOtWLFDVTXHVH
han desarrollado en las ltimas dcadas en el estudio de los movimientos sociales, e
iniciamos una apertura a los necesarios debates epistemolgicos en los estudios-accin
sobre movimientos sociales.

Keywords
sujetos colectivos, emancipacin, pensamiento crtico, colonialidad, conocimiento si-
tuado.

Introduccin
/DFRPSOHMLGDG\SOXUDOLGDGGHORVFDPELRVVRFLDOHVDORVTXHHVWDPRVDVLVWLHQGRHQODV~OWLPDVGpFDGDV
HVWiQKDFLHQGRHPHUJHUGLIHUHQWHVFRQYXOVLRQHVFULVLV\PRYLOL]DFLRQHVVRFLDOHV\DOPLVPRWLHPSRHVWiQ
PRGLFDQGRVXVWDQFLDOPHQWHORVHVTXHPDV\ODVFDWHJRUtDVGHSHQVDPLHQWRFRQODVTXHLQWHUSUHWiEDPRVODV
luchas y prcticas emancipadoras.

$VLVWLPRVDFRQYXOVLRQHVRFULVLVGHGLIHUHQWHWLSRQDQFLHUDVHQHUJpWLFDVFOLPiWLFDVODERUDOHVDOL-
PHQWDULDVFULVLVGHFXLGDGRVHQORVKRJDUHVHWF<FRPRQRSRGtDVHUGHRWURPRGRDVLVWLPRVWDPELpQD
FRQYXOVLRQHVVRFLRSROtWLFDVSURWHVWDVPRYLOL]DFLRQHV\GLIHUHQWHVPRGRVGHH[SUHVLyQGHOGHVFRQFLHUWR\
ODLQGLJQDFLyQTXHSURYRFDODSUHYDOHQFLDGHORVSRGHUHVHFRQyPLFRV\VXVHOLWHVVREUHORVSRGHUHVSROtWL-
cos de un sistema de democracia formal en evidente crisis de representatividad y credibilidad.

/DHXIRULDPHUFDQWLOLVWD\FDSLWDOLVWDTXHVXSXVRODFDtGDGHOPXURGH%HUOtQHQWUDMRFRQVLJRXQFLHUUH
GHORVGHEDWHVSROtWLFRVEDMRODIXHUWHKHJHPRQtDGHODLGHRORJtDXOWUDOLEHUDOTXHHQWURQDEDDORVPHUFDGRV\
sus lgicas especulativas como mecanismo fundamental de regulacin social. De este modo, con el creciente
protagonismo de instituciones supra-estatales y su afn des-regulador de lo econmico y minimizador/priva-
WL]DGRUGHOVHFWRUS~EOLFRVHDFUHFLHQWDHOSRGHUGHODVHPSUHVDVWUDQVQDFLRQDOHV\ODVHOLWHVQDQFLHUDV2WURV
fenmenos globales como el proceso de expansin de las tecnologas de la comunicacin, la densidad de los
XMRVPLJUDWRULRVRODHPHUJHQFLDGHRWURVSRORVGHSRGHUHFRQyPLFRHQ$VLD\$PpULFD/DWLQDKDQYHQLGR
 219 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

WUDQVIRUPDQGRWDPELpQGHIRUPDVLJQLFDWLYDODVFRRUGHQDGDVGHXQVLVWHPDPXQGRTXHDJLWDGRSRUFRQYXO-
siones de escala global comienza a plantearse las crisis como sntomas de una crisis sistmica y civilizatoria.

El poder creciente de lites econmicas y tecncratas globales, y el consiguiente descentramiento del es-
WDGR\ODDGPLQLVWUDFLyQS~EOLFDFRPRFHQWURGHGHFLVLyQGHODVSROtWLFDVTXHUHJXODQ\WUDQVIRUPDQODYLGD
VRFLDOKDJHQHUDGRPD\RUFRPSOHMLGDGHQORVGHEDWHVVREUHHOSRGHUSROtWLFRODLGHQWLFDFLyQGHDQWDJR-
nistas y las estrategias de lucha de los movimientos sociales. Desde principios de la dcada pasada venimos
DVLVWLHQGRDHVFDODJOREDODSURFHVRVGHLQWHQVLFDFLyQGHODVOXFKDVVRFLDOHVHQIUHQWDQGRGLUHFWDPHQWHOD
concentracin de poder de algunos de esos agentes transnacionales. Las protestas contra la OMC, el FMI,
HO %DQFR 0XQGLDO R HO * R ODV PRYLOL]DFLRQHV FRQWUD JUDQGHV HPSUHVDV WUDQVQDFLRQDOHV \ VXV PHJD
SUR\HFWRVRFRQWUD:DOO6WUHHWFRPRH[SRQHQWHPi[LPRGHODHVSHFXODFLyQQDQFLHUDYLHQHQFXHVWLRQDQGR
ODKHJHPRQtDTXHHOFDSLWDOLVPRQHROLEHUDOH[SDQGHDQLYHOPXQGLDOGHVGHHOQGHORUGHQPXQGLDOELSRODU

En este contexto, especialmente reseables sern las luchas y prcticas emancipadoras de los movimien-
WRVVRFLDOHVHQHOFRQWLQHQWHDPHULFDQR\DTXHSRUVXSRWHQFLDGHVHVWDELOL]DGRUD\VXFUHDWLYLGDGSURSRVL-
WLYDLQX\HQHQDFWLYLVWDV\PRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVGHWRGRHOPXQGR

Efectivamente, los levantamientos y prcticas constructivas de organizaciones y redes campesinas, indge-

QDVIHPLQLVWDV\EDUULDOHVHQ/DWLQRDPHULFDDOLPHQWDQGHVGHORVPiUJHQHVXQDVHULHGHGHEDWHVTXHFXHVWLRQDQ
las bases de la modernidad y el capitalismo con referentes hasta ahora silenciados por el colonialismo cultural
TXHHVWDEOHFtDWDPELpQHQODSURGXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQWRVHLGHRORJtDVFUtWLFDVODSUHYDOHQFLDGHORVSDUiPH-
WURVWHyULFRFRQFHSWXDOHVGHODPRGHUQLGDGRFFLGHQWDO(VSRUHOORTXHHQHVWHWUDEDMRQRVDFHUFDUHPRVGHPDQH-
UDSUHIHUHQWHDODVSURSXHVWDVWHyULFDV\DQDOtWLFDVGHORTXHGDUHPRVHQOODPDUHOSHQVDPLHQWRFUtWLFRHPHUJHQWH
desde Latinoamrica, recogiendo as el desafo de abrirse a una comprensin no nicamente occidental de los
DQiOLVLVVREUHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV8QDSHUVSHFWLYDSRVFRORQLDOTXHQRVSHUPLWDDSUHQGHUFRQ\GHVGH
los mrgenes o las periferias, desde cuyos espacios en resistencia a la dominacin se pueden hacer ms visibles
las estructuras de poder y de saber establecidas. Por esta misma razn, prestaremos tambin especial atencin a
ODSURGXFFLyQFRJQLWLYDUHDOL]DGDSRUHOSHQVDPLHQWRIHPLQLVWDTXHVHKDUHYHODGRHQODV~OWLPDVGpFDGDVFRQ
una capacidad excepcional de cuestionamiento crtico de los postulados epistemolgicos y tericos dominantes.

'HODPDQRGHORVQXHYRVFRQFHSWRV\SODQWHDPLHQWRVTXHORVPRYLPLHQWRVLQWURGXFHQHQHOGHEDWH
VRFLDO\SROtWLFRDFWLYLVWDVHLQYHVWLJDGRUHVUHYLVDQ\PRGLFDQODVFDWHJRUtDV\ODVDSUR[LPDFLRQHVFRQODV
TXHVHYHQtDDQDOL]DQGRHLQWHUSUHWDQGRHODFFLRQDUGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV6HLQLFLDXQDWUDQVLFLyQ
SDUDGLJPiWLFD%6RXVD6DQWRVTXHSHUPLWHUHSODQWHDUVHODPDQHUDGHREVHUYDUODUHDOLGDGVRFLR
SROtWLFD\HOSDSHOQRQHXWUDOTXHMXHJDHOREVHUYDGRUD\HOFRQRFLPLHQWRH[SHUWRTXHJHQHUD1.

Un recorrido analtico del estudio de los movimientos sociales

Las opciones analticas de la dcada de los setenta y ochenta

(QHVHWLHPSRHQWHQGHPRVTXHH[LVWHQEiVLFDPHQWHGRVSHUVSHFWLYDVWHyULFRDQDOtWLFDVPDWULFHV

 'HDKtHOLQWHUpVGHHVWDSHUVSHFWLYDSRUODJHRSROtWLFDGHOFRQRFLPLHQWRHVWRHVSRUSUREOHPDWL]DUTXLpQSURGXFHHOFRQRFLPLHQWRHQTXpFRQWH[WROR
SURGXFH\SDUDTXLpQORSURGXFH%'H6RXVD6DQWRV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 220

$8QHQIRTXHracionalista instrumental en el anlisis de los movimiento sociales. La teora de

movilizacin de recursos (Resource Mobilization Theory, RMT) implantada a partir de la dcada de los
VHWHQWDHVWDEOHFHTXHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVH[SUHVDQFRQGXFWDVFROHFWLYDVSHUIHFWDPHQWHUDFLRQDOHV
FRQREMHWLYRVSROtWLFRV\VRFLDOHVPX\SUHFLVRV\FRQHVWUDWHJLDVGHPRYLOL]DFLyQGHDGTXLVLFLyQGHUH-
cursos (humanos, organizativos, materiales, tcticos, etc) deliberadamente adecuados a esos objetivos. Este
HQIRTXHSURSXJQDEDODH[LVWHQFLDGHGHOLPLWDGDV\SUHYLVLEOHVFDGHQDVFDXVDOHVGHXQWHMLGRQRGHPDVLDGR
HVSHVR\SRUHOORFLHQWtFDPHQWHGHWHUPLQDEOHGHPRWLYDFLRQHVHIHFWRVLQXHQFLDVFRQWH[WXDOHV\FLFORV
SRUORVTXHVHSXHGHVHJXLU\FRPSUHQGHUHOQDFLPLHQWRYLGD\GHVDSDULFLyQGHXQPRYLPLHQWRVRFLDO

(OHQIRTXHGHPRYLOL]DFLyQGHUHFXUVRVWRPDSDUWLGRHOLJHQXQDGLPHQVLyQGHOSURFHVR/RUHOHYDQWH
se nos reitera desde esta teora, es cmo el movimiento se organizaRUJDQL]DDVXVJHQWHV\RUJDQL]DD
su entorno para obtener, con sus reivindicaciones dirigidas a las autoridades dentro del sistema poltico,
DYDQFHVHQORVLQWHUHVHVFROHFWLYRVTXHUHSUHVHQWD/D507PDUJLQDHQHVWHVHQWLGRWDQWRODUHOHYDQFLDGH
ODVFDXVDVGHOVXUJLPLHQWRGHOPRYLPLHQWRFRPRODGLPHQVLyQLGHQWLWDULDGHOPLVPRFyPRHOPRYLPLHQWR
HVWDPELpQXQIRUPDFROHFWLYD\DOWHUQDWLYDGHGHQLU\SURSRQHUHOPXQGRTXHYDPiVDOOiGHOVLVWHPD
poltico institucionalizado.

&RQHFWDGDFRQHVWDSHUVSHFWLYDVHH[WLHQGHDSDUWLUGHORVRFKHQWDHOHQIRTXHGHOproceso poltico en
general y el de la estructura de oportunidad poltica3ROLWLFDO2SSRUWXQLW\6WUXFWXUH326HQSDUWLFX-
lar. El Estado, y su sistema poltico-institucional, aparece como principal conformador de la estrategia de
ORPRYLPLHQWRV(QODUHODFLyQLQWHUDFWLYDHQWUHPRYLPLHQWRV\VLVWHPDSROtWLFRHLQVWLWXFLRQDOORTXHVH
GHVWDFDGHVGHHVWHiQJXORDQDOtWLFRQRHVORTXHHOSRGHUSROtWLFRLQVWLWXFLRQDOL]DGRGHFLGHRFyPRRUJDQL]D
su proceso decisorio a partir de la accin de los movimientos, si no cmo los movimientos ajustan y reajus-
tan sus recursos y estrategias movilizadoras y discursivas a partir de la menor o mayor apertura o cierre del
sistema poltico, o de las relaciones y fracturas entre la elites polticas, o de cules son los posibles aliados
polticos institucionalizados del movimiento, etc.

% /D RSFLyQ DQDOtWLFD GHO 507 HV FRQWHVWDGD SRU  HO HQIRTXH GH OR 1XHYRV 0RYLPLHQWRV 6RFLDOHV
(NMS). Ahora lo relevante no es tanto los procesos organizativos y los contextos polticos, si no la causa-
lidad de origen y la construccin identitaria$KRUDORTXHHVGHVWDFDGRHVFyPRGHWHUPLQDGDVFULVLV
estructurales (sobre todo de ndole cultural) hacen surgir los movimientos y como estos tratan de distin-
guirse del mundo circundante creando su propia identidad colectiva, siendo distintos y propugnando una
UHDOLGDGGLVWLQWD6LOD507GDSRUVXSXHVWRTXHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVVRQRWUD forma normalizada de
FRPSRUWDPLHQWRSROtWLFRHOHQIRTXHGHORQXHYRVPRYLPLHQWRVHQWLHQGHTXHORVPLVPRVVRQXQDIRUPD
distinta, una forma alternativa de conducta poltica colectiva.

&RQHVWHHQIRTXHFRQHFWDQODSHUVSHFWLYDVPiVGLVFXUVLYDV'HVGHHOODV\HVSHFLDOPHQWHGHVGHORVDFHU-
camientos del IUDPHDQDO\VLV, se trata de observar cmo el movimiento construye su particular y polmica
visin del mundo y cmo con ese discurso asienta su identidad y moviliza a su entorno, a sus simpatizantes.

(VWHHQIRTXHFXOWXUDOLVWDWLHQGHDVXEUD\DUODVGLPHQVLRQHVsimblicasSULQFLSLRVYDORUHVHVTXHPDV
de pensamiento, expresivas repertorios y formas de comunicacin, de accin y de vida, y rupturistas
SODQWHDPLHQWRVSROtWLFRVTXHYDPiVDOOiGHORVOtPLWHVGHFRPSDWLELOLGDGFRQHOVLVWHPDVRFLDOLQVWLWXLGR
0HOXFFL/RUHOHYDQWHHVODFRWLGLDQLGDGGHORVPRYLPLHQWRV\ODVDUPDFLRQHVDOWHUQDWLYDVTXHVHFRQV-
WUX\HQHQHVHPXQGRGHODYLGDFRWLGLDQDVHQWLPLHQWRVGHSHUWHQHQFLDLGHQWLGDGDSDUWLUGHHVTXHPDVGH
 221 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

SHQVDPLHQWRFUtWLFRVTXHLGHQWLFDQDEXVRVSULYLOHJLRV\GLVFULPLQDFLRQHVLGHQWLFDFLyQGHDGYHUVDULRV
FRQORVTXHVHHQWDEODXQDUHODFLyQGHFRQLFWR\DQWDJRQLVPR\SRU~OWLPRXQFXHVWLRQDPLHQWRLGHROy-
gico y cognitivo de los pilares estructurales del modelo de sociedad instituido. Por ello, esa originalidad
constitutiva tambin cuestiona el marco cultural dominante (Touraine) o la estabilidad estructural, poltica
y econmica (Offe).

$QDOHVGHORVRFKHQWDHOSDQRUDPDVHSUHVHQWDEDIUDQFDPHQWHGLYLGLGRHQWUHSRGUtDPRVDVtOODPDU-
ORVLQVWUXPHQWDOLVWDV\FXOWXUDOLVWDVHQWUHORVTXHDFHQWXDEDQFyPRVHRUJDQL]DEDQORVPRYLPLHQWRV\VX
UHODFLyQFRQHOVLVWHPDSROtWLFRLQVWLWXFLRQDO\ORVTXHUHVDOWDEDQHOSRUTXpVHRUJDQL]DEDQ\TXpSURGXF-
FLyQLGHQWLWDULDGLVFXUVLYD\SROtWLFDDOWHUQDWLYDFRQVWUXtDQ$QDOHVGHORVRFKHQWDVLQHPEDUJRVHLQLFLD
XQSURFHVRGHFRQXHQFLDRGHUHFRQRFLPLHQWRPiVHFOpFWLFRGHHVDSOXUDOLGDGGHGLPHQVLRQHV\SODQRVD
tener en cuenta.

'HHVWRVGRVHQIRTXHVDOPDUJHQGHVXVPD\RUHVRPHQRUHVFRQXHQFLDVSRGHPRVH[WUDHUalgunas
conclusiones:

Los anlisis ms instrumentales, dirigidos al estudio de cmo los movimiento utilizan recursos dis-
ponibles para lograr -o no- sus objetivos, se insertan en una visin conformista del mundo. Dan por
VXSXHVWRTXHODUHDOLGDGHFRQyPLFDVRFLDO\SROtWLFDHVLQWUDQVIRUPDEOH\TXHSRUWDQWRXQPRYLPLHQWR
VRFLDOFRPRFXDOTXLHURWURDFWRUFROHFWLYRKDFHORTXHSXHGHKDFHU<OR~QLFRTXHSXHGH\GHEHKDFHU
es tratar de cambiar, en favor de sus homologables y racionales intereses, algunas condiciones de vida
de ese mundo dentro, por supuesto, de las dimensiones fundamentales de ese mismo mundo.

En los anlisis ms culturales,OLJDGRVDODLQWHUSUHWDFLyQGHORV106ODLGHDIXHU]DTXHVHGHVWDFDHV

la de ser y aparecer distintos. Vivir y actuar colectivamente en el mundo de forma distinta, e interpre-
tarlo tambin de forma distinta. Se rechaza as la inevitabilidad, la naturalidad, tanto de las estructuras
realmente existentes como de la lgica cultural -mercantil, instrumentalista- dominante. A diferencia
de los instrumentalistas, los anlisis culturalistas abren la perspectiva y no se sitan en una posicin
WHyULFDTXHGDSRUVXSXHVWDODLQHYLWDELOLGDGGHOVLVWHPD\HOPRGHORGHVRFLHGDGFUHHQTXHORVPRYL-
PLHQWRVFXHVWLRQDQHVDVRORDSDUHQWHLQPRYLOLGDG\HVWiQGHDFXHUGRFRQTXHDVtVHD

Desvalorizacin del movimiento feminista. En las dcadas de los 60 y 70, en el contexto de la gue-
rra fra, las luchas de liberacin anti-coloniales, la proliferacin nuclear, las luchas estudiantiles y la
FRQWUDFXOWXUDTXHFXHVWLRQDORVYDORUHV\PRGRVGHYLGDGHODVVRFLHGDGHVRFFLGHQWDOHVEXUJXHVDV
una serie de movimientos sociales se articulan en torno a protestas y reivindicaciones antimilitaris-
WDV SDFLVWDV DQWLLPSHULDOLVWDV HFRORJLVWDV DQWLUDFLVWDV SRU ORV GHUHFKRV FLYLOHV DQWLUHSUHVLYDV
\DQWLGLVFLSOLQDULDV6RQPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVTXHVHFRQIRUPDQ\PRYLOL]DQHQWRUQRDVHQWLGRVGH
SHUWHQHQFLD\HMHVGHFRQLFWRGLIHUHQWHVDORVGHOPRYLPLHQWRTXHFRQVWLWXtDODUHIHUHQFLDIXQGDPHQWDO
hasta entonces en los anlisis sociales, el movimiento obrero/sindical. Un movimiento progresivamen-
te integrado en el sistema poltico-institucional.

/DHWLTXHWDGH1XHYRV0RYLPLHQWRV6RFLDOHV106DWULEXLGDDHVRVPRYLPLHQWRVTXHHPHUJHQHQ

ORVHQWUHORVTXHVHLQFOX\HWDPELpQDOPRYLPLHQWRIHPLQLVWDSRQHGHPDQLHVWRODFHQWUDOLGDGKH-
gemnica del movimiento obrero en los anlisis sociales, en clara desvalorizacin del movimiento feminis-
WDFX\DWUD\HFWRULDKLVWyULFDKXQGHWDPELpQVXVUDtFHVHQHOVLJOR;,;6HFRQVLGHUDSRQLHQGRGHPDQLHVWR
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 222

XQHYLGHQWHVHVJRGHJpQHURHQORVDQiOLVLVVREUHPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVTXHVXUJHDOJRQRYHGRVRLQpGLWR
TXHSRUORWDQWRH[LJHXQDQiOLVLVQXHYR<HVWRVyORHVSRVLEOHGHMDQGRGHODGRODFRQWLQXLGDGKLVWyULFD\
ORVUDVJRVHVSHFtFRVTXHHOPRYLPLHQWRIHPLQLVWDKDPDQLIHVWDGRHQVXWUD\HFWRULDVXFDUiFWHUQRYLR-
lento, anti-vanguardista e internacional, o sus postulados sobre lo personal como poltico, lo sitan como
SUHFXUVRUKLVWyULFRGHDOJXQDVGHODVQRYHGDGHVTXHVHDWULEX\HQDORVPRYLPLHQWRVTXHHPHUJHQDSDUWLU
de la dcada de los 60. Es decir, hasta esta dcada los anlisis sociales otorgaron al movimiento obrero un
casi exclusivo protagonismo, el sesgo androcntrico de estos anlisis ha continuado interpretando los pro-
cesos de accin colectiva irruptiva en funcin del carcter primigenio del movimiento obrero, sin reconocer
ese mismo carcter al movimiento feminista y desvalorizando las concepciones, valores, reivindicaciones
y formas de organizacin y accin de este movimiento.

El alterglobalismo

Transcurren los aos y los anlisis sobre movimientos sociales siguen su curso. Aparecen intentos de
FRQXHQFLDHQWUHFXOWXUDOLVWDVHLQWUXPHQWDOLVWDVSHURHQJHQHUDOVLJXHQSUHYDOHFLHQGRORVHVWXGLRVPDV
procedimentalistas, los anlisis sobre la trayectoria y los impactos de determinados movimientos en la con-
tienda poltica por alcanzar sus objetivos.

7DO\FRPRVHxDODQGLIHUHQWHVDXWRUHV,EDUUD.ODQGHUPDQV\5RJJHEDQG%ULQJHO
SRGHPRVDUPDUTXHGHVGHQDOHVGHORVHOFDPSRGHHVWXGLRGHODDFFLyQFROHFWLYD\GHORVPRYL-
mientos sociales, se ha convertido en un campo ms dinmico y con mayor apertura a nuevas disciplinas,
reas de estudio, formas de contestacin y nuevas visiones del mundo, pero tambin se ha convertido en un
FDPSRPiVIUDJPHQWDGR\FRPSOHMRGHIRUPDTXH

Las anteriores divisiones entre escuelas de interpretacin y paradigmas son sustituidas por abordajes ms plurales,
HFOpFWLFDVHLQFOXVLYDVVLQTXHORVHQIRTXHVFOiVLFRVKD\DQSHUGLGRWRWDOPHQWHVXLQXHQFLD\DTXHJUDQSDUWHGH
la teorizacin reciente no supone una renovacin radical del debate, sino ms bien una actualizacin a los nuevos
tiempos y contextos (Bringel, 2011:2)

$SHVDUGHTXHODVWHRUL]DFLRQHVUHFLHQWHVVREUHPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV\DFFLyQFROHFWLYDVXSRQHQXQD
DFWXDOL]DFLyQGHOGHEDWH\QRXQDUHQRYDFLyQUDGLFDOGHOPLVPRVHSURGXFHQQXHYRVDFRQWHFLPLHQWRVTXH
reactivan los estudios ms estructurales y generalistas. Nos referimos al surgimiento de los movimientos
alterglobalistas en la dcada de los 90. Con esta denominacin, hacemos referencia al conjunto de movi-
PLHQWRVTXHDSDUWLUGHVXUHFKD]RDODJOREDOL]DFLyQQHROLEHUDOSODQWHDQODSRVLELOLGDGGHXQPXQGRDOWHU-
nativo. El movimiento alterglobalista supone una ruptura respecto a las tendencias dominantes instaladas
HQODPRYLOL]DFLyQVRFLDOGHORVDxRV\SODQWHDXQTXHKDFHUGLVWLQWRHQODOXFKDVRFLDO7DO\FRPRVHxDOD
Hoetmer:

dentro de la tormenta de la ofensiva neoliberal, aparecieron ya en 1989 nuevas resistencias frente a la dominacin
capitalista y sus consecuencias en la vida cotidiana alrededor del mundo. El caracazo (1989), el levantamiento indge-
na en Ecuador (1990) y la marcha por la dignidad y el territorio en Bolivia (1990) pasaban primero desapercibidos o
entendidos como restos del viejo orden. El levantamiento zapatista en Chiapas (1994), la huelga general en Corea del
Sur (1996-1997), los encuentros en el marco del proceso del Foro Social Mundial (desde 2001), y las protestas contra
la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio en Seattle (1999), contra el G8 en Gnova (2001), y a escala mundial en contra
GHODLQYDVLyQQRUWHDPHULFDQDD,UDTHYLGHQFLDURQTXHHQUHDOLGDGKDEtDRWUDJOREDOL]DFLyQHQPDUFKDTXH
 223 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

ha sido llamada por Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2003, 2006) la globalizacin contrahegemnica2\SRU)UDQFRLV
+RXWDUW\)UDQFRLV3ROHWODJOREDOL]DFLyQGHODVUHVLVWHQFLDV+RHWPHU

3HUR\DKDQWUDQVFXUULGRGRFHDxRVGHODVSURWHVWDVGH6HDWWOHHQSURWHVWDVTXHPDUFDURQVXVXU-
JLPLHQWRPHGLiWLFR\HOPRYLPLHQWR\DQRSXHGHVHJXLUVLHQGRFDUDFWHUL]DGRSRUORVUDVJRVTXHPDUFDURQ
sus inicios y sus primeros aos, siendo necesario hacer un amplio y diverso ejercicio colectivo de evalua-
FLyQ\FRPSUHQVLyQGHORDSUHQGLGRHQHVWRVDxRV\GHORVGHVDItRVTXHKDQLGRDSDUHFLHQGR3. Ms all de
las mltiples terminologas empleadas para caracterizar el movimiento (antiglobalizacin, anticapitalista,
altermundista, movimiento de movimientos, activismo transnacional, entre otras) y de la heterogeneidad
TXHORFRQIRUPDXQDSDUWHLPSRUWDQWHGHODVLQQRYDFLRQHVFRQFHSWXDOHV\HVWUDWpJLFDVTXHORVPRYLPLHQ-
WRVVRFLDOHVYDQGHVDUUROODQGRHQVXVOXFKDVFRQWUDODVSROtWLFDVQHROLEHUDOHV\JOREDOL]DGRUDVWLHQHQTXH
YHUFRQODDGRSFLyQGHFLHUWDGLVWDQFLDUHVSHFWRDOLPDJLQDULR\ODSUiFWLFDSROtWLFDSURJUHVLVWDTXHOD
L]TXLHUGDYHQtDGHVDUUROODQGRHQODVGpFDGDVDQWHULRUHV/DUHSHUFXVLyQGHO]DSDWLVPRHQORVGHEDWHVGHORV
PRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVDQLYHOLQWHUQDFLRQDOPDUFDQXQSXQWRGHLQH[LyQHQHVHVHQWLGR

HO]DSDWLVPRFRQOOHYyXQDUHIRUPXODFLyQGHOKRUL]RQWHGHODVL]TXLHUGDVXQPRYLPLHQWRDFRQWUDFRUULHQWHGH
ODVYLVLRQHVYDQJXDUGLVWDVGHOSRGHUHVWRIXHORTXHGRWyDO]DSDWLVPRGHXQDJUDQFDSDFLGDGGHDWUDFFLyQHLUUD-
GLDFLyQSRUXQODGRVXSRGHURVDLQWHUSHODFLyQHVSHFtFDKDFLDORVSXHEORVLQGtJHQDVSRURWURODGRVXLQWHUSH-
ODFLyQJOREDODXQDIRUPDGHFRQFHELUODSROtWLFDGHVGHDEDMRTXHUHFODPDODDXWRQRPtDODKRUL]RQWDOLGDGGHORVOD]RV
y la democracia por consenso como valores estructurantes, valores compartidos con los nuevos movimientos sociales
VXUJLGRHQORVDxRV/DQRFLyQGHDXWRGHWHUPLQDFLyQIXHODOODYHTXHXQLyHVWDVGRVGLPHQVLRQHVGHODDXWRQRPtD
SURYHQLHQWHVGHH[SHULHQFLDVWDQGLYHUVDV0DULVWHOOD6ZDPSD

/DWHRUtDGHOSRGHU\GHODWUDQVIRUPDFLyQVRFLDOTXHIXHKHJHPyQLFDHQODL]TXLHUGDSDUWLGDULD\UHYR-
lucionaria, estableca la necesidad de la toma del poder gubernamental-estatal como palanca desde la cual
UHDOL]DUPRGLFDFLRQHVHVWUXFWXUDOHVHQODHFRQRPtDSURSLHGDGGHORVPHGLRVGHSURGXFFLyQ\SODQLFD-
FLyQHVWUDWpJLFDTXHSHUPLWLUtDVXSHUDUODVRFLHGDGGHFODVHVDOUHVROYHUODFRQWUDGLFFLyQIXQGDPHQWDOHQWUH
capital y trabajo. De este modo se abordaba la tarea de transformar la sociedad en su conjunto, atendiendo
prioritariamente a la educacin, la salud y la atencin social a los sectores sociales ms necesitados desde
polticas pblicas de carcter igualitario, homogeneizante y centralista.

2UJDQL]DFLRQHVIHPLQLVWDVHLQGtJHQDVKDFtDPXFKRTXHSODQWHDEDQTXHODVXERUGLQDFLyQXRSUHVLyQQRVyOR
HVFXHVWLyQGHODUHODFLyQHQWUHFDSLWDO\WUDEDMRRGHOH\HVLQVWLWXFLRQHV\SROtWLFDVS~EOLFDVODVGLVFULPLQDFLRQHV
son tambin cotidianas y en las diferentes esferas de interaccin social, incluidas las organizaciones polticas de iz-
TXLHUGD4. No es posible, por lo tanto, reducir la poltica a estrategias por la toma de poder, planteando como contra-
GLFFLyQIXQGDPHQWDOFDVL~QLFDODTXHHQIUHQWDDODFODVHWUDEDMDGRUDFRQODEXUJXHVtDFDSLWDOLVWD\UHOHJDQGRHO
UHVWRGHRSUHVLRQHV\OXFKDVDXQVHJXQGRSODQRGHUHOHYDQFLDTXHLQVWUXPHQWDOL]DDRWUDVVXEMHWLYLGDGHVSROtWLFDV

 %RDYHQWXUDGH6RXVD6DQWRVHQWLHQGHODJOREDOL]DFLyQFRQWUDKHJHPyQLFDFRPRODDFWXDFLyQWUDQVQDFLRQDOGHDTXHOORVPRYLPLHQWRVDVRFLDFLRQHV\RU-
JDQL]DFLRQHVTXHGHHQGHQLQWHUHVHV\JUXSRVUHOHJDGRVRPDUJLQDGRVSRUHOFDSLWDOLVPRJOREDO6DQWRV
 3DUDSURIXQGL]DUHQORVDQiOLVLVTXHVHKDQFHQWUDGRHQLQWHUSUHWDUORVRUtJHQHV\SULQFLSDOHVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHOPRYLPLHQWRDOWHUJOREDOL]DGRUDVtFRPR
LGHQWLFDUODVGLIHUHQWHVIDVHVSRUODVTXHHOPRYLPLHQWRKDLGRSDVDQGRVHUHFRPLHQGDXQDOHFWXUDVHFXHQFLDOGHODQXDULRGH0RYLPLHQWRV6RFLDOHVHGL-
WDGRSRUOD)XQGDFLRQ%HWLNRKWWSZZZIXQGDFLRQEHWLNRRUJ
 7DO\FRPRQRVUHFXHUGD+RHWPHUDWHQGLHQGRPtQLPDPHQWHDODFRPSOHMLGDG\SOXUDOLGDGGHODL]TXLHUGDHQVXGHVDUUROORKLVWyULFRGHEHPRVUHODWLYL]DUHO
FDUiFWHUQRYHGRVRGHDOJXQRVSODQWHDPLHQWRVTXHDFRQWLQXDFLyQYDPRVDVXEUD\DU\DTXHGHQWURGHODL]TXLHUGDVLHPSUHKXERYRFHVGLVLGHQWHVTXHFXHV-
tionaron el vanguardismo, las tendencias economicistas, el centralismo y, en algunos casos, el machismo, el racismo o el personalismo elitista presentes en
sus seno. (Hoetmer: 2009).
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 224

Tal y como nos planeta Boaventura (B. De Sousa: 2001), el debilitamiento poltico de la identidad obre-
ra y SRUHQGH del movimiento obrero, tanto en sus expresiones ms espontneas como institucionalizadas5,
permite emerger la denuncia de formas de subordinacin ms all de las relaciones de produccin. Formas
GHRSUHVLyQTXHQRDIHFWDQVyORDXQDFODVHVRFLDOHVSHFtFD\VtDJUXSRVVRFLDOHVWUDQVYHUVDOHVDWRGDV
las clases, o a la sociedad en su conjunto: machismo, colonialismo y guerras, opresin nacional y cultural,
racismo, deterioro del medio y el territorio en nombre del progreso (productivismo, consumismo),... Por
ORWDQWRFRPLHQ]DDWRUQDUVHGRPLQDQWHODLGHDGHTXHWRGDVODVIRUPDVGHGRPLQDFLyQGHEHQVHUFRQVLGH-
radas por igual en las tareas emancipatorias, tanto las relaciones de produccin como las de convivencia y
reproduccin de la vida en todos los mbitos de lo cotidiano. No hay posicin o protagonismo central de la
FODVHREUHUDRGHOPRYLPLHQWRVLQGLFDOSRUTXHQRKD\XQD~QLFDRSULRULWDULDSUHFRQVWLWXFLyQHVWUXFWXUDO
del sujeto de cambio, de los grupos o movimientos de emancipacin.

ODFDtGDGHOPXURGH%HUOtQOLEHUyXQDVHULHGHPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVTXHVHHQFRQWUDEDQFRQQDGRVKDVWD

HQWRQFHVSRUODHVWUDWHJLDLGHROyJLFDGHODJXHUUDIUtD(VFRPRVLHOHVStULWXGHORVDxRVVHVHQWDSXGLHVHQDOPHQWH
HPHUJHUHQODHVFHQDSROtWLFDPXQGLDOVLQODVGHVFDOLFDFLRQHVTXHYHQtDQGHDPERVODGRVGHODJXHUUDIUtD3RUWR
Gonsalves en Hoetmer 2009: 92)

En trminos del trabajo por la transformacin del modelo de sociedad, el cambio social no es slo es-
WUXFWXUDO\QRGHEHVHUXQDSURPHVDGHIXWXURXQDYH]TXHVHKDOODFRQTXLVWDGRHOSRGHUJXEHUQDPHQWDO
institucionalizado. La emancipacin debe plantearse en trminos de transformacin de las prcticas per-
VRQDOHV\FROHFWLYDVTXHHQORFRWLGLDQRLQIHULRUL]DQ\VXERUGLQDQDODVYtFWLPDVGHODRSUHVLyQWUDQVIRU-
macin emancipadora, por lo tanto, desde las propias prcticas en el presente, y no en un futuro de cambio
estructural total. Lo cotidiano y cercano deja de ser algo supeditado a una estrategia general de lucha en las
relaciones de poder, para comenzar a ser el campo privilegiado de lucha por un mundo y una vida mejores.

/DWDUHDGHLGHQWLFDUSUiFWLFDVGHVXERUGLQDFLyQ\GHFRQVWUXLUSUiFWLFDVDOWHUQDWLYDVQRRSUHVRUDVVH
WRUQDXQDWDUHDQXQFDGHOWRGRQDOL]DGD\VLQXQDLGHQWLGDGRVXEMHWLYLGDGHVSHFtFDPHQWHWLWXODUGHHOOD
SRUTXHODVGRPLQDFLRQHVVRQP~OWLSOHV/DHPDQFLSDFLyQ\ODGHPRFUDWL]DFLyQQRVDSDUHFHQSRUORWDQWR
FRPRSULQFLSLRVVLQQFRPRSURFHVRVVLHPSUHDELHUWRVVLHPSUHLQFRQFOXVRV

(VWHFXHVWLRQDPLHQWRGHODOLPLWDGDSHUVSHFWLYDVREUHHOFDPELRVRFLDOFRQVWUXLGDGHVGHODL]TXLHUGD
clsica se complementa con un cuestionamiento terico-ideolgico del poder, reubicando el Estado en el
conjunto de las relaciones de poder de la sociedad. Atendiendo a Michel Foucault, y sus trabajos sobre las
relaciones de dominacin como relaciones sostenidas sobre concepciones, imaginarios y prcticas cons-
WUXLGDVKLVWyULFDPHQWHFRPRKHJHPyQLFDVSDUDDVtQDWXUDOL]DU\MXVWLFDUODGRPLQDFLyQHO(VWDGRHVXQD
SUiFWLFDVRFLDOGHPDQHMRGHODVRFLHGDGTXHIRUPDSDUWHGHXQFDPSRPiVDPSOLRGHSUiFWLFDVGHSRGHU

Una de las matrices centrales en esas prcticas de poder, es la prctica del poder colonial moderno
&RORQLDOLGDGGHOSRGHU$QLEDO4XLMDQRTXHSDUWHGHXQPLWRIXQGDFLRQDOGHFDUiFWHUHYROXFLR-
QLVWDSRUHOTXHODKLVWRULDKXPDQDHVXQDOtQHDGHVGHHOHVWDGRGHQDWXUDOH]DKDVWDODPRGHUQLGDGHXURSHD
TXH D WUDYpV GHO FRQWUDWR VRFLDO VDOH GHO HVWDGR GH QDWXUDOH]D HVWDEOHFLHQGR XQD VHULH GH FRGLFDFLRQHV
5 En ello han intervenido diferentes factores y vicisitudes histricas, Garca Linera destaca los procesos de reestructuracin productiva, el cierre de las
JUDQGHVHPSUHVDVODPRGLFDFLyQHQODFRPSRVLFLyQWpFQLFDGHOWUDEDMRDVDODULDGRTXHKDIUDJPHQWDGRODVFRQFHQWUDFLRQHVREUHUDVKDUHGXFLGRGUiVWLFD-
PHQWHHOQ~PHURGHREUHURVVLQGLFDOL]DGRV\KDFUHDGRXQDQXHYDFXOWXUDGHOWUDEDMRIXQGDGDHQODFRPSHWHQFLDREUHUDSHURWDPELpQHVLQQHJDEOHTXHHO
SURSLRPRYLPLHQWRREUHURQRWHQtDXQKRUL]RQWHSURSRVLWLYRTXHYD\DPiVDOOiGHOFRUSRUDWLYLVPRGHQWURGHOHVWDGRGHELHQHVWDU\GHOXVRLQVWUXPHQWDOGH
ODVOLEHUWDGHVGHPRFUiWLFDV*DUFtD/LQHUD$
 225 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

ELQDULDVHQWUHFLYLOL]DGRSULPLWLYRPRGHUQRWUDGLFLRQDOFRQRFLPLHQWRFLHQWtFRVDEHUHVSRSXODUHVUD]yQ
emocin, hombre/mujer, blanco/indgena. Presentando la colonizacin y subordinacin de lo primero so-
bre lo segundo como algo natural en la evolucin de la historia del ser humano, y no como el resultado de
relaciones de poder opresoras.

/DLGHDGHTXHODGRPLQDFLyQGHODQDWXUDOH]DLPSOLFDVXWUDQVIRUPDFLyQHQFLYLOL]DFLyQUHYHODXQDFRPSUHQVLyQ\
prctica del poder colonial-moderno, en la cual el polo dominante/activo tiene el deber de civilizar/formar/disciplinar
al polo subordinado. (Hoetmer, 2009: 94)

Las prcticas polticas de los movimientos sociales en las ltimas dcadas han pivotado, por lo tanto,
hacia un cuestionamiento ms integral de las relaciones de poder y de dominacin en la sociedad. Plan-
teamientos no solamente de condicionar el poder poltico institucionalizado, sino de transformar el poder
GHVGHSUiFWLFDVSROtWLFDVTXHFXHVWLRQHQODVIRUPDVGHKDFHU\ORVPRGHORVGHYLGDGRPLQDQWHVGHVGHLGHQWL-
GDGHVRVXEMHWLYLGDGHVHVSHFtFDVPXMHUHVLQGtJHQDVHVWXGLDQWHVMyYHQHVJD\V\OHVELDQDVFDPSHVLQRV
DVVLQWLHUUDSDUDGRVDVRSLTXHWHURVDVHWF

De esta manera, los movimientos actuales aparecen como procesos de aprendizaje, laboratorios para la
construccin de prcticas y relaciones sociales (parcialmente) no-capitalistas, en vez de responder a estra-
WHJLDVSUHGHQLGDVSDUDUHVROYHUODFRQWUDGLFFLyQIXQGDPHQWDOHQWUHFDSLWDO\SXHEORWUDEDMDGRU+RHWPHU
2009: 97). Este entendimiento del movimiento social como un principio educativo (Caldart 2004, citado
en Bringel, 2010: 6), torna como elemento de importancia en los movimientos la generacin y sistema-
tizacin de conocimiento: el movimiento autoconstruye y articula sus saberes para alimentar su proceso
transformador emancipatorio (Gohn 2005, citado en Bringel, 2010: 6).

Adems de las anteriores destacamos a continuacin, de forma sinttica, otras cuestiones referentes a
los debates y prcticas de los movimientos alterglobalizadores (en realidad red de movimientos) sealadas
desde diferentes anlisis:

'HVWDFDQHOFDUiFWHUHPDQFLSDWRULRGHHVWRVPRYLPLHQWRVHQFXDQWRFRQWHVWDFLyQ\UHVLVWHQFLDDOD
KHJHPRQtDGHOSHQVDPLHQWR~QLFRQHROLEHUDO\DOIDWDOLVPR\FRQIRUPLVPRTXHFRQOOHYDUHVLVWHQFLD
al cierre de los debates ideolgicos y a la negacin de la contigencia de los procesos histricos y de
ODVGHFLVLRQHVSROtWLFDVTXHORVJXtDQ/DVUHGHVGHPRYLPLHQWRVVHVLW~DQHQXQDYLVLyQPiVDPSOLD
TXHIUHQWHDODQHJDFLyQGHODDJHQFLDKXPDQDHQORVSURFHVRVJOREDOHVHQFXUVRLGHQWLFD\VHxDOD
PHGLDQWHODPRYLOL]DFLyQORVDJHQWHV\FHQWURVGHGHFLVLyQTXHJXtDQHOSURFHVRJOREDOL]DGRUQHROLEH-
UDOFRQWUDSRQLpQGRVHDQWDJRQLFDPHQWHDHOORVPHGLDQWHHOFRQLFWR(OPRYLPLHQWRGHPRYLPLHQWRV
ensancha el debate y el antagonismo ideolgico y poltico, reivindicando opciones y alternativas hacia
otros mundos posibles (Martnez, Z. 2003).

6RQUHGHVRDYHFHVVRORFRQXHQFLDVTXHQLHJDQOHJLWLPLGDGDOVLVWHPDQRVRORHQVXVH[SUHVLRQHV
GHH[FOXVLyQPiVIUHFXHQWHVVLQRHQVXPLVPDUD]yQGHVHU6RQUHGHVTXHDUPDQTXHODFRQVWUXFFLyQ
GHDOWHUQDWLYDVSUiFWLFDVDQLYHOORFDOTXHPDQWHQJDQFRPXQLFDFLyQ\FRQH[LyQDQLYHOJOREDOHVOD
RSFLyQSULRULWDULDSDUDYLVXDOL]DU\YLYLUHVDVRWUDVDOWHUQDWLYDVSRVLEOHV'HHQGHQODSUR[LPLGDGOD
FHUFDQtD\ODLJXDOGDGHQODGLIHUHQFLDIUHQWHDODH[FOX\HQWHKRPRJHQHLGDGGHODJOREDOL]DFLyQFX\R
verticalismo impositivo y mercantilista se disfraza de horizontalidad, democracia, libertad, desarrollo,
progreso, etc.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 226

2WURVDQiOLVLVGHHVWRVPRYLPLHQWRVGHVWDFDQWDPELpQODDXVHQFLDGHFRQH[LyQHQWUHGLVFXUVR\SUDF-
WLFDGHORVPRYLPLHQWRVSRUXQODGR\ORVORJURVSROtWLFRVHVSHFtFRVGHFDUDDXQDUHDOLGDGVRFLDO\
poltica emancipada por el otro. Constatan su potencial emancipador basado en su radicalidad cons-
titutiva, pero no logran las mediaciones polticas necesarias para lograr tal impacto emancipador. Se
WUDWDGHGLFXOWDGHV\FDXWHODVTXHHQHVWHFDVRVHDGHFXDQDOSURSLRGLVFXUVRGHODVUHGHV'HDOJXQD
IRUPDODVPLVPDVVHKDQQHJDGRDHVWDEOHFHUXQSURJUDPDGHWUDQVLFLyQJHQHUDOHQTXHVHHVWDEOH]FD
SRUHMHPSORTXpKDFHU\FyPRJHVWLRQDUHOSRGHUSROtWLFRLQVWLWXFLRQDOL]DGR+D\UHFKD]RIUHQWHDO
Estado, frente al poder centralizado, la democracia representativa y frente al mercado controlado por
oligopolios y multinacionales, pero no se formula un modelo estructural alternativo en su conjunto.

Nos encontramos as en este caso, con unas teoras sobre los movimientos sociales como sujetos de
HPDQFLSDFLyQHQODVTXHHODQiOLVLVVREUHFDXVDVIRUPDVQXHYDV\DVSLUDFLRQHVJHQHUDOHVVXSHUDHQGHQVL-
GDG\DSRUWDFLRQHVDOGLULJLGRDHVWXGLDUORTXHSRGUtDPRVGHQRPLQDUODVFRQGLFLRQHV\FDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGH
los procesos emancipatorios, entendidas como emancipaciones estructurales en el conjunto de la sociedad.
/DSUHFLVLyQUHVXOWDLQH[FXVDEOHHQFXDQWRTXHODHPDQFLSDFLyQWDPELpQHVHQWHQGLEOH\SUDFWLFDEOHHQHO
seno del movimiento y sus prcticas de construccin de alternativas en sus comunidades de referencia.

Por ello, diferentes analistas advierten de la necesidad de prestar atencin y profundizar en el cono-
cimiento de las condiciones y caractersticas concretas de los procesos emancipatorios en construccin,
puestos en marcha por diferentes movimientos sociales en las ltimas dcadas, pero la mayora de estos
autores tambin sealan la necesidad de investigar cmo se estn construyendo dichos procesos desde pre-
supuestos epistemolgicos e ideolgicos renovados.

(QHVWHVHQWLGR%ULQJHODGYLHUWHGHODLPSRUWDQFLDGHQRFDHUHQOHFWXUDVVXSHUFLDOHVGHORVSURFHVRV
SURWDJRQL]DGRVSRUORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV\VHxDODTXHHVSUHFLVRUHVROYHUFXDQWRDQWHVXQDOLPLWDFLyQ
GHIDOWDGHELGLUHFFLRQDOLGDGHQWUHXQLYHUVLGDG\PRYLPLHQWRVHQORVHVWXGLRVHLQYHVWLJDFLRQHVTXHVHKD-
FHQGHVGHORTXHVHSRGUtDGHQRPLQDULQWHQWRVDFDGpPLFRVGHDSHUWXUDHSLVWHPROyJLFD\GLiORJRGHVDEHUHV
(B. Sousa Santos, 2009).

$VtFDGDYH]HVPiVIUHFXHQWHHQFRQWUDUHVWXGLRVTXHHQWLHQGHQDORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVFRPRVX-
MHWRVJHQHUDGRUHVGHFRQRFLPLHQWRVRWURV(OSUREOHPDHVTXHHVWDVDUPDFLRQHVHQPXFKDVRFDVLRQHV
se basan en, anlisis poco profundos de los procesos puestos en marcha por los movimientos, y adems de
HVWDHVFDVDSURIXQGLGDGHVWRVDQiOLVLVQRSUHVWDQVXFLHQWHDWHQFLyQQLDODVOyJLFDGHODDFFLyQFROHFWLYD
ni a la forma empleada por el movimiento para construir y reconstruir sus complejos procesos en curso.

Pensamiento social critico emergente desde Amrica Latina

En la ltima parada de este recorrido de perspectivas analticas sobre el estudio de los movimientos
VRFLDOHVQRVYDPRVDDFHUFDUDODVUHH[LRQHV\GHEDWHVDELHUWRVSRUORTXHSRGUtDPRVOODPDUXQSHQVD-
PLHQWRVRFLDOFUtWLFRHPHUJHQWH3HQVDPLHQWRTXHHPHUJHGHORVPiUJHQHVGHOVLVWHPDPXQGRGHGRQGH
WDPELpQHPHUJHQORVSURFHVRVGHPRYLOL]DFLyQVRFLDOFRQWUDKHJHPyQLFDTXHORDOLPHQWDQHVWRVSURFHVRV
son protagonizados y construidos por organizaciones y redes campesinas, indgenas, feministas, estudian-
WLOHVWUDEDMDGRUDV\EDUULDOHVTXHVHDUWLFXODQGHIRUPDFDGDYH]PiVDPSOLDORFDOQDFLRQDOUHJLRQDO
intercontinental, etc.) y compleja.
 227 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Efectivamente, la necesidad de generar nuevas formas de conocimiento sobre la realidad, la emancipacin

\ORVPRYLPLHQWRVQRVXUJHGHXQDEULOODQWHLQVSLUDFLyQDFDGpPLFDVLQRTXHVRQORVSURSLRVPRYLPLHQWRV
VRFLDOHVORVTXHHQSDUWHKDQIRU]DGRHVDQHFHVLGDGGHLQQRYDFLyQFRJQLWLYD&RQVXVSURFHVRVGHPXHVWUDQ
TXHQRVRORHVSRVLEOHFXHVWLRQDUGHVGHODSUiFWLFDODPRGHUQLGDGFDSLWDOLVWD\SDWULDUFDOHQWHQGLGDFRPR
VLVWHPDP~OWLSOHGHGRPLQDFLyQVLQRTXHDGHPiVHVSRVLEOHLUURPSLHQGRDXQTXHVHDGHIRUPDSDUFLDOHV
decir con limitaciones) con esas mltiples dominaciones (antropocentrismo, capitalismo, patriarcado, euro-
centrismo, colonialidad, etc.) al poner en marcha la construccin de alternativas a las mismas. Desde estas
claves analticas, es en Latinoamrica donde los movimientos sociales han demostrado una mayor actividad
HQORV~OWLPDVGpFDGDVGHVGHHO]DSDWLVPRDORVSLTXHWHURVDUJHQWLQRVSDVDQGRSRUHO067LQFOXVRLUUXP-
SLHQGRHQODHVFHQDSROtWLFD\OOHJDQGRDVHUSLH]DVFODYHHQODGHQLFLyQGHSROtWLFDVJRELHUQRV\SDUWLFL-
pando en los procesos de replanteamiento del modelo de Estado (como en los casos de Bolivia y Ecuador).

$XQTXHVLJXLHQGRQXHVWURUHFRUULGRDQDOtWLFRQRUHVXOWDIiFLOKDFHUXQDGLVWLQFLyQWDMDQWH\FODUDHQWUH
HOPRYLPLHQWRDOWHUJOREDOL]DGRU\ORVPRYLPLHQWRVODWLQRDPHULFDQRV\DTXHPXFKRVGHORVVHJXQGRVIRU-
PDQSDUWHGHOSULPHUR\FRPSDUWHQOXFKDV\SURFHVRV3HQVDPRVTXHHVLPSRUWDQWHKDFHUHVWDGLVWLQFLyQ
GHGLFDQGRXQDSDUWDGRHVSHFLFRDODVHPHUJHQFLDV/DWLQRDPHULFDQDVFRQODLQWHQFLyQGHGHVWDFDUSRUXQ
ODGRTXHORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVODWLQRDPHULFDQRVWLHQHQUDVJRVSURSLRVHVSHFLDOPHQWHSRUVXRULJHQ\
VXFRVPRYLVLyQDOWHUQDWLYDSHURWDPELpQSRUFRQVWUXLUVHGHVGHORVPiUJHQHVGHOVLVWHPDPXQGRPRGHUQR
\SRURWURODGRTXHORVDQiOLVLVODWLQRDPHULFDQRVSUREDEOHPHQWHSRUHOWLSRGHSURFHVRVSXHVWRVHQPDUFKD
por los movimientos sociales de la regin, y tambin por formar su pensamiento acadmico desde los mr-
genes del sistema-mundo moderno, han profundizado ms en la cuestin de la emancipacin y no solo en
VXDVSHFWRFRQFHSWXDOVLQRWDPELpQHQDOJXQDVGLPHQVLRQHVPiVRSHUDWLYDV7RGRHOORKDFHTXH$PpULFD
Latina sea actualmente un referente muy importante para el campo de estudio de la accin colectiva y los
movimientos sociales, por ser un lugar donde se estn gestando y emergiendo nuevas e interesantes pro-
puestas analticas sobre, pero tambin desde, los movimientos sociales contemporneos.

4XL]iSRUUD]RQHVKLVWyULFDVSHURWDPELpQSRUVXFDSDFLGDGFUtWLFDHPDQFLSDGRUD\SURSRVLWLYDQRV
VHQWLPRVFHUFDGHHVWDVSURSXHVWDVDQDOtWLFDV\SRUHOORKHPRVTXHULGRGHGLFDUOHVXQHVSDFLRSURSLR(VWD
corriente de pensamiento plural y diversa se ha propuesto, entre otras, la difcil tarea de re-pensar la
HPDQFLSDFLyQVRFLDOGHVGHXQDSHUVSHFWLYDTXHGHVPLWLFD\FXHVWLRQDODPRGHUQLGDGFDSLWDOLVWDHQWHQGLGD
FRPRVLVWHPDP~OWLSOHGHGRPLQDFLyQDOWLHPSRTXHUHLYLQGLFDODXUJHQWHQHFHVLGDGGHDSHUWXUDDXQD
FRPSUHQVLyQQRH[FOXVLYDPHQWHRFFLGHQWDOGHOPXQGR\GHODVGLYHUVDVUHDOLGDGHVTXHHQpOH[LVWHQ

Desde esta perspectiva la emancipacin social se contempla como un complejo proceso de ruptura y
liberacin de las mltiples dominaciones instauradas en y por la modernidad capitalista. En nuestro caso
\GHELGRDOREMHWLYRGHHVWHWH[WRSUHVWDUHPRVHVSHFLDODWHQFLyQDXQTXHQRVyORDODVYRFHVFUtWLFDVTXH
proceden de un concreto campo de estudio, el de la accin colectiva y los movimientos sociales, desde el
FXDOGLIHUHQWHVDQDOLVWDVHLQYHVWLJDGRUHVDVYLHQHQVHxDODQGRHQORV~OWLPRVDxRVTXHQRVyORVRQSRVLEOHV
VLQRTXH\DH[LVWHQRWUDVIRUPDVRWUDVSUiFWLFDV\RWUDVSRVLFLRQHVUHODWLYDVDOFRQRFLPLHQWRTXHUHVXOWDQ
necesarias para entender tanto la realidad social con sus violencias y tensiones como determinadas respues-
WDVTXHGHVGHHVDPLVPDVRFLHGDGVHGDQFRQWUDHVDVUHDOLGDGHV

Por tanto, situarse en esta perspectiva implica situarse frente a grandes y complejos desafos, entre otros,
el de aprender con y desde los mrgenes del sistema-mundo, llevando a la prctica la Epistemologa del
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 228

Sur6RHO&RQRFHUGHVGHHO6XUGH%6RXVD6DQWRV\DTXHFRPRVHxDOiEDPRVSiJLQDV

atrs, es desde los espacios de resistencia a la dominacin (mrgenes del sistema-mundo) desde donde se
hacen ms visibles las estructuras y lgicas de poder y saber establecidas.

Repensar las formas de entender el conocimiento, su produccin, su funcin social y su uso es un ejer-
FLFLRGHUHH[LYLGDGDOTXHFDGDYH]VHVXPDQPiVYRFHVGHQWURGHODWHRUtDVRFLDOFULWLFDHVWDVXPDGH
voces consigue tomar forma de grito en algunos mbitos de conocimiento llegando a cuestionar con fuerza
ORVSULQFLSLRVHSLVWHPROyJLFRVTXHKDQJXLDGRODSURGXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQWRGHODFLHQFLDPRGHUQDSHUR
esas voces, tambin han sido y siguen siendo silenciadas en muchos otros mbitos. Este silenciamiento se
H[SOLFDSRUTXHODSHUVSHFWLYDHSLVWHPROyJLFDTXHYDPRVDH[SRQHUDFRQWLQXDFLyQHVFUtWLFDFRQHOSDUDGLJ-
PDSRVLWLYLVWD\REMHWLYLVWDTXHGRPLQDHQODSURGXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQWRWpFQLFR\FLHQWtFR

(QQXHVWURFDVRQRVVXPDPRVDORVGLYHUVRVHVIXHU]RVTXHEXVFDQWRPDUFLHUWDGLVWDQFLDGHORVUHTXHUL-
mientos experimentales y matemticos de la ortodoxia de la ciencia moderna sobre la produccin de cono-
FLPLHQWRV2UWRGR[LDTXHVHDXWRDWULEX\HXQDFFHVRSULYLOHJLDGRDOFRQRFLPLHQWRGHODUHDOLGDGREMHWLYR
QHXWURH[SHUWRTXHFUHDODLOXVLyQGHODYHUGDG\ODFHUWH]DGHOFRQRFLPLHQWRH[SHUWR

(VWHHQIRTXHREMHWLYLVWDDGHPiVGHJHQHUDUXQDDUURJDQFLDEDVWDQWHGLVFDSDFLWDQWHSDUDODHVFXFKD\HO
aprendizaje, deposita la responsabilidad de sus conclusiones y de sus consecuencias en una supuesta rea-
lidad/verdad independiente de la persona observadora o investigadora. Presentar algo como conocimiento
REMHWLYRIXQGDPHQWDGR~QLFDPHQWHHQXQDUHDOLGDGH[WHULRUDODVSHUVRQDVTXHORKDQHODERUDGR\DVX
proceso de construccin, es intentar imponer un argumento de autoridad (voz experta y autorizada por la
OHJLWLPLGDGDWULEXLGDDVXHODERUDFLyQFLHQWtFRDFDGpPLFD(QSDODEUDVGHOELyORJRFKLOHQR+XPEHUWR
Maturana presentar algo como conocimiento objetivo es una peticin de obediencia, un argumento para
obligar.

En no pocas ocasiones el conocimiento experto, revestido de esa supuesta objetividad incuestionable, se

QRVSUHVHQWDFRPRVLQRWXYLHUDQDGDTXHYHUFRQORVYDORUHVLGHDV\HQIRTXHVGHWUDEDMRGHODVSHUVRQDV
TXHORKDQSURGXFLGR(VGHFLUVHXWLOL]DSDUDHVWDEOHFHUXQDYHUGDGRFULWHULRWpFQLFRLQFXHVWLRQDEOHTXH
EORTXHDODSDUWLFLSDFLyQ\HOGHEDWHVRFLDO\DTXHQLHJD\FLHUUDORVGHEDWHVLGHROyJLFRV\SROtWLFRVDOL-
PHQWDQGRXQWLSRGHJHVWLyQGHOFRQRFLPLHQWRWHFQRFUiWLFDTXHUHIXHU]DODFRQFHQWUDFLyQGHOSRGHU\QRVX
GHPRFUDWL]DFLyQ(OFRQRFLPLHQWRH[SHUWRTXHVHSUHVHQWDFRPRREMHWLYRGLItFLOPHQWHVHSXHGHVRPHWHUD
debate social y puede utilizarse para establecer una verdad hegemnica y excluyente, se trata por lo tanto
de un peligroso instrumento de poder.

)UHQWHDORVSODQWHDPLHQWRVHSLVWHPROyJLFRVKHJHPyQLFRVTXHDFDEDPRVGHH[SRQHUFDGDYH]HVPiV
KDELWXDOOHHU\HVFXFKDUTXHHVWiHQPDUFKDORTXHDOJXQRVOODPDQXQDUHYROXFLyQHSLVWHPROyJLFDRWURV
SUHHUHQOODPDUDHVWHSURFHVRJLURHSLVWHPROyJLFR(QQXHVWURFDVRSHQVDPRVTXHWHQGUiTXHSDVDU
un tiempo para poder precisar, con algo ms de perspectiva, el calado de estos debates epistemolgicos y
su traduccin en la prctica investigadora, solo entonces se podr esclarecer si estamos ante un giro, un
WUiQVLWRRXQDUHYROXFLyQHSLVWHPROyJLFD/RTXHVtSRGHPRVDUPDUVREUHHOGHEDWHHSLVWHPROyJLFR\OD
 /D(SLVWHPRORJtDGHO6XUGH%RDYHQWXUDGH6RXVD6DQWRVHVXQDSURSXHVWDHSLVWpPLFD\pWLFRSROtWLFDGHFRPSUHQVLyQGHOPXQGRPXFKRPiVDPSOLDTXH
ODFRPSUHQVLyQRFFLGHQWDOGHOPXQGR&RQHOOD6DQWRVVHxDODTXHXUJHKDFHUYLVLEOHORLQYLVLEOHSHQVDEOHORLPSHQVDEOH\SUHVHQWHORDXVHQWHSDUDHOOR
propone el paso de una epistemologa de la ceguera, producida desde la limitada y perezosa razn indolente (razn dominante desde la modernidad oc-
FLGHQWDODXQDHSLVWHPRORJtDGHODYLVLyQTXHDSUHFLDODGLYHUVLGDGHVGHFLUXQD(SLVWHPRORJtDGHO6XUSDUDXQDDGHFXDGDH[SRVLFLyQGHHVWHFRQFHSWR\
sus diversas implicaciones, ver Santos, 2006 y 2010).
 229 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

HPHUJHQFLDGHHSLVWHPRORJtDVDOWHUQDWLYDVVRQGRVFXHVWLRQHVODSULPHUDGHHOODVHVTXHVHWUDWDGHXQ
SURFHVRSOXUDO\DFXPXODWLYRGHDxRVGHHYROXFLyQODVHJXQGDHVTXHPiVTXHXQKHFKRVHWUDWDGHXQD
QHFHVLGDG3URIXQGLFHPRVXQSRFRPiVHQHVWDVGRVLGHDVDOWLHPSRTXHYDPRVVHxDODQGRORVGHEDWHVTXH
abren a su paso la emergencia de epistemologas alternativas.

(QSULPHUOXJDUFXDQGRGHFLPRVTXHVHWUDWDGHXQSURFHVRSOXUDO\DFXPXODWLYRQRVUHIHULPRVDTXH
HVXQSURFHVRTXHVHKDLGRHQULTXHFLHQGRGHFRQWULEXFLRQHVSURFHGHQWHVGHGLIHUHQWHVJHRJUDItDV\FDOHQ-
GDULRV\TXHTXL]iSRUODFRPSOHMLGDGGHODFR\XQWXUDDFWXDOHVWDPRVHQXQPRPHQWRHQHOTXHHVWHGHEDWH
puede empezar a cuajar y tomar especial fuerza. Adems de las crticas realizadas desde la hermenutica y
ODWHRUtDFUtWLFDGHODHVFXHODGH)UDQIRXUWHQWUHODVFRQWULEXFLRQHVPiVUHFLHQWHVTXHDOLPHQWDQODDSHUWXUD
GHJULHWDVHQORVSODQWHDPLHQWRVHSLVWHPROyJLFRVKHJHPyQLFRVTXHUHPRVGHVWDFDUODVUHDOL]DGDVGHVGHOD
epistemologa feminista7, la cual surge y se construye como reaccin y en contra de la tradicin cien-
WtFD SRVLWLYLVWD8, instaurada en la modernidad capitalista y patriarcal. Sus contribuciones, nos parecen
especialmente reseables por su histrica invisibilizacion y por su importancia en el proceso de apertura
del debate epistemolgico (no solo en las ciencias sociales).

El concepto de conocimiento situado+DUDZD\KDVLGRXQDGHODVDSRUWDFLRQHVPiVLPSRUWDQWHV

de la epistemologa feminista, este concepto no alude solamente a dominaciones del sistema sexo-genero
VLQRTXHYDPXFKRPiVDOOi4XHHOFRQRFLPLHQWRVHDVLWXDGRQRVGHVYHODDOPHQRVGRVFXHVWLRQHVSRUXQ
ODGRVHHQWLHQGHTXHORVP~OWLSOHVIDFWRUHV\VLWXDFLRQHVVRFLDOHVTXHQRVFRQIRUPDQ\VLW~DQFRPRVXMHWRV
FODVHHWQLDVH[RJHQHURLGHRORJtDHWFIRUPDQSDUWHGHOFRQRFLPLHQWRTXHSURGXFLPRVGHPDQHUDTXH
ORTXHVHFRQRFH\FyPRVHFRQRFHGHSHQGHGHODVLWXDFLyQ\SHUVSHFWLYDGHOVXMHWRFRQRFHGRU1LFROiV
SRURWURODGRQRVGHVYHODTXHODVUHSUHVHQWDFLRQHVGHODUHDOLGDGVRQVLHPSUHSDUFLDOHV\DVt
deben ser interpretadas. De esta forma, se hace explcita y se reconoce la imposibilidad de dar una visin
holstica y completa de la realidad.

(OFRQRFLPLHQWRQRVHUHFRJHVHSURGXFH\VHFRQVWUX\H\HVDDFWLYLGDGGHSURGXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQ-
WRHVVLHPSUHXQDWDUHDTXHVHGHVDUUROODHQXQFRQWH[WRVRFLRFXOWXUDOGHWHUPLQDGRHOFRQRFLPLHQWRHV
siempre un conocimiento situado. La ciencia objetivista todo lo ve (mirada panptica) desde una atalaya
FLHQWtFRWHFQLFDTXHVXSXHVWDPHQWHQRVHVLW~DVRFLDO\FXOWXUDOPHQWHHQQLQJXQDSDUWHSHURHQUHDOLGDG
esconde y disfraza la mirada socialmente situada de un sujeto concreto, normalmente hombre, occidental,
blanco, heterosexual, de clase media alta y perteneciente a un grupo etno-lingustico dominante.

Otra aportacin importante desde la epistemologa feminista ha sido su particular y acertada forma de
VHxDODUTXHODFLHQFLDHVVLHPSUHSDUDDOJRSRUDOJR\SDUDDOJXLHQGHVYHODQGRODIDODFLDGHODREMHWLYL-
dad positivista de la ciencia moderna (supuestamente neutral, autnoma e imparcial) ya sealada al inicio
GHHVWHDSDUWDGR3RGUtDPRVSHQVDUTXHHVWDIDODFLDHVXQHUURUHSLVWHPROyJLFRGHODUJDGXUDFLyQSHUROD

 ([LVWHXQDFODVLFDFLyQGHORVHVWXGLRVHSLVWHPROyJLFRVIHPLQLVWDVUHDOL]DGDSRU+DUGLQJHQTXHHVWDEOHFHWUHVFDWHJRUtDVDODVTXHOODPyHPSLULFLV-
PRIHPLQLVWDSXQWRGHYLVWDIHPLQLVWD\SRVWPRGHUQLVPRIHPLQLVWD$SHVDUGHTXHHVWDFODVLFDFLyQRWLSRORJtDHVDFHSWDGDJHQHUDOPHQWHSRUODPD\RUtD
GHDXWRUDVIHPLQLVWDVHQODDFWXDOLGDGODVIURQWHUDVTXHVHSDUDQORVWUHVWLSRVVRQFDGDYH]PiVGLIXVDVH[LVWLHQGRXQSDUGHFXHVWLRQHVTXHVRQFRPXQHV
a los tres tipos: la defensa del pluralismo y el rechazo a las teoras totalizante (Nicols, 2009). En este texto haremos alusin a la epistemologa feminista
GHIRUPDJHQpULFD\DTXHQRVYDPRVDGHWHQHUHQODVFXHVWLRQHVTXHVRQFRPXQHVHQFRQFUHWRHQODVLGHDVGHFRQRFLPLHQWRVLWXDGR\HQODQRFLyQGH
objetividad.
 /DHSLVWHPRORJtDIHPLQLVWDHVWXGLDODPDQHUDHQTXHHOVLVWHPDVH[RJHQHURLQX\H\GHEHUtDLQXLUHQQXHVWUDVFRQFHSFLRQHVGHOFRQRFLPLHQWR\HQ
ORVPpWRGRVGHLQYHVWLJDFLyQ\GHMXVWLFDFLyQ>@$OKDFHUHVWDUHH[LyQURPSHDOLJXDOTXHRWURVSHQVDPLHQWRVFUtWLFRVFRQHOSRVLWLYLVPR+DUGLQJ
1991) (Nicols, 2009:26).
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 230

historia y los estudios sobre los sistemas de poder y dominacin realizados desde diferentes corrientes de
pensamiento crtico (feminismo, posestructuralismo, posmodernismo y poscolonialismo) han demostrado
TXHVHWUDWDGHXQDHVWUDWHJLDLGHROyJLFDGHPDQWHQLPLHQWRGHODKHJHPRQtDGHORVJUXSRVGRPLQDQWHV1L-
FRODVTXHHVQHFHVDULRVHJXLUFXHVWLRQDQGRKDVWDFRQVHJXLUURPSHUOD

(QVHJXQGROXJDUFXDQGRGHFLPRVTXHHOGHEDWHHSLVWHPROyJLFR\ODHPHUJHQFLDGHHSLVWHPRORJtDV
DOWHUQDWLYDVPiVTXHVHUXQKHFKRVRQXQDQHFHVLGDG+DFHPRVUHIHUHQFLDDORTXHVHxDOD%RDYHQWXUDGH
6RXVD6DQWRVFXDQGRDUPDTXH

no necesitamos alternativas, QHFHVLWDPRVXQSHQVDPLHQWRDOWHUQDWLYRGHODVDOWHUQDWLYDVSRUTXHPXFKDVDOWHUQDWLYDV

H[LVWHQKR\SHURQRVRQUHFRQRFLGDVFRPRWDOHVVRQPDUJLQDGDVVRQLQYLVLELOL]DGDVVRQH[FOXLGDVVRQGHVSUHFLDGDV
y tambin desperdiciadas (Santos, 2008. las cursivas son nuestras).

,GHQWLFDU\WRPDUFRQVFLHQFLDGHHVWHYDFtRHSLVWHPROyJLFR\ODVGLFXOWDGHVTXHVXSRQHTXHUHUUH-
VROYHUORQRVREOLJDDWHQHUHQFXHQWDSRUORPHQRVGRVFXHVWLRQHVSRUXQODGRWDO\FRPRVHxDOD&HFHxD
HOHVSDFLRGHORVVDEHUHVHVXQHVSDFLRGHOXFKDVTXHWDPELpQIRUPDQSDUWHGHOSURFHVRHPDQFLSDWR-
ULRSRURWURODGR\VLJXLHQGRD+RHWPHUXQDGHODVWDUHDVSULQFLSDOHVGHORVLQYHVWLJDGRUHVFRPSURPHWLGRV
con la construccin colectiva de conocimiento emancipador, consiste en:

UHHYDOXDUORVFRQFHSWRVDQDOtWLFRVWHRUtDVGHFDPELR\PHWRGRORJtDVTXHXVDPRVSDUDDQDOL]DUH[SOLFDUFULWLFDU
\FDPELDUODVRFLHGDG(VGHFLUUHTXHULPRVGHDQiOLVLVLQWHUSUHWDFLRQHV\WHRUL]DFLRQHVGHORVFDPLQRVGHWUDQVIRU-
macin social presentes en las acciones, conceptos, imaginarios, y propuestas polticas de los movimientos sociales
actuales (Hoetmer, 2009: 13).

$VtGLIHUHQWHVDXWRUHVDVVHxDODQTXHHVQHFHVDULR\XUJHQWHVXSHUDUHVRVYDFtRV\ODVWUHVTXHYHQLPRV
DUUDVWUDQGRGHVGHKDFHGpFDGDVVLHQGRLQVXFLHQWHODWRPDGHFRQVFLHQFLDGHORVPLVPRV\SRUWDQWRKD-
cindose necesarias la puesta en marcha de vas para su superacin. Uno de estos lastres se hace todava
ms patente cuando nos enfrentamos al desafo de interpretar los movimientos sociales latinoamericanos
FRQWHPSRUiQHRV\DTXHFRPRVHxDOD%ULQJHO

nos volvemos a encontrar con una problemtica fundacional mal resuelta: las nociones, las categoras y los concep-
tos utilizados por la sociologa de los movimientos sociales, emergente en las dcadas de 1960 y 1970, estaban cons-
truidos principalmente a partir de las experiencias europeas y norteamericanas (en particular, las luchas estudiantiles
GHORODVLQH[LRQHVGHOPRYLPLHQWRREUHURHQ(XURSD\ODVOXFKDVSRUORVGHUHFKRVFLYLOHVHQ(VWDGRV8QLGRV
\QRDSDUWLUGHODVOXFKDVDQWLFRORQLDOHVH[WHQGLGDVSRUIULFDRDTXHOODVGHFDUiFWHUDQWLLPSHULDOLVWDSUHVHQWHVHQ
$PpULFD/DWLQD>@(VWXGLRVSLRQHURVFULWLFDURQGHGLIHUHQWHPDQHUDWDQWRHQ$PpULFD/DWLQD*RKQFRPRHQ
frica (Mandani y Wmba-dia-Wamba, 1995) el sesgo eurocntrico -o ms bien occidentocntrico- de muchos an-
OLVLV\ODQHFHVLGDGGHEXVFDUXQSDUDGLJPDSURSLRDSHQDVGHOLQHDGRTXHVHFRQVWUXLUtDDSDUWLUGHODVH[SHULHQFLDV
\ODVHVSHFLFLGDGHVGHODVOXFKDVVRFLDOHVGHFDGDOXJDU\UHJLyQ%ULQJHO

3RUWDQWRDORVHVIXHU]RV\DSRUWDFLRQHVUHDOL]DGDVGHVGHODHSLVWHPRORJtDIHPLQLVWDWHQHPRVTXHVX-
mar aportaciones ms recientes y con un fuerte carcter Latinoamericano (por razones antes expuestas).
1RVUHIHULPRVDP~OWLSOHV\GLYHUVDVLQLFLDWLYDVTXHHVWiQKDFLHQGRXQJUDQHVIXHU]RSRUUHXQLU\SRQHU
en dialogo a voces crticas individuales y colectivas, acadmicas y extra acadmicas. Todas estas aporta-
ciones y esfuerzos estn unidos entre s por la asuncin de una serie de retos comunes (al menos de forma
 231 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

LPSOtFLWDHVWRVUHWRVSRGUtDPRVUHVXPLUORVHQODVXSHUDFLyQGHODVGLFRWRPtDVWUDGLFLRQDOHVGHODFLHQFLD
PRGHUQDVXMHWRREMHWRWHRUtDSUiFWLFDQDWXUDOH]DFXOWXUDLQGLYLGXRFROHFWLYRHVWUXFWXUDDFFLyQHWFHO
rechazo a la hegemona de la epistemologa positivista (desde donde la relacin entre conocimiento y poder
TXHGDWRWDOPHQWHFDPXDGD\ODFUtWLFDDORVXQLYHUVDOLVPRVDEVWUDFWRV

Una de las iniciativas intelectuales colectivas con mayor impacto y trascendencia en los ltimos aos es
el surgimiento y consolidacin del programa modernidad/colonialidad9 y su perspectiva o Teora deco-
lonial10(QWUHRWUDVFXHVWLRQHV\VLQWHWL]DQGRGHPDVLDGRODFRPSOHMDSURSXHVWDTXHKDFHQHVWRVDXWRUHV\
DXWRUDVHVWHJUXSRSODQWHDTXHODVUHJLRQHVFRORQL]DGDVWUDVHOQGHOFRORQLDOLVPRKDQVHJXLGRH[SXHVWDV
DWUHVWLSRVGHFRORQLDOLGDGODFRORQLDOLGDGGHOSRGHUTXHDIHFWDDOiPELWRHFRQyPLFR\SROtWLFRFRORQLDOL-
GDGGHOVHUTXHDIHFWDDODVVXEMHWLYLGDGHV\VH[XDOLGDGHV\ODFRORQLDOLGDGGHOVDEHUDIHFWDQGRDOiPELWR
HSLVWHPROyJLFRORVyFR\FLHQWtFR9HDPRVDFRQWLQXDFLyQFRPRORSODQWHDXQDGHODVYRFHVDFDGpPL-
FDVTXHVHVXPDDHVWRVSODQWHDPLHQWRV%RDYHQWXUDGH6RXVD6DQWRVDUPDTXHODPRGHUQLGDGFDSLWDOLVWD
WLHQHXQDYLROHQFLDIXQGDFLRQDOTXHHVVXFDUiFWHUFRORQLDOHLPSHULDOFX\RUDVWURQRKDGHVDSDUHFLGR

HOFRORQLDOLVPRSROtWLFRWHUPLQySHURQRHOFRORQLDOLVPRVRFLDO\FXOWXUDO>@QRVHSXHGHHQWHQGHUODGRPLQDFLyQ
\ODGHVLJXDOGDGVLQODLGHDGHTXHVHJXLPRVVLHQGRHQPXFKRVDVSHFWRVVRFLHGDGHVFRORQLDOHV6DQWRV

+LVWyULFDPHQWHODSURGXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQWRFUtWLFRHQ(XURSDSRGUtDVHUXQEXHQUHHMRGHORTXHHVWi
VHxDODQGR%RDYHQWXUDHQHVWDVOtQHDV\DTXHKDVLGREDVWDQWHPRQRFXOWXUDOHVGHFLUEDVWDQWHRFFLGHQWDO\
sujeta por lo tanto a los parmetros terico conceptuales de la modernidad capitalista. Sin embargo hoy en da
necesitamos de una racionalidad ms amplia acorde con la realidad intercultural de nuestro tiempo y capaz
de entender la complejidad de los fenmenos contemporneos. Una racionalidad capaz de reconocer la exis-
WHQFLDGHRWUDVUDFLRQDOLGDGHVFRQVWUXLGDVDSDUWLUGHH[SHULHQFLDVKDVWDDKRUDLQYLVLELOL]DGDV\VLOHQFLDGDV\
entrar en dialogo desde una lgica de relacin cooperativa y no de dominacin, para llegar a construir un tipo
GHFRQRFLPLHQWRTXHVHDHPDQFLSDGRU(QSDODEUDVGH$UWXUR(VFREDUXQRGHORVDXWRUHVTXHSDUWLFLSDGHO
programa Modernidad/Colonialidad, la principal fuerza orientadora de este programa de investigacin es la
inclusin y puesta en valor del conocimiento subalternizado de los grupos explotados y oprimidos.

6LVHSXHGHGHFLUTXHODHGXFDFLyQSRSXODUODWHRUtDGHODGHSHQGHQFLDODWHRORJtDGHODOLEHUDFLyQ\ODLQYHVWLJDFLyQ
accin participativa han sido las contribuciones ms originales de Latinoamrica al pensamiento crtico en el siglo
;;FRQWRGRVORVFRQGLFLRQDOHVTXHSXHGHQDSOLFDUVHDWDORULJLQDOLGDGHOSURJUDPDGHLQYHVWLJDFLyQ0RGHUQLGDG
Colonialidad (M/C) emerge como el heredero de esta tradicin. Ssin embargo, existen sustantivas diferencias. Como
:DOWHU0LJQRORKDDUJXPHQWDGROD0&GHEHVHUYLVWDFRPRXQSDUDGLJPDRWUR$QWHVTXHXQQXHYRSDUDGLJPD
GHVGH/DWLQRDPpULFDFRPRSXHGHVHUHOFDVRFRQODWHRUtDGHODGHSHQGHQFLDHOSUR\HFWRGH0&QRVHHQFXDGUD
HQXQDKLVWRULDOLQHDOGHSDUDGLJPDVRHSLVWHPHVHQWHQGHUORDVtVLJQLFDUtDLQWHJUDUORHQODKLVWRULDGHOSHQVDPLHQWR
moderno. Al contrario, el programa M/C debe ser entendido como una manera diferente del pensamiento, en contrava
de las grandes narrativas modernistas la cristiandad, el liberalismo y el marxismo-, localizando su propio cuestio-

 (VWHSURJUDPDGHSHQVDPLHQWRFUtWLFRHVWiIRUPDGRSRUQXPHURVRVLQWHOHFWXDOHVGHGLVWLQWDVGLVFLSOLQDVORVRItDVRFLRORJtDDQWURSRORJtDVHPLRORJtD

economa) y de muy diversas latitudes (EEUU, Asia, frica, Amrica Latina y en menor medida Europa). En este grupo participan autores/as como Anbal
4XLMDQR:DOWHU0LJQROR6RXVD6DQWRV$UWXUR(VFREDU&DWKHULQH:DOV$QD(VWKHU&HFHxD(QULTXH'XVVHOHWF
10 La perspectiva decolonial (en construccin) es una propuesta epistmica, terica y metodolgica para comprender y superar las relaciones de
poder/dominacin instauradas por el sistema mltiple de dominacin de la modernidad-capitalista. Esta perspectiva es asumida por un nmero creciente de
DXWRUHVDVFRPRHVSDFLRFUtWLFRSDUDDQDOL]DUODUHDOLGDGFRQWHPSRUiQHD\HOSUHVHQWHGHODV&LHQFLDV6RFLDOHV\+XPDQDVKR\SXHVWDVHQMDTXH(QHOOLEUR
Colonialidad del saber: eurocentrismo y ciencias sociales, compilado por Lander (2000) se puede ampliar informacin sobre el surgimiento y primeros
pasos del programa Modernidad/colonialidad y la perspectiva decolonial.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 232

namiento en los bordes mismos de los sistemas de pensamiento e investigaciones hacia la posibilidad de modos de
SHQVDPLHQWRQRHXURFpQWULFRV(VFREDU$

Adems del programa modernidad/colonialidad, nos parecen especialmente reseables iniciativas como
la del Consorcio de investigacin sobre movimientos sociales y transformaciones poltico culturales del
S.XXI de la Universidad de Massachusetts-Amherst (Umass) o los Talleres internacionales sobre para-
digmas emancipatorios en Amrica Latina11, en estos talleres participan diferentes organizaciones y redes
junto a acadmicos, investigadores, activistas sociales y polticos, educadores populares y personas intere-
sadas en buscar el Dilogo de Saberes (Ecologa de Saberes para Sousa Santos) acerca de los problemas de
la emancipacin social y humana en Amrica Latina.

(Q VXPD GHVGH HVWDV FRQFHSFLRQHV HSLVWHPROyJLFDV VH KDFH HYLGHQWH TXH OD FRQVWUXFFLyQ GH FRQR-
FLPLHQWR YiOLGR \ OHJtWLPR QR VH SURGXFH VyOR HQ OD DFDGHPLD \ TXH SRU WDQWR HPSUHQGHU XQ WUDEDMR
GHLQYHVWLJDFLyQGHVGHHVWDVSRVLFLRQHVUHTXLHUHXQDSHUPDQHQWHDXWRUHH[LyQVREUHORVFRQGLFLRQDQWHV
VRFLRFXOWXUDOHVSURSLRV\VXVQRGHVHDGRVVHVJRVUHFRQRFHUHOFDUiFWHULQFRPSOHWR\OLPLWDGRGHQXHVWUD
aproximacin para, desde una pre-disposicin prudente y responsable, estar receptivos a una mayor plurali-
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H[WUDDFDGpPLFRV\H[WUDFLHQWtFRVFXOWXUDVSRSXODUHVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVFRVPRORJtDV\ORVRItDV
QRRFFLGHQWDOHVHWF\SRU~OWLPRH[SOLFLWDUHOSRUTXp\HOSDUDTXpGHDTXHOORTXHVHDQDOL]DHLQYHVWLJD
'HHVWDIRUPDQXHVWUDVUHH[LRQHVFRQFOXVLRQHV\SURSXHVWDVQRVHUiQODYHUGDGGHORTXHRFXUUHVLQRXQD
LQYLWDFLyQHQWUHRWUDVSRVLEOHVDPLUDUHLQWHUYHQLUGHVGHODSHUVSHFWLYDTXHSURSRQJDPRV

11 Desde 1995 el Grupo Amrica Latina: Filosofa Social y Axiologa (GALFISA) del Instituto de Filosofa de La Habana (Institucin acadmica cubana
SHUWHQHFLHQWHDO0LQLVWHULRGHFLHQFLD7HFQRORJtD\0HGLR$PELHQWHFRQYRFDFDGDDxRVHVWRVWDOOHUHVHQORVTXHSDUWLFLSDQHQWUHRWURV9tD&DPSHVLQD
Coordinadora Latinoamericana de Organizaciones del Campo (CLOC), Marcha Mundial de Mujeres (MMM), Red Latinoamericana Mujeres Transfor-
mando la Economa (REMTE), Movimiento Trabajadores Sin Tierra (MST) Brasil, La Otra Campaa/EZLN, Mxico, Confederacin de las Nacionali-
dades Indgenas del Ecuador (CONAIE).
 233 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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(coord). Repensar la poltica desde Amrica Latina. Cultura, Estado y movimientos sociales. Programa Democracia y Transformacin
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 234

Social Movements in Post-Political Society:

3UHJXUDWLRQ'HOLEHUDWLRQDQG&RQVHQVXV

RAPHAEL SCHLEMBACH
University of Salford

Abstract
This theoretical paper takes as its starting point the sociology of Alain Touraine, and
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WDVNRIKLVVRFLRORJ\WREHWKHVWXG\RIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQDQHUDRIWKHSURJUDPPHG
society, this paper engages recent literature and research that analyses contemporary
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VRFLHW\LVGHQHGE\DIRUHFORVXUHRISXEOLFGHEDWHZKLFKZRXOGDOORZIRUDQDOWHUQD-
WLYHYLVLRQWRWKHQHROLEHUDORUGHUWRHPHUJH7KHFHQWUDOTXHVWLRQRIWKLVLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
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VRFLHW\7KHSDSHULVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHSDUWVDDUHYLHZRI7RXUDLQHVZRUNRQWKHSUR-
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WHURIVRFLHW\FWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKLVWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNWRWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQV

Keywords
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Introduction
With criticisms of economic globalisation making it less and less to the surface of public debate, and the
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WRVLJQDODFRPSOHWHXSKHDYDORIFXUUHQWIRUPVRIIRUPDOGHPRFUDF\DQGQDQFLDOJRYHUQDQFH6RPHRI
these tensions appeared in unlikely places. Suddenly, pro-democracy protests took grip of the Arab World
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DIWHUPDWKRIWKHQDQFLDOFUDVKDQGWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVPDQDJHPHQWWKDWKDVIROORZHGLWLWZDVQRW
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,QVWHDGWKH\TXHVWLRQWKHYHU\WHUPVRQZKLFKSROLWLFVLVSRVVLEOH

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Touraine, a social movement is a particular moment in the historical trajectory of society understood as
collectivity making and remaking itself. Historicity here refers to the ability of social actors to produce the
 235 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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as the 15-M protests in Spain, or Occupy Wall Street, as products of and challengers to the social conditions
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example, democracy or political economy.

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by a hegemonic dominance of neo-liberal ideas over the realm of public discussion and deliberation. They
argue that political economy, rather than being contested or criticised, is increasingly being policed and ad-
ministered by technocratic arrangements that leave no space for political debate. As such, the existing neo-
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for any challenge to the present socio-economic relations.

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The social movement in programmed society

Alain Touraine argued that the practical task of movement research is

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(Touraine, 1981: 24).

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WLRQVWKDWKDYHRFFXUUHGJOREDOO\GXULQJWKHUHFHQWSHULRGRIFULVLVPDQDJHPHQWLQWKHZDNHRIWKH
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JOREDOVWXGHQWSURWHVWVLQSODFHVDVGLYHUVHDV&KLOHDQGWKH8.QHZODERXUVWUXJJOHVLQ(XURSHDQG1RUWK
$PHULFD GHPRFUDF\ PRYHPHQWV LQ WKH 0HGLWHUUDQHDQ DQG$UDE ZRUOG WKH JOREDO 2FFXS\:DOO 6WUHHW
movement, or anti-corruption protests in Russia. Such movements respond to an increasingly technocratic
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 236

political and deliberative spheres are being closed by a hegemonic dominance of neo-liberal ideas over the
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UDWKHUWKDQEHLQJDFRQWHVWHGHOGLVLQFUHDVLQJO\EHLQJSROLFHGDQGDGPLQLVWHUHGE\WHFKQRFUDWLFDUUDQJH-
ments that leave no space for political debate.

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bilisations as both a product of and a challenge to the present economic crisis and its management. Second,
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society emphasises a number of social characteristics (of production) that can inform the analysis of the
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upon, the PRGXVRSHUDQGLRIVRFLHW\:KHQZHLGHQWLI\SUHJXUDWLRQGHOLEHUDWLRQDQGFRQVHQVXVDVNH\
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their participants, but must explain them in their endogenous relationship to the production of society itself.

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grammar of forms of life (Habermas, 1987: 392). At the heart of such an approach lies the analysis of a
changing pattern of social organisation. Touraine, in particular, considers a shift from an industrial to a pro-
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corresponded to the emergence of post-Fordist and de-centralised patterns of production and consumption.
Melucci, for example, abandons the concept of class relationship as economic reductionist and instead re-
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 237 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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and seek to defend an alternative mode of living.

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of analysis. Rather than a systems theory of society, Touraine reintroduces the agency of actors into the
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form of struggle, but is also understood as a dynamic process of human activity. Touraine is thus concerned
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change that is capable to formalise revolutionary values in collective action. While in industrial society,
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or programmed society as shaped by technocratic concerns:

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(Touraine, 1971: 27)

In programmed society economic decisions are no longer purely based on accumulation of capital through
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Technocracy does not mean the replacement of political choices by technical choices. Such an idea does not correspond
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Recent formal responses to the eurozone crisis are telling. The appointments of, for example the former
university rector and EU Commissioner Mario Monti both as Prime Minister of Italy and Minister of Econ-
omy and Finance, or of ex-European Central Bank employee and Harvard professor Lucas Papademos as
Prime Minister of Greece, can be thought of very much as an a-political, technocratic response. Their ser-
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WKRVHRIWKHWHFKQRFUDWLFFODVV7RXUDLQHQRORQJHUGHQHVWKHQHZFODVVWKHQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWLQWHUPV
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 238

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continuing importance of class struggle for a sociological analysis of social movements. His sociology of
DFWLRQLVGHFLGHGO\VWLOODFRQLFWWKHRU\)RUKLPQHZIRUPVRISURGXFWLRQDQGWKHFHQWUDOLW\RILQIRUPD-
tion did not lead to a dispersal of struggles to the point that their common purpose is indiscernible. Rather
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WHQHWRIFODVVDQWDJRQLVPFDQQRORQJHUEHPDLQWDLQHGWKHQHZFHQWUDOTXHVWLRQUHODWHVWRWKHFRQWLQXLQJ
SRVVLELOLW\RIDQWLV\VWHPLFFRQLFW7RXUDLQHUHPDLQVWUXHWRDFULWLFDOPDWHULDOLVWVWXG\RIPRYHPHQWVE\
IRFXVLQJKLVDWWHQWLRQRQWKHKLVWRULFDODJHQF\RIPRYHPHQWVYLDKLVFRQFHSWLRQRIKLVWRULFLW\+HGHQHV
KLVWRULFLW\DVWKHV\PEROLFFDSDFLW\RIVRFLDODFWRUVWRFRQVWUXFWDV\VWHPRINQRZOHGJHDQGWKHWHFKQL-
FDOWRROVWKDWDOORZWKHPWRLQWHUYHQHLQWKHLURZQIXQFWLRQLQJDFWXSRQWKHPVHOYHVDQGWKHUHE\SURGXFH
VRFLHW\7RXUDLQH6RVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDUHQRWLQGHSHQGHQWIURPVRFLHW\LQZKLFKWKHDFWEXW
VWDQGLQDGLDOHFWLFDOUHODWLRQVKLSWRLW6RFLDOOLIHLVQRWRUGHUHGE\QDWXUDORUKLVWRULFDOODZVEXWE\WKH
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social form (Touraine, 1988: 18).

$VVXFKWKHGLVFLSOLQHRIVRFLRORJ\LVWLHGLQWRWKHHPHUJHQFHRIDVRFLDOPRYHPHQW,Q7RXUDLQHV
ZRUGVWKHSURSHUREMHFWRIVRFLRORJ\>LV@WKHIRUPDWLRQRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQWKURXJKZKLFKWKHFRQVXPHU
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UHODWLRQVDQGWKDWVHHNVDQVZHUVIRUDGLIIHUHQWIXWXUHDIXWXUHWKDWLVQRWSUHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFXUUHQW
V\VWHPEXWWKDWLVRSHQWREHVKDSHGDQGUHVKDSHG7KHLGHQWLFDWLRQRIQHZVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWKDWFDQ
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grammed society emphasises the contest of different political and cultural trajectories.

The social movement in post-political society

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neo-liberalism. Of course the collapse of real-existing socialism and the rise of an economic consensus based
on market ideology contributed to the foreclosure of actual and practical possibilities to imagine alternative
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 239 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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zombie, a body stripped of its goals, unable to adjust itself to the future, unable to make plans. A zombie can only
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This seems to be the current nature of the post-ideological or post-political society. Despite the apparent
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OLFYLHZ:ULWHUVOLNH5DQFLqUHRU=L]HNH[SODLQWKLVDVWKHIRUHFORVXUHRIZKDWLVSURSHUO\SROLWLFDOZKHUHDV
WKHSROLWLFDOVSKHUHSURPRWHVWKHDELOLW\WRIXQGDPHQWDOO\GHEDWHDQGTXHVWLRQWKHZD\VRFLHW\LVRUJDQLVHG
DQGWKHZD\ZHOLYHFROOHFWLYHO\7KHFULWLFVRISRVWSROLWLFLVDWLRQSURFHVVHVHPSKDVLVHWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIDQ-
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of administration and management of the existing society and of socioeconomic relations and matters of
ecological concern. Rather than ideological debate being the driving force behind social change, it is bu-
reaucrats and technocrats that act as gatekeepers and promote certain interests over others. So the processes
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describe the complete monopoly over the political by the liberal democratic and neo-liberal consensus.

Moreover, increased populist measures to enhance participation in formal democratic processes are not
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called democratic regimes. It appeared as the internal exhaustion of democratic debate. The end of the socialist alter-
QDWLYHWKHQGLGQRWVLJQLI\DQ\UHQHZDORIGHPRFUDWLFGHEDWH,QVWHDGLWVLJQLHGWKHUHGXFWLRQRIGHPRFUDWLFOLIHWR
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supreme democratic value (Rancire, 2004b: 3-4).

In contrast to the real democracy demanded and enacted by the global occupy activists, liberal democ-
UDF\KDVFDUULHGZLWKLWWKHVSHFWUHRIWKHHQGRISROLWLFVVLQFHWKHFROODSVHRIUHDOH[LVWLQJVRFLDOLVP1RW
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neo-liberalism as the only thinkable economic logic has had as an effect the foreclosure of political utopia.
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participatory elements and populist measures such as referenda or citizen consultations.

Consensus, for Rancire, is the negation of politics, and therefore of social change. Politics (the notion
he terms le SROLWLTXH) instead needs to be understood as antagonism, as disagreement. This disagreement
LVSUHFLVHO\DQHFHVVDU\RXWFRPHRIGLIIHULQJYDOXHVDQGQRWLRQVRIWKHFRPPRQ3ROLWLFVLVQRWKLQJRWKHU
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 240

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political. The LQGLJQDGRV pose a challenge to this police order. They react against the idea that it should
be left to experts (economists, elected representatives and so on) to decide on the best representation of
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majority to take part in the political determination of public matters.

The police order defends the very perimeters of the possible and the impossible, a certain distribution
of the sensible determining the place and the stakes of politics as a form of experience (Rancire, 2004a:
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This can at times play out very literally as the policing of protest and public assemblies. In fact, the occupa-
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order more than the protests directed at established channels of politics:

Police interventions in public spaces consist primarily not in interpellating demonstrators, but in breaking up demon-
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nothing to see and so nothing to do but move along. It asserts that the space for circulating is nothing but the space of
circulation (Rancire, 2010: 37).

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7KHRFFXSDWLRQVRIVTXDUHVSDUNVVWUHHWVDQGEXLOGLQJVWXUQHGLQWRSXEOLFDOO\DFFHVVLEOHVLWHVRIQRWRQO\
protest but debate and participation in themselves represent the axiomatic claim that public spaces are the
loci of political deliberation and action.

The Occupy movement and the protests of the LQGLJQDGRVGLGQRWEHJLQLQDSUHGHQHGSROLWLFDOVSDFH

RULQWKHDWWHPSWWRFDSWXUHDQHVWDEOLVKHGSROLWLFDOUHDOPIRULWVRZQLGHDV,WLVQRFRLQFLGHQFHKHUHWKDWLW
UHMHFWHGSDUOLDPHQWDULDQLVP,QPDQ\LQVWDQFHVSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDQGHVWDEOLVKHGWUDGHXQLRQVZHUHQRWSHUPLW-
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and the talent to speak, around the properties of spaces and the possibilities of time (Rancire, 2004a: 13).

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Where the fundamental aspect of post-political society relates to a hegemonic closure of deliberative
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society. The movement is characterised at once by a re-politicisation and deliberation of the fundamentals
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 241 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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fundamentally, the self-understanding of many participants paints the movement not as a protest but as a
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makes the case that the means and ends of struggle should not be separated. Social change, or revolution,
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insistence on acting as if one is already free (Graeber, 2011)

3UHJXUDWLRQLVWKXVDSHUIRUPDWLYHDFW,WVXWWHUDQFHRUSHUIRUPDQFHLVLQVHSDUDEOHIURPZKDWLWSUR-
QRXQFHV,QWKHFRQWH[WRI7DKULU6TXDUHRUWKH3XHUWDGHO6ROZKHUHWKRXVDQGVRISHRSOHSDUWLFLSDWHLQ
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WKDWUHDOGHPRFUDF\H[LVWVLQWKHXQHYHQH[SHULPHQWVRIWKHVTXDUHVDQGSDUNVUDWKHUWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVEHJLQ
WRH[SHULHQFHDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIGHPRFUDWLFVWUXFWXUH:KHUHLWLVVXFFHVVIXOSUHJXUDWLYHSROLWLFVEUHDNV
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possible becomes subverted.

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movement. The movement is explicitly not demand based. It does not ask concessions or policy implemen-
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 242

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praxis and social engagement being made in the occupations avoid the empty ideals and stale parliamentarianism that the
term democracy has come to represent. And so the occupations must continue, because there is no one left to ask for reform.
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WKHJOREDOH[SHULPHQWVLQUHDOGHPRFUDF\DVQHJDWLYHH[SUHVVLRQVRIGLVFRQWHQWVHHIRUH[DPSOH1R\V
5DWKHUWKDQRQWKHLPSRVVLEOHVKRZFDVLQJRIDQDOWHUQDWLYHDQGIXWXUHSDUWLFLSDWRU\GHPRFUDF\RXUHP-
SKDVLVZRXOGEHRQKRZWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQVH[SRVHWKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQVZLWKLQWKHSUHVHQWO\H[LVWLQJVRFLHW\

Deliberation

7KH2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWSURWHVWVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZHUHSXEOLFLVHGE\DQDGYHUWLQWKHDQWLFRQVXPHU-
ist magazine $GEXVWHUVDVNLQJZKDWLVRXURQHGHPDQG0XFKKDVEHHQPDGHRIWKHIDFWWKDWWKH2FFXS\
PRYHPHQWRXJKWWRUHPDLQIUHHIURPGHPDQGV5DWKHULWLVDGHOLEHUDWLYHSURFHVVZKHUHDOOFLWL]HQVFDQ
HQJDJHLQUDWLRQDOGHEDWHHVSHFLDOO\DERXWWKRVHHFRQRPLFDQGQDQFLDOSROLFLHVWKDWWKH\DUHDIIHFWHGE\

Demands have of course resulted from this process of deliberation and discussion. They often relate to
JUHDWHUWUDQVSDUHQF\UHGLVWULEXWLRQRIZHDOWKDQGUHJXODWLRQRIWKHQDQFLDOVHFWRU,Q6SDLQWKHPRYHPHQW
of the LQGLJQDGRVKDGDOUHDG\SKUDVHGWKHLURQHGHPDQGUHDOGHPRFUDF\QRZ%XWWKLVZDVQRWWREHGHOLY-
HUHGE\SROLWLFDOSDUWLHVRUSDUOLDPHQWVEXWDSHUIRUPDWLYHDQGSUHJXUDWLYHDFWWKDWZDVFDUULHGRXWWKURXJK
its utterance by thousands of people in the streets. Here deliberation stood at the forefront of the movement.

:HFDQSRLQWKHUHPD\EHPRVWXVHIXOO\WRWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWWKHRU\RI-UJHQ+DEHUPDV+DEHUPDV
+DEHUPDVVWKHRU\RIFRPPXQLFDWLYHDFWLRQFRQVLGHUVGHPRFUDWLFSROLWLFVWREHDUHVXOWRIWKH
FDSDFLW\RIUDWLRQDOGHOLEHUDWLRQDQGLQWHUDFWLRQ7KLVGHQLWLRQRIWKHGHPRFUDWLFRURIWKHSROLWLFDOIRO-
ORZVORJLFDOO\IURPWKHKXPDQFDSDFLW\WRGHEDWHDQGGLVFXVVWROLVWHQDQGVSHDN7KHRFFXSLHGVTXDUHVRI
0DGULGRU1HZ<RUNWKHKXPDQPLFURSKRQHVRUWKH*HQHUDO$VVHPEOLHVDUHDOOPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRIWKLVGH-
OLEHUDWLYHUHDOPWKH\DUHH[SUHVVLRQVRIKXPDQLQWHUDFWLRQDJDLQVWLQVWUXPHQWDOUDWLRQDOLW\7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQ
of such a deliberative and rational space for the 99 percent is not accidental. It is the very means to achieve
participation and an objective assessment of diverging arguments, through the objective distinction of fact
DQGYDOXH,WLVSHUIRUPDWLYHLQWKHVHQVHWKDWLWLVDVVXPHVWKDWSDUWLFLSDWRU\SURFHVVHVZRXOGDOORZIRUDU-
ULYLQJDWDFRQVHQVXDODJUHHPHQWWKDWUHHFWVQRWRQO\WKHYLHZRIWKHPDMRULW\EXWWKDWRIWKHSHUFHQW
 243 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

But this Habermasian focus on communication, deliberation and language is unsatisfactory, as much
as it appears to guide the project of General Assemblies and consensus-decision making. As Rancire
EZULWHVLWLVDOZD\VDQDUJXPHQWDQGGLVDJUHHPHQWRYHUZKDWFRXOGFRQVWLWXWHDFRPPRQYDOXH
7KHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWLIRSHQGHEDWHZLOORQO\JRRQIRUORQJHQRXJKKXPDQLQWHUHVWVPXVWFRQYHUJHLV
symptomatic of a consensual style of post-politics. At the same time of course, the deliberative practices
RIWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQVGRQRQHWKHOHVVSUHVHQWDQDQWDJRQLVWLFFKDOOHQJHWRWKHIRUPDOGHPRFUDWLFDQG
HFRQRPLFFRQVHQVXV'HPRFUDF\LVWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIWKRVHZKRDUHQRWSURSHUO\FRQVWLWXWHGDVSROLWLFDO
DFWRUV%\DWWHPSWLQJWRWDNHKROGRISROLWLFDOGHEDWHDQGUHGHQLQJWKHERXQGDULHVGHOLPLWLQJWKHVSKHUHV
ZKHUHSROLWLFVLVSRVVLEOHDQGQRWSRVVLEOHWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQVFRQVWLWXWHDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWJUDSSOLQJ
ZLWKWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIVRFLDOFKDQJH

Consensus

$UHODWHGTXHVWLRQLVWKDWRIFRQVHQVXV&RQVHQVXVGHFLVLRQPDNLQJKDVEHHQFKDPSLRQHGE\IHPLQLVWV
anarchists, eco-movements and others as a method adapt to the current situation of horizontal movement
struggles. The recent mobilisations have popularised the method and its principles.

$VDWRROIRUPRYHPHQWSDUWLFLSDWLRQFRQVHQVXVGHFLVLRQPDNLQJSUDFWLFHVKDYHEHHQSRZHUIXO+RZ-
HYHUFRPELQHGZLWKWKHVORJDQZHDUHWKHSHUFHQWWKLVKDVSUHVHQWHGSUREOHPV&RQVHQVXVLVDOVRD
NH\IUDJPHQWRIWKHSRVWSROLWLFDOHUD,Q7RXUDLQHVWHUPVFRQVHQVXVZRXOGPRYHWKHTXHVWLRQRISROLWLFV
DZD\IURPWKHLGHDRISRZHUWRZDUGVWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHEHVWIRUPRIGHFLVLRQPDNLQJ7KHFRQWHQWRI
WKHVHGHFLVLRQVLVQRWFHQWUDOEXWUDWKHUWKHZD\WKH\KDYHEHHQDFKLHYHG&ULWLFVRISRVWSROLWLFLVDWLRQ
processes thus point out the limits of such attempts at participatory decision-making and instead postulate
WKHYDOXHVRIFRQLFWDQGLQ&KDQWDO0RXIIHVWHUPVDJRQLVWLFSOXUDOLVP0RXIIH0RXIIH
reiterates the point that increased participation does not necessarily lead to more direct forms of democracy.
7KHXVHRIQHZVRFLDOPHGLDWKDWKDVEHHQKHUDOGHGE\PDQ\DVDNH\FRQWULEXWRUWRWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQV
LVDFDVHLQSRLQW0RXIIHFKDUJHVLWZLWKFUHDWLQJYROXQWDULO\H[FOXVLYHDUHQDVLQZKLFKSHRSOHDUHQRWFRQ-
IURQWHGZLWKYLHZVWKH\GLVDJUHHZLWK1RQHWKHOHVVSXEOLFVSDFHLVLPSRUWDQWIRU0RXIIHZKLFKVKHXQ-
GHUVWDQGVLWDVDJRQLVWLF7KHVTXDUHVDQGVWUHHWVRI&DLURIRUH[DPSOHEHFDPHSROLWLFDOVSDFHVZKHUHQHZ
GHPRFUDWLFYLVLRQVZHUHEHLQJH[SUHVVHGFODVKLQJDWWLPHVDOOWRROLWHUDOO\ZLWKWKHHVWDEOLVKHGUHJLPH

7KHFULWLTXHRIFRQVHQVXVPRGHOVRIGHPRFUDF\WKXVGRHVQRWREMHFWWRWKHXVHRIGHOLEHUDWLYHSUDFWLFHV
WKDWOHDGWRSDVVLRQDWHH[SUHVVLRQVRIDPRYHPHQWVGLYHUVLW\RURIRSSRVLWLRQWRHVWDEOLVKHGFKDQQHOVRIJRY-
HUQDQFH5DWKHULWZDUQVDJDLQVWDQRWLRQRIIRUPDOGHPRFUDF\WKDWVHHVTXHVWLRQVRIVRFLDOHFRQRPLFRU
ecological importance not in political terms, but as problems to be solved and administered by means of an
instrumental rationalism. Where Occupy activists argue that political ideologies and traditional categories of
OHIWDQGULJKWDUHWREHWUDQVJUHVVHGLQWKHQDPHRIZHWKHSHRSOHRUWKHSHUFHQWWKLVKDVWKHHIIHFWRI
banishing partisan and oppositional politics in favour of a post-political technocratic and populist response to
WKHH[LVWLQJGHPRFUDWLFGHFLW$VVXPLQJWKDWSROLWLFDOKDUPRQ\PXVWUHVXOWIURPUDWLRQDOSURFHVVHVRIGHOLE-
HUDWLRQDQGVHHNLQJFRQVHQVXVVHWVXSWKHUHFRQFLOLDWLRQDQGXOWLPDWHIRUHFORVXUHRIZKDWLVSURSHUWRSROLWLFV

7KHDUJXPHQWLVDOVRPDGHE\=L]HNWKRXJKLWSRLQWVPRUHWRD/HQLQLVWFRQFHSWLRQRISROLWLFVZKHQKHZULWHV

LQ*UHHFHWKHSURWHVWPRYHPHQWGLVSOD\VWKHOLPLWVRIVHOIRUJDQLVDWLRQSURWHVWHUVVXVWDLQDVSDFHRIHJDOLWDULDQIUHH-
GRPZLWKQRFHQWUDODXWKRULW\WRUHJXODWHLWDSXEOLFVSDFHZKHUHDOODUHDOORWWHGWKHVDPHDPRXQWRIWLPHWRVSHDNDQGVR
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 244

RQ:KHQWKHSURWHVWHUVVWDUWHGWRGHEDWHZKDWWRGRQH[WKRZWRPRYHEH\RQGPHUHSURWHVWWKHPDMRULW\FRQVHQVXVZDV
WKDWZKDWZDVQHHGHGZDVQRWDQHZSDUW\RUDGLUHFWDWWHPSWWRWDNHVWDWHSRZHUEXWDPRYHPHQWZKRVHDLPLVWRH[HUW
pressure on political parties. This is clearly not enough to impose a reorganisation of social life. To do that, one needs a
VWURQJERG\DEOHWRUHDFKTXLFNGHFLVLRQVDQGWRLPSOHPHQWWKHPZLWKDOOQHFHVVDU\KDUVKQHVV=L]HNE

7KH2FFXS\PRYHPHQWGRHVQRWSUHVHQWDSROLWLFDOPDQLIHVWRDGHQHGDQGGHPDUFDWHGDOWHUQDWLYH
Rather it seeks to, in an inversion of post-political domination, to re-open a deliberative space for discus-
VLRQ7KHTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHUZHVKRXOGVLWXDWHWKLVGHOLEHUDWLRQZLWKLQWKHUHDOPRIWKHSURFHVVRISRVW
SROLWLFLVDWLRQRUZLWKLQWKHFRXQWHUKHJHPRQLFQDUUDWLYH

$GHOLEHUDWLYHDQGSUHJXUDWLYHVSDFHVXFKDVWKHHQFDPSPHQWVRQSXEOLFVTXDUHVFRXOGHDVLO\EHXQ-
derstood as symbols of the post-political. Rather than offering a challenge to the neo-liberal they create
DQDUUDWLYHLQZKLFKWKHSURFHVVDQGPHWKRGRIGLVFXVVLRQUHFHLYHVPRUHHPSKDVLVWKDQWKHHYHQWXDORXW-
FRPH7KHFKDOOHQJHWRWKHSRVWSROLWLFDOGRHVQRWOLHLQWKHSUHJXUDWLYHHQDFWPHQWRIGHPRFUDF\LQ*HQ-
HUDO$VVHPEOLHVXVLQJFRQVHQVXVGHFLVLRQPDNLQJXQGHUVWRRGDVDQDIUPDWLYHSURFHVVEXWLQLWVQHJDWLYH
conception as an antagonistic, if contradictory, challenge to technocratic society.

Conclusions
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UHODWHWRWKHIROORZLQJWZRDUHDVRIFRQFHUQUHJDUGLQJWKHFDOOIRUUHDOGHPRFUDF\

5HHFWLQJWKHSRVWSROLWLFDOFRQGLWLRQIURPZKLFKWKH\HPHUJHWKHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQVDUHFRQFHUQHG
ZLWKDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDQGUHJXODWLRQRIHFRQRPLFSURFHVVHVUDWKHUWKDQWKHLULGHRORJLFDOSROLWLFDODV-
VHVVPHQW'HPRFUDF\KHUHEHFRPHVV\QRQ\PRXVZLWKWUDQVSDUHQF\DQGDQWLFRUUXSWLRQPHFKDQLVPV

2) Processes of deliberation and consensus simultaneously banish and seek to reintroduce political dis-
VHQW ERWK VLOHQFLQJ DQG WR DPSOLI\LQJ GLVDJUHHPHQW ZLWKLQ WKH PRYHPHQW 'HPRFUDF\ KHUH LV QRW
FRQFHSWXDOLVHGDVDSOXUDOLVWLFFRQWHVWEHWZHHQFRPSHWLQJLGHRORJLHVEXWDVDSUHJXUDWLYHSURFHVV

7KHUHLVPXFKWKDWZHFDQWDNHIURP7RXUDLQHVDQDO\VLVRISURJUDPPHGVRFLHW\$VRFLDOPRYHPHQW
LVQRWFRQGHPQHGWRWKHIULQJHVRIVRFLHW\LQVWHDGZHPXVWXQGHUVWDQGLWDVVRFLHW\LWVHOIDFWLQJXSRQLW-
VHOI,IZHXQGHUVWDQGFXUUHQWG\QDPLFVDVOLQNHGWRSURFHVVHVRISRVWSROLWLFLVDWLRQLHWKHIXUWKHUPRYH
WRZDUGVWHFKQRFUDWLFVROXWLRQVRIIHUHGWRWKHSUHVHQWFULVLVRIQHROLEHUDOLVPZHPXVWDQDO\VHWKHQHZ
PRELOLVDWLRQVDVERWKFKDOOHQJHUVDQGSURGXFWVRIWKHSRVWSROLWLFDOFRQGLWLRQ:KDWZHFDQQRWGHWHFWLVD
QHZSULYLOHJHGVXEMHFWDQGQHZXQGHUOLQLQJIDXOWOLQHVXFKDVWKDWVRXJKWE\7RXUDLQHDQGRWKHUV,QVWHDG
WKH2FFXS\PRYHPHQWDQGUHODWHGPRELOLVDWLRQVDUHFRQWUDGLFWRU\LQWKHPVHOYHVDQGDWWLPHVUHHFWWKH
post-political dynamics that they have emerged from.

0RUHRYHUZKLOHIRU7RXUDLQHWHFKQRFUDWLFJRYHUQDQFHJDYHULVHWRDQWLWHFKQRFUDWLFRSSRVLWLRQPRYH-
PHQWVWKLVLVQRWTXLWHDVXQHTXLYRFDOZLWKUHJDUGVWRWKHJDWKHULQJVLQVD\0DGULGRU1HZ<RUN&DQRQH
speak of a social movement if its global nature is hardly apparent, and its internal logic ravaged by con-
WUDGLFWLRQ"7KHGLYHUJHQFHVEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWJURXSVRISDUWLFLSDQWVDUHVRSURIRXQGWKDWLWKDUGO\PDNHV
sense to speak of even localised movements. Nonetheless, heterogeneity evident in Puerta del Sol or on
 245 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Wall Street, or declining numbers at their General Assemblies, do not necessarily signal a decline of the
social movement in post-political society. A social movement cannot be reduced to simply a succession of
occupations, demonstrations and direct actions. The Occupy Movement as a social movement might not
SURJUHVVLQDOLQHDUIDVKLRQGLVUXSWLRQVGLVFRQWLQXLWLHVDUHSDUWRILW

7KHQHZPRELOLVDWLRQVDUHLQGHHGPDQLIHVWDWLRQVRIDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWLHWKH\DUHVRFLDODFWRUVDW-
tempting to take control of the possibility and impossibility of doing politics and of social change. Its aims,
as contradictory as they may seem, must not be understood in terms of consciousness and ideology of its
participants. Nonetheless, its actions are political in the sense that they present a challenge to and a possible
going-beyond the post-political condition that they have been born out of. It is from the contradictions and
LQKHUHQWFRQLFWVRIVRFLHW\WKDWWKHVHPRELOLVDWLRQVKDYHHPHUJHGDQGDVVXFKWKH\DUHERWKGHOLPLWHGE\
LWDQGDYLVLRQRIVRPHWKLQJQHZ,Q5DQFLqUHVWHUPVWKHPRYHIURPWKHVRFLDOWRWKHSROLWLFDOLVDQDFWRI
GLVVHQVXVLWUHSUHVHQWVWKHQHJDWLRQRIWKHIRUPDOGLYLGHEHWZHHQWKHSROLWLFDODQGWKHSULYDWH2ULQ=L]HNV
ZRUGV7KHLUEDVLFPHVVDJHLVWKHWDERRLVEURNHQZHGRQRWOLYHLQWKHEHVWSRVVLEOHZRUOGZHDUHDO-
ORZHGREOLJHGHYHQWRWKLQNDERXWDOWHUQDWLYHV=L]HND

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1HZ<RUN5DQGRP+RXVH
7XUEXOHQFH/LIHLQ/LPER$QGQRZIRUVRPHWKLQJFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQW"7XUEXOHQFHSS
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 246

=L]HN6D2FFXS\UVW'HPDQGVFRPHODWHU
KWWSZZZJXDUGLDQFRXNFRPPHQWLVIUHHRFWRFFXS\SURWHVWHUVELOOFOLQWRQ"&03 WZWBJXDFFHVVHG-DQXDU\
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 247 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Environment but for other reasons:

Asserting control, sovereignty, and transgression
in the Casc Antic of Barcelona

ISABELLE ANGUELOVSKI1
Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Abstract
'XULQJWKHSDVWIWHHQ\HDUVWKH&DVF$QWLFDWUDGLWLRQDOO\ORZLQFRPHDQGLPPLJUDQW
neighborhood in Barcelona, has been the site of community-based organization to re-
vitalize abandoned areas and improve environmental conditions. The mobilization of
UHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVLVVLWXDWHGZLWKLQDFRQWH[WRIXUEDQSROLWLFDODQGVRFLR
HFRQRPLFFKDQJHVDVWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHXUEDQHFRQRP\WRZDUGVDGHFHQWUDOL]HG
global, and technology- and service-focused restructuring has been accompanied by ris-
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DUHQDLQSDUWLFXODUIHZVWXGLHVDUHIUDPHGZLWKLQDEURDGHUFRQWH[WRIXUEDQFKDQJH
DQGRIIHUVSHFLFLW\RIWKHSXUSRVHLQWHQWDQGJRDOVWKDWSRRUDQGPLQRULW\UHVLGHQWV
frame as they understand, resist, and challenge their marginality. Why do residents of
marginalized neighborhoods and their supporters organize to proactively improve liv-
DELOLW\DQGHQYLURQPHQWDOTXDOLW\"7RZKDWH[WHQWGRWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOVWUXJJOHVRI
marginalized communities serve as means to advance more complex political agendas
LQWKHFLW\"7KURXJKWKHH[DPLQDWLRQRIDQHPEOHPDWLFFDVHRIQHLJKERUKRRGRUJDQL-
]DWLRQIRUOLYDELOLW\WKH&DVF$QWLFLQ%DUFHORQD,DQDO\]HKRZDFWLYLVWVXVHWKHLU
environmental endeavors as tools to address stigmas about their place, control the land
and its boundaries, and build a more transgressive form of democracy.

Keywords
urban movements, environmental revitalization, marginalized neighborhoods, land
control, borders, deepening democracy

Introduction
'XULQJWKHSDVWIWHHQ\HDUVWKH&DVF$QWLFDWUDGLWLRQDOO\ORZLQFRPHDQGLPPLJUDQWQHLJKERUKRRG
LQWKHROGWRZQRI%DUFHORQDKDVEHHQWKHVLWHRIPXFKFRPPXQLW\EDVHGRUJDQL]DWLRQWRUHYLWDOL]HDEDQ-
doned and degraded areas and improve local livability. First, residents and their supporters self-construct-
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to advocate for structural and sanitation improvements to existing housing, create better recreational and

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 248

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management and recycling practices.

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vulnerable situation of many families, residents of historically marginalized neighborhoods proactively
ZRUNWRLPSURYHORFDOOLYLQJFRQGLWLRQVDQGEXLOGEURDGVXSSRUWDURXQGWKHP3UHYLRXVUHVHDUFKKDVVKRZQ
WKDWPLQRULWLHVDQGORZLQFRPHSRSXODWLRQVKDYHKLVWRULFDOO\EHHQYLFWLPVRIJUHDWHUHQYLURQPHQWDOKDUP
DQGKDYHUHFHLYHGOHVVHQYLURQPHQWDOSURWHFWLRQWKDQZKLWHDQGZHOORIIFRPPXQLWLHV'HSULYHGXUEDQ
neighborhoods have also tended to get the poorest environmental services, such as street cleaning, open
VSDFHPDLQWHQDQFHDQGVROLGZDVWHPDQDJHPHQWZKLOHZHDOWKLHUDQGZKLWHFRPPXQLWLHVKDYHEHQHWHG
IURPHQYLURQPHQWDOSULYLOHJHVSDUNVFRDVWVRSHQODQGVRIWHQLQDUDFLDOO\H[FOXVLYHZD\+RZHYHUOR-
cal struggles for improved livability, such as the ones in Barcelona, challenge assumptions that residents
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not committed to their neighborhood.

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HV7KHLQWHJUDWLRQRIFLWLHVLQWKHJOREDOHFRQRP\KDVWUDQVIRUPHGWKHPLQWRQRGHVZLWKLQDQHWZRUNRI
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Furthermore, much of the environmental justice research in cities has examined particular types of pol-
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mundane but chronic manifestations of socio-ecological injustice in the urban space.

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KRRGVSURDFWLYHO\RUJDQL]HWRLPSURYHHQYLURQPHQWDOTXDOLW\DQGOLYDELOLW\"7RZKDWH[WHQWGRWKHHQYLURQ-
mental struggles of marginalized communities serve as means to advance more complex political agendas
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supporters use their environmental endeavors to address stigmas about their place, control the land and its
boundaries, and build a more transgressive and spontaneous form of democracy. Environmental initiatives
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agendas in the city.
 249 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Urban development and the rise of local contestation

Processes of urban change

In the 1920s, the Chicago school of sociology undertook early studies of urban neighborhood change.
At that time, scholars such as Ernest Burgess advanced a deterministic ecological model of invasion and
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scholars presented urban change differently, arguing that urban elites, rentiers, and the economic and po-
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accumulation, and this at the detriment of social redistribution, community cohesion, and strong local
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mobilization, development ends up being spatially uneven throughout the city.

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GXFHGDQGUHSURGXFHG,QGHHGWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHXUEDQHFRQRP\WRZDUGVDGHFHQWUDOL]HGDQGWHFKQRO-
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EHWZHHQZRUNHUVZLWKKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGWHFKQRORJLFDOVNLOOVDQGZRUNHUVZKRUHO\RQPDQXDOVNLOOV&RQ-
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DURXQGWKHZRUOG,QWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWKHJURZWKRIVXEXUEDQVSUDZOKDVOHGWRGHFUHDVHGMRERSSRUWXQLWLHV
and neighborhood degradation for inner city poorer and minority residents. In Europe, entrepreneurial cities
such as London and Barcelona compete to position themselves favorably but fail to properly regulate capital
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VWDWXVLQFRPHVRFLDOVHUYLFHVHQYLURQPHQWDOJRRGVLQVSDFHDVZHOODVXQHTXDORSSRUWXQLWLHVWRPDNH
use of these resources over time. A dialectical dynamic is present at the center of spatial injustices: social
and human processes shape spatial patterns, as much as spatial patterns shape social processes (Soja, 2009).
Examples range from the redlining of urban investments, purposeful residential segregation, open space
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The rise of multiple forms of contestation

Amidst these processes of development and exclusion, the urban space has long been the object of
political struggles, as a constraint at times, or a facilitator of collective action at others. Tensions tend to
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 250

and labor, as the resistance of violent capitalist accumulation , or as the embodiment of struggles over the
production, management, and use of the urban built environment.

In many cases, the neighborhood is the space and focus of collective action. Here, the intimate bond of
community identity among residents is the source of social cohesion, shared interests, and neighborhood
collective organization. Residents take action to defend economic and housing development, poverty re-
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LGHQWLFDWLRQRIHQYLURQPHQWDOWKUHDWVDOVRSURPSWUHVLGHQWVWRJKWIRUWKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRIORFDOHQYLURQ-
PHQWDOTXDOLW\

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VLRQVVXFKDVJHQGHUUDFHDQGHWKQLFLW\5DFHDVDFRUHDQGVDOLHQWIDFWRURIXUEDQLQHTXDOLW\PDQLIHVWVLWVHOI
through multiple experiences, such as mortgage lending practices, territorial apartheid, or environmental in-
HTXDOLWLHV)RULQVWDQFHHQYLURQPHQWDOMXVWLFH(-DFWLYLVWVFODLPWKDWUDFLVPZDVDWWKHURRWRIHQYLURQPHQ-
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SURPLVHVRIHTXDOLW\IRUDOOUDFHVDQGFODVVHV6XFKFRQLFWVZHUHDQGVWLOODUHUVWDQGIRUHPRVWVHHQDVSR-
litical (and not environmental): They are spaces of contestation for groups that usually have no place or name.

More recently, urban movements seem to coalesce around broader and more encompassing claims. For
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right to clean transit, healthy and affordable food, green and affordable green housing, and to green jobs.
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outcomes and open processes of participation, contestation, and democratic planning. Many claims reso-
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IUDPHZRUNRIGHPRFUDWLFLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGHVWDEOLVKLQJPLQLPDOSROLWLFDOHFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGHFRORJLFDO
conditions necessary for communities to thrive.

Such demands often seem connected to the right to the city. This right is earned through taking part in
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land, and demands for greater democracy.

Last, cities are the space of more subtle and daily forms of contestation. This contestation takes the form
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housing conditions, and in turn create meaningful and autonomous images of place and community. For
instance, the lived experiences of residents in HOPE VI projects in the United States reveal the presence of
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ZLWKQHLJKERUV5HVLGHQWVHQJDJHLQDEURDGUDQJHRIDFWLYLWLHVWRFUHDWHDQGVXVWDLQDQHZDQGSRVLWLYH
personal identity tied to a place.
 251 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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sist, and challenge their marginality. In fact, urban processes are not merely a background in local struggles
for improved local environment and health conditions. They impact neighborhood stability and community
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IHZVWXGLHVRQXUEDQHQYLURQPHQWDOLQHTXLWLHVDQGLQMXVWLFHKDYHEHHQIUDPHGZLWKLQDEURDGHUFRQWH[W
and history of urban change. Most environmental justice studies in cities have focused on different types
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more mundane but chronic manifestations of socio-ecological injustice in the urban space. More empirical
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is the focus of this article.

Methods
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Casc Antic of Barcelona. Here, local activists successfully managed to organize and advocate for improved
environmental and health conditions through parks and playgrounds, sports courts and centers, community
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foreigners from Northern Africa, Latin America, or Pakistan, many of them illegal immigrants. In the areas
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HPSOR\PHQWDQGGXULQJWKHVVDQGVZLWQHVVHGWKHGHJUDGDWLRQRIWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRG

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 252

In parallel, I observed numerous meetings and events, and engaged in participant observation of projects
focused on environmental and health improvements, in order to better understand the goals and visions of
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YDULHW\RIVHFRQGDU\VRXUFHVWRLGHQWLI\RIFLDOPHGLDDQGRWKHUSXEOLFO\LQXHQWLDOSHUVSHFWLYHVRQWKH
city and neighborhood. Finally, I collected publications, reports, and records produced by organizations
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historical and analytic narratives to contextualize the process of neighborhood mobilization and understand
the role of the local history of marginalization and urban development projects in motivating the initiatives
of activists for greater livability.

A convoluted process of socio-environmental revitalization

in the Casc Antic
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revitalization, the municipality made changes to zoning and building norms in order to maximize the use
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in the active or passive degradation of buildings and apartments and the participation in the active deteriora-
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displaced and 1,078 buildings destroyed. At the same time, private developers started buying old empty
buildings, restored them, and sold them for much higher prices. As a result, today, in some streets of the
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Despite substantial reinvestment in the neighborhood, at the end of the 1990s the state of most remaining
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 253 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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of old buildings produced landscapes that reminded visitors of the landscapes of Barcelona during the Civil
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,QFRPSDULVRQZLWKRWKHUQHLJKERUKRRGV&DVF$QWLFDOVRVXIIHUHGIURPH[WHQVLYHGHOD\LQWKHFUHDWLRQ
RIJUHHQDUHDV.LGVZHUHSOD\LQJLQEXV\VWUHHWVRUVPDOOSOD]DVRULQWKHPLGGOHRIFUXPEOLQJEXLOGLQJV
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DUHVXOWRIWKRVHVRFLDODQGXUEDQG\QDPLFVWKHKHDOWKRXWFRPHVRI&DVF$QWLFUHVLGHQWVZHUHLQIHULRULQ
comparison to those of other neighborhoods.

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LQ6DQW3HUHDQG6DQWD&DWDOLQDWZRFRUHDUHDVRIWKH&DVF$QWLF%DFNLQWKHWUDQVLWLRQWRGHPRFUDF\
LQLWLDWHGLQ6SDLQKDGRSHQHGXSWKHZD\IRUFLYLFDVVRFLDWLRQVWRSURSRVHSODQVIRUDGGLWLRQDOXUEDQHTXLS-
PHQWLQWKH2OG7RZQHVSHFLDOO\DVIRUPHUPHPEHUVRIWKH&DVF$QWLF1HLJKERUKRRG$VVRFLDWLRQWRRNNH\
SRVLWLRQVLQWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\DVXUEDQPDQDJHUVDQGSODQQHUV<HWWKLVSHULRGRILQWHQVHGHEDWHDQGXUEDQ
transformations also produced disenchantment among the civil society. For instance, in the Casc Antic,
352&,9(6$WKHSXEOLFSULYDWHFRPSDQ\LQFKDUJHRIWKHROGWRZQUHPRGHOLQJH[SURSULDWHGUHVLGHQWV
DQGLQSURFHHGHGWRGHPROLVKVHYHUDOEXLOGLQJVZLWKWKHSODQWREXLOGDQHZFDUSDUNLQJDQGKLJK
HQGDSDUWPHQWV)RUDOPRVWWZR\HDUVWKHHPSW\VSDFHUHPDLQHGDEDQGRQHGXQWLOQHLJKERUVGHFLGHGLQ
'HFHPEHUWRUHEXLOGWKHKXJHVSDFHPZKLFKWKH\KDGEDSWL]HG)RUDWGHOD9HUJRQ\D
WKH+ROHRI6KDPHLQ&DWDODQ5HVLGHQWVVXSSRUWHGE\VTXDWWHUVVWXGHQWVVRFLDODUFKLWHFWVLQWHOOHFWXDOV
DQGPHPEHUVRIQHLJKERUVRUJDQL]DWLRQVIURP%DUFHORQDRFFXSLHGWKHVSDFHDQGWUDQVIRUPHGLWLQWRD
FRPPXQLW\JDUGHQDJUHHQVSDFHDQGDODUJHSOD]DZLWKSOD\JURXQGVVRFFHUDQGEDVNHWEDOOHOGVDQG
ZLWKWKHLURZQUHVRXUFHV

2YHUWLPHWKH)RUDWHYROYHGDVDVHOIPDQDJHGDUHDZLWKVRFLDODFWLYLWLHVFXOWXUDOHYHQWVRUFRPPXQLW\
FOHDQXSVDQGWKLVGHVSLWHWKHORQJJKWWKDWHQVXHGDWWLPHVYLROHQWEHWZHHQUHVLGHQWVORFDORIFLDOV
DQGWKHSROLFH$WWKHHQGRI&DUORV0DUWLWKH2OG7RZQ0DQDJHUDQQRXQFHGWKDWWKHSODQWREXLOGD
SDUNLQJZRXOGEHFDQFHOOHGDQGWKDWWKHSURSRVDOVRIWKHQHLJKERUVUHVSHFWHGE\WKHPXQLFLSDOLW\7KDWVDLG
WKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH)RUDWLQWRDSHUPDQHQWJUHHQVSDFHZDVQRWH[HPSWRIFRQWURYHUVLHVZLWKPXFK
SROLFHUHSUHVVLRQUHVLGHQWVFULWLFLVPRIWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\VFRPPXQLW\HQJDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVDQGPXOWLSOH
SURWHVWVLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGDQGEH\RQG,QWKHHQGKRZHYHUWKH)RUDWUHFRQVWUXFWLRQLQWRRN
LQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQPRVWRIWKHZLVKHVRIWKHUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUV7KHPXQLFLSDOLW\EXLOWDQDUHD
UHQDPHG3RXGHOD)LJXHUDZLWKWUHHVEHQFKHVDQGIRXQWDLQVNLGVSOD\JURXQGVDVRFFHUDQGEDVNHWEDOO
HOGDQGDVSDFHIRUFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQV,QDGGLWLRQUHVLGHQWVREWDLQHGWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWZRFRPPXQLW\
FHQWHUVZKLFKDUHWRGD\SODFHVIRUFXOWXUDOLQLWLDWLYHVSK\VLFDODQGGDQVHDFWLYLW\DQGVRFLDOHYHQWV

1HZHQYLURQPHQWDOLQLWLDWLYHVKDYHHPHUJHGIURPWKH3RXGHOD)LJXHUD5HVLGHQWVKDYHFUHDWHGDQHZ
VHOIPDQDJHGDQGVHOIFRQVWUXFWHGFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQFDOOHGO+RUWHWGHO)RUDW9ROXQWHHUVRUJDQL]HHGXFD-
WLRQDOZRUNVKRSVIRUNLGVDQG\RXWKDURXQGHQYLURQPHQWDOVXVWDLQDELOLW\WRHQFRXUDJHSRVLWLYHHQYLURQPHQ-
tal behavior and prepare social events around the harvest from the garden based on the ethnic origins of the
UHVLGHQWV7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHJDUGHQLVFORVHO\FRXSOHGZLWKWKHZRUNRIORFDOHQYLURQPHQWDOJURXSV
JKWLQJIRUVXVWDLQDEOHIRRGSURGXFWLRQDQGZRUNLQJIRUORFDOLPPLJUDQWSRSXODWLRQV)RULQVWDQFH0HV-
FODGLVRIIHUVFRRNLQJOHVVRQVWRHGXFDWHSDUWLFLSDQWVRQPXOWLFXOWXUDOLVPWUDLQVDQGLQWHJUDWHVQHZO\DUULYHG
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 254

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7KHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH)RUDWZDVPDGHSRVVLEOHE\DQHZ&DWDODQODZ/HLGH%DUULVZKLFK
is considered a logical outcome of years community demands. The Lei de Barris has resulted in environ-
mental improvements in the Casc Antic from 2005 until today for 2.04 million Euros of investment in pub-
lic space and green area, 1.5 million Euros in building rehabilitation and sanitation, 9.6 million in collective
HTXLSPHQWDQG(XURVLQLPSURYHGZDVWHPDQDJHPHQW,QDGGLWLRQWKH&LW\KDVEXLOWVPDOOJUHHQ
VSDFHV WKURXJKRXW 6DQW 3HUH DQG 6DQWD &DWDULQD ZKLFK ZDV DQ LQYHVWPHQW WKDW WKH HQYLURQPHQW 1*2
*(1$%KDGOREELHGIRU7KRVHVSDFHVKDYHLPSURYHGSXEOLFVSDFHTXDOLW\E\HOLPLQDWLQJIRFDOSRLQWVRI
ZDVWHDFFXPXODWLRQ7KH$OODGD9HUPHOOSOD]DDQROGSXEOLFVSDFHLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGZDVDOVRUHEXLOW
DIWHUUHVLGHQWFRPSODLQWVWRWKH&LW\ZLWKPXFKLPSURYHPHQWWRVDIHW\DQGWRSOD\JURXQGVWUXFWXUHV7KH
PXQLFLSDOLW\DOVREXLOWLQDSQHXPDWLFZDVWHV\VWHP,QDGGLWLRQHQYLURQPHQWDORUJDQL]DWLRQVDQG
WKH1HLJKERUV$VVRFLDWLRQVXFFHVVIXOO\DGYRFDWHGIRUWKHFUHDWLRQRIDUHF\FOLQJFHQWHU3XQW9HUGDQG
ZRUNHGWRLPSURYHUHVLGHQWVUHF\FOLQJSUDFWLFHV

After years of demands for improvement in sports, recreational spaces, and physical activity, local or-
ganizations received positive responses from the municipality. The Associaci de Veins del Casc Antic and
other community groups formed around sports (i.e., AECCA) had lobbied the municipality for a multi-
SXUSRVHVSRUWVIDFLOLW\ZKLFKWKHFLW\QDOO\FRQVWUXFWHGDQGLQDXJXUDWHGLQ7KH&HQWURGH(VSRUWLX
0XQLFLSDOLVDQHZVWDWHRIWKHDUWPVSRUWVIDFLOLW\,QSDUDOOHOJURXSVRIQHLJKERUVDQGFRPPXQLW\
organizations such as AECCA, Fundaci Adsis, and Fundaci Comtal have developed sports leagues and
activities for at-risk youth groups on different sports grounds throughout the Casc Antic.

,QVXPUHVLGHQWVDQGDEURDGYDULHW\RIVXSSRUWHUVDQGQHWZRUNVDURXQGWKHPKDYHIUDPHGDQGGHIHQGHG
DQHLJKERUKRRGEDVHGYLVLRQIRUHQYLURQPHQWDODQGKHDOWKLPSURYHPHQWVLQWKH&DVF$QWLF+RZHYHUWKH
HQJDJHPHQWRIFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLVWVLQHQYLURQPHQWDOUHYLWDOL]DWLRQSURMHFWVRIWHQUHHFWVPRUHFRPSOH[
DQGPXOWLOHYHOSROLWLFDOJRDOVZKLFKWKHQH[WVHVVLRQDQDO\]HVLQJUHDWHUGHSWK

The construction of complex and multi-level political agendas:

Community power, land and border control, and deepening democracy
Combating outside threats while enhancing commitment to the neighborhood

The narratives of community activists in the Casc Antic reveal that their involvement in environmental
UHYLWDOL]DWLRQZRUNRUDGYRFDF\LVDVHJXHWRFRQWHVWLQJXUEDQSROLFLHVLQ%DUFHORQDDQGH[SUHVVLQJDUHMHF-
WLRQRIVHHLQJWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGDQGPRUHJHQHUDOO\WKHZKROHFLW\WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRDWKHPDWLFSDUN
IRUWRXULVWVDQGXSSHUFODVVUHVLGHQWV,QWKDWUHJDUGWKHJKWVDQGUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH)RUDWLQWRDJUHHQ
DUHDZDVDZD\IRUDFWLYLVWVWRH[SUHVVWKHLUGLVDSSURYDORIXUEDQSURMHFWVHQFURDFKPHQWDQGWRXULVPH[-
pansion in the Casc Antic, as long-time resident and activist Paco explains:

$OOWKHVWRUHIURQWVDV\RXFDQVHHWKH\DUHDOOFORVHG$QGLIZHKDGDOORZHGWKHPWRGRWKLV>DSDUNLQJLQWKH)RUDW@
LWZRXOGWKHQEHDSDUNIRUVQREELVKSHRSOH7KHQHLJKERUKRRGJRWORVWRQFHDOUHDG\DQGZHGLGQRWZDQWLWWREHFRPH
ORVWDJDLQDQGZHEHOLHYHWKDWZLWKDJUHHQDUHDDQGZLWKOLIHWKHUHWKHQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGFRXOGUHVLVWWKLV
 255 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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WKH0DQLIHVWIRUD*UHHQ2OG7RZQDQG:LWKRXW8UEDQ6SHFXODWLRQ:HEHOLHYHWKDWDSRSXODULQLWLD-
tive to defend a green area from the threat of speculative projects and to humanize an urban space devas-
tated by massive and indiscriminatory destructions deserves respect from the public institutions. Activists
UHVLVWHGDW\SHRIXUEDQLVPWKDWLJQRUHGUHVLGHQWVGDLO\SUREOHPVVXFKDVDFFHVVWRDIIRUGDEOHDQGKHDOWK\
KRXVLQJRUHQYLURQPHQWDOTXDOLW\

7KHHQJDJHPHQWRIUHVLGHQWVLVRIWHQLQVFULEHGLQWRDEURDGHUIUDPHZRUNRI5LJKWWRWKH&LW\ZKLFK
FRQQHFWV JURXSV ZRUNLQJ RQ GLIIHUHQW WKHPDWLFV LQ D PXWXDOO\ V\QHUJHWLF ZD\7KLV IUDPHZRUN LV YHU\
H[SOLFLWLQWKHPLQGVRIZRUNHUVLQ&DVF$QWLFVXFKDVVRFLDODUFKLWHFWVRUVRFLDOZRUNHUVZKRVXSSRUWHG
WKHQHLJKERUKRRGJKWVLQWKH)RUDWWKURXJKSURWHVWVRUWHFKQLFDODVVHVVPHQWZRUN7KH\VDZWKHLUHQJDJH-
PHQWDVDZD\WRPDNHWKHFLW\PRUHOLYDEOHIRULWVUHVLGHQWVIRUWKHSHRSOHZKRXVHLWDVH[SUHVVHGE\
/DZ\HU(GXDUGR0RUHQR

The right to the city is that the citizen gets respected as a city and the city is done for the citizen, and not the citizen
IRUWKHFLW\7KHFLW\GRHVQRWRQO\EHORQJWRWKRVHZKRRZQODQGDQGGRVSHFXODWLRQZKLFKDUHRIWHQJDQJVWHUV>@
6RZKHQWKHFLW\ZDQWVWRJDLQSRZHUWRH[SORLWLWDVDQREMHFWRIH[SORLWDWLRQWKHQWKHFLW\UHEHOVDQGVD\VOLVWHQ
DQGWKH\ZDQWWREXLOGJUHHQDUHDV

$FWLYLVWVFRQVLGHUWKDWUHFRQTXHULQJWKHLUULJKWWRWKHFLW\PHDQVWRGHYHORSSURMHFWVWKDWVWHPIURP
UHVLGHQWVGHFLVLRQVDVGDLO\XVHUVRIWKHVSDFHDQGWRHUDVHWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\DQGRIFDSLWDO-
LVWLQWHUHVWV(QYLURQPHQWDOZRUNLQWKH&DVF$QWLFLVDSODWIRUPDQGDWRROWRKHOSUHVLGHQWVUHJDLQDULJKW
to their neighborhood.

:KLOHDFWLYLVWVYLHZHQYLURQPHQWDODQGKHDOWKHQGHDYRUVDVWRROVWRJKWEURDGXUEDQFKDQJHVLPSDFW-
LQJWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGWKH\DOVRZRUNWRLQFUHDVHWKHFRPPLWPHQWRIUHVLGHQWVDQGRXWVLGHIRUFHVWRWKHLU
neighborhood and to create a movement for continuous socio-environmental change. For instance, the en-
YLURQPHQWDO1*2*(1$%QHJRWLDWHGZLWKWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\WKHFOHDQXSDQGJUHHQLQJRIVPDOOQHLJKERU-
KRRGSOD]DV,QWKHLUPLQGVXFKLPSURYHPHQWZDVPHDQWWRLPSURYHUHVLGHQWVOHYHORIFRPIRUWLQFUHDVH
the value that they assign to their neighborhood, enhance their self-esteem, but also create impetus for
JUHDWHUUHVLGHQWHQJDJHPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ$VPXFKDVDFWLYLVWVZRUNHGWRLQFUHDVHLQWHUQDOQHLJKERU-
hood support and participation in their initiatives, they also sought and found the help of external actors,
VXFKDVODZ\HUVDUWLVWVVRFLDODUFKLWHFWVXQLYHUVLW\SURIHVVRUVPRYLHGLUHFWRUVRUVTXDWWHUV)RULQVWDQFH
FRPPXQLW\OHDGHUVLQYLWHGRUJDQL]DWLRQVVXFKDV$UFKLWHFWVZLWKRXW%RUGHUVWRRUJDQL]HGHVLJQFKDUUHWWHV
for the permanent reconstruction of the Forat and help facilitate the meetings. This technical involvement
HYHQWXDOO\DOORZHGFRPPXQLW\SURMHFWVWRPRYHIRUZDUG$FWLYLVWVWKXVKDGWRPDQDJHDWULFN\EDODQFH
EHWZHHQWKHUHMHFWLRQRIRXWVLGHUVDVWKUHDWVDQGWKHFDOOIRUDEURDGVXSSRUW2QWKHRQHKDQGWKH\YRZHG
to preserve the neighborhood for its residents and create a stronger sense of place for them, but, on the other
hand, had to gather a variety of outside supporters around them.

Fighting stigmas and creating rootedness

7KH&DVF$QWLFZDVORQJLPEXHGZLWKQHJDWLYHLPDJHVFRQFHUQLQJLWVUHVLGHQWVWKHLUVRFLRHFRQRPLF
conditions, and a state of degradation. Municipal reports or press releases often emphasized its dramatic
VWDWHRIGLVUHSDLUVRFLDOEDGVDQGXQZHOFRPLQJDWPRVSKHUH%\HQJDJLQJLQHQYLURQPHQWDODQGKHDOWK
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 256

SURMHFWVDFWLYLVWVZRUNHGWRDGGUHVVVXFKQHJDWLYHVWHUHRW\SHV7KH\WULHGIRULWWREHDSOD]DQRWDJKHWWR
H[SODLQVDQROGDFWLYLVWDVKHGHVFULEHVWKHEURDGHUPHDQLQJRIWKHQHLJKERUKRRGJKWVLQWKH)RUDW2YHU
time, as community-based revitalization projects physically transformed the neighborhood and became
ODQGPDUNVWKH\VORZO\FRQWULEXWHGWRFKDQJLQJLWVFRQQRWDWLRQ/RFDOVWUXJJOHVWRRNSODFHWRFKDOOHQJH
WKHLPDJLQDU\RISXEOLFRIFLDOVDQGSODQQHUVZKRGHWHUPLQHZKDWGHYHORSPHQWVQHHGWREHSULRULWL]HGLQ
WKHQHLJKERUKRRGDQGZKDWSODFHLWPXVWKDYHLQWKHFLW\$VDFWLYLVWVEHDXWLHGWKHQHLJKERUKRRGZLWK
FRPPXQLW\JDUGHQVDQGSOD\JURXQGVDQGFUHDWHGQHZUHFUHDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUNLGVWKH\DWWHPSWHGWR
increase the legitimacy of the neighborhood and of a community-based vision for revitalization.

Beyond changing the image of the Casc Antic, activists and their supporters emphasize that residents
PDWWHUHGDQGWKDWWKH\KDGWREHWUHDWHGZLWKGLJQLW\DQGKDYHWKHLUYRLFHDQGYLVLRQIRUDOLYDEOHQHLJK-
ERUKRRGZLWKJUHHQDQGUHFUHDWLRQDOVSDFHVDQGDIIRUGDEOHKHDOWK\KRXVLQJKHDUGE\SXEOLFRIFLDOV
They connect their involvement in the Forat and their demands for improved environmental conditions
WRJKWVDJDLQVWPXQLFLSDODEXVHDQGDJDLQVWWKHPLVXVHRI(8IXQGVJHDUHGWRZDUGVXUEDQUHKDELOLWDWLRQ
SURMHFWV5HVLGHQWVIRXJKWDJDLQVWEHLQJFRQVLGHUHGVHFRQGWLHUFLWL]HQVLQWKHLURZQQHLJKERUKRRGZLW-
QHVVLQJSRZHUOHVVO\LWVGHVWUXFWLRQDQGDEDQGRQPHQWDQGEHDULQJZLWKGDLO\VXEVWDQGDUGFRQGLWLRQVRI
OWKQRLVHDQGFUXPEOLQJ2WKHUJURXSVVXFKDVWKH*(1$%HQYLURQPHQWDO1*2HPSKDVL]HKRZWKH\
FRQQHFWHGWKHLUUHF\FOLQJZRUNVKRSVDQGSURMHFWVWRLPSURYLQJVRFLDOFRH[LVWHQFHDQGFRKHVLRQDPRQJ
QHLJKERUVDQGHQKDQFLQJSRVLWLYHIHHOLQJVWRZDUGVWKHPVHOYHVDQGWKHSODFH

$VSDUWRIWKLVUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWQHLJKERUKRRGGHJUDGDWLRQFRPPXQLW\OHDGHUVDQGZRUNHUVKHOSHG
older and vulnerable foreign residents resist expropriations and eviction and assert claims for the renova-
tion of their degraded apartment unit. Jos, one of the coordinator of the community garden in the Casc
$QWLFDQGDQHDUO\SDUWLFLSDQWLQWKH)RUDWJKWVH[SODLQVKRZSXEOLFVSDFHPDLQWHQDQFHZRUNLQWKH)RUDW
ZDVWKHRFFDVLRQWRLQYLWHYXOQHUDEOHUHVLGHQWVDQGEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGWKHLUQHHGV

>:HRUJDQL]HGDVVHPEOLHV@LQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGWRPDNHVXUHZHXQGHUVWRRGZKDWZDVKDSSHQLQJWKURXJKWKHZRUGV
RIWKHSHRSOHDQGWRVHHLQZKLFKZD\VZHFRXOGFRQIURQWWKHVLWXDWLRQVVRWKDWWKH\GLGQRWVHHWKHPVHOYHVGHIHQVH-
OHVVQR"6ROLGDULW\

$FWLYLVWVFRQVLGHUHGWKH\KDGDPRUDOGXW\WRVSHDNIRUWKHXQGHUGRJVZKRGLGQRWNQRZKRZWRFKDO-
OHQJHWKHV\VWHPLQ%DUFHORQD&RPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVDQGDFWLYHUHVLGHQWVDOVRDGYRFDWHGIRUEHLQJSURYLGHG
ZLWKKLJKHQYLURQPHQWDOVWDQGDUGVDQGUHFHLYLQJTXDOLW\DPHQLWLHVDVVKRZQE\RQHRIWKHPDQLIHVWRV
IURPFRPPXQLW\RUJDQL]DWLRQVJKWLQJIRUDQHZVSRUWVFHQWHULQWKHQHLJKERUKRRG7KHQHZJ\PKDGWR
KDYHDOOWKHQHFHVVDU\SURYLVLRQVDQGZDVQRWPHDQWWREHDVXEWHUUDQHDQWKLUGFDWHJRU\VSRUWVFHQWHU
ZLWKRXWSURSHUYHQWLODWLRQDQGQDWXUDOOLJKWLQJ

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regards to environmental privileges. Activists emphasize the importance of balancing access to environ-
PHQWDOJRRGVDFURVV%DUFHORQDDQGHQVXULQJWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIUHVRXUFHVLQWKHLURZQQHLJKERUKRRG)RU
instance, Manolo, a garden volunteer, emphasizes the right of kids to have access to recreational areas in
the Casc Antic:

:HZHUHSXVKLQJIRUDSDUN$SDUNLVIRUNLGVWRSOD\DQGIRUDJDUGHQ,WKLQNWKLVEHWWHUWKDQDSDUNLQJ>@:KHUH
ZRXOGEHNLGVUHFUHDWLRQWKHQ"7KH\KDYHWRJRWRDQRWKHUQHLJKERUKRRG"7KLVLVWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRG
 257 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

,QWKHLUDFFRXQWVDFWLYLVWVRIWHQFRPSDUHWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGVZLWKDUHDVEHQHWLQJIURPVXSHULRUDQG
privileged environmental services and conditions as reference points. They consider that residents are enti-
WOHGWRKLJKHQYLURQPHQWDOTXDOLW\DQGWRVWD\LQJLQWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGWREHDEOHWRHQMR\WKHVHHQYLURQPHQ-
WDOJRRGV$VVXFKWKHGLVFRXUVHVRIDFWLYLVWVUHHFWEURDGHUGHPDQGVIRUVSDWLDOMXVWLFHIRUWKHUHYDOXDWLRQ
of their neighborhood on the map, and for creating a sense of place, rootedness, and security for residents.

Controlling the land and managing borders

Community leaders and organizations in the Casc Antic realized early on the importance of controlling
the land and its uses. Environmental revitalization projects are thus anchored more deeply in a need to
UHFRQTXHUWKHODQGRIWKHFRPPXQLW\LQWKHXUEDQVSDFH$VWKHQHLJKERUKRRGLVDIIHFWHGE\ULVNVRIHQ-
FURDFKPHQWDQGIUDJPHQWDWLRQUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVZRUNHGWRJDLQJUHDWHUFRQWURORYHUWKHODQG
and transform it from an underutilized and mal-utilized space to an environmental friendly area and a true
asset. An important component of land control is ensuring that policy-makers recognize the legitimacy of
XVHVDQGWKHWHQXUHRIWKHODQGWRWKHFRPPXQLW\&RPPXQLW\JURXSVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQVDUHYHU\DZDUHRI
the importance of ensuring a long term lease or zoning for playgrounds, park, community garden, or sports
grounds so that residents can build a sense of control and stability.

Control over the land and territory does not stop at barren land and open space. It also includes the
creation of enclosed spaces for physical activity, youth recreation, socio-cultural events, and community
QXUWXULQJPRUHJHQHUDOO\DURXQGZKLFKUHVLGHQWVFDQJURZDVHQVHRIRZQHUVKLSDQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRU
their neighborhood and city. For instance, the sports association AECCA successfully negotiated spaces
IRU\RXWKWUDLQLQJDWWKHQHZ&HQWUR(VSRUWLXJ\PDQGDWORFDOVFKRROVGHVSLWHWKHUHVLVWDQFHRIWKHORFDO
administration to open up the schools in fear of losing control over the activities developed there. They use
WKHVHVSDFHVERWKIRUSK\VLFDOWUDLQLQJDVZHOODVFRPPXQLW\EXLOGLQJDFWLYLWLHVDQGPXOWLFXOWXUDOH[FKDQJH
,QWKHORQJWHUPWKHZRUGVRIDFWLYLVWVUHYHDOWKHLUDWWHPSWWRJRRQHVWHSIXUWKHUDQGDVVHUWWKHLURZQVRY-
ereignty and control over the neighborhood.

To achieve territorial control, neighborhood sovereignty, and at times, superiority over outside groups,
UHVLGHQWV KDYH EXLOW FOHDU ERUGHUV ZLWK RXWVLGHUV LQ D SURFHVV RI GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ RI XV YHUVXV WKHP
7KUHHW\SHVRIERUGHUVGHWHUPLQHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQGRPLQDWHGSHRSOHDQGDGRPLQDQWFXOWXUH3K\VLFDO
ERUGHUVWKDWGHQHWDQJLEOHWHUULWRULHVVRFLDODQGV\PEROLFERUGHUVWKDWGHQHPHPEHUVKLSVDQGFXOWXUDO
ERUGHUVWKDWVHSDUDWHZRUOGVRIPHDQLQJDPRQJSHRSOH6\PEROLFERXQGDULHVDUHFRQFHSWXDOGLVWLQFWLRQV
WRFDWHJRUL]HREMHFWVSHRSOHSUDFWLFHVDQGHYHQWLPHDQGVSDFHZKHUHDVVRFLDOERXQGDULHVDUHREMHFWL-
HGIRUPVRIVRFLDOGLIIHUHQFHVPDQLIHVWHGLQXQHTXDODFFHVVWRDQGXQHTXDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIUHVRXUFHV
and social opportunities. , p.168. Boundaries are permeable, salient, durable, and visible, and they can be
crossed, dissolved, activated, maintained, or transposed.

In the Casc Antic, the construction of physical boundaries has been particularly important for residents
to gain control over their territory, as they help maintain undesirable people outside and make territorial
limits visible and salient. Some of the environmental projects in the neighborhood are borders and buf-
IHUVPHDQWWRVHQGDVLJQDOWRRXWVLGHUVWKDWWKHLUSUHVHQFHLVQRWZHOFRPHG7KLVLVWKHFDVHLQWKH)RUDW
GHOD9HUJRQ\DDQGWKH$OODGD9HUPHOOJUHHQVSDFHVZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHSK\VLFDOPDUNHUVEHWZHHQXVWKH
UHVLGHQWVDQGWKH\WKHJHQWULHUVRUWKHWRXULVWV7KH\DUHFRQFUHWHWRROVWRFRXQWHUWKHSULYDWL]DWLRQRI
public spaces by restaurants and outdoor terraces affecting the nature of the space making it a consump-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 258

WLRQDQGHQWHUWDLQPHQWVSDFH,QIDFWWKHQHLJKERUVUHIXVDOWREXLOGZKDWWKH\FDOODSOD]DGXUDLQWKH
Forat a hard concrete plaza and decision to use sand and grass is based to the connection they make
EHWZHHQVXFKDVXUIDFHDQGWKHHQVXLQJRSSRUWXQLW\IRUEDUVRUUHVWDXUDQWVWRWDNHRYHUNLGVSOD\LQJDUHDV
RUFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQVZLWKWDEOHVDQGFKDLUVDV(YDDVRFLDODUFKLWHFWHPSKDVL]HV

,ILQWKH)RUDW\RXOHWWKHPOD\GRZQIRXUEULFNVWKHQLWZLOOEHDWHUUDFHDVZHOO,WLVWKHQDVSDFHWKDW\RXGHSULYHSHRSOH
RI:KDWZHUHDOO\ZDQWHGZDVDJUHHQVSDFHEHFDXVHLW\RXJLYHFRQFHVVLRQVDQG\RXFHGHWKHUHHQGVXSEHLQJWHUUDFHV

)XUWKHUPRUHDFFRUGLQJWRUHVLGHQWVDJUHHQDUHDZLWKRXWDKDUGVXUIDFHHQFRXUDJHVUHVLGHQWVVSRQWDQH-
RXVDFWLYLWLHVDQGXVHRIVSDFH2YHUWKH\HDUVFRPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVKDYHGHYHORSHGDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHQHZ
public spaces to help youth re-appropriate their territory and re-construct a personal use for it. In the com-
PXQLW\JDUGHQIHQFHVDQGJDWHVDOVRFUHDWHYLVLEOHOLPLWVRIWKHVSDFHVLQZKLFKRXWVLGHUVGRQRWKDYHWKH
ULJKWWRHQWHUZLWKRXWSHUPLVVLRQ,WLVDVSDFHWREHSURWHFWHGDZD\IURPRXWVLGHWKUHDWVIURPYLROHQFH
GUXJWUDIFNLQJDQGGXPSLQJ

&RPPXQLW\DFWLYLVWVLQWKH&DVF$QWLFKDYHDOVRVHWXSVRFLDODQGV\PEROLFERXQGDULHVDVDZD\WR
GHQHJURXSPHPEHUVKLSDQGVRFLDOO\DFFHSWDEOHEHKDYLRU7KHLQLWLDOSODQWLQJRID&KULVWPDVWUHHLQWKH
)RUDWLQ'HFHPEHUZDVDV\PEROLFERUGHUDJDLQVWWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\DQGLWVFRQWUDFWRUVZKRZHUHGH-
VWUR\LQJEXLOGLQJVDQGDEDQGRQLQJVSDFHV2OGHUUHVLGHQWVH[SODLQKRZWKHWUHHZDVDVKLHOGV\PEROL]LQJ
the neighborhood presence in the space and constituted the basis for the further spontaneous construction of
WKHVSDFHE\WKHUHVLGHQWVLQRSSRVLWLRQZLWKWKH&LW\VSRQVRUHGSURMHFWV7ZREURDGHUJURXSVDUHSUHVHQW
LQWKHQHLJKERUKRRG2QWKHRQHKDQGVWDQGWKHVXSSRUWHUVRIWKHQHLJKERUKRRGJKWVROGHUDQGWUDGL-
WLRQDOUHVLGHQWVLPPLJUDQWVVRFLDODUFKLWHFWVDOWHUQDWLYH\RXWKDQGVTXDWWHUVDQGOHIW\LQWHOOHFWXDOVDQG
RQWKHRWKHUKDQGVWDQGWKH\XSSLHVDQGWRXULVWV5HVLGHQWVGUDZDFOHDUGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKH%RUQSDUW
RIWKHQHLJKERUKRRGZKLFKWKH\FRQVLGHUDVDIDVKLRQDEOHDUHDIXOORIQHZFRPHUVWKHJXLULVDQGWKH
areas of Sant Pere and Santa Catarina. In the Born, residents feel that they do not have a place anymore.

/DVWUHVLGHQWVKDYHGHYHORSHGFXOWXUDOERUGHUVDVDZD\WRUHLQIRUFHSK\VLFDOVHSDUDWLRQ$FWLYLVWVUHJX-
larly organize cultural and festive events during the year to celebrate the cultural diversity of the neighbor-
KRRGRUJDQL]HVSRUWVFRPSHWLWLRQVDQGVKDUHWKHJDUGHQKDUYHVWVZLWKUHVLGHQWV6XFKHYHQWVGUDZDFOHDU
GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQDFWLYLVWVDVRZQHUVRIWKHVSDFHDQGRXWVLGHUVZKRGRQRWWZHOOZLWKWKHPHQWDOLW\
DQGKDELWVRIUHVLGHQWVLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRG/RQJWLPHUHVLGHQWVDOVRKDYHVHWXSDPHQWDOGLYLGHEHWZHHQ
ZKREHORQJVWRWKHQHLJKERUKRRGDQGZKRGRHVQRWEDVHGRQWKHW\SHRIFORWKLQJRUDWWLWXGHSHRSOHGLV-
SOD\2IWHQWLPHVWKHDOWHUQDWLYHFORWKLQJRUKDLUFXWVZRUQE\VTXDWWHUVRUKLSSLHVLVDFOHDULQGLFDWLRQRI
QHLJKERUKRRGDFFHSWDQFHZKLOHKLSDQGIDQF\FORWKHVLVDVLJQWKDW\RXGRQRWEHORQJWKHUHDQG\RXDUHQRW
DOZD\VZHOFRPHGWRWKHORFDOFHOHEUDWLRQVLQWKHJUHHQVSDFHVJDUGHQRUFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQV

Re-building democracy and planning practice

/DVWHQYLURQPHQWDOUHYLWDOL]DWLRQSURMHFWVDUHWKHRFFDVLRQIRUUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVWRTXHV-
tion broader political arrangements in the city. First, community activists strongly believe they have a right
and responsibility to engage in a more spontaneous and even anarchical form of participation in Barcelona.
7KH\DUHSURXGRIVHOIFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDJUHHQDUHDLQWKH)RUDWZKLFKWRRNURRWLQSRSXODUVXSSRUWZLWKRXW
a formal organizational structure, as an organizer emphasizes:
 259 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

:HQHYHUZDQWHGPRUHWKDQVSRQWDQHRXVQHLJKERUV7KURXJKWKHVLPSOHGHVLJQRIVLJQVLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKH3OD]D
SDUWLFLSDQWVZRXOGMXVWZULWHWKHLUQDPHVGRZQDQGH[SODLQZKDWWDVNWKH\ZRXOGEHGRLQJRQDSDUWLFXODUGD\SODQWLQJ
seeds, maintaining and cleaning up the garden, etc.

7KHJUHHQSOD]DZDVDGHPRQVWUDWLRQVLWHRIXQSODQQHGDQGLQGHSHQGHQWZKLOHZHOOIXQFWLRQLQJSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
Here, residents put much emphasis on a real participation, the non hierarchical intervention of a multitude of
SHRSOHRQDVSDFHZLWKIHZUHVRXUFHVDQGPXFKFUHDWLYLW\LQRUGHUWRSURPRWHHQYLURQPHQWDOO\UHODWHGDFWLYLWLHV

,QVRPHFDVHVDFWLYHFRPPXQLW\OHDGHUVDQGZRUNHUVDUWLFXODWHYLVLRQVIRUGHPRFUDWLFSUDFWLFHVWKDWUHDFK
the point of self-management (DXWRJHVWLRQLQ6SDQLVK7KH\YRZHGWRDSSURSULDWHWKHVSDFHIRUWKHP-
VHOYHVDVZHOODVGHFLVLRQVRYHULWDQGWRUHVLVWQHZIRUPVRIFRQWUROIURPWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\)RULQVWDQFHVRPH
FRPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVZRUNLQJZLWK\RXWKDUWLFXODWHGGHPDQGVIRUDXWRQRPRXVRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGPDQDJHPHQW
RIVSRUWVDUHDVVXFKDVWKHFDPSLOORDQRSHQEDVNHWEDOOJURXQGZKLFKWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\WRRNGRZQLQ
0RUHUHFHQWO\WKH3RXGHOD)LJXHUDWKHQHZFRPPXQLW\FHQWHUKDVEHFRPHDVSDFHIXQFWLRQLQJXQGHUWKH
SULQFLSOHRIVHOIPDQDJHPHQWWRUHHFWFRPPXQLW\GHPDQGV7KHPXQLFLSDOLW\KDVQRFRQWURORYHUWKHXVH
of the center. People just ask for the key and organize different activities in it. Such a space is a learning pro-
FHVVIRUUHVLGHQWVLQKRZWRWDNHUHVSRQVLELOLW\LQWKHGDLO\IXQFWLRQLQJRIWKHQHZQHLJKERUKRRGVLWH

2IWHQWLPHVWKHJKWVIRUDPRUHGLUHFWDQGWUDQVJUHVVLYHIRUPRISDUWLFLSDWLRQUHHFWDFWLYLVWVDQJHU
over the lack of meaningful engagement by the City of Barcelona throughout the redevelopment in the
&DVF$QWLF$FWLYLVWVPDQLIHVWGLVDSSRLQWPHQWDWDPXQLFLSDOLW\QRWWDNLQJWKHLUH[SHULHQFHDQGOD\NQRZO-
edge about the neighborhood into consideration. A municipal staff member is very adamant about the
imposition of ideas on residents:

)RUWKHWKHPHRIWKHSXEOLFVSDFHWKHUHZDVDYHU\GLUHFWLQJDWWLWXGHE\WKHPXQLFLSDOLW\WKDWLVWRVD\ZHZHUHWKH
RQHVZKRZRXOGRIIHUZKDWZRXOGEHGRQHDQGLWZDVWKHQGRQH$WPRVWZHZRXOGH[SODLQWKLQJVWRWKHQHLJKERUV
7KHUHZDVQRERWWRPXSGHFLVLRQSURFHVVQRGHEDWHQRUDFRQVXOWDWLRQZLWKDIIHFWHGSHRSOH

Some community supporters are harsher, naming the practices of the municipality a fantasmatic and
FWLWLRXVW\SHRISDUWLFLSDWLRQOHGE\SHRSOHZKRDUHERXJKWRXW7KH\IHHOWKDWSODQQHUVLPSRVHGWKH
urban plans (PERIS) upon them in the 1980s. During the construction of the Forat into a permanent green
DUHDLQWKHPXQLFLSDOLW\LVDOVRDFFXVHGRIKDYLQJDEVRUEHGWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHFLWL]HQVPRYHPHQW
ZKLOHUHF\FOLQJWKHQHLJKERUKRRGDFWLRQVLQWRZKDWWKH\DWWHPSWWRVSRQVRUDVWKHLURZQSURMHFW5DIDHO
<RXWKHGXFDWRUDQGVXSSRUWHURIWKH)RUDWJKWVDQGRIKDYLQJPDQLSXODWHGWKHSUDFWLFHRIGLDORJXH
process.

As community leaders and active residents organize to deepen and strengthen existing local democratic
SURFHVVHVLQWKHFLW\WKHLUFODLPVDOVRUHHFWDWWLPHVEURDGHUQDWLRQEXLOGLQJDQGVRYHUHLJQW\GHPDQGV
This is particularly true for the older activists, such as Maria from the Asocaci de Veins del Casc Antic,
ZKREHFDPHHQJDJHGLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGLQWKHVDQGKDGWRUHPDLQFODQGHVWLQHXQGHUWKH)UDQFR
GLFWDWRUVKLS$FWLYLVWVEHOLHYHWKDWWKH\ZHUHUREEHGRIDWUDQVLWLRQWRGHPRFUDF\ZKHQ)UDQFRGLHG)RU
WKHPWKHPRQDUFK\RI-XDQ&DUORVZDVLPSRVHGRQWKH6SDQLVKSHRSOHZKRGLGQRWKDYHDVD\RQZKDW
W\SHRIQHZQDWLRQDQGUHJLPHWKH\ZHUHHDJHUWREXLOG$VDUHVXOWWKRVHDFWLYLVWVKDYHWDNHQWKHLUQDWLRQDO
GHPDQGVDWWKHORFDOVFDOHDQGKRSHWREXLOGDQHZW\SHRIORFDOGHPRFUDF\WKDWZRXOGUHHFWWKHLUQDWLRQDO
ideals in relation to more direct and transgressive participation and sovereignty.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 260

:KLOHLQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSVYRZWRDVVHUWGHHSHUSROLWLFDOFODLPVVHYHUDORUJDQL]DWLRQVKDYHDOVREH-
FRPHLQYROYHGLQWKH&DVF$QWLFDVDUHHFWLRQRIDORQJWHUPSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWLQWHUULWRULDOVWUXJJOHV
)RUPHPEHUVIURP$UTXLWHFWVZLWKRXW%RUGHUVVXSSRUWLQJUHVLGHQWVUHHFWHGPDQ\\HDUVRIFRPPXQLW\
involvement and political engagement in radical action, and struggles against expansionistic urbanism and
a neighborhood transformed into a garbage dump. Their staff feel the thrill and adrenaline of being part of
SROLWLFDODFWLRQVLQDFLW\ZKHUHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDYHDOZD\VKDYHDVWURQJUROHDQGSDUWRIDPRELOL]DWLRQ
HQFRPSDVVLQJDZLGHYDULHW\RISHRSOH

,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHVWRULHVRIDFWLYLVWVRIWHQUHYHDOWKDWWKHLUOLIHKDVEHFRPHWKHLUFRPPXQLW\ZRUNDQG
WKDWWKH\WKHPFDQQRWOLYHRXWVLGHWKHLGHDRIFRQLFW7KHVW\OHDQGZRUGVWKH\XVHWRGHVFULEHWKHLUHQ-
gagement in the neighborhood reveal that they feel part of a social and political trajectory. People take pride
LQWHOOLQJOHQJWK\VWRULHVRIWKHLUJKWVDQGWKHLUYLFWRULHVLQWKH)RUDWGHVSLWHWKHLQMXULHVWKH\UHFHLYHG$W
times, activists seem in a situation of self-representation and mise-en scne of themselves and their engage-
PHQWZKLFKVHHPWREHFRPHDWWLPHVPRUHVDOLHQWWKDQWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHHQJDJHPHQWLWVHOI

Discussion
Theories of urban development and urban struggles provide valuable guidance for understanding the
EURDGHUSURFHVVHVRILQMXVWLFHDQGH[FOXVLRQDJDLQVWZKLFKPDUJLQDOL]HGQHLJKERUKRRGVRUJDQL]H7KH\
KHOSVLWXDWHWKHJKWVRIUHVLGHQWVQHLJKERUKRRGOHDGHUVDQGFRPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVIRULPSURYHGVRFLR
HQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVLQ%DUFHORQDZLWKLQDEURDGHUFRQWH[WRIXUEDQFKDQJH)XUWKHUDVDFWLYLVWVKR-
OLVWLFDOO\WUDQVIRUPWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGWKURXJKHQYLURQPHQWDOSURMHFWVWKH\XVHWKHLUHQYLURQPHQWDOZRUN
as a tool to accomplish broader political goals. Community gardens, playgrounds, or green spaces are a
PHFKDQLVPWRUHVLVWWKHGLVUXSWLRQDQGGHJUDGDWLRQRIWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGDVZHOODVWKHYLROHQFHRISULYDWH
DFFXPXODWLRQDVLOOXVWUDWHGE\DFWLYLVWVFULWLTXHRIEURDGHUXUEDQGHYHORSPHQWVVXFKDVHQFURDFKPHQW
JHQWULFDWLRQDQGWRXULVP+RZHYHUWKHJKWVRIUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVDUHEDVHGRQEURDGHUDQG
more complex multi-level political claims.

)LUVWWKHJKWVRIUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVVKHGDQHZOLJKWRQWKHQRWLRQRI5LJKWWRWKH&LW\$V
DFWLYLVWVGHYHORSDQHZJUHHQDUHDRUDVSRUWVJURXQGDQGZRUNWRDGGUHVVVLWXDWLRQVRISUHFDULRXVQHVV
DEXVHDQGYXOQHUDELOLW\WKH\DWWHPSWWRFKDOOHQJHWKHLPDJLQDU\RISXEOLFRIFLDOVSODQQHUVDQGPHGLD
DERXWWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGDQGWKHSODFHLWPXVWKDYHLQWKHFLW\7KH\JKWH[LVWLQJVWLJPDVDQGVWHUHR-
W\SHVDERXWORZLQFRPHDQGPLQRULW\UHVLGHQWVLQWKH&DVF$QWLFDQGWKH\ZRUNWRFUHDWHDJUHDWHUVHQVH
RISURWHFWLRQDQGURRWHGQHVV7KHIUDPHZRUNRID5LJKWWRWKH&LW\LVDOVRD5LJKWWRWKHLU1HLJKERUKRRG
ZLWKDWWHPSWVWRUHEXLOGDVHQVHRIGLJQLW\VHFXULW\DQGQXUWXULQJWRWKHUHVLGHQWV6WUXJJOHVDUHDOVROLQNHG
WRQRWLRQVRIVSDWLDOHTXLW\DVDFWLYLVWVDUHPRELOL]HGWRDGGUHVVVSDWLDOLQHTXDOLWLHVLQWKHSURYLVLRQRI
environmental goods in the city. Here, space is a constitutive element of collective action and not merely
in the background. A neighborhood such as the Casc Antic is thus an iterative site of mobilization and an
HPEOHPDWLFVSDFHRIFRQWHQWLRQIRUWKHVWUXJJOHRISRRUFRPPXQLWLHVDJDLQVWVSDWLDOLQHTXDOLWLHV

Second, community mobilization is closely related to land, border control, and sovereignty. The resis-
WDQFHWRRXWVLGHIRUFHVGRHVQRWJRLQWKHPLQGRIFRPPXQLW\DFWLYLVWVZLWKRXWFRQWUROOLQJWKHODQGDQG
territory of the neighborhood, gaining sovereignty over it, and setting up clear physical, social, symbolic,
DQG FXOWXUDO ERUGHUV  ZLWK RXWVLGHUV DQG GRPLQDQW IRUFHV  SULYDWH GHYHORSHUV FLW\ RIFLDOV SROLFH RU
 261 RETHINKING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

JHQWULHUV6RFLRHQYLURQPHQWDOSURMHFWVDUHSK\VLFDOVRFLDODQGV\PEROLFERUGHUV5HVLGHQWVH[SUHVVD
strong connection to the land and to the uses they have developed over time through parks, recreational
DUHDVFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQRUVSRUWVJURXQGV7KH\DLPWRUHFRQTXHUDGDPDJHGODQGDQGHQVXUHWKDWWKHLU
QHZVSDFHVGRQRWJHWWDNHQDZD\IURPWKHPDQGWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRSULYDWHGHYHORSPHQWV%RXQGDULHVDUH
SUHVHQWLQWHUQDOO\ZLWKLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGDVVRPHVSDFHVGHOLPLWPHPEHUVKLSDQGZKDWW\SHVRIJURXSV
DUHZHOFRPHLQWKHQHZVSDFHV+HUHDSDUNRUDFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQWKHDFWLYLWLHVRUJDQL]HGDURXQGWKHP
and the social codes developed in the space serve as buffer against outsiders.

:KLOHWKHFODLPVRIDFWLYLVWVLQWKH&DVF$QWLFUHHFWDGHVLUHWRDFKLHYHJUHDWHUSURWHFWLRQWKH\DUHDOVR
QRWH[HPSWRIGHVLUHVWRVHOIVHJUHJDWH$VDFRPPXQLW\ZRUNHUVDQGOHDGHUVDWWHPSWWRFRQWUROWKHODQG
DQGLWVERUGHUVWKH\FRQVWUXFWDVHOIVXVWDLQHGDQGFRQWDLQHGFRPPXQLW\ZLWKLWVVHOHFWHGPHPEHUV7KH\
re-privatize public spaces, appropriate the territory and make it, to a certain extent, exclusive. Living in
DKRPRJHQHRXVPLQRULW\QHLJKERUKRRGKDVEHHQVKRZQWRUHHFWERWKDGHVLUHWRSURWHFWRQHVHOIDJDLQVW
WKUHDWVWRWKHVRFLDOIDEULFZKLFKFDQFDXVHIHHOLQJVRIORVVDQGDOLHQDWLRQDQGDVHOIGHFODUHGSUHIHUHQFH
to live among residents from the same ethnic or cultural group. Homogenous spaces provide a space for
LGHQWLW\IRUPDWLRQDQGFRQUPDWLRQVWUHQJWKHQDVKDUHGUDFLDOLGHQWLW\ZKLOHKDYLQJDFDWKDUWLFVRRWKLQJ
HIIHFWDZD\IURPWKHSUHVVXUHVRILQWHUHWKQLFUHODWLRQV,Q%DUFHORQDKRPRJHQRXVVSDFHVVWUHQJWKHQPRUH
WKDQDUDFLDOLGHQWLW\EXWDOVRDVRFLRHFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDOLGHQWLW\7KH\EULQJWRJHWKHUORZLQFRPH
6SDQLVKUHVLGHQWVZLWKLPPLJUDQWSRSXODWLRQVVTXDWWHUVDQGLQWHOOHFWXDOVZKRJKWWRJHWKHUIRUDULJKWWR
WKHLUQHLJKERUKRRG+RZHYHUDFWLYLVWVDUHPDQDJLQJWZRGHOLFDWHEDODQFHV$GHVLUHWREHVRFLDOO\MXVW
RQWKHRQHKDQGDQGDWHQGHQF\WRUHSULYDWL]HWKHVSDFHDQGEHH[FOXVLRQDU\RQWKHRWKHU7KH\DOVRZDON
DQHOLQHEHWZHHQDVVHUWLQJFRQWURORYHUWKHGHYHORSPHQWVRIWKHQHLJKERUKRRGEXWDOVRUDOO\LQJRXWVLGH
forces to help them maintain this control.

Last, and more generally, environmental initiatives serve as a means to build a different type of local
democracy and planning practice in the neighborhood, and in Barcelona more generally. Building the type
RIQHLJKERUKRRGWKDWQHLJKERUKRRGDFWLYLVWVHQYLVLRQFDQQRWRFFXUZLWKRXWDGHHSHUTXHVWLRQLQJWRZDUGV
ZKRPDNHVGHFLVLRQVIRUZKRPDQGZLWKZKLFKEHQHWV$VUHVLGHQWVDQGWKHLUVXSSRUWHUVFRQVWUXFW
autonomous and spontaneous of management of the urban space, they transgress existing norms of plan-
QLQJDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHFLW\DVZHOODVSROLWLFDODUUDQJHPHQWV(QYLURQPHQWDOSURMHFWVWKXVEHFRPHD
WRROWRFUHDWHQHZIRUPVDWWLPHVDQDUFKLFDORISDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGGHFLVLRQPDNLQJ5HVLGHQWVDUHRIIHULQJ
WKURXJKWKHLUHQYLURQPHQWDOHQGHDYRUVDVSDFHIRUGHEDWHZKLFKGLGQRWXVHWRH[LVWLQWKHFLW\7KH\DLP
DWSURPRWLQJDPRUHGLUHFWIRUPRIGHPRFUDF\UDWKHUWKDQDGHOLEHUDWLYHGHPRFUDF\ZKLFKGRHVQRWOHDG
DFFRUGLQJWRWKHPWRWKHPHDQLQJIXOSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIFRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVDQGZKLFKUHHFWVSRZHULPEDO-
ances. Their goal is thus to transgress and deepen existing democratic practices in the city, and at times in
WKHFRXQWU\DVDZKROHUHHFWLQJQDWLRQEXLOGLQJFODLPV

Conclusion
In the Casc Antic of Barcelona, community activists are using their social-environmental projects and
DGYRFDF\DVWRROVWRJKWDJDLQVWEURDGHUGHYHORSPHQWSURFHVVHVWKDWDIIHFWWKHVWDELOLW\DQGKRPRJHQH-
ity of their neighborhood. That said, their ultimate goal goes beyond resisting urban dynamics such as
JHQWULFDWLRQDQGHQFURDFKLQJ7KH\DLPDWFKDQJLQJLPDJHVDQGVWLJPDVDERXWWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGVLQFH
WKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGLVLPEXHGZLWKQHJDWLYHLPDJHVDQGUDFLVWVWHUHRW\SHV0RUHLPSRUWDQWO\WKH\DLPDW
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 262

WDNLQJFRQWURORYHUWKHLUODQGDQGKDYHHVWDEOLVKHGFOHDUERUGHUVZLWKRXWVLGHUVLQDSURFHVVRIGLIIHUHQWLD-
tion of us versus them. Their environmental initiatives have helped construct and maintain physical,
VRFLDODQGFXOWXUDODQGV\PEROLFERUGHUVZLWKDGRPLQDQWVRFLHW\(QYLURQPHQWDOHQGHDYRUVEHFRPHD
PHFKDQLVPIRUODQGDQGERUGHUFRQWURODVZHOODVIRUVRYHUHLJQW\FODLPVZKLFKDWWLPHVEHFRPHH[FOX-
VLRQDU\7KHTXHVWLRQUHPDLQVRSHQRIKRZXUEDQPRYHPHQWVFDQSURWHFWYXOQHUDEOHUHVLGHQWVZKLOHQRW
seeming exclusionary and reproducing the patterns of exclusion they are combatting. Here, urban planners
DQGGHFLVLRQPDNHUVDUHFRQIURQWHGZLWKEDODQFLQJGHPDQGVIRUVHOIUHWULHYDODQGSURWHFWLRQDQGFUHDWLQJ
greater diversity and mixity in the city.

At a broader scale, Casc Antic residents and their supporters frame political goals in regards to demo-
cratic processes. Their demands are more transgressive and daring than traditionally presented by the just
FLW\WKHRULVWV$FWLYLVWVDVNIRUVHOIPDQDJHPHQWRIODQGDQGSURMHFWVDVZHOODVPRUHVSRQWDQHRXVIRUPV
RISDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGGLDORJXHQRWMXVWDUHIUDPHGGHOLEHUDWLYHGHPRFUDF\+RZHYHUUHVLGHQWVDOVRRIWHQ
see themselves as part of a political trajectory and are in self-representation mode. Many activists cannot
OLYHRXWVLGHSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWSURWHVWVDQGRXWVLGHFRQLFWV7KHLUOLIHKDVEHFRPHWKHSROLWLFDORUJDQL-
]DWLRQRIDQGDURXQGWKHLUQHLJKERUKRRGZKLFKPLJKWDWWLPHVOHDGWRJUHDWHULQQHUFRPPXQLW\FRQLFWV
DQGLQVWDELOLW\EHWZHHQPRUHUDGLFDODFWLYLVWVDQGDFWLYLVWVPRUHZLOOLQJWRQHJRWLDWHZLWKWKHPXQLFLSDO-
LW\DQGSODQQHUV1HLJKERUKRRGFRKHVLYHQHVVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQDVZHOODVWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIFROOHFWLYH
mobilization are thus at stake.

References
$EHOOD0&LXWDW9HOOD(O&HQWUH+LVWzULF5HYLVFRODW(GLFLRQV8QLYHUVLWDW%DUFHORQD
$EUDKDPVRQ0*OREDO&LWLHV2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV1HZ<RUN
$J\HPDQ-5%XOODUGDQG%(YDQV-XVW6XVWDLQDELOLWLHV'HYHORSPHQWLQDQ8QHTXDO:RUOGst MIT Press Edition (MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.).
$J\HPDQ-DQG7(YDQV7RZDUG-XVW6XVWDLQDELOLW\LQ8UEDQ&RPPXQLWLHV%XLOGLQJ(TXLW\5LJKWVZLWK6XVWDLQDEOH6ROXWLRQV
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 590, 35-53.
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9HOOD'H%DUFHORQD%DUFHORQD$MXQWDPHQWGH%DUFHORQD
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 268

What really matters in creating mass mobilization,

classical organization or new social media?
A comparative case study of the mass mobilization process
in France and South Korea

JEONG-IM HYUN
Sogang University, Korea

Abstract
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bilization against American beef imports) in South Korea as cases. In France, initiators
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cal organization is still important. In South Korea, the less-established political line in
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more important. The origin of this difference came from differences in the nature of
GHPRFUDF\RIWKHWZRVRFLHWLHV

Keywords
mass mobilization, Internet, mobilization process, establishment of political line,
democracy

Introduction
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South Korea. The Candlelight movement (mass mobilization against American beef imports) had shaken
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labor unionists, politicians, civil society activists, etc. From a mass mobilization perspective, this move-
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cupy Wall Street movement in 2011-12, the South Korean and French protestors did not share an issue: The
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ferent processes of collective decision-making to participate in mass mobilizations: Were the participants
content to DFFHSWH[LVWLQJPRELOL]DWLRQUHVRXUFHVVXFKDVOHIWZLQJRUULJKWZLQJIUDPHVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQV
ZKDWHYHUWKHIRUPVRUZHUHWKH\WU\LQJWRQGQHZIUDPHVDQGFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQWNLQGRIRUJDQL]DWLRQV
DQGQDOO\ZKDWH[SODLQWKLVGLIIHUHQFH"

Why analyze the processes of mass mobilization?

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DQGFDQHYHQQGZKRPWKHVHSHRSOHEHOLHYHLQ)RUH[DPSOH6RXWK.RUHDQVSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKH
&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWVKRZHGWKHLUPLVWUXVWRUHYHQDQJHUDJDLQVWHVWDEOLVKHGPHGLDHYHQWKRXJKIUHH-
dom of speech had been assured since 198727KHIRFXVRIWKLVDQDO\VLVLVQRWZKHWKHUWKHFODVVLFDOPHGLD
SOD\HGWKHLUHWKLFDOUROHDVDWUXHYRLFHRISHRSOHLQ6RXWK.RUHDEXWZKDWNLQGRIUHVXOWZDVJHQHUDWHGE\
WKLVFROOHFWLYHGLVEHOLHYHLQHVWDEOLVKHGPHGLDDWLQGLYLGXDODQGFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQVOHYHOV,QRWKHUZRUGV
ZKDWDIIHFWHGWKLVPLVEHOLHILQWKHSURFHVVRIPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQ"7KHPRVWGLVEHOLHYHGVHFWRUVLQ6RXWK
Korea are politics (politicians) and established media. The South Korean people still have a vivid collective
memory of their long dictator ship and its kept press.

7KHQZKRPGR6RXWK.RUHDQVWUXVW":KDWGRWKH\EHOLHYHLQ"7KH&DQGOHOLJKWPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQ
SURFHVVVKRZVDQLQWHUHVWLQJHOHPHQW3HRSOHWUXVWZKDWRWKHUVWUXVW+RZHYHUWKDWGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWWKH\
PHUHO\IROORZHGWKHFROOHFWLYHRSLQLRQRIWKHSRSXODFHEHFDXVHWKHPDMRULW\VDLGEHOLHYHGVROLNHGH
7RFTXHYLOOHVW\UDQQ\RIPDMRULW\3,QWKHFDVHRI6RXWK.RUHDV&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWSHRSOHWUXVWHGDS-
proved) RWKHUVRSLQLRQEHFDXVHLWGLGQRWFRPHIURPLQWHUHVWHGSHRSOHOLNHSROLWLFDOHOLWHVRUHVWDEOLVKHG
media, but from RWKHUVOLNHPHSHRSOHZKRZHUHGLVLQWHUHVWHG([SUHVVHGDQRWKHUZD\LIRWKHUVDUH
PRUHGLVLQWHUHVWHGWKDQ,DPLWLVZRUWKPRUHZRUWKWRWUXVWWKHPDQGWRDFWOLNHWKHP7KHLQLWLDWRUVRIWKH
&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWZHUHQRWXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVODERUXQLRQLVWVRUFLYLOVRFLHW\DFWLYLVWVEXWPLGGOH
DQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWV7KH\ZHUHWKHPRVWGLVLQWHUHVWHG and SXUHHOHPHQWVLQWKHSROLWLFDOHOG7KDWLV
ZK\PDQ\DGXOWSDUWLFLSDQWVDQGXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVH[SUHVVHGWKHLUIHHOLQJRIJXLOWWRZDUGWKHVH\RXQJHU
VWXGHQWVZKRDFWHGE\JRLQJLQWRWKHVWUHHWVDOOE\WKHPVHOYHVWRSURWHVW$PHULFDQEHHILPSRUWV:LWKWLPH
DVZLWKPDQ\RWKHUODUJHVFDOHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWFDVHVLQ&DQGOHOLJKWFDVHDOVRWKHDPDWHXULQLWLDWRUVRI
WKH&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWJDYHZD\WRSURIHVVLRQDODFWLYLVWVWRPDQDJHWKHPRYHPHQW

 ,QDVWULFWVHQVHWKHOHYHORILQGHSHQGHQFHLVDOZD\VGLVSXWDEOHHYHQLQDQROGGHPRFUDWLFVRFLHW\7KH6RXWK.RUHDQPHGLDJDLQHGLQGHSHQGHQFHIURP
SROLWLFDOVXSSUHVVLRQLQ+RZHYHUWKDWGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWWKHPHGLDSOD\HGWKHUROHRIDFRXQWHUSRZHUDJDLQVWSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFUXOHUDWKHU
the media rather served that rule.
 $'H7RFTXHYLOOH'HPRFUDF\LQ$PHULFD1RUZDON&RQQHFWLFXW7KH(DVWRQ3UHVV9RO&KDSWHUS
 271 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Why compare France and South Korea?

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WKHSROLWLFDOOHG

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ZKHQDVHULRXVGLVDJUHHPHQWEUHDNVRXWEHWZHHQGRPLQDQWVDQGGRPLQHpVWKHODWWHUWHQGWRH[SUHVV
WKHLU GLVFRQWHQWRQWKHVWUHHWV7KDWLVZK\WKHUHDUHVRPDQ\PDVVPRELOL]DWLRQVLQ)UDQFHDQG 6RXWK
.RUHD6RPHWLPHVVXFKODUJHVFDOHPDVVPRELOL]DWLRQVWKUHDWHQQRWRQO\WKHSROLWLFDOHOLWHVEXWDOVRWKH
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHGHPRFUDWLFV\VWHPLWVHOI7KDWZDVWUXHLQWKHVHWZRFDVHV

6HFRQGWKHSROLWLFDOSDUW\V\VWHPVDUHDOVRTXLWHVLPLODU7KHLUSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVDUHRUJDQL]HGPDLQO\E\
SROLWLFLDQVSHUVRQDODELOLW\QRWE\WKHSDUWLHVFOHDUSROLWLFDOOLQHV+LVWRULFDOO\LQ)UDQFHSROLWLFDOOLQHVDUHGL-
vided by left and right, and politicians take a political line4IURPWKHVWDUW+RZHYHUWKHLQWHUHVWLQJWKLQJLVWKDW
FDQGLGDWHVFUHDWHQHZSDUWLHVGXULQJDOPRVWHYHU\SUHVLGHQWLDOHOHFWLRQ,WLVQRWWKHSUHVLGHQWLDOFDQGLGDWHZKR
UHSUHVHQWVWKHSDUW\EXWWKHSDUW\UHSUHVHQWVWKHFDQGLGDWH,Q6RXWK.RUHDDVZHOOWKHSHUVRQLVPRUHLPSRU-
WDQWWKDQWKHSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVOLQH7KDWLVZK\6RXWK.RUHDQFDQGLGDWHVIUHTXHQWO\SURGXFHWKDWVDPHNLQGRI
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WKHSDUWLHVHVWDEOLVKHGOLQHVWKHUHLVPXFKPRUHURRPIRUFRUUXSWLRQ7KDWLVZK\ERWK)UDQFHDQG6RXWK.RUHD
have experienced many political corruption scandals. With this kind of political system, if the public strongly
VXSSRUWVWKHLUOHDGHUHYHU\WKLQJLVQHEXWDVVRRQDVWKHSXEOLFUHPRYHVWKHLUVXSSRUWWKHZKROHSROLWLFDO
decision-making system could be in danger because there is no intermediate zone to manage the disagreement.

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WKH 6RXWK .RUHDQV ZHUH \RXQJHU WKDQ WKH )UHQFK ,Q ERWK FRXQWULHV SHRSOH JHQHUDOO\HVSHFLDOO\ \RXQJ
SHRSOHDUHQRWLQWHUHVWHGLQSROLWLFV,WZRXOGEHXVHIXOWRNQRZZK\WKHVH\RXQJSHRSOHZKRZHUHNQRZQ
DVLQGLYLGXDOLVWVHYHQHJRLVWVGHFLGHGWRDFWWRJHWKHU6LQFHQHROLEHUDOLVPFDPHWRJRYHUQPRVWRIWKH
globe, French people aged 18-to-25 particularly suffered. Because of high unemployment, they have been
REOLJHGWRDFFHSWSDUWWLPHMREVDQGORZSDLGRUXQSDLGLQWHUQVKLSVWKH\DOVRODFNVRFLDOSURWHFWLRQVDQGDUH
called the CPE generation. South Korea also evidences the same socio-economic conditions among this age
group, labeled the ZRQJHQHUDWLRQ5. It is beyond the scope of this paper to identify causes and conse-
TXHQFHVRIWKHVHVLPLODUVRFLRHFRQRPLFFRQGLWLRQVDPRQJWKLVDJHJURXS5DWKHUIRFXVLQJWKHDQDO\VLVRQ
the different processes of mobilization helps eventually explain the nature of democracy in these societies:
+RZFLWL]HQVFRQFHLYHWKHLUGHPRFUDF\DQGKRZWKH\DSSO\WKDWFRQFHSWLRQLQSROLWLFDODQGHYHU\GD\OLIH

Method
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,FRQGXFWHGIDFHWRIDFHDQGHPDLOLQWHUYLHZVDPRQJSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHDQWL&3(PRYHPHQWLQ3DULVDQG

 7RGD\ZHPD\EHXQDEOHWRQGDFOHDUGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQOHIWDQGULJKWLQWKHSROLWLFDOHOGEXWWKDWGHPDUFDWLRQLVVWLOOLPSRUWDQWIRUSROLWLFLDQVDQG
the general public. .
 7KLVLVDWLWOHRIDERRNSXEOLVKHGE\.RUHDQHFRQRPLVWDQGMRXUQDOLVW6XN+RXQ:28.ZRQ,O3$5.7KHJHQHUDWLRQRIZRQ,
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lent to 600 Euros, because of their precarious job contracts.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 272

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and one of the most important student leader Bruno Julliard6,Q6HRXO,LQWHUYLHZHGWZHQW\XQLYHUVLW\VWX-
dents and 2 civil society activists, and 10 adult participants7DVWKH&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWKDGQRYLVLEOH
OHDGHUWKHUHVSRQGHQWVZHUHRUGLQDU\SDUWLFLSDQWV%HFDXVHRISULRUODUJHVFDOHLQWHUYLHZEDVHGUHVHDUFK
WKDWQXPEHURIUHVSRQGHQWVZDVVXIFLHQWIRUWKLVTXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\

Anti-CPE movement in France, 2006

Description of the Mobilization:

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JRYHUQPHQWZDVWKHODVW\HDURIKLVSUHVLGHQWLDOPDQGDWHDQGKLVJRYHUQPHQWKDGEHHQZHDNHQHG
QRWRQO\E\KLVODPHGXFNVWDWXVEXWDOVRE\WKHULRWVRI7KHULRWVUVWEURNHRXWLQD3DULVVVXEXUE8
DQGVSUHDGWRRWKHUELJFLWLHVZKHUHPDQ\$IULFDQDQG1RUWK$IULFDQLPPLJUDQWVKDGVHWWOHGVLQFHWKH
V)XUWKHUPRUHWKHQDWLRQDOXQHPSOR\PHQWUDWHZDVVWLOOKLJKSHUFHQWRIWKHZRUNLQJDJHSRSXOD-
tion and 21 percent of the 15-24 aged population. In these socio-economic circumstances the government
SUHVHQWHGWKH&3(ODZWKDWWKH*HQHUDO$VVHPEO\ZDVVXSSRVHGWRYRWHRQLQ0DUFK6WDUWLQJLQ)HEUX-
DU\OHIWZLQJXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVXQLRQV9RUJDQL]HGDQDWLRQDOOHYHORISURWHVWVDJDLQVWWKHODZLQFOXGLQJ
demonstrations on the street and blockage of university campuses and high school buildings. The protests
VXFFHVVIXOO\PRELOL]HGGLIIHUHQWDJHJURXSVDVZHOO

7KHDQWL&3(SURWHVWVZHQWRQIRUDERXWWKUHHPRQWKVRPHWKLQJWKDWFRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOHLIPRVW
labor unions did not give strong support to the movement. For example, an inter-professional national strike
ZDVRUJDQL]HGIRU0DUFKthDERXWPLOOLRQSHRSOHSDUWLFLSDWHG2Q$SULOth, labor unions again gave a
QRWLFHRIVWULNHDFWLRQWKDWGD\SHUFHQWRISULPDU\SXEOLFVFKRROVDQGSHUFHQWRIVHFRQGDU\VFKRROV
ZHUHGLVWXUEHGEHFDXVHRIDWHDFKHUV10 strike. Finally on April 10th3ULPH0LQLVWHU'RPLQLTXHGH9LOOSLQ
DQQRXQFHGWKHFDQFHOODWLRQRIWKHODZ7ZRSDUWLFXODUVRIWKLVPRYHPHQWVKRXOGEHKLJKOLJKWHG0DVV
PRELOL]DWLRQVRIXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVZHUHPXFKPRUHLPSRUWDQWDQGLQWHQVHLQUHJLRQVRWKHUWKDQLQ3DULV11
2) Many retired people12SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHVWUHHWGHPRQVWUDWLRQVZLWKWKHLUJUDQGFKLOGUHQ\RXQJSHRSOH.

Who Were the Actors? Triple Actors

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actors of the anti- CPE movement.

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 ,QWHUYLHZVKDYHEHHQUHDOL]HGLQ3DULVIURP'HFHPEHUWR)HEUXDU\
 ,QWHUYLHZVKDYHEHHQUHDOL]HGLQ6HRXOIURP0DUFKWR-XO\
8 In Clichy-sous-bois, a Paris suburb, the majority of residents are migrants from Africa. On October 27thWZRWHHQDJHUVZHUHNLOOHGDFFLGHQWO\E\HOHFWURFX-
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10 ,Q)UDQFHWHDFKHUVXQLRQVDUHDPRQJWKHPRVWSRZHUIXOODERUXQLRQV$PRQJWKHPWKHOHIWZLQJXQLRQLVWKHPRVWLQXHQWLDO
11 8VXDOO\3DULVPRQRSROL]HVPDQ\NLQGVRISROLWLFDOVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDODIIDLUV
12 ,QJHQHUDOWKH\ZHUHPHPEHUVRIODERUXQLRQZKHQWKH\ZRUNHG$IWHUZDUGVWKH\FRQWLQXHGWRVXSSRUWWKHVDPHFDXVHVVXFKDVZRUNHUVULJKWV
 273 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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WKHLUHYHU\GD\OLYHV%XWWKH\VKRZHGDVWURQJVROLGDULW\ZLWKWKH\RXQJSHRSOHVXIIHULQJIURPSUHFDULRXV
socio-economic conditions.

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convictions than realize their interests13.

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main subject: analysis of the process of mobilization. To analyze that process, , the most important thing is
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E\H[DPLQLQJKRZWKH\FRPPXQLFDWHGDQGGHFLGHGWRDFWFROOHFWLYHO\LQRWKHUZRUGVJRWRJHWKHU

How Did they connect?

First, the high school students had national organizations supported by political parties--usually by
VRFLDOLVWVOHIWZLQJDQGWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOULJKWZLQJSDUW\140RVWRIWKRVHVWXGHQWVNQRZWKDWVXFKRUJD-
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6FLHQFH3RVWXGHQWH[SODLQHGZK\VKHSDUWLFLSDWHGLQDQWL&3(GHPRQVWUDWLRQVZKLOHLQKLJKVFKRRO

Question: How did you decide to participate in demonstrations? Did you go to hear the debate between the students
in your high school? How did it work?
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UHSHDWZKDWWKH\OHDUQHGIURPWKHLUSDUHQWVRUWKHLUROGHUEURWKHUVDQGVLVWHUVZKDWHYHU6WLOOLWZDVLPSUHVVLYH
Question: Did you decide alone to go to the streets? You were not scared?
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13 2QFHDJDLQWKHIUHHULGHUSUREOHPLVVROYHG
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 274

Question: Did you use social media many times to know if your classmates, personal friends, or virtual friends were
going to demonstrations or simply to discuss the CPE law or the movement? Did you have many virtual friends?
How about your friends-did they have many?
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Question: We saw a lot of high school students in the street. Did you frequently meet the high school leaders to
prepare the demonstration together?
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incidents. Usually they listened to our advice.

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friends, sports clubs, etc. Such physical connections still play an important role in either their personal or
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In some regional universities such as those in the city of Rene, the extreme-left students unions historically
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VWUHDP,WLVQHDUO\LPSRVVLEOHWRUHYHUVHWKHFXUUHQWLIDELJZDOODOUHDG\H[LVWVWKHPDMRUQDWLRQDOVWXGHQW
union MNEF (a branch of the Socialist Party) is supported by most labor unions.

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WHVWHUVHQWHUHGWKHSROLWLFDOHOGDQGHQJDJHGLQDSROLWLFDOEDWWOHEHWZHHQOHIWDQGULJKWHYHQWKRXJKWKHLU
FODLPZDVODEHOHGHFRQRPLF0RVW?VWXGHQWVUHSOLHGWKDWWKH\ZHUHQRWLQWHUHVWHGLQSROLWLFVE\SDUWLFLSDW-
LQJLQDQWL&3(GHPRQVWUDWLRQVWKH\FKRVHWREHSROLWLFDOO\LQYROYHGZKHWKHUWKH\ZDQWHGWRRUQRW7KHQ
15 $OWKRXJKWKH\FDQQRWSDUWLFLSDWHLQSXEOLFOLIHIRUH[DPSOHHOHFWLRQVDVDGXOWVWKH\WHPSRUDULO\HQWHUWKHSROLWLFDOHOGWKURXJKRFFDVLRQDOGHPRQVWUD-
tions on the street.
 275 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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LQWHUYLHZZLWKDZRPDQZKRZDVD8QLYHUVLW\%RUGHDX[VWXGHQWLQ

Question: How did you decide to go to the general assembly (assemble gnral)? Were you alone or with your friends?
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EURXJKWXSLQDOHIWZLQJIDPLO\0\PRWKHUZDVDFLYLOVHUYDQWP\IDWKHULVDWUDLQGULYHU,QP\IDPLO\ZHKDYHKDG
PDQ\SROLWLFDOGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKP\SDUHQWVIULHQGV7KH\QHYHUIRUFHGDQ\SROLWLFDOOLQHVRQPHEXWZLWKWLPH,EHFDPHOHIW
Question: Are you a member of any student unions?
$QVZHU1R(YHQWKRXJK,VD\WRP\VHOI,DPOHIWDQGWKH\GRVRPHWKLQJXVHIXOIRUVWXGHQWV,
GRQWWKLQN,ZLOOMRLQWKHPEHFDXVH,GRQWOLNHWKHLUDOOVHWWOHGPLQG7KH\DUHWRRLQH[LEOH,PHDQOHIWZLQJVWXGHQW
XQLRQV,GRQWHYHQWKLQNDERXWWKHULJKWZLQJXQLRQV,NQRZWKH\H[LVWEXW,YHQHYHUVHHQDQ\RIWKHPSHUVRQDOO\
Question: Why did you participate in the demonstration? Why do you think other generations also partici-
pated? Was it an economic protest or deeper?
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RIEHLQJODLGRIILQWZR\HDUV2XUSDUHQWVJHQHUDWLRQWKRXJKWWKDWLIVXFKDODZSDVVHGDOOWKHVRFLDODFKLHYHPHQWV
WKDWWKH\DQGWKHLSDUHQWVVWUXJJOHGIRUZRXOGFROODSVH7KH\ZHUHDIUDLGIRUWKHLUFKLOGUHQVIXWXUH

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ZD\RIPRELOL]DWLRQDQGWKH\ZHUHFRQQHFWHGE\SUHH[LVWLQJVRFLDOQHWZRUNV3ROLWLFDOO\FRORUHGRUJDQL]D-
tions put out their arguments or proposed a solution to a problem of concern, and the participants accepted
SOD\LQJWKHLUUROHRQWKLVSROLWLFDOVWDJH,QDVHQVHWKH\FRQVXPHGDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWSURGXFWDQGDO-
ORZHGHVWDEOLVKHGRUJDQL]DWLRQVWRVSHDNLQWKHLUQDPH

Candlelight Movement in South Korea, 2008

Description of the Mobilization:

On April 18, 2008, the South Korean government announced an agreement on hygienic conditions for
$PHULFDQEHHILPSRUWVVHYHUDOPHGLDKDGDOUHDG\HYRNHGYLVLRQVRIWKHHFRQRPLFGDPDJH$PHULFDQEHHI
could pose for Korean breeders. A documentary aired by one broadcasting company (MBC), had already
reported that the actual agreement about hygienic conditions for American imported beef could not pre-
YHQWSRVVLEOHFRQWDPLQDWLRQZLWK%6(ERYLQHVSRQJLIRUPHQFHSKDORSDWK\7KDWGRFXPHQWDU\SURYRNHG
anxiety and anger among ordinary people, especially middle and high school students. The government has
GHFLGHGWRXVH$PHULFDQEHHIUVWIRUVFKRROPHDOVEHFDXVHLWZDVFKHDSDQGJRRGTXDOLW\16WKHSXEOLF
LQWHUSUHWHGWKLVPHDVXUHWRPHDQWKDWVWXGHQWVZRXOGEHDQH[SHULPHQW,QDQRWKHUIDOVHVWHSE\WKHJRY-
HUQPHQWVWKHSROLFHDUUHVWHGWKHGRFXPHQWDU\VSURGXFHUDQGMRXUQDOLVWDQGWKHQSURKLELWHGLWVVFUHHQLQJ
claiming that it disseminated false information and caused severe unrest in society.

$WWKDWVWDJHQRWKLQJQRWHZRUWK\KDSSHQHGXQWLOVRPHPLGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVSURSRVHG&DQ-
dlelight Assembly on an Internet caf. (On this South Korean portal site, anyone can easily create a caf to
share information). In a surprise to all, that Candlelight Assembly not only continued for more than three
16 7KHVHWHUPVZHUHXVHGE\WKH3UHVLGHQWKHH[SUHVVHGKLVLQFRPSUHKHQVLRQDERXWZK\SHRSOHZHUHVRDQJU\DERXWWKH$PHULFDQEHHILPSRUWV2QHRIWKH
IDPRXVSLFNHWSKUDVHVZDV0DGFRZ\RXHDWLW
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 276

PRQWKVEXWDOVRGUHZWHQVRIPLOOLRQVRISHRSOHRIGLIIHUHQWDJHVDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\LQWRWKHVWUHHWV)LQDOO\
WKH3UHVLGHQWSUHVHQWHGKLVH[FXVHVDQGUHYLVHGWKHDJUHHPHQWZLWK$PHULFDQV

Who Were the Actors? Quadruple Actors

7KH SHRSOH GLUHFWO\ DQG LPPHGLDWHO\ FRQFHUQHG E\ WKH$PHULFDQ EHHI LPSRUWV ZHUH WKH 6RXWK .R-
UHDQEUHHGHUVVRWKHSURWHVWDJDLQVWFRXOGKDYHEHHQOLPLWHGWRDSURWHVWE\RQO\RQHLQWHUHVWHGJURXS
$OWKRXJKWKHUHZHUHSURWHVWVRUJDQL]HGE\WKHEUHHGHUVDQGVRPH1*2RUJDQL]DWLRQVWKHSXEOLFGLGQRW
pay attention until middle and high school girls17 organized a Candlelight Assembly in the plaza of Seoul
City Hall186RWKHLQLWLDWRUVDQGPDLQDFWRUVZHUHPLGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWV$WWKHHQGRI$SULO
WKHPLQLVWHURIHGXFDWLRQDQQRXQFHGWKHOLEHUDOL]DWLRQRIPLGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROPDQDJHPHQWLQFOXGLQJ
concerning, stream, augmented class hours19DQGPRUHZHLJKWWR(QJOLVKODQJXDJHFODVVHV20. For parents,
WKLVQHZHGXFDWLRQSROLF\PHDQWDKLJKHUFRVWIRUWKHLUFKLOGUHQVSULYDWHHGXFDWLRQV,QWKH\DOUHDG\
ZHUH VSHQGLQJ PRUH WKDQ  SHUFHQW RI LQFRPH IRU SULYDWH VFKRROLQJ21. After the announcement, more
middle and high school students and their parents participated in the Candlelight Assembly.

7KXVWKHVHFRQGDFWRUVZHUHSDUHQWVZLWKDQDYHUDJHDJHEHWZHHQWKHPLGVWKURXJK0HPEHUVRI
that generation had experienced the 10th-XQH'HPRFUDF\0RYHPHQWLQDQGZHUHWKHPDLQDFWRUV
RIWKH'HPRFUDF\0RYHPHQW6LQFHWKHQWKH\KDGUHWXUQHGWRDQRUPDOWUDLQRIOLIHZRUNDQGWKHLURZQ
IDPLOLHV7ZHQW\\HDUVODWHUWKH\IRXQGWKHPVHOYHVLQDVLPLODUSODFHEXWQRZZLWKWKHLUFKLOGUHQ

+HUHLVWKHH[SODQDWLRQIURPRQHSDUHQWSDUWLFLSDQWLQWKH&DQGOHOLJKW$VVHPEO\

,Q,ZDVLQWKHSURWHVWDIWHUWKHGHDWKRI/HH+DQ<RO22 ZKHQRQHPLOOLRQSHRSOHJDWKHUHG,ZDVDWWKHVDPH
FLW\KDOO:HZHUHVRSURXGDQGHQWKXVLDVWLFEXWZLWKOLIHJRLQJRQRXUGUHDPEOXUUHGDZD\,QGHSHQGHQFHMXVWLFH
DQWL$PHULFDQLVPSULGHWKHVHZRUGVORVWWKHLUFRORUVDQGEHFDPHWDVWHOHVV%XWWRGD\,DPKDSS\,WUHPLQGVPH
of our energy in June 1987.

$QRWKHULQWHUYLHZHHGHVFULEHGWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHDWPRVSKHUHRIWKH&DQGOHOLJKW$VVHPEO\GHPRQ-
VWUDWLRQVFRPSDUHWRWKHJHQHUDWLRQDQGWKHZRUU\DERXWWKHKLJKFRVWRISULYDWHHGXFDWLRQXQGHUWKH
JRYHUQPHQWVQHZHGXFDWLRQSROLF\
17 2QHRIWKHP\VWHULHVRIWKH&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQWLVZK\WKHLQLWLDWRUVDQGWKHPDMRULW\RIWHHQDJHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHIHPDOH2QH1*21$180-
MUNHWA (For share of culture), created its character as an image, &DQGOHOLJKW*LUODOLWWOHJLUOKROGLQJDFDQGOHZKLFKEHFDPHDSRSXODUV\PERORIWKLV
movement.
18 This place is called *ZDQJ+ZD0RRQRQHRIWKHDQFLHQWPDLQJDWHVRI6HRXO,WZDVDV\PEROLFSODFHIRUWKHGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQRI6RXWK.RUHDHVSHFLDOO\
after 1987, the year of the turning point of South Korean political conditions.
19 0LGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDOUHDG\VSHQWPRUHWKDQKRXUVDGD\LQVFKRROWKH\ZHUHREOLJHGWRVWD\DWVFKRROHYHQDIWHUFODVVHVWRVWXG\(VSHFLDO-
O\GXULQJWKHLUODVW\HDURIKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDUULYHDWKDQGOHDYHDWK7KH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQKDVCWROHUDWHGWKLVNLQGRISUDFWLFHIRUVWXGHQWV
LQWKHLUODVW\HDU%XWWKLVOLEHUDOL]DWLRQPHDQVWKDWWKHSULQFLSDORIVFKRROFDQGHFLGHRQFODVVKRXUVDQGH[WUDFODVVHV,Q6RXWK.RUHDKDUVKFRPSHWLWLRQ
IRUDGPLVVLRQWRJRRGXQLYHUVLWLHVVWDUWVLQHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROWKLVPHDVXUHPHDQWWKDWPRVWVWXGHQWVVWD\ORQJHULQVFKRROWKDQEHIRUH
20 To enter a major university in South Korea, English is very important. That is not because speaking English is important per se, but it became a important
means of selection for university admission. Members of the privileged class can provide expensive extra private English classes or can send their children
WRDQ(QJOLVKVSHDNLQJFRXQWU\GXULQJYDFDWLRQVEXWPDQ\SDUHQWVKDYHGLIFXOW\DIIRUGLQJVXFKPHDVXUHV7KXVJLYLQJPRUHZHLJKWWR(QJOLVKFODVVHV
means closing major university doors for most students except those in the privileged class.
21 Source: Web site Statistics Korea, http://kostat.go.kr.
22 7KHVWXGHQWZKRGLHGGXULQJWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQDJDLQVWWKHPLOLWDU\JRYHUQPHQWLQEHFDPHRQHRIWKHLFRQVRIWKHGHPRFUDF\PRYHPHQWRIWKHV
ZLWK-RQJ&KRO3$5.:HFDQFRPSDUHWKLVLQFLGHQWZLWKDVLPLODUH[DPSOHLQ(XURSHWKDWRI,\DQ3$/$&+RIWKH&]HFK5HSXEOLFZKRLPPRODWHG
himself to protest against the invasion by Soviet troops during the Prague spring of 1968.
 277 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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$WWKDWWLPHWKLVRUJDQL]DWLRQGLGQRWKDYHDUHOLJLRXVFKDUDFWHUEXWUDWKHUZDVDSURGHPRFUDF\DQGDQWLPLOLWDU\
JRYHUQPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQ,DPQRZDPLGGOHPDQDJHPHQWH[HFXWLYHLQDELJFRPSDQ\,KDYHEHHQVRRFFXSLHGE\
ZRUNDQGP\IDPLO\OLIHWKDW,KDYHQRWVHHQP\FDPSXVIULHQGVLQDJHV*XHVVZKDW",PHWRQHRIWKHPKHUHDWWKH
YHU\SOD]DZKHUHZHVKRXWHGWRJHWKHU\HDUVDJR1RZZHDUHKROGLQJFDQGOHVLQVWHDGRIVWRQHVVLJQLQJLQVWHDG
RIFU\LQJ,WVOLNHDIHDVW,QDQLURQLFDOVLGHRIKLVWRU\QRZZHDUHEHLQJOHDGE\RXUFKLOGUHQKROGLQJFDQGOHV
I feel ashamed but at the same time feel pride at these young middle and high school students.

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people, economically I am in better condition. But even for me, if it continues like this, I cannot prepare my retirement
FRUUHFWO\EHFDXVHRIWKHSULYDWHHGXFDWLRQFRVW:HVKRXOGVWRSWKLVVSLUDO

7KHWKLUGDFWRUVZHUHXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWV,QQXPEHUVWKH\ZHUHPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQSDUHQWSDUWLFL-
SDQWV$WUVWWKH\ZHUHTXLWHLQGLIIHUHQWDERXWWKH&DQGOHOLJKW$VVHPEO\EXWLQWKHFRXUVHRIWLPHWKDW
FKDQJHGGXHWRWKHDQWLQHROLEHUDOLVWJRYHUQPHQWVSROLF\VWDUWLQJZLWK$PHULFDQEHHIHGXFDWLRQDQGWKH
FKDUDFWHURIQHZPHPEHUVRIWKHPLQLVWU\233HRSOHDJHGZHUHVXIIHULQJIURPXQHPSOR\PHQW7KH
UDWHLQUHDFKHGSHUFHQWIRUWKHDJHGSRSXODWLRQDQGIRUWKHWRWDODFWLYHZRUNLQJDJH
population24)URPDJOREDOSRLQWRIYLHZWKRVHVWDWLVWLFVZHUHQRWEDGEXWIRUWKH6RXWK.RUHDQSRSXOD-
tion it meant a large percussive hit to the collective physiology because they had experienced almost full
HPSOR\PHQWIRUIWHHQ\HDUV25. For the time being, the choice these young people had made to surmount
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not to protest. For example, most large Korean global companies demanded the TOEIC test26ZKHQWKH\
UHFUXLWHGQHZHPSOR\HHV0RVWVWXGHQWVSUHSDUHIRUWKHWHVWIRUDZKROHXQLYHUVLW\\HDU

7KHIRXUWKDFWRUVZHUHQRWXQFRPPRQ1*2DFWLYLVWVDQGVRPHOHIWZLQJSROLWLFLDQV(YHQWKRXJKWKH\
ZHUHDIWHUYHQXHVRIWKH&DQGOHOLJKW0RYHPHQWWKHPRYHPHQWFRXOGFRQWLQXHGZLWKRXWPDMRUDFFLGHQWV
WKDQNVWRWKHLUNQRZKRZ2QHRIWKHPDMRU1*227DFWLYLVWVLQWHUYLHZHGVKRZVKRZWKH\IHOWKHOSOHVV
EHIRUHWKHPLGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWV&DQGOHOLJKW$VVHPEO\

,ZDVVWXQQHGZKHQ,VDZWKHPLGGOHDQGKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWVDVVHPEOHGLQWKH&LW\+DOO3OD]D7KH\FDPHZLWKIXQQ\
SLFNHWVPDGHE\WKHPVHOYHVFKDQWLQJWRJHWKHUFULWLFL]LQJJRYHUQPHQWVHGXFDWLRQSROLF\ULVN\EHHIHWF,VDLGP\VHOI
*RG,WLVP\MREWRSURWHVWQRW\RXUV,VSHQWP\ZKROHOLIHIRUWKDW,ZDVVRDVKDPHG:KDWZDVJRLQJZURQJ"

7KHQKRZFRXOGWKHVHGLIIHUHQWDFWRUVKDYHGHFLGHGWRDFWWRJHWKHU"7KLVTXHVWLRQOHDGVWRDQDQDO\VLV
of the process of mobilization of the 2008 Candlelight movement in South Korea.

How Did They Connect?

23 7KH\DOOFRPHIURPWKHKLJKO\SULYLOHJHGFODVVSHRSOHKDYHMXGJHGWKDWWKH\DUHQRWFRQFHUQHGZLWKRUGLQDU\SHRSOHVHYHU\GD\OLIH
24 Source: Web site Statistics Korea, http://kostat.go.kr.
25 ([FHSWQDQFLDOFULVLV
26 Another practical issue for members of the unprivileged class: The test is expensive, and the more opportunity you have to spend times in an English-
speaking country, the better the chance of a good result.
27 &KDP\R<RQGDL3HRSOHV6ROLGDULW\IRU3DUWLFLSDWRU\'HPRFUDF\
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 278

First, middle and high school students had no political organization, unlike l in France. They had student
FRPPLWWHHVLQWKHLUVFKRROEXWWKRVHKDGQRSROLWLFDOFKDUDFWHU8QGHUDJHWKH\DUHQRWDOORZHGE\ODZWR
participate in any political activities. These teenagers, like those in many other countries, spend a lot of time
RQWKH1HW7KH\FKDWDQGFRQYHUVHRQWKH1HWZLWKWKHLUYLUWXDOIULHQGVUDWKHUWKDQZLWKWKHLUFODVVPDWHV
7KHVHLQWHUYLHZH[FHUSWVLOOXVWUDWHFKDUDFWHURIWHHQDJHUVLQ6RXWK.RUHD

Question: Why do you prefer to chat on the Net rather than with your classmates or your neighborhood friends?
$QVZHU,GRQWNQRZEXW,WKLQNWKHUHODWLRQLVVLPSOHUDQGOLJKWHUWKDQZLWKQHLJKERUKRRGIULHQGV<RXMXVWVKDUH\RXU
RSLQLRQRULQIRUPDWLRQWKDWVDOO<RXQHHGQRWVHHWKHP<RXKDYHQRULVNRIJHWWLQJDQJU\ZLWK\RXUYLUWXDOIULHQGV,I
\RXJHWDQJU\\RXMXVWTXLWFKDWWLQJRUTXLWEHLQJDPHPEHURIWKH,QWHUQHW&DIp,WVFRRO<RXDUHQRWREOLJHGWRVHHWKHP
Question: How much time do you spend chatting on the Net?
$QVZHU,WGHSHQGV6RPHWLPHVIRXURUYHKRXUVSHUZHHN%XW,DOVRVSHQGWLPHZLWKP\QHLJKERUKRRGIULHQGVDQG
FODVVPDWHVWRR:HXVHDORWRI606,WVPRUHHIFLHQWDQG\RXGRQWGLVWXUERWKHUV,WKLQNRXUJHQHUDWLRQLVDGGLFWHG
WRWKH,QWHUQHWDQGFHOOXODUSKRQH)RUH[DPSOHLI,QGWKHEDWWHU\RIP\SKRQHLVGLVFKDUJHG,EHFDPHQHUYRXV
Somebody can call me or send me a SMS but I cannot respond.

By choice, they connected more on the Net rather than in their physical surroundings like in France.
Their references for everyday life are neither their elder brothers nor sisters nor their peer groups, nor their
parents but their virtual friends.

7KHVDPHPRGHRIFRQQHFWLRQZDVIRXQGIRUXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVDVWKLVLQWHUYLHZH[FHUSWVKRZV

Question: How did you decide to go the City Hall Plaza?

$QVZHU:HOO,DPDYHU\UDWLRQDORULQGLYLGXDOSHUVRQ,GRQWOLNHWRWDONDERXWDWRSLFLILWGRHVQRWFRQFHUQPH
directly. But I learned about the problem of American beef imports by Internet. I read some private opinions in the
EORJVDQGLQGHSHQGHQWPHGLD28:KHQ,SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKH&DQGOHOLJKW$VVHPEO\IRUWKHUVWWLPH,OLVWHQHGFDUH-
IXOO\WRRWKHUVRSLQLRQVDQGUHDOL]HGWKDWLIZHDOORZWKHLPSRUWDWLRQLWFRXOGEHGDQJHURXVIRUP\IDPLO\$IWHUWKDW
I participated in mobilization as long as I could.

+HUHDJDLQWKHGHFLVLRQUHIHUHQFHIRUXQLYHUVLW\VWXGHQWVZDVQRWEDVHGRQWKHLUVXUURXQGLQJVEXWDQ-
RWKHUVSKHUHWKH,QWHUQHWPRUHVSHFLFDOO\RWKHUVRSLQLRQVRQWKHQHWQRERG\HOVHQHLWKHUSROLWLFDOHOLWH
QRUHVWDEOLVKHGMRXUQDOLVW$QLQWHUHVWLQJSURFHVVLVWKDWWKHVHSHRSOHUHDOL]HGDFURVVHQFRXQWHUE\SDU-
WLFLSDWLQJLQWKHPRELOL]DWLRQ7KDWVZK\DORWRIGLYHUVH,QWHUQHW&DIpPHPEHUVPHWE\DSSRLQWPHQWLQ
WKH&LW\+DOO3OD]DXQGHUWKHLURZQDJRUSLFNHWZKDWHYHUWKH\GHFLGHGWRUHFRJQL]H7KHVH,QWHUQHW&DIp
members could belong to a cooking caf, a fashion mania caf, or a dance caf or other type.

Conclusion
,QWKHDQWL&3(PRELOL]DWLRQ)UHQFKSHRSOHXVHGWKHDOUHDG\VHWWOHGPRELOL]DWLRQIUDPHRIOHIWZLQJ
DQGWDQJLEOHRUJDQL]DWLRQVOHIWZLQJZKLOHLQWKH&DQGOHOLJKWPRYHPHQW6RXWK.RUHDQVUHIXVHGWRXVH
the already existing frame and organizations to create their mass mobilization. As other scholars found

28 he most famous independent Internet press is 2K0\1HZV7KLVLVDQH[FOXVLYHLQWHUQHWQHZVZKLFKZDVIRXQGHGLQ7KLVLQWHUQHWQHZVSDSHUUXQ

E\IUHHODQFHMRXUQDOLVWVZKRDUHSDLGGLUHFWO\E\UHDGHUVZKRMXGJHGWKHDUWLFOHLVZRUWKWRSD\7KHJHQHUDOFKDUDFWHUVRIWKHDUWLFOHVDUHUDWKHUOHIW
 279 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

earlier29WKHSURFHVVRIPRELOL]DWLRQFDQGLYLGHGLQWRWZRVWDJHVFRQVHQVXVPRELOL]DWLRQWKHQDFWLRQPREL-
OL]DWLRQ,QERWKVWDJHVWKHZD\DQGPHDQVWRROVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQDPRQJLQGLYLGXDOVLVFULWLFDO,QIDFW
people select the means of communication according to their goal of communication. If people already
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OHVVWKHSURFHGXUH&3(VFDVH+RZHYHULISHRSOHFRQIURQWDQXQNQRZQDJHQGDWKH\FRQWLQXDOO\VHHN
WRNQRZZKDWRWKHUVWKLQN6RXWK.RUHDVFDVH7KDWVZK\LWLVLPSRUWDQWWRVWXG\WKHUROHRIWKH,QWHUQHW
VRFLDOPHGLDLQWKHSURFHVVRIPRELOL]DWLRQWRH[SODLQKRZVRFLDOPHGLDPRELOL]HFRQVHQVXVDQGDFWLRQ
Social media could play an important role as a tool of communication, not as an essential element to create
DVXFFHVVIXOPRELOL]DWLRQHVSHFLDOO\ZKHUHWKHHVWDEOLVKHGPDVVPHGLDGRQRWSOD\WKHLUQRUPDWLYHUROH
as venues for political communication and dissemination of political information in a civil society. That is
ZK\6RXWK.RUHDQVXVHGVRFLDOPHGLDLQWKHSURFHVVRIFRQVHQVXVDQGDFWLRQPRELOL]DWLRQ

+RZHYHUWKLVGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWLQROGGHPRFUDWLFVRFLHWLHVSHRSOHEHOLHYHLQWUDGLWLRQDOPHGLDDQG
that the media fully play their normative role: In France, journalists are considered just like politicians
WKH\ZULWHFULWLFL]HVRFLDOHFRQRPLFFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDODIIDLUVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUSROLWLFDOOLQHV7KH\
DOVRDUHPDLQDFWRUVLQWKHSROLWLFDOHOGMXVWOLNHSROLWLFLDQV7KHUHIRUHWKHUHLVQRUHDVRQSHRSOHVKRXOG
EHOLHYHPRUHLQMRXUQDOLVWVWKDQLQSROLWLFLDQV7KHQZK\LQ)UDQFHGLGSHRSOHQRWUHO\RQVRFLDOPHGLDWR
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QRWDQ\RQHHOVHVRSLQLRQFRXQWRWKHUVMXVWOLNHPHEHFDXVHPHDQGRWKHUVDUHLQHTXDOLW\: there is
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WHUHVWHGSHRSOH7KDWVZK\.RUHDQVJDYHPRUHLPSRUWDQFHWRZKDWRWKHUVRXWWKHUHWKRXJKWDQGDFWHG"
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(bovine spongiform encephalopathy) or the international trade agreement process. During the Candlelight
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broadcasting sites.

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they apply that conception in their political and everyday life. South Koreans conceive that democracy
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5HYLHZ, vol. 49, n 5, p. 583-600.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 280

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*RRGZLQ-HII-DVSHU-DPHV0DQG3ROOHWD)UDQFHVFD3DVVLRQDWH3ROLWLFV(PRWLRQVDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV, Chicago, University of
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'LDPRQG/DUU\3ODWWQHU)0DUF&KX<XQKDQDQG7LHQ+XQJPDR%DOWLPRUH-RKRQ+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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Internet
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http://home.nec.go.kr:7070/ sinfo/sinfo.htm
 281 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Twitter and Public Reasoning around Social Contention:

The Case of #15ott in Italy

STEFANIA VICARI
University of Leicester

Abstract
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LVVXHVUHODWHGWRVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQ,WVSHFLFDOO\IRFXVHVRQWKH,WDOLDQFKDSWHURIWKH
2FWREHUSRO\FHQWULFSURWHVWIRU*OREDO&KDQJH%\H[SORULQJ7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVWKH
VWXG\IROORZVIRXUVSHFLFOLQHVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQWKHSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKH,WDOLDQRWW
KDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDPRQJRWKHU7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVUHOHYDQWWRWKHSURWHVWFRQYHU-
VDWLRQDOG\QDPLFVRYHUWLPHQHWZRUNLQJDQGQHZVPHGLDG\QDPLFVDQGSURFHVVHVRI
PHDQLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQ7KHQGLQJVVKRZWKDW7ZLWWHUXVDJHUHODWHGWRVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQ
LVQRWRQO\IXQFWLRQDOWRJHQHUDWHDOWHUQDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQRZVZLWKRUJDQL]DWLRQDODQG
logistic purposes. It also bolsters processes of public reasoning and opinion making
activated not only by collective advocacy actors and media channels but also by indi-
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Keywords
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Introduction
On October 15thSURWHVWRUVIURPDOOZDONVRIOLIHWRRNWRWKHVWUHHWVRIRYHUHLJKW\FRXQWULHVWRSUR-
test against the global economic crisis and demand changes in the global economic system.

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FHQWULFVHJPHQWHGQHWZRUNHGSURWHVWHYHQWVIRUJOREDOMXVWLFHKDYHPXVKURRPHGDOORYHUWKHZRUOGLQWKH
IRUPRISURWHVWZDYHV.RRSPDQV0RGXODUUHSHUWRLUHVRIFRQWHQWLRQ7DUURZKDYHFKDUDF-
WHUL]HGFRQWHPSRUDU\WUDQVQDWLRQDOSURWHVWZKHUHRUJDQL]DWLRQWDFWLFVDQGSHUIRUPDQFHVKDYHWUDQVIHUUHG
from place to place and from local mobilization to local mobilization mainly via online and/or mobile com-
PXQLFDWLRQQDPHO\WH[WPHVVDJHVPDLOLQJOLVWVZHEVLWHVDQGHDUO\VRFLDOPHGLD

+RZHYHUWRGD\VDFWLYLVPIRUJOREDOFKDQJHVHHPVQHZLQWZRDVSHFWVWKHFXUUHQWVRFLRSROLWLFDOEDFN-
ground marked by the global economic crisis, and the use of microblogging platforms of communication
to spread information, co-ordinate protest activities, debate on protest issues, and counter, integrate or dis-
seminate mass media coverage of protest events (Segerberg and Bennett, 2011).

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PDLQUHDVRQVRQHFRQWLQJHQWDQGRQHFRQWH[WXDOWKHRXWFRPHVRIWKHSURWHVWDQGWKHFRXQWU\VERRPLQJ
RIPLFUREORJJLQJDFWLYLW\)LUVW,WDO\ZDVWKHRQO\FRXQWU\ZKHUHWKH2FWREHUJOREDOSURWHVWUH-
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 282

VXOWHGLQYLROHQWHYHQWVZLWKVWUHHWGHVWUXFWLRQVSHUSHWXDWHGE\VHYHUDOKXQGUHGVRIDFWLYLVWVDQGFODVKHV
EHWZHHQSURWHVWHUVDQGWKHSROLFH6HFRQGLQDPRPHQWLQZKLFKPLFUREORJJLQJLVWKHIDVWHVWJURZLQJ
,QWHUQHWDFWLYLW\DOORYHUWKHZRUOGRIWKH,WDOLDQSRSXODWLRQGRPLFUREORJZLWK7ZLWWHUEHLQJE\IDU
WKHPRVWSRSXODUPLFUREORJJLQJVHUYLFHJOREDOZHELQGH[QHW,QIDFWWKH2FWREHUJOREDOSURWHVW
ZDVZLGHO\FRYHUHGRQ7ZLWWHUE\,WDOLDQDFWLYLVWVMRXUQDOLVWVFRPPHQWDWRUVDQGFRPPRQFLWL]HQVEHIRUH
during, and after the protest itself.

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sion around contemporary polycentric collective action. The study is structured on the analysis of the most
prominent hashtag in the Italian demonstrations on October 15th2WW7KH7ZLWWHUKDVKWDJLVSDUWLFXODUO\
UHOHYDQWWRWKHSXUSRVHRIWKLVVWXG\EHFDXVHE\JDWKHULQJWZHHWVSRVWHGE\GLIIHUHQWLQGLYLGXDOVHJ
activists, journalists, common citizens), it cuts across the protest space (Segerberg and Bennett, 2011). In
RWKHUZRUGVLWDOORZVRQHWRIRFXVRQFRPPHQWVE\DQ\LQGLYLGXDOLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHHYHQWV*LYHQWKHRXW-
FRPHVRIWKHSURWHVWWKHXVHRIWKH,WDOLDQKDVKWDJ2WWGLGQRWFHDVHDIWHUWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQZLWKQHZ
WZHHWVPXVKURRPLQJLQWKHGD\VDIWHUWKHSURWHVWLWVHOI7KHUHIRUHWKHVWXG\IRFXVHVRQRYHUWZHHWV
SURGXFHGLQWKHWKLUW\GD\VIROORZLQJWKHSURWHVWIURPWKHPLGPRUQLQJRIWKHth of October until the
morning of the 15thRI1RYHPEHU7KHIROORZLQJVHFWLRQSURYLGHVDJHQHUDOEDFNJURXQGRQWKHSRO\-
FHQWULFSURWHVWVIRU*OREDO&KDQJHDQGVSHFLFDOO\LQWURGXFHVWKH2FWREHUSURWHVWIRU*OREDO&KDQJHLQ
,WDO\1H[W,UHYLHZWKHRUHWLFDODQGHPSLULFDOFRQWULEXWLRQVRQWKHXVHRI7ZLWWHUIRUSURWHVWHYHQWVDQG,
VSHFLFDOO\IRFXVRQWKHVWXG\RI7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVDVFKDQQHOVIRUSXEOLFUHDVRQLQJDQGRSLQLRQIRUPDWLRQ
DURXQGWKHPHDQLQJRIVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQ7KHIROORZLQJVHFWLRQLQWURGXFHVGDWDDQGPHWKRGVXVHGLQWKH
VWXG\7KHUHPDLQGHURIWKHSDSHUVKRZVWKHVWXG\VPDLQQGLQJVZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRIRXUSULPDU\OLQHVRI
LQYHVWLJDWLRQVWKHSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKH,WDOLDQ2WWKDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDPRQJWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
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The 15 October Polycentric Protest for Global Change

and its Italian Chapter
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Street Movement, later to be renamed the Occupy Movement. The former, emerged in Spain in May 2011,
had already spread in several European countries particularly affected by the economic crisis (namely,
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HFRQRPLFLQHTXDOLW\2QWKHRQHKDQGDV*LXJQLVXJJHVWVWKHXSKHDYDOVLQWKH0LGGOH(DVWKDYH
HQFRXUDJHGFLWL]HQVLQRWKHUSDUWVRIWKHZRUOGLQFOXGLQJWKH86WRWDNHWRWKHVWUHHWVWRVKRZWKHLUGLV-
FRQWHQW2QWKHRWKHUKDQGDVVDLGWUDQVQDWLRQDOSRO\FHQWULFDFWLYLVPIRUVRFLDOMXVWLFHZDVQRWKLQJQHZ
7KHVRFDOOHG*OREDO-XVWLFH0RYHPHQWRIWKHODWHVDQGHDUO\VPRELOL]HGRQHFRQRPLFHTXDOLW\
WKURXJKKXQGUHGVRISRO\FHQWULFSURWHVWV'HOOD3RUWD,QIDFWWKHQHZERUQPRYHPHQWIRU*OREDO
&KDQJHFDQQRZEHVHHQDVDGLUHFWGHVFHQGHQWRIWKH*-0HPHUJHGLQDPRPHQWLQZKLFKWKHFLUFXP-
VWDQFHVKDYHEHFRPHIDYRUDEOHIRUDQHZZDYHRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOFRQWHQWLRQ

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 283 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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July 2011 by Spanish hackers involved in the Indignados protests and soon became a platform of discussion
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post and gather information on the transnational call for action and to organize local demonstrations.

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place in Rome. There, around 200,000 people participated in the protest (15october.net). The Rome dem-
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la2), and trade unions. Coordinamento 15 ottobre planned a march in the heart of the city, to start from Pi-
azza della Repubblica and summon in Piazza San Giovanni. On the afternoon, part of the activists involved
LQWKHUDOO\WXUQHGYLROHQWZKLOHKRRGHGSURWHVWHUVODWHUWREHORRVHO\LGHQWLHGDV%ODFN%ORFN3, set the city
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FODVKHVEHWZHHQSURWHVWHUVDQGSROLFHRFFXUUHGLQVHYHUDOORFDWLRQVUHVXOWLQJLQRYHUSHRSOHEHLQJLQ-
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City Council on November 14, 2011, the damage from the rioting amounted to 900,000 (comunediroma.
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HYHQWVRFFXUUHGGXULQJWKH,WDOLDQFKDSWHURIWKHSURWHVW$VVDLG7ZLWWHUKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPVFXWDFURVVWKH
protest ecology, i.e., they may involve different players, from activists to journalists on to citizens merely
LQWHUHVWHGLQWKHHYHQWV+HQFHE\H[SORULQJ7ZLWWHUDFWYLW\RQHFDQUDLVHFRQVLGHUDWLRQVRQWKHZD\7ZLWWHU
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strong impact on the general public.

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the city of Rome.
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From Social to Political.
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Theoretical Background
Twitter and Social Contention

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examples of social contention.

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DUHEHFRPLQJSDUWRIWKHSURWHVWHQYLURQPHQWLQZKLFKWKH\RSHUDWH$V&KULVWHQVHQKLJKOLJKWV
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WKHIRUPHUZDUQDJDLQVWWKHUHHPHUJHQFHRIFRQWHPSRUDU\IRUPVRIWHFKQRORJLFDOGHWHUPLQLVPRQWKH
RWKHUKDQGWKHODWWHUGUDZDWWHQWLRQWRWKHVXFFHVVIXOUROHRIVRFLDOPHGLDLQWKHUHFHQWXSULVLQJVLQWRWDOL-
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RI7ZLWWHU)DFHERRNDQGWKHOLNHLQWKHJHQHUDWLRQRIHSKHPHUDOWLHVDPRQJDFWLYLVWVDQGSURWHVWHUV+H
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PRYHPHQWFRDOLWLRQVZKHQLWZDVDUJXHGWKDWGLJLWDOO\QHWZRUNHGDFWLYLVPZDVHSKHPHUDO7DUURZ
&DVWHOOV$QG\HWHDUO\WZHQW\UVWFHQWXU\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWQHWZRUNVKDYHVXFFHVV-
IXOO\JURZQGHYHORSHGDQGWUDQVIRUPHG,QSDUWLFXODUZKDWLWZDVWKHQFDOOHGWKH*OREDO-XVWLFH0RYH-
ment seems to have evolved into the current polycentric Movement for Global Change, mobilized, among
the others, by the Occupy Wall Street and the Indignados activist groups (Giugni, 2012).

Morozov (2009a) also highlights the little internal relevance of social media in countries like Moldova
ZKHUHWKHOHYHOVRI,QWHUQHWDFFHVVDQGOLWHUDF\DUHEHORZWKHDYHUDJH

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XSULVLQJVWKH$UDEVSULQJDQGPRUHUHFHQWSRO\FHQWULFSURWHVWVKDYHIRFXVHGRQWZRLVVXHVWKHVXFFHVVIXO
XVHRI7ZLWWHUWRPDNHORFDOFDXVHVNQRZQWRWUDQVQDWLRQDODXGLHQFHVDQGLWVLPSRUWDQFHIRUPRELOL]DWLRQ
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QDWLRQDOERUGHUV6HJHUEHUJDQG%HQQHW,QGHHGUHOLDELOLW\DQGUHSUHVHQWDWLYHQHVVRI7ZLWWHU
VWUHDPVDUHDOZD\VLVVXHVWREHWDNHQXQGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQ+RZHYHULQDYDFXXPRILQIRUPDWLRQIURPWUDGL-
WLRQDOPHGLDHJLQFDVHVRIVRFLDOXQUHVWLQWRWDOLWDULDQUHJLPHV7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVKDYHEHFRPHRQHRIWKH
YHU\IHZDYDLODEOHVRXUFHVRILQIRUPDWLRQIRUORFDODQGWUDQVQDWLRQDODXGLHQFHV,QKLVHDUO\DQDO\VLVRIWKH
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 285 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

and mobile telephony, played a central role in communicating, coordinating and channeling the rising tide
of opposition and variously managed to bypass state controlled national media as they propelled images and
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7KHVHFRQGLVVXHWREHFRQVLGHUHGFRQFHUQVWKHXVHRI7ZLWWHUDVDSODWIRUPRILQWHUDFWLRQWRPREL-
lize, organize and inform activists and non-activists on contentious events. In relation to this, Bennet and
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,QRWKHUZRUGV7ZLWWHUKDVEHFRPHRQHRIWKHDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VIRULQGLYLGXDODFWRUVWRSDUWLFLSDWHDQG
FRQWULEXWHWRWKHSURWHVWFRPPXQLFDWLRQQHWZRUN,QIDFW7ZLWWHUKDVKWDJVPDUN7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVWRSLFDOO\
VRWKDWDQ\ERG\RQ7ZLWWHUFDQIROORZFRQYHUVDWLRQVFHQWHUHGRQVSHFLFWRSLFV6XFKWRSLFVDUHLQGLFDWHG
E\DKDVKWDJIROORZHGE\DNH\ZRUG$VER\GHWDOVXJJHVWWKLVSUDFWLFHUHFDOOVWKHXVHRIWDJVWR
FDWHJRUL]HRQOLQHFRQWHQW+DVKWDJVPD\EHXVHGIRULQVWDQFHWRFUHDWHEX]]HVDURXQGVSHFLFHYHQWVRU
issues. Social movement leaders and supporters may use them to report on events or issues. But also others
not directly involved in the events may use them to contribute to the general discussion on the subject at
VWDNH,QIDFWZKLOHVRFLDOPHGLDSHUVHDUHWREHFRQVLGHUHGDVRQHDQGRQO\RQHRIWKHIDFWRUVSRVVLEO\HDV-
LQJWKHHPHUJHQFHRISURWHVWZDYHVWKH\FHUWDLQO\SOD\DUROHLQVKDSLQJDOWHUQDWLYHSODWIRUPVIRUSXEOLF
UHDVRQLQJDQGRSLQLRQIRUPDWLRQ&RWWOHD/HWXVWKHQIRFXVRQWKHXVHRI7ZLWWHUIRULQIRUPDO
political debates around topics relevant to social contention.

Twitter and Public Reasoning Around Social Contention

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SUREOHPRIDQDO\]LQJ7ZLWWHUVWUHDPV%DMSDLDQG-DLVZDODVVHPEOHGDVDPSOHRIWZHHWVUHO-
evant to the 2010 Thailand Protests. Similarly, Segerberg and Bennet (2011) analyzed a sample extracted
IURPRYHUWZHHWVZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWZRKDVKWDJVXVHGLQWKHSURWHVWVDJDLQVWWKH8QLWHG1D-
WLRQV&OLPDWH6XPPLWLQ&RSHQKDJHQ$VSDUWRIWKH*XDUGLDQV5HDGLQJWKH5LRWVSURMHFWDUHVHDUFKWHDP
from the London School of Economics has recently published the early results of the analysis of 2.6 million
WZHHWVUHOHYDQWWRWKH$XJXVWULRWVLQ/RQGRQDQGRWKHUFLWLHVLQWKH8.3URFWHUDQG9LV7KHVH
JURXQGEUHDNLQJVWXGLHVDOOVKRZHYLGHQFHRIWKHFKDOOHQJHVWREHIDFHGLQWKHDWWHPSWWRDQDO\]H7ZLWWHUDU-
FKLYHVVSHFLFDOO\UHOHYDQWWRSURWHVWHYHQWVLQWHUPVRIRUJDQL]DWLRQDOVWUXFWXUHVDQGSURFHVVHVRILQIRUPD-
WLRQVKDULQJDPRQJDFWLYLVWV+RZHYHULIZHORRNDW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVDVFKDQQHOVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQIRUZLGHU
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JHQHUDOO\LQWHUHVWHGLQSURWHVWHYHQWVKRZFDQZHLQYHVWLJDWHLQGLYLGXDOWZHHWVDQGWZHHWLQWHUDFWLRQV"

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VHHPVPRUHOLNHO\WREHFRPHDQHZVPHGLDWKDQDVRFLDOQHWZRUNDVVXFK,QRWKHUZRUGVRQWKHRQHKDQG
QHWZRUNLQJPHFKDQLVPVVKRZUHOHYDQWKRPRSKLO\DQGOLWWOHUHFLSURFLW\LH7ZLWWHUSOD\HUVWHQGWRFRP-
PXQLFDWHZLWKRWKHUSOD\HUVZLWKVLPLODURSLQLRQVDQGRYHUDOOGLDORJLFDOLQWHUDFWLRQVDUHDQ\ZD\YHU\UDUH
2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIWUHQGLQJWRSLFVVKRZVWKDWWKHPDMRULW\RIWRSLFVDUHKHDGOLQHRU
SHUVLVWHQWQHZVLQQDWXUH.ZDNHWDO+HQFHWKHVHQGLQJVVXJJHVWWKDW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVDUH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 286

OLNHO\WRODFNVWURQJQHWZRUNLQJSDWWHUQVEXWFDQEHFRPHFKDQQHOVIRURSLQLRQPDNLQJDQGSXEOLFUHDVRQLQJ
ZLWKLQRQOLQHDFWLYHDXGLHQFHV

,QGHHG7ZLWWHUSOD\HUVPD\WDNHRQGLIIHUHQWUROHVLQWKHJHQHUDWLRQDQGGHYHORSPHQWRIVSHFLF7ZLWWHU
streams. They may introduce different links and amplify certain threads via @ replies (Honeycutt and Her-
ULQJDQGRU57UHWZHHWVER\GHWDO)RULQVWDQFH.ZDNHWDOVVWXG\VKRZVWKDW
RQFHUHWZHHWHGDWZHHWJHWVUHWZHHWHGDOPRVWLQVWDQWO\RQWKH2nd, 3rd, and 4thKRSVDZD\IURPWKHVRXUFH
signifying fast diffusion of information after the 1stUHWZHHW,QIDFW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVPD\ORRNYHU\GLIIHU-
ent on the basis of their hashtag management and such differences can be studied in terms of gatekeeping
processes. In the case of protest events, for instance, protest organizers may centralize hashtag management
around issues related to protest organization and logistic instructions. Conversely, different players may more
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YLRXVVHFWLRQLWLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRORRNDW7ZLWWHUIURPDUHODWHGEXWGLIIHUHQWSHUVSHFWLYH,QRWKHUZRUGVFDQ
7ZLWWHUEHFRPHDSODWIRUPRILQWHUDFWLRQIRUGLVFXVVLRQVDURXQGVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQRSHQWRZLGHUDXGLHQFHV"
&DQ7ZLWWHUSDUWLFLSDWHLQRUHYHQLPSURYHSURFHVVHVRIRSLQLRQPDNLQJDQGUHDVRQLQJDURXQGSURWHVWHYHQWV
RIKLJKLPSDFWIRUWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF"+RZGRGLIIHUHQWSOD\HUVSDUWLFLSDWHLQVXFKLQIRUPDOSROLWLFDOGHEDWH"

Data and Methods

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6HJHUEHUJDQG%HQQHWWWKLVZRUNDSSOLHVDPL[HGPHWKRGDSSURDFKWRWZHHWHGPHVVDJHVVSHFLFDO-
O\IRFXVLQJRQIRXUDVSHFWVRI7ZLWWHUXVDJHWKHSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKH,WDOLDQ2WWKDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDP
LHZDVWKH2WWVWUHDPXVHGLQWKHVDPHZD\DVRWKHUSURWHVWUHODWHGVWUHDPV"WZHHWLQJG\QDPLFV
RYHUWLPHLHKRZGLGLQIRUPDWLRQRZVXFWXDWH"QHWZRUNLQJVWUXFWXUHVDQGQHZVPHGLDSURFHVVHV
LHZKRWZHHWHGWRZKRPJDWHNHHSLQJG\QDPLFVDQGSURFHVVHVRIPHDQLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQDURXQGVRFLDO
FRQWHQWLRQRQ7ZLWWHUHJKRZZDVSURWHVWYLROHQFHGLVFXVVHGRYHU7ZLWWHUVWUHDPV"

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RI7ZLWWHUXVHIRUPRELOL]LQJDQGRUJDQL]LQJSXUSRVHVGXULQJSURWHVWVWKHWHQGHQF\WRORRNDW7ZLWWHUDVD
VWDQGDORQHSODWIRUPLVRODWHGIURPWKHUHPDLQLQJPHGLDHFRORJ\DQGWKHSURSHQVLW\WRH[WUDFW7ZLWWHUIURP
WKHEURDGHUSROLWLFDOFRQWH[W%DMSDLDQG-DLVZDODGGGHVSLWHWKHDEXQGDQFHRIGLDORJXHWKHUHLV
FXUUHQWO\DPDUNHGDEVHQFHRIWKHRUHWLFDOO\LQIRUPHGIUDPHZRUNVZKLFKFDQEHXWLOL]HGWRTXDOLWDWLYHO\HYDO-
XDWHWKHYDULRXVFODLPVDWWULEXWHGWRWKH7ZLWWHUSODWIRUPLQWKHFRQWH[WRISURWHVWHYHQWV+HQFHLQOLQHZLWK
WKHVHFRQVLGHUDWLRQVWKLVVWXG\ZLOOORRNDW7ZLWWHUDVSDUWRIWKHPHGLDHFRORJ\RIDGHPRFUDWLFFRXQWU\<HW
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HYHQWVWRWKHXVHRI7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVIRUWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRILQIRUPDOSROLWLFDOGHEDWHDURXQGVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQ

7KHSULPDU\GDWDFROOHFWLRQWDVNIRUWKLVVWXG\LQYROYHGDVVHPEOLQJWZHHWVUHOHYDQWWRWKH2FWREHU
SURWHVWIRU*OREDO&KDQJHLQ,WDO\&RQFHUQLQJWKHUVWOLQHRILQYHVWLJDWLRQLHWKHSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKH,WDO-
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ZDVFUHDWHGWRJDWKHUTXDQWLWDWLYHLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKUHHKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPVUHOHYDQWWR
the protest (Hootsuite.com). The time-period covered by this part of the study is 15 September 15 No-
 287 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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RWW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDIWHUWKHSURWHVWLHFKDQJLQJG\QDPLFVRYHUWLPHQHWZRUNLQJYHUVXVQHZVPHGLD
PHFKDQLVPVDQGSURFHVVHVRIPHDQLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQRWWKDVKWDJJHGWZHHWVZHUHORJJHG7ZDS-
perkeeper.com). The time-period covered by this second part of the study is 16 October 15 November
QDPHO\WKHUVWPRQWKIROORZLQJWKHSURWHVW

Analysis and Findings

Twitter Streams Relevant to the 15 October Protest for Global Change:
#15ott, #15oct, and #15o

As said, social media soon became the primary channels to gather information on the 15 October poly-
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6HSWHPEHU7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHVHWZRKDVKWDJVFRXQWHGEHWZHHQDQGWZHHWVDGD\
%\WKHEHJLQQLQJRI2FWREHUWKH\UHDFKHGDURXQGWZHHWVDGD\$VSHFLFDOO\,WDOLDQVWUHDPUHODWHG
WRWKHSURWHVWVWDUWHGRQ2FWREHUZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHQHZ,WDOLDQKDVKWDJRWWRWWWKHQEHFDPHWKH
major point of reference for Italian citizens interested in the demonstration.

%\LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVUHODWHGWRSURWHVWHYHQWVRQHFDQUDLVHSUHOLPLQDU\FRQ-
VLGHUDWLRQVRQWKHVSHFLFXVHRIWKRVHVWUHDPVE\7ZLWWHUXVHUV,QRWKHUZRUGVE\ORRNLQJDWWKHGHYHORSPHQW
RI7ZLWWHUVVWUHDPVRYHUWLPHRQHFDQLQIHUZKHQDQGLQUHODWLRQWRZKDWSXUSRVH7ZLWWHULQWHUDFWLRQVZHUHPRUH
RUOHVVUHOHYDQW,QIDFWZKLOHVWUHDPVZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHWZRLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDVKWDJVRDQGRFWVWDUWHG
ORQJEHIRUHWKHSRO\FHQWULFSURWHVWWKH,WDOLDQRWWRQO\FRXQWHGDUHOHYDQWQXPEHURIWZHHWVRQWKHGD\
SULRUWRWKHSURWHVWLH2FWREHU)LJXUHVKRZVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVWUHDPVUHODWHGWRWKHWKUHHPHQ-
WLRQHGKDVKWDJVLHRRFWDQGRWWRYHUDWZRPRQWKSHULRGIURP6HSWHPEHUWR1RYHPEHU

Figure 1: Absolute number of tweets with reference to the hashtags #15o, #15oct, and #15ott posted every day over a
two-month period (September 15 - November 15) (Hootsuite.com)
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 288

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VSHFWLYHO\VKRZLQJWKDWWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDORKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPZDVWKHPRVWSRSXODURQHEHIRUHGXULQJ
DQGDIWHUWKHSURWHVW$OOWKUHHKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPVUHDFKHGDSLFNRIWZHHWVRQWKHGD\DIWHUWKHSURWHVWLH
2FWREHU,QIDFWRQWKDWGD\RFRXQWHGDOPRVWWZHHWVRFWUHDFKHGDOPRVWWZHHWV
DQGRWWFRXQWHGDOPRVWWZHHWV2YHUDOOWKHWKUHH7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVIROORZHGWKHVDPHWUHQGRYHU
WKHWZRPRQWKSHULRGVKRZQLQ)LJXUHEXWLWLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRIRFXVRQWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIWZHHWVSRVWHGSHU
day over that same period.

Figure 2: Percentage of tweets with reference to the hashtags #15o, #15oct, and #15ott posted every day
over a two-month period (September 15 - November 15) (Hootsuite.com)

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DQGWKH7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVPDUNHGZLWKWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDVKWDJVRDQGRFW,QIDFWDOPRVWRIWKH
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DVFRPSDUHGWRDURXQGRIWKHWZHHWVLQWKHRFWVWUHDPDQGDURXQGRIWKHWZHHWVLQWKHR
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the outcomes of the events rather than for organizing and mobilizing purposes prior to the protest. This is a
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SKRWRVDQGVKRRWLQJVRIWKHYLROHQWHYHQWVZKHUHH[SRVHGRQERWKQHZDQGPDVVPHGLDFKDQQHOV

7KHIROORZLQJSDUWRIWKHVWXG\VSHFLFDOO\GUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRZKDWKDSSHQHGLQWKHRWWKDVKWDJJHG
7ZLWWHUVWUHDPLQWKHGD\VIROORZLQJWKHSURWHVW,QIDFWWKHDQDO\VLVIRFXVHVRQWKHWZHHWVSRVWHG
ZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHRWWKDVKWDJIURPWKHPRUQLQJRI2FWREHUWRWKDWRI1RYHPEHU

#15ott Twitter Stream: Changing Dynamics Over Time

)LJXUHVKRZVWKHSRUWLRQRIWKHRWWKDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPFRYHUHGE\WKHIROORZLQJDQDO\VLV
 289 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Figure 3: Absolute number of tweets with reference to the hashtag #15ott posted every day
from the mid-morning of October 16 to that of November 15.

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PDLQO\VWUHHWGHVWUXFWLRQSHUSHWXDWHGE\KRRGHGSURWHVWHUVUHVLQVHYHUDOVLWHVRIWKHFLW\RI5RPHEXUQ-
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SURJUHVVLYHO\GHFUHDVHGIURPDURXQGWRDURXQG$IWHU2FWREHUWKHDEVROXWHQXPEHURIWZHHWV
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FHUWDLQO\VKRZVWZRDWWULEXWHVRI7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVUHOHYDQWWRSXEOLFUHDVRQLQJDQGRSLQLRQPDNLQJDURXQG
protest events of strong impact for the general public. First, it provides evidence on the booming real-time
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WKDW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVRIWKLVVRUWDUHQRWGXUDEOHFRQYHUVDWLRQDODQGLQWHUDFWLRQDOWRROV

/HWXVQRZIRFXVRQRWKHUFKDQJLQJG\QDPLFVRYHUWLPHQDPHO\LQWKHXVHRIOLQNVWRUHGLUHFWWRH[WHU-
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QXPEHUVRIWZHHWVFRQWDLQLQJOLQNVURVHIURPRIWKHSRVWHGIURPWKHPLGPRUQLQJRI
2FWREHUXQWLOWKHQLJKWRIWKHVDPHGD\WRRYHUIXOO\RIWKHWZHHWVSRVWHGRQ2FWREHU
,QRWKHUZRUGVWZLWWHUHUVLQFUHDVLQJO\SRLQWHGHDFKRWKHUWRGLIIHUHQWVRXUFHVRIRQOLQHLQIRUPDWLRQLQD
PRPHQWLQZKLFKVXFKVRXUFHVRILQIRUPDWLRQZHUHFRQVWDQWO\LQFUHDVLQJ,QOLQHZLWKWKHUHVXOWVSURYLGHG
E\6HJHUEHUJDQG%HQQHWWWKHDQDO\VLVVKRZVWKDWWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIWZHHWVFRQWDLQLQJOLQNV
increased as the stream diminished in volume.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 290

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VKLIWVWRZDUGVPRUHVSHFLFQDUURZO\IRFXVHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPV

#15ott Twitter Stream: Players, Networks and News Media Processes

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tive from Naples (zer081.org) and the latter a multimedia platform developed by Italian media activists (glo-
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VWUHDPV,QIDFWDOOWRSLQGLYLGXDOWZLWWHUHUVLQYROYHGLQWKHRWWKDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDOVRWDNHSDUWLQ
several other streams more or less related to the transnational movement for Global Change. The most com-
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RFFXS\WKHZRUOGRFFXS\ERVWRQRFFXS\SKRHQL[RSSXS\RDNODQG+RZHYHURWKHUWKUHHVHWVRIVWUHDPVDUH
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KHQFHGLVFXVVLRQVFHQWHUHGDURXQGWKH$UDEVSULQJVWUHDPVPDUNHGE\WKHORQGRQULRWVKDVKWDJZLWKUHIHUHQFH
WRWKH$XJXVW/RQGRQULRWVDQGVWUHDPVKDVKWDJJHGZLWKWKHWLWOHRIGLIIHUHQW,WDOLDQSROLWLFDORUFORVHWR
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tively are likely to be already active participants in other streams relevant to informal political debates. Second,
DV6HJHUEHUJDQG%HQQHWVXJJHVW7ZLWWHULVWREHFRQVLGHUHGZLWKLQWKHPHGLDHFRORJ\DQGQRWDV
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media channels to collect information on and discuss about social contention and political issues in general.

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DWOHDVWRQH#UHSO\RUPHQWLRQLQHDFKGLUHFWLRQEHWZHHQDQ\WZRWZLWWHUHUVLQYROYHSOD\HUV7KH\DUH
PRVWO\LQGLYLGXDOWZLWWHUHUVDSDUWIURPLQIRIUHHRZDQGRFFXS\ERORJQDWKHUVWEHLQJDFROOHFWLYHEORJ
LQIRIUHHRZQREORJVRUJDQGWKHODWWHUWKH%RORJQDFKDSWHURIWKH2:6PRYHPHQWRFFXS\LWDO\RUJ7KH
VKDSHRIVXFKWRSLQWHUDFWLRQVSUHYHQWVRQHIURPGHVFULELQJUHDOQHWZRUNLQJPHFKDQLVPVFXWWLQJDFURVV
WKHVWUHDP,QIDFWRQO\WZRRIWKHLQYROYHGSOD\HUVSDUWLFLSDWHLQPRUHWKDQRQHFRQYHUVDWLRQ,QOLQHZLWK
.ZDFNHWDOVUHVXOWVWKLVQGLQJVXJJHVWVWKDW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVUHODWHGWRVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQDQG
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 291 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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PHFKDQLVPVWZHHWVLQWKHDQDO\]HGSRUWLRQRIWKHRWWKDVKWDJJHG7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDUHUHWZHHWV
KHQFHDOPRVWRIWKHVDPSOHLVPDGHRIWZHHWVFRQVWDQWO\UHWZHHWHGE\GLIIHUHQWSOD\HUV'XULQJWKH
UVWWHQGD\VDIWHUWKHSURWHVWWKHSHUFHQWDJHRI57HYHQUHDFKHGDQDYHUDJHRI*LYHQWKHFURZG-
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SURFHVV3HUKDSVWKHRQO\FDVHLQZKLFKWKHVWUHDPZDVEHLQJPDQLSXODWHGRFFXUUHGRQ2FWREHUZKHQ
WZRSOD\HUVFRQVWDQWO\UHWZHHWHGDWZHHWSRVWHGE\]HURJHQHUDWLQJRYHUUHWZHHWV

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RILQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHSURWHVW,QIDFW57DQGOLQNLQJSUDFWLFHVDUHDPSOLI\LQJPHFKDQLVPVHQDFWLQJQHZV
PHGLDSURFHVVHVUDWKHUWKDQFRQYHUVDWLRQDOLQWHUDFWLRQVDPRQJ7ZLWWHUXVHUV

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cally informed political debate around the Italian chapter of the 15 October protest for Global Change.

#15ott Twitter Stream: Processes of Meaning Construction

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Figure 4: #15ott egonetwork with the 10 most frequent additional hashtags
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 292

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WKHWKLFNHULWVHGJHWRRWWWKHPRUHUHODWHGLWVVWUHDPWRWKHRWWVWUHDP7KHJXUHVKRZVWKDWRQHFDQ
LGHQWLI\WKUHHOD\HUVRIWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQGHYHORSHGRQWKLV7ZLWWHUVWUHDPLQUHODWLRQWRWKH,WDOLDQFKDSWHU
of the 15 October protest. One layer develops along the positioning of the protest as part of a transnational
UHDOLW\$VVDLGWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOKDVKWDJVRDQGRFWEXWDOVRWKHRULJLQDOO\6SDQLVKLQGLJQDGRV
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DQGORRVHO\UHODWHG&RQYHUVHO\WKHVHFRQGOD\HUUHGLUHFWVWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQWRZDUGVVSHFLFDOO\FRQWLQJHQW
HYHQWV,QRWKHUZRUGVKDVKWDJVOLNHURPDQDSROLDQGEODFNEORFEROVWHUWKHHPHUJHQFHRIVWUHDPV
QDUURZO\IRFXVHGRQIDFWXDOHYHQWVRFFXUUHGRQ2FWREHUDQGWKHIROORZLQJGD\VURPDIRULQVWDQFH
WDJVWZHHWVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKH5RPHSURWHVWDQGLWVRXWFRPHVQDSROLPDUNVWZHHWVGHDOLQJZLWKSROLFH
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VDWLRQRQWKHLGHQWLW\RIWKHKRRGHGSURWHVWHUVZKRVHW5RPHRQUHLQWKHGD\RIWKHSURWHVW

The third layer develops around the Italian collective actors more or less directly involved in the move-
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logna tag streams centered on the Rome and Bologna chapters of the Occupy Movement, respectively.
6LPLODUO\LQGLJQDWLWDJVWKRVHWZHHWVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKH,WDOLDQLQYROYHPHQWLQWKH,QGLJQDGRVPRELOL]D-
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lasting Italian mobilization against the construction of the Turin-Lion TAV (high-speed rail system)4 to the
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contention the most different actors tend to be framed as part of a common multi-issue and multi-level
mobilization.

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top external sources range from posts on personal blogs, to articles on online alternative media (i.e., pea-
FHUHSRUWHULWORRSRQOLQHLQIRRQWRFROXPQVSXEOLVKHGRQRQOLQHORFDOQHZVSDSHUVLHLOWHPSRLWWZLW-
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in terms of genre, text, and reliability levels. Second, interestingly enough, none of them is related to any
national mainstream media.

Figure 5 maps the leading topics covered by these external sources of information.

4 No Tav is an Italian social movement active since 2002. Its main goal is to oppose the construction of the Turin-Lion high-speed rail system. The reasons
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 293 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Figure 5: Leading topics in the top most linked external sources

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disinformation spread by the mass media in relation to the Rome protest on October 15, the failure of the
protest primarily due to the violence used by a conspicuous amount of participants, the repressive tactics
of protest policing adopted by the police in the streets of Rome, and the importance of the protest despite
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Figure 6: Tweets word cloud (tagcrowd.com)

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FRPPRQZRUGVLQWKH,WDOLDQYRFDEXODU\DORQJZLWKKDVKWDJVDQG7ZLWWHUXVHUQDPHV7KHFORXGVKRZVWKDW
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of repression. Words like giornata, manifestazione, corteo, manifestanti, piazza, piazza San Giovanni, Italia
DQG,WDO\GD\GHPRQVWUDWLRQUDOO\GHPRQVWUDWRUVVTXDUH6DQ*LRYDQQLVTXDUH,WDO\DOVRJURXQGWKHGLV-
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video and vignetta (counter-narration, journalistic account, media, truth, shooting and comic strip) shift the
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 294

and politica (Maroni5, Vendola6, and politics), reframe the stream in the institutional political context.

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LQWHUHVWHGLQGLVFXVVLQJWKH,WDOLDQFKDSWHURIWKH2FWREHUSURWHVWIRU*OREDO&KDQJHHQDFWHGVSHFLF
SURFHVVHVRIPHDQLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQVDURXQGDVHULHVRIUHOHYDQWWRSLFV2YHUDOOGDWDVKRZWKDWWKHVWUHDP
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like the violent events occurred in Rome and their outcomes and the biased coverage of the events by the
mainstream media. Finally, part of the stream included elements of the institutional political context by
UHFDOOLQJVSHFLFSROLWLFLDQVLQYROYHGLQWKHFRPPHQWDU\RIWKH5RPHHYHQWV

Discussion and Conclusion

%\H[SORULQJ7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVDQGWKHLUG\QDPLFVWKLVVWXG\VKHGVOLJKWRQSURFHVVHVRISXEOLFUHDVRQLQJ
and opinion formation around social contention. Hence, the analysis here presented is primarily exploratory.
,WVSHFLFDOO\IRFXVHVRQWKH,WDOLDQFKDSWHURIWKH2FWREHUSRO\FHQWULFSURWHVWIRU*OREDO&KDQJHIRU
WZRUHDVRQVLWVLPSDFWRQWKH,WDOLDQSXEOLFRSLQLRQDQGWKHLQFUHDVLQJOHYHORI7ZLWWHUDFWLYLW\UHJLVWHUHGLQWKH
FRXQWU\7KHIRXUOLQHVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQGHYHORSHGLQWKHDQDO\VLVDUHIXQFWLRQDOWRH[SORUHKRZSXEOLFUHDVRQLQJ
DURXQGVRFLDOFRQWHQWLRQGHYHORSVRQ7ZLWWHUVWUHDPVDIWHUVRFLDOSURWHVWRIKLJKLPSDFWIRUWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF

%\H[SORULQJWKHORQJLWXGLQDOSRVLWLRQLQJRIWKH,WDOLDQRWW7ZLWWHUVWUHDPDPRQJWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
LQWHUQDWLRQDORDQGRFWKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPVWKHUVWOLQHRILQYHVWLJDWLRQVKRZHGKRZWKHLPSDFWRI
WKH5RPHULRWVRI2FWREHUZDVPLUURUHGE\WKHERRPLQJ7ZLWWHUDFWLYLW\RQWKHGD\RIWKHSURWHVWDQG
WKHIROORZLQJWKUHHGD\V6XFKWUHQGZDVQRWHTXDOHGLQWKHWZRLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWUHDPVWDNHQIRUFRPSDULVRQ

7KHIROORZLQJWKUHHOLQHVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQVSHFLFDOO\IRFXVHGRQWKHRWWVWUHDP)LUVWLWZDVSRV-
VLEOHWRDVFHUWDLQWKDWWKHWRSSOD\HUVLQWKHVWUHDPZHUHQHLWKHUFROOHFWLYHDGYRFDF\DFWRUVQRULQVWLWXWLRQDO
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already involved in streams centered on other informal political debates. By looking at changing dynamics
RYHUWLPHLWZDVWKHQSRVVLEOHWRKLJKOLJKWWZRVSHFLFSDWWHUQVZLWKLQWKHRWWKDVKWDJJHGVWUHDPERWK
WKHSHUFHQWDJHRIWZHHWVFRQWDLQLQJOLQNVDQGWKDWRIWZHHWVFRQWDLQLQJDGGLWLRQDOKDVKWDJVLQFUHDVHGRYHU
time, as the stream diminished in volume. Hence, on the one hand as the stream developed longitudinally,
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VWUHDPV,QRWKHUZRUGVZKLOHWKHRULJLQDOVWUHDPZDVORRVLQJJURXQGSXEOLFUHDVRQLQJDURXQGWKHHYHQWV
VWDUWHGVKLIWLQJWRZDUGVVSHFLFVXEWRSLFV

6HFRQGWKHDQDO\VLVRI#UHSOLHVDQG57UHWZHHWVSUDFWLFHVZLWKLQWKHRWWVWUHDPSURYLGHGHYLGHQFH
RIWKHFURZGVRXUFHGPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHVWUHDPDQGVKRZHGWKDWVXFKSUDFWLFHVZRUNHGPRUHDVDPSOLI\LQJ
PHFKDQLVPVHQDFWLQJQHZVDJHQGDSURFHVVHVUDWKHUWKDQFRQYHUVDWLRQDOLQWHUDFWLRQVDPRQJ7ZLWWHUXVHUV

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 295 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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elements, it is possible to map the development of meaning construction around different topics relevant
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gent topics of discussion and that it outsourced to the most varied external sources of information alterna-
tive to the mainstream media.

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tion and, eventually, traditional and less traditional forms of political participation.

References
%DMSDL.DQG$-DLVZDO$)UDPHZRUNIRU$QDO\]LQJ&ROOHFWLYH$FWLRQ(YHQWVRQ7ZLWWHU3URFHHGLQJVRIWKHth International
ISCRAM Conference Lisbon, Portugal, May 2011.
%HQQHW:/DQG$6HJHUEHUJ'LJLWDO0HGLDDQGWKH3HUVRQDOL]DWLRQRI&ROOHFWLYH$FWLRQ,QIRUPDWLRQ&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG
Society 14(6), 770799.
ER\GG6*ROGHUDQG*/RWDQ7ZHHW7ZHHW5HWZHHW&RQYHUVDWLRQDO$VSHFWVRI5HWZHHWLQJRQ7ZLWWHU+,&66,(((
Kauai, HI, January 6.
Castells, E.: 2001, The Internet Galaxy, (Oxford University Press, Oxford)
&KULVWHQVHQ&7ZLWWHU5HYROXWLRQV"$GGUHVVLQJ6RFLDO0HGLDDQG'LVVHQW7KH&RPPXQLFDWLRQ5HYLHZ
&RWWOH6D7UDQVQDWLRQDO3URWHVWVDQG7KH0HGLD1HZ'HSDUWXUHV&KDOOHQJLQJ'HEDWHVLQ6&RWWOHDQG//HVWHUHGV
7UDQVQDWLRQDO3URWHVWVDQGWKH0HGLD1HZ<RUN3HWHU/DQJSS
&RWWOH6E$IWHUZRUG0HGLDDQGWKH$UDE8SULVLQJVRILQ6&RWWOHDQG//HVWHUHGV7UDQVQDWLRQDO3URWHVWVDQGWKH0HGLD
1HZ<RUN3HWHU/DQJSS
Della Porta, D.: 2007, The Global Justice Movement: Cross-national and Transnational Perspectives (Paradigm Publishers, Boulder)
)HUQDQGH]/XLV$3ROLFLQJ'LVVHQW6RFLDO&RQWURODQGWKH$QWL*OREDOL]DWLRQ0RYHPHQW5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV3LVFDWDZD\
NJ)
*LXJQL07KH2XWFRPHVRIWKH2FFXS\0RYHPHQW:KLFK/HVVRQV&DQ:H'UDZIURPWKH6RFLDO0RYHPHQW/LWHUDWXUH"
0RELOL]LQJ,GHDV$YDLODEOHDWKWWSPRELOL]LQJLGHDVZRUGSUHVVFRPWKHRXWFRPHVRIWKHRFFXS\PRYHPHQWZKLFK
OHVVRQVFDQZHGUDZIURPWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWOLWHUDWXUH$FFHVVHG-DQXDU\
*ODGZHOO06PDOO&KDQJH:K\WKHUHYROXWLRQZLOOQRWEHWZHHWHG1HZ<RUNHU$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZQHZ\RUNHUFRP
UHSRUWLQJIDBIDFWBJODGZHOO$FFHVVHG-DQXDU\
+RQH\FXWW&DQG6+HUULQJ%H\RQG0LFUREORJJLQJ&RQYHUVDWLRQDQG&ROODERUDWLRQLQ7ZLWWHU3URFnd HICSS, IEEE Press.
,QGLJQDWLDUUHVWLHGHQXQFHWUDORURXQDPLQRUHQQHHGRQQH&RUULHUHGHOOD6HUD2FWREHU
.RRSPDQV57KH'\QDPLFVRI3URWHVW:DYHV:HVW*HUPDQ\WR$PHULFDQ6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
.ZDFN+&/HH+3DUNDQG60RRQ:KDWLV7ZLWWHUD6RFLDO1HWZRUNRUD1HZV0HGLD":::$SULO
0RUR]RY(D,UDQ'RZQVLGHWRWKH7ZLWWHU5HYROXWLRQ'LVVHQW
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 296

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3URFWHU5)9LVDQG$9R[5HDGLQJWKH5LRWV*XDUGLDQ$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZJXDUGLDQFRXNXNLQWHUDFWLYHGHF
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)DFHERRNHYHQW5HYROXFLyQJOREDO'HPRFUDFLDUHDO<$DYDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZIDFHERRNFRPHYHQWSKS"HLG 
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)DFHERRNHYHQW5pYROXWLRQ0RQGLDOHSRXUXQH5pHOOH'pPRFUDWLHDYDLDEOHDWKWWSZZZIDFHERRNFRPHYHQW
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WDNHWKHVTXDUHQHW$FFHVVHG-DQXDU\
 297 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Protest Politics Through Music in the Basque Country.

The Spread of the Lip Dub as a New Form
of Collective Action

ION ANDONI DEL AMO, JASON DIAUX and ARKAITZ LETAMENDIA1

UPV-EHU

Abstract
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distinctive feature the important role of music (especially punk subculture) and the
meaning of style in his joint. The play and symbolic dispute that carries out this move-
ment is related to the countercultural tradition and emphasizes the need for an analyti-
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cognitive and symbolic praxis. The interaction and coordination of these movements
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WKURXJKPXVLFWKHSURJUHVVLYHUROHRIEDVTXHODQJXDJHRUWKHLQFRUSRUDWLRQRIPXVLFDO
instruments and elements of ethnic tradition. The institutionalization of this relationship
gives to the music a major role in the mobilization of national liberation movement.
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as an element of expression and movement, combining the artistic component, musical
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FRQWHPSRUDU\IRUPVRIPRELOL]DWLRQ:HQDOO\VWUHVVWKHIDFWLQWKH%DVTXHFDVHRI
the increasing of this kind of more visual and theatrical activism, and less direct con-
IURQWDWLRQLQZKLFKLVUHXVHGWKHWUDGLWLRQRIPXVLFDVDPRELOL]HUHOHPHQWDQGSRSXODU
participation as critical elements.

Repertoires of Collective Action: contexts and tactical innovation

The repertoires of collective action2FLWHGKHUHDIWHUDV&$WKURXJKZKLFKVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFRQYH\LQ
SXEOLFWKHLUFODLPVDQGDWWHPSWWRDFKLHYHWKHLUJRDOVGHYHORSRYHUWLPH6LGQH\7DUURZFRQFHLYHV
collective action repertoires as learned cultural creations that emerge from the struggle. According to this
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sidad del Pas Vasco.
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 298

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institutionalizing collective action routines that he calls the UHSHUWRLUHRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ7KDWZRXOGEH
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notes, may become later generalized and culturally institutionalized, or on the contrary might become
diluted over time after an emergency phase. /LSGXE3YLGHRVZKLFKDUHFXUUHQWO\LQDSKDVHRIPDMRUH[-
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collective sit-in protests against racial segregation corresponds to the peaks of social movement activity.
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WDFWLFV of action (McAdam, 1983).

The political process theoretical perspectives gradually evolved through a more relational approach
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in a contentious political context, the innovative CA of the agents involved is a crucial element. According
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We consider OLSGXEDVDJRRGH[DPSOHRIDQLQQRYDWLYHFRQWHPSRUDU\IRUPRI&$)XUWKHUPRUHZH
EHOLHYHWKDWLILQHYHU\VLQJOHFDVHRI&$LQQRYDWLRQWKHFRQWH[WLQZKLFKLWHPHUJHVLVGHFLVLYHLQWKHYHU\
case of OLSGXE this is even truer. The spread of information and communication technologies (cited hereaf-
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that must be taken into account. It should not be forgotten that, if vindication, protest and mobilization is
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 6LQFHWKLVLVDQHPHUJLQJSKHQRPHQRQZHWXUQWRWKH:LNLSHGLDGHQLWLRQRIWKLVFRQFHSW$OLSGXE is a type of video that combines lip synching and
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Often they look like simple music videos, although many involve a lot of preparation and production. /LSGXEV can be done in a single unedited shot that
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 299 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

ZRUNRI.DUO0DU[4. The German author in Capital attempts to, among other things, identify the basis of
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period covered from marches to riots on the streets, or the act of breaking industrial machines (Flacks, 2004).
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most appropriate form to maximize the collective action, since it directly affects this process. On the one hand
because it succeeds in physically stopping the production process of goods, and on the other hand because it
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the strike is the kind of CA form that highlights this aspect. Thus in the case reported is established the relation-
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(Debord, 2003: 37). Consumer Capitalism phagocytes all authentic human experiences, transforming them
into a consumable product and resells them through advertising and media. It converts all parts of human
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spectacle suffers from such a degree of accumulation that it becomes an image (Debord, 2003: 50). The
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situations. Currently, besides the OLSGXEVWXGLHGKHUHZHVHHWKHDGYHQWRIF\EHUUHSHUWRLUHVRIDFWLRQRU
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role. The role of music as a conveyor of these symbolic-cultural and emotional elements, a central point in the
case of OLSGXEDQGLWVUHOHYDQFHZLWKUHVSHFWWRVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQZLOOEHRXUIRFXVRILQWHUHVWIURPQRZRQ

Singing the politics

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their level of abstraction, their claim is that, by combining culture and politics, social movements serve to
reconstitute both, providing a boarder political and historical context for cultural expression, and offering,
in turn, the resources of culture traditions, music, artistic expression to the action repertoires of political
struggle. Cultural traditions are mobilized and reformulated in social movements and this mobilization and
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for social and cultural change.

They focus on the interaction of music and social movements, and conceive this relation as collective
learning processes, as a cognitive approach to social movements, considering musical expression in social
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producing. Thus, to the categories of collective action discussed, they add the concept of H[HPSODU\DFWLRQ.
As represented or articulated in the cognitive praxis of social movements, exemplary action can be thought
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WKDQWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVDQGWKHLULPPHGLDWHSXEOLF7KLVH[HPSODU\DFWLRQFDQDOVREHUHFRUGHGLQOPZRUGVDQG
PXVLFDQGWKXVJLYHQPRUHWKDQWKHHHWLQJSUHVHQFHZKLFKIRU+DQQDK$UHQGWFKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHH[HPSODU\DFWLRQRI
WKH*UHHNSROLVRQHRIWKHVRXUFHVRIRXUFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ (Eyerman and Jamison, 1998: 23)

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 301 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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media this transmission can involve millions of people, and it can also take place extremely effectively
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revolution, has indeed affected the values and customs of late modern societies.

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The construction of meaning through music and song is, they claim, a central aspect of collective identity
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meaning and identity, and generate strong emotional commitment, even if they are also instrumental and
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or traditional, for instance.

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VRFLHW\$VHPHUJHQWFXOWXUHVLQRWKHUZRUGVVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWUDQVIRUPPDUJLQDOVXEFXOWXUHVLQWRUHDODOWHUQDWLYHV
E\RIIHULQJYLVLRQVDQGPRGHOVRIDOWHUQDWLYHIRUPVRIPHDQLQJDQGLGHQWLW\ZKLFKFDQEHFRQVFLRXVO\FKRVHQ (Eyer-
man and Jamison, 1998: 170)

In this sense, this conceptualization links to the ideas of Antonio Gramsci (1973): in particular, his
concepts of hegemony, organic intellectuals, and historical blocs. Social movements are the contexts, not
PHUHO\YHKLFOHVRIVRFLDOFKDQJH,WLVZLWKLQPRYHPHQWVSDFHWKDWDUWLVWVVLQJHUVVRQJZULWHUVDVPRYH-
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and for their art. In and through their role as activist-artist or activist-performer such individuals help to
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dominant culture.

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FRPPXQLFDWLYHLQWKHVHQVHWKDWLWPXVWEHSHUIRUPHGLQSXEOLFLWUHTXLUHVDQDXGLHQFHWRDSSUHFLDWHZKDWLWH[HPSOL
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WLRQV (Eyerman and Jamison, 1998: 172)
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 302

Basque Country: Rock the politics, move your country

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to the dominant (Spanish), is structured as popular culture (Amezaga, 1995).

Euskal Kantagintza Berria. In the wake of the protest song

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Lete, Imanol, and have the group (] 'RN$PDLUX as an emblematic reference. This movement largely
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national conscience, to give hope and bring literature to the public. The spread of festivals reaches a criti-
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PDGHPDQ\RIWKHVHIHVWLYDOVZHUHDVVHUWLYHEHFRPLQJDSUHWH[WIRUSHRSOHWRJDWKHU

The Basque Radical Rock. Our small revolution

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their elders, (]GRNDPDLUX, seems irreconcilable. The denial of the institutionalized crystallizes - especially in
the economically most degraded areas - in a great and sudden explosion of punk bands that pop up like mush-
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 303 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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LQWHUPLQJOLQJWKHWZRSULVPVLQVHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWZD\V (Pascual, 2010: 16)

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the campaign Martxa eta borroka, a series of music festivals featuring the major groups of the RRV.

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and on the other hand, the anti-political attitude of the youth movement built around punk. As Lahusen
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describes it as a frame alignment, taking the concept developed by Benford et al. (1986). Repression is
a key factor, pointed out by authors such as Benjamin Tejerina (2010) as a trigger for many social move-
ments, that act in this case as an important catalyst for this alignment, addressing especially the youth sec-
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This alignment provides a very fertile context for cultural creativity and the (re) construction of identi-
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largely propitiate the integration of second-generation Spanish immigrants in a common frame of refer-
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RI(XVNHUDLGHQWLW\DQGPHVWL]DMHLQWKHZRUNRI1HJX*RUULDN (2001), accounts for this step -Kortatu to
Negu Gorriak HXVNDOW]DOHSUR%DVTXHODQJXDJHDVDSROLWLFDOFRPPLWPHQWDQGWKHQHZJURXSVV\PEROLF
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traditional elements and instruments (like trikitixa, alboka...) or even participation in homage of some of
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From Social to Political.
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DJUHHLQLQGLFDWLQJDEHQHWWRERWK5. On the one hand, for the youth movement, because they get at their
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the initial MRJ against marginalization by the mainstream media.

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$SROLWLFDOVXSSRUWHVSHFLDOO\WRIHVWLYDOVDQGWRJD]WHW[HVTXDWW[R]QDV (street taverns for the fes-

tivities to support some social movements), free radio stations and other infrastructures of the youth
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neither had been a nationalist left, beyond strategic mobilization in their political and symbolic struggles
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taverns, W[R]QDV fanzines, pirate radios, free radios... The outstanding ability to mobilize collective action,
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Changing the rhythm

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troversial, in this second generation there is a lineup - much larger ideological.

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several factors that come together at the turn of the century. On the one hand, take place some artistic and
creative blocking: in almost all the JD]WHW[HVVTXDWVORFDORUW[R]QDVUHPDLQVWKHVDPHSUHYLRXVZDYH
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 ([WUDFWHGIURP8GDNR(XVNDO8QLEHUWVLWDWHD6XPPHU&RXUVHRIWKH6XPPHU%DVTXH8QLYHUVLW\(XVNDOSXQNHWDGHVHUDLNXQW]DQD]LRQDODXND]LRWLN
KDUDJR%DVTXH3XQN$QG1DWLRQDOGHFRQVWUXFWLRQ%H\RQG'HQLDO
 305 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

redirect their activity to a purely artistic plane. If the previous generation of bands had produced an align-
PHQWDURXQGWKHQDWLRQDOLVWOHIWVRPHRIWKHQH[WJHQHUDWLRQVZRXOGPDUNGLVWDQFHVGLVSOD\LQJDFOHDUHU
VHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQFXOWXUHDQGSROLWLFVZKLFKLQDQ\FDVHZLOOEHH[SUHVVHGLQPRUHJHQHUDOWHUPVPDLQO\
ZLWKFRPPLWPHQWWR(XVNHUD

,WLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWWKHWHQGHQFHWKDWEHJLQLQWKHHDUO\VSRLQWHGE\-DNXH3DVFXDOWKHSULYD-

tization processes of social behavior and the exposure to media, and the consolidation of the autonomic
OHJDOVWUXFWXUHV7KXVLWKDSSHQVWKHZHDNHQLQJRIWKHDOWHUQDWLYHFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQSDUWLFXODUO\YLVLEOH
LQXUEDQDUHDVLQIURQWRISUHYDLOLQJDQGDOPRVWRPQLSRWHQWPDVVFXOWXUHLQGXVWU\PDLQO\SRSZKLFKLQ-
creases its presence in commercial music stations or even in some of the former alternative circuits.

7KH\HDUKDVOHIWLPSRUWDQWGHYHORSPHQWVLQWKH%DVTXHFRQWH[W2QWKHRQHKDQGZHFDQVHHD
GHHSVKLIWLQWKHSROLWLFDOF\FOHZLWKWKHHQGRI(7$VDUPHGDFWLYLW\7KLVKLVWRULFGHFLVLRQLVSUHFHGHGE\
DGHHSDQGVHOIFULWLFDOGHEDWHZLWKLQWKHQDWLRQDOLVWOHIW%DWDVXQDOHGDPRQJRWKHUVE\$UQDOGR
2WHJLFXOPLQDWLQJZLWKDVWURQJFRPPLWPHQWE\SXUHO\SROLWLFDODQGGHPRFUDWLFPHDQVDQGLGHRORJLFDO
LQVWLWXWLRQDODQGPDVVVWUXJJOH7KHQHZFRQWH[WDOORZVDUHFRQJXUDWLRQDQGFRQVROLGDWLRQRIWKHSROLWL-
FDOVSHFWUXPIRUWKHSURLQGHSHQGHQFHOHIWZKLFKLVUHOHDVHGWRDQRSHQGLVSXWHRIWKHSROLWLFDOVRFLDODQG
HOHFWRUDOKHJHPRQ\,QWKHPXQLFLSDOHOHFWLRQVRI0D\WKHFRDOLWLRQ%LOGXZKLFKEULQJVWRJHWKHU
the pro-independence left, the alternative left and the nationalist socialdemocracy, reaches 315,000 votes
LQZKDWFRQVWLWXWHVWKHUHWXUQRIVHSDUDWLVWOHIWZLQJSROLWLFDOFDQGLGDWHVDIWHU\HDUVRIEDQQLQJJHWWLQJ
UHPDUNDEOHLQVWLWXWLRQDOSRZHU,QWKH6SDQLVKSDUOLDPHQWDU\HOHFWLRQVRI1RYHPEHUWKHFRDOLWLRQ
QRZQDPHG$PDLXUDGGVDQRWKHUSROLWLFDOSDUW\$UDODUDVSOLWIURPQDWLRQDOLVWOHIWFULWLFDOZLWKWKHDUPHG
VWUXJJOHJHWVLWVEHVWUHVXOWVYRWHV

0HDQZKLOHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDQHPHUJLQJJOREDOHFRQRPLFFULVLVLQ6SDLQDQGLQRWKHUFRXQWULHVOLNH
,VUDHORU2FFXS\:DOO6WUHHWLQWKH86VSUHDGFROOHFWLYHSURWHVWPRYHPHQWVVXFKDVWKH0$OVRNQRZQ
as outraged, these forms of collective action are based on the occupation of public space, highlighting the
FDPSLQJ7KH\VKRZDUHPDUNDEOHRXWUDJHZLWKWKHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVDQGHVSHFLDOO\D
strong criticism and alienation from formal democracy (They do not represent us says a banner of 15M
PRYHPHQWDJDLQVWZKLFKWKH\WU\DVVHPEOLHVDVIRUPRIRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGDUHMHFWLRQRIFDWHJRULHVDQG
means of institutionalized politics (apolitical, neither left nor right).

,QWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\WKHVHWZRSKHQRPHQDDUHLQFRXQWHUSKDVH:KLOH0HPSKDVL]HVWKHFULWLFLVP
DJDLQVWUHSUHVHQWDWLYHGHPRFUDF\LQWKH%DVTXHFDVHVHYHUDOSROLWLFDOVHFWRUVWKDWXQWLOWRGD\KDGEHHQFULWL-
FDOZLWKOHJDOLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGIRFXVHGRQFRXQWHUSRZHUVWUDWHJLHVZKDWLQFOXGHVDUPHGVWUXJJOHQRZ
VKLIWLWVRULHQWDWLRQ1RZDGD\VWKHDLPLVWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRISROLWLFDODOWHUQDWLYHVLQFOHDUGLVSXWHRIWKH
SROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOKHJHPRQ\DQGWKHFRQTXHVWRIHOHFWRUDOLQVWLWXWLRQV7KXVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ
0DQG%DVTXHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRIWKHSUHYLRXVSKDVHZRXOGEHLQLWLDOO\FRQLFWLQJDQGZLWKDPXWXDO
GLVWUXVWDQGHYHQWXDOO\%DVTXHQDWLRQDOLVWVHQVLWLYLW\LVRXWRI0PRYHPHQW67KLVQHZFRQWH[WDQGLWV
SRVVLEOHHYROXWLRQVHHPVWKHUHIRUHWKDWFRXOGLQXHQFHWKHUHSHUWRLUHVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQWKHUHFRQ-
JXUDWLRQRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGHYHQHVSHFLDOO\LQWKH%DVTXHFDVHJLYHQLWVFORVHRYHUODSLQUHFHQW
GHFDGHVWKHSKHQRPHQDRIFXOWXUDOFKDQJH%XWLQVRPHWKLQJPRUHKDSSHQHGLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\
WKHH[WUDRUGLQDU\VSUHDGRIDQHZIRUPRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQWKHOLSGXE.

 :HFDQQGDUHIHUHQFHDERXWWKLVLQ:LNLSHGLDKWWSHXZLNLSHGLDRUJZLNL0BPXJLPHQGXD
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 306

Lip-dubbing
,QWKLVZRUNZHVWUHVVWKHSRLQWWKDWFKDQJLQJVRFLDOFRQWH[WVFDUU\RXWVXEVWDQWLYHFKDQJHVLQWKHIRUPV
of social protest. Thus, as stated by Castells (2004), the development in the last decades of microelectronic
WHFKQRORJLHVDQGVRIWZDUHFRPPXQLFDWLRQVKDYHSURGXFHGDGHHSVKLIWLQVRFLDOQHWZRUNV1RZDGD\VQHW-
ZRUNVFDQEHUHFRQJXUHGLQUHDOWLPHERWKORFDOO\DQGJOREDOO\DQGWKLVIDFWGLUHFWO\DIIHFWVWKHQDWXUHRI
interpersonal relationships.

%XWWKHUHDGLQJVDERXWWHFKQRORJ\KDYHIRXQGPRUHQHJDWLYHYLHZVWKDQWKHWHFKQRORJLFDORSWLPLVPRI
&DVWHOOVYHFWRUDQGKDYHODUJHO\IXHOHGWKHLGHRORJLFDOVSHFWUXPDQGFRJQLWLYHGHYHORSPHQWRIFULWLFDOVRFLDO
PRYHPHQWV:HVWUHVVWKHSHVVLPLVWLFYLHZDERXWWKHPHGLDDQGPDVVFXOWXUHRIWKH)UDQNIXUW6FKRROHVSH-
FLDOO\$GRUQRDQG+RUNKHLPHURUZKDWZHPHQWLRQHGEHIRUHLQ'HERUGWKHVHDXWKRUVLQVLVWLQ
WKHHIIHFWVRILGHRORJLFDODQGV\PEROLFGRPLQDWLRQOLQNHGWRWKHPHGLD:DOWHU%HQMDPLQZKRGRHVQW
KDYHDWHFKQRSKRELFYLHZRSHQVWKHGRRUWRDQDPELYDOHQWSHUVSHFWLYHQRWHYHU\WKLQJLVGRPLQDWLRQWKHUH
are other forms of interpretation (Martin-Barbero, 1987). Within the International Situationist, Debord advo-
FDWHGWKHGpWRXUQHPHQWZKLFKPHDQVWRWDNHDQREMHFWFUHDWHGE\WKH&DSLWDOLVPRUWKHKHJHPRQLFSROLWLFDO
V\VWHPDQGGLVWRUWLWVRULJLQDOPHDQLQJSURGXFLQJDFULWLFDOHIIHFWSOD\HGRQWKHJURXQGZKLFKSURGXFHVWKH
GRPLQDWLRQ7KLVV\PEROLFJDPHRIGLVWRUWLRQZRXOGEHSURIXVHO\XVHGE\WKHSXQNPRYHPHQW

In this context of progressive centrality of images and symbols -a process closely linked originally to ad-
YHUWLVLQJFRQVXPHULVPFDPSDLJQV(ZHQDQGHQFRXUDJHGDOVRE\WKHH[WHQVLRQRI,&7VRPHVRFLDO
movements, either by diffusion processes or by explicit intention of (re) appropriation, incorporate more com-
PXQLFDWLYHHOHPHQWVLQWRWKHLUUHSHUWRLUHVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ7KHGLDOHFWLFVEHWZHHQFULWLFLVPDQG&DSLWDO-
ism related by Boltanski and Chiapello in 7KH1HZ6SLULWRI&DSLWDOLVPZRXOGRSHUDWHWKHUHIRUHLQ
both directions: social movements that take into account the criticism incorporate also some of the commu-
QLFDWLYHHOHPHQWVRIWHFKQRORJLFDOFKDQJHRSHUDWHGE\&DSLWDOLVPHVSHFLDOO\WKHVRFDOOHGQHZVRFLDOPRYH-
ments that incorporate artistic criticism, more sensitive to the expressive and communicative dimensions.

,QWKLVFRQWH[WQRZDGD\VZHFDQQGDQLQFUHDVLQJYLVXDOLW\RIVRFLDOSURWHVWDFWLRQVDQGFODLPVSUR-
OLIHUDWLQJWKRVHZKHUHWKHLPDJHVKDYHDFHQWUDOUROHDQGZKHUHWKHV\PEROVDVLQWKHFDVHRIOLSGXE, are
GLUHFWO\DQGH[SOLFLWO\VKRZQ7KLVHPHUJLQJYLVXDOLW\RIWKH$&EHFRPHVH[SRUWDEOHWRDOORYHUWKHZRUOG
YLDFRPSXWHUVDQGPRELOHSKRQHVUHVSRQGLQJWRZKDW(\HUPDQDQG-DPLVRQFDOOHGH[HPSODU\DFWLRQ. In
WKHDQDO\VLVRIVSHFLFFDVHVRIOLSGXEVFRQGXFWHGLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\ZHZLOOGHYHORSWKLVDVSHFW

,QDGGLWLRQWRJUHDWHUYLVXDOLW\LQVWDQWDQHRXVFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGLQIRUPDWLRQH[FKDQJHWKDWDOORZWKH
QHZWHFKQRORJLFDOFRQGLWLRQVKDYHGLUHFWHIIHFWVRQWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\PRELOL]DWLRQIRUPV$OLSGXE up-
ORDGHGRQWKH,QWHUQHWFDQEHVHHQWKDWVDPHGD\E\SHRSOHRIDOORYHUWKHZRUOGEXWWKHSUHSDULQJSUR-
FHVVRIWKHFODLPLQJHYHQWLVPHGLDWHGE\WKLVFRPPXQLFDWLYHDVSLUDWLRQ7KHDOWHUJOREDOPRELOL]DWLRQV
SRLQWHGRXWDFULWLFDOSRLQWLQWKHDOWHUQDWLYHXVHRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHV/DQJPDQ7KXVZHFDQVHH
KRZVRFLDOQHWZRUNVJHWSURJUHVVLYHO\PRUHWHOHPDWL]HGZKLOHVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQSDWWHUQVFKDQJHDQG
DULVH&$LQQRYDWLRQVDGDSWHGWRWKHQHZFRQWH[WV7.

This strongly expressive and demonstrative character of H[HPSODU\DFWLRQ, may serve, therefore, also
 $QRWKHUFDVHLQSRLQWZRXOGEHWRWKH)ODVK0REVHYHQWVLQZKLFKDJURXSRISHRSOHJDWKHULQRQHSODFHVXGGHQO\+HUHWRR,&7VDUHLQGLVSHQVDEOHLQWKH
VHQVHWKDWHPSRZHULQGLYLGXDOVWRDFWWRJHWKHULQVLWXDWLRQVDQGZD\VLQZKLFKWKH$&ZDVQRWSRVVLEOHEHIRUH5KHLQJROG
 307 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

DVDVFKHPDWLFIHDWXUHRIWKHQHZFRQWH[WDQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\WKURXJKWKHYLVLRQ
that they try to express in these concentrated 5-10 minutes of OLSGXE.

Analysis of lipdub protest and claims made in the Basque Country

There are some common features found in all analyzed OLSGXEZKLFKGXHWRLWVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKH[LVW-
LQJVRFLHWDU\FRQWH[WVZHFRQVLGHULPSRUWDQWWRKLJKOLJKW7RGRWKLVZHGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQWZRVHWVRI
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKHRQHVVSHFLFWRWKHOLSGXE themselves, as an exercise of audiovisual and demonstrative
DFWLRQZKDWZHZRXOGFDOOJHQHUDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWKRVHVSHFLFIHDWXUHVDSSOLHGWRSURWHVWDQGFODLP-
ing OLSGXEPDGHLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\%XWOHWVVWDUWVSHFLI\LQJZKDWKDVEHHQRXUVHOHFWLRQ

Selection of OLSGXE protests made in Basque Country

/LSGXE/LSGXE.8.87=$
- Description: OLSGXEPDGHE\WKHVTXDWWHUPRYHPHQWVXSSRUWHUVWRSURWHVWDJDLQVWWKHWKUHDWRIGHPROL-
WLRQRI.XNXW]DVTXDWORFDWHGLQWKHQHLJKERUKRRGRI5HNDOGH%LOEDR7KLVOLSGXE has been selected
EHFDXVHRIWKHVRFLDOLPSDFWRIWKHVTXDWWHGVRFLDOFHQWHUQRZGHPROLVKHGDQGEHFDXVHRIWKHGLYHUVH
DQGKXJHGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQGDGKHVLRQVWKDWFDXVHGZHHNVEHIRUHKLVHYLFWLRQDQGVXEVHTXHQWGHPROLWLRQ
/LQNKWWSZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y H9LH7NV\R
- Consulted on: 13/01/2012
- Number of visits: 201,105

/LSGXE/LSGXE2/(17=(52
- Description: OLSGXEPDGHE\WKHSURDPQHVW\PRYHPHQWVXSSRUWHUVLQGHIHQVHRIWKHULJKWVRI%DVTXH
SROLWLFDOSULVRQHUVLQWKH2OG7RZQRI%LOEDRDQGEHFDXVHRIWKHFDOOIRUQDWLRQDOGHPRQVWUDWLRQKHOG
in Bilbao on January 7th, 2012.
/LQNKWWSZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y V<6%2T[V&<R
- Consulted on: 13/01/2012
- Number of visits: 8,946

/LSGXE/LSGXE2QGDUUX+HUUL[H8GDOHW[HD
- Description: OLSGXEUHODWHGWRWKHPXQLFLSDOHOHFWLRQVRI0D\DQGDJDLQVWWKHEDQQLQJRIOHIWZLQJ
pro-independence political parties. Other similar OLSGXEV take place in small villages like Mutriku or
(W[DUUL$IWHU\HDUVRISURVFULSWLRQWKHOHIWZLQJQDWLRQDOLVWFDQGLGDWHVZHUHDJDLQOHJDO
/LQNKWWSZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y 6)0=8RP-\$
- Consulted on: 13/01/2012
- Number of visits: 61,777

/LSGXE3UHVRHQDOGHNR/LSGXE/HNLWWR
- Description: OLSGXE protest carried out by the pro-amnesty movement in defense of the political pris-
RQHUDQGUHIXJHHULJKWVLQWKHYLOODJHRI/HNHLWLRWRH[SUHVVVROLGDULW\ZLWKWKLVJURXS
/LQNKWWSZZZ\RXWXEHFRPZDWFK"Y T(LVPJ1V
- Consulted on: 13/01/2012
- Number of visits: 50,097
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 308

General characteristics of the lip dub

9LVXDOLW\LPDJHVFRORU these features are absolutely central to the OLSGXE. As a clear pattern of
demonstrative action (Eyerman, Jamison, 1998), in the OLSGXEZHFDQVHHDFRQWLQXLQJH[KLELWLRQRI
H[SOLFLWDQGGLUHFWLPDJHV(ZHQIHDWXUHGZLWKDVWULNLQJFRORUWKURXJKZKLFKKLJKYLVXDOLW\RI
WKHHYHQWLVVWUHVVHGDVZHOODVWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOSRZHUDQGGUDPDWLFDFWLRQ

6QDSVKRWV ICTs enable instantaneous dissemination of information, once it is uploaded to the Internet
(Castells, 2004). The OLSGXEIROORZVWKLVVDPHORJLFLQWKHVHQVHWKDWRQFHWKHYLGHRLVSUHSDUHGDQG
KXQJLQWKHZHELQVWDQWO\SHRSOHIURPDOORYHUWKHZRUOGFDQREVHUYHLW

'LUHFW([SUHVVLYHQHVV a OLSGXELVDW\SHRIHYHQWLQZKLFKWKHH[SUHVVLYHIXQFWLRQDQGHPRWLRQDO
FRPPLWPHQWDUHFHQWUDO(\HUPDQ-DPLVRQ+HUHWKHDFWLRQLWVHOILVFRQJXUHGDVDQHQGEHDU-
ing demand, and a good in itself, as an artistic creation (Hebdige, 2004). Thus the visual explicitness
of the message is directly and immediately sent to the spectator.

3RVLWLYHQHVVDQGIXQ the joy and optimistic tone is constant in the OLSGXE7KLVSRVLWLYLW\WVZLWKWKHFKDU-

acteristics of other types of emotional feelings, like love, affection or solidarity, as Jasper (1997) noted as
FUXFLDOHOHPHQWVWKURXJKZKLFKFODLPVFDQEHHQFRXUDJHGDQGSURPRWHGERWKWRVXSSRUWOHVVNQRZQVWUXJ-
JOHVDVWRUHDIUPVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWRZKLFKRQHDOUHDG\EHORQJV7KHVKRFNLQJLPDJHVDQGRIFRXUVH
the music, are certainly elements that foster these emotional commitment (Eyerman and Jameson, 1998).

 '\QDPLVP RI WKH LPDJHV DQG WKH travelling: the speed of the event, the continuous exposure to
FKDQJLQJVLWXDWLRQVDQGWKHYHU\YLVXDOO\WUDYHOLQJDVDPHWKRGRIOPLQJDUHFRPPRQFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
of the OLSGXE. We relate it to theoretical perspectives about social acceleration, focusing on increasing
velocity that occurs in contemporary societies (Luhmann, 1992).

(PRWLRQDODSSHDOWKHHPSRZHUPHQWRIHPRWLRQVDQGIHHOLQJVRIWKHSHRSOHLQYROYHGLQWKHHYHQW
DQGWKRVHZKRVHHWKHOLSGXE, is a central element in these initiatives (Eyerman and Jamison, 1998).
7KHDHVWKHWLFFRPELQDWLRQRIPXVLFV\PEROVFRORUIXOSLFWXUHVDQGHYHQWKHIDFWWKDWZHFDQVHHWKH
faces of the people involved in the OLSGXE, laughing and emotionally interacting, leads to stress these
feelings and humanizes the activity.

6SHFLFIHDWXUHVRIWKHOLSGXESURWHVWVPDGHLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\

5HSUHVHQWDWLRQDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLYLW\ there is an attempt of inclusion and representation of all the

FDWDORJRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVVXFKDVQDWLRQDOOLEHUDWLRQIHPLQLVWWKHVTXDWWKHZRUNHUVWKHHXV
NDOW]DOHSUR%DVTXHODQJXDJHLQGLYLGXDOVLQ%DVTXHWKH\RXQJHQYLURQPHQWDOLVWRULQWHUQDWLRQDO-
ist. It also promoted the representativity and appearance of people belonging to different generations
(children, old...). Therefore it is an attempt to open the range of participation and support to diverse
PRYHPHQWFODLPVDQGJHQHUDWLRQVWKXVVKRZLQJYLGHRVLQDJUHDWSOXUDOLVWLFLQFOXVLYHDQGLQWHJUDWLYH
DSSHDUDQFH:HFDQDOVRVHHVSRUWVFUHZVDUUDQW]DOHVVKHUPHQLQ%DVTXHVFKRROVVXE6DKDULDQ
LPPLJUDQWVDVLQWKHFDVHRI2QGDUURDDQGDZLGHUDQJHRIVRFLDOPHPEHUV6KRXOGDOVREHPHQWLRQHG
DVLJQLFDQWDEVHQFHDVLQWKHFDVHRI.XNXW]DVTXDWZLWKZKLFKWKH0V\PSDWKL]HGEXWQHYHUWKH-
less does not appear explicitly in the staging of social movements that occur in the OLSGXE.
 309 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

([SOLFLWV\PEROLVPDQGSURIXVLRQRIV\PEROVWKLVLVYHU\VSHFLFWRWKH%DVTXHFDVH,QDOORE-
served OLSGXEDUHDORWRIV\PEROVUHJDUGOHVVRIWKHFDXVHDQGDSURIXVLRQRIDJVIHDWXULQJV\PEROV
that represent different struggles and social and political demands.

0XVLFDOUHSHUWRLUHWKHXVHRIVRQJVLQ(XVNHUDLVDFRQVWDQWLQDOOWKHH[DPSOHVRI%DVTXHSURWHVWOLSGXE
analyzed. Euskaldun musical element is therefore a common cultural trait that seems to continue the close
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQPXVLFDQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRIWKHUHFHQWGHFDGHVDQGLVVWUHVVHGLQWKHVHHYHQWV

7UDGLWLRQDQGPRGHUQLW\ZKLOHOLSGXE themselves are a sign of adaptation to the latest technologies,

in all the observed OLSGXEDUHUHIHUHQFHVDQGQRGVWR%DVTXHWUDGLWLRQDODQGHWKQLFHOHPHQWVHYHQ
clearer in the title of Olentzero OLSGXEZKLFKUHIHUVWRWKHP\WKRORJLFDOJXUH7KHFRPELQDWLRQRI
ERWKPRGHUQDQGWUDGLWLRQDOHOHPHQWVLVDFRQVWDQWUHSHDWHGLQDOPRVWDOOFDVHVZLWKWKHDSSHDUDQFHRI
GDQW]DULV%DVTXHGDQFHUVRU%DVTXHROGWRROV

7KHDWULFDOLW\FRVWXPHVGDQFH this feature is strongly related to the dynamic and playful spirit that
ZHKDYHDOUHDG\GHVFULEHG7KHSURIXVLRQRIFRVWXPHVRISHUIRUPDQFHVZLWKDKLJKGHJUHHRIWKHDWUL-
cality, and the central importance of the dances are elements that point to a more optimistic and open-
QHVVQDWXUHLQFRQWHPSRUDU\IRUPVRI%DVTXHVRFLDOSURWHVW

$SSHDUDQFHRIGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVEXWZLWKDVSLULWRIXQLW\HDFKPRYHPHQWKDVLWVRZQ
voice in the OLSGXEDPRPHQWLQZKLFKWKHVSHFLFPHVVDJHDQGGHPDQGVFODLPHGLQDVRUWRIWRNHQ
SDVVLQJ%XWQDOO\LQWKHQDOFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIWKHYLGHRZHFDQVHHDXQLWDU\DFWLQZKLFKHYHU\RQH
VHHPVWRURZLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQLQIDYRURIDGHHSVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOFKDQJH,WVWDJHVDZRUOGYLHZ
DQDOWHUQDWLYHDQGJOREDOSURFKDQJHZRUOGYLHZ

Conclusions
7KHFRQWH[WRIUHFHQWGHFDGHVLQ:HVWHUQVRFLHWLHVSRLQWVWRWKHJURZLQJLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHFRPPXQLFD-
WLRQHOGLQWHQVLHGZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI,&7(YHQGRLQJLQPDQ\FDVHVDFULWLFDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI
PDVVFRPPXQLFDWLRQVRFLDOFRPPXQLFDWLYHHOGKDVDOZD\VEHHQFRQVWLWXHQWSDUWRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV
beyond the repertoires of action, as cognitive praxis itself. The H[HPSODU\DFWLRQ synthesizes a collective
DFWLRQLQZKLFKFRPHWRJHWKHUVWUDWHJLFDIIHFWLYHFRJQLWLYHFRPPXQLFDWLYHDQGLGHQWLW\GLPHQVLRQV7KH
PXVLFDQGWKHPRELOL]DWLRQRIWKHWUDGLWLRQKDYHVKRZQDQRXWVWDQGLQJSRWHQWLDOLQWKLVUHJDUG7KHXQLRQRI
FXOWXUHDQGSROLWLFVRIPXVLFDQGSROLWLFVZKLFKWDNHVSODFHZLWKLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLVDJUHDWSRVVLELOLW\
RIH[HPSODU\DFWLRQZKLOHWKHPRYHPHQWLVFRQVWLWXWHGLQWKHFRQWH[WRIH[SHULPHQWDWLRQDQGDUWLVWLFDQG
cultural innovation.

7KHGHYHORSPHQWRI,&7KDVSURYLGHGQHZUHVRXUFHVDQGHQKDQFHGFRPPXQLFDWLYHDQGH[SUHVVLYHGL-
mensions of social movements. In this dialectic, by diffusion or explicit reappropriation, social movements
VHHPWRUHZRUNVRPHUHVRXUFHVDVWDFWLFDOLQQRYDWLRQVLQWKHLUUHSHUWRLUHVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ7KHFDVHRI
the OLSGXEZLWKVRPHRXWVWDQGLQJIHDWXUHVWKDWDOORZDQH[HPSODU\DFWLRQYLVXDOLW\LPPHGLDF\H[SUHV-
VLYHQHVVSRVLWLYHQHVVG\QDPLVPHPRWLRQDOFRPPLWPHQWLVWKXVDQHPHUJLQJSKHQRPHQDQRZDGD\V
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 310

,QWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\WKHVRFLDOFRPPXQLFDWLYHGLPHQVLRQLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKHODVW\HDUV
KDVEHHQFRQYH\HGLQDYHU\LQWHQVHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFXOWXUHDQGSROLWLFVZLWKDPDMRUUROHRIPXVLFDV
FRJQLWLYHSUD[LV$GLVWLQFWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFLQWKH%DVTXHFRQWH[WVHHPVWRKDYHUHLQIRUFHGWKLVUHODWLRQ-
VKLSWKHVXERUGLQDWHVWDWXVRI%DVTXHFXOWXUHZKLFKKDVPDGHWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQDUHQDRIH[SUHV-
VLRQWUDQVPLVVLRQDQGUHQHZDORIWKLVFXOWXUH7KHVEHFDPHDUVWVWHSIRUPRELOL]DWLRQDQGFXOWXUDO
UHQHZDOFDUULHGRXWE\VRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOPRYHPHQWV%XWLQWKHVRFFXUVDSDUWLFXODUDQGFRQLFWLYH
IUDPHDOLJQPHQWEHWZHHQWKH\RXWKPRYHPHQWRUJDQL]HGDURXQGWKHSXQNDQGWKHOHIWZLQJSROLWLFDOSUR
LQGHSHQGHQFHPRYHPHQWZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHVDIHUWLOHFRQWH[WRIFUHDWLRQDQGFXOWXUDOUHQHZDODQGLGHQWLW\
9HUWHEUDWHGE\WKHPXVLFLWZLOOEHFRPHDSRZHUIXOFRJQLWLYHFRPPXQLFDWLYHDQGHPRWLRQDOSUD[LVSUR-
viding a common identity and aesthetics. In this context several social movements construct a particular
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7KHVHHPVWREHLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\WKH\HDURIWKHVSUHDGRIDQHZIRUPRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ
the OLSGXE -to some extent stimulated by the remarkable impact of a Catalan pro-independence OLSGXE
HYHQWFDUULHGRXWLQ9LF&DWDOXQ\D$QGLWHPHUJHVLQDQHZSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHGHQL-
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leftist pro-independence political spectrum.

7KXVZKLOHLQDJOREDOHFRQRPLFFULVLVFRQWH[WLQ6SDLQHPHUJHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVVXFKDV0ZLWKD
VWURQJFULWLFLVPDQGDOLHQDWLRQIURPIRUPDOGHPRFUDF\7KH\GRQRWUHSUHVHQWXVLQWKH%DVTXH&RXQWU\
VHYHUDOSROLWLFDOVHFWRUVIRUPHUO\RULHQWHGWRFRXQWHUSRZHUVWUDWHJLHVVKLIWQRZDGD\VWRZDUGVWKHFRQ-
struction of alternative politics, in a direct dispute around political and social hegemony, and the electoral
FRQTXHVWRIIRUPDOLQVWLWXWLRQV

,QWKLVFRQWH[WRIFKDQJHIURPGLUHFWDFWLRQDQGUHVLVWDQFHWRWKHFRQTXHVWRIDGKHVLRQVVRPHW\SHVRI
collective action such as the OLSGXEVHHPWRWSHUIHFWO\7KH\DUHDQRXWVWDQGLQJFDVHRIH[HPSODU\DF-
WLRQDQGWKDWLVZK\LQWLPHWKH\DUHDQH[FHSWLRQDOVKRZFDVHWRVHHZKDWWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVZDQWWR
VD\DERXWWKHPVHOYHVWKHLPDJHWKH\LQWHQGWREURDGFDVW7KDWLVZKDWZHKDYHWULHGWRGREULH\LQWKH
QDOSDUWRIWKLVZRUNDQDO\]LQJVRPHVSHFLFOLSGXEZLWKUHPDUNDEOHLPSDFWDQGFDUULHGRXWE\GLIIHUHQW
VRFLDOPRYHPHQWV$QGWKHPHVVDJHWKH\WU\WRWUDQVPLWPDWFKHVZLWKWKHQHZ%DVTXHVSHFLFFRQWH[W
an emphasis on plurality, diversity, representativeness, popular participation. An agglutinating open, posi-
WLYHDQGIULHQGO\LPDJHVWUHVVLQJWKHFRQVFLRXVDQGHPRWLRQDOFRPPLWPHQW)DFHGZLWKWKHLQGLJQDWLRQ
DQGWKHUHMHFWLRQUHODWHGWRQHZPRYHPHQWVVXFKDV0WKHDSSHDOKHUHLVGRQHLQDSRVLWLYHKDSS\
emotional, and constructive mood.. At the same time, the presence of great coral symbolism of the differ-
ent movements, regardless of the particular movement that organizes the OLSGXEDQGHOHPHQWVRI%DVTXH
HWKQLFWUDGLWLRQDQGWKHXVHRIWKH(XVNDUDLQWKHVRXQGWUDFNZKLFKWDNHVVRQJVGHYHORSHGIRUWKLVSXUSRVH
(as in the case of Kukutza), or re-uses the cultural production of the past decades- are remarkable common
IHDWXUHVLQWKHVHHYHQWV7KLVYLHZRIDQDOWHUQDWLYHZRUOGYLHZZKLFKK\EULGL]HVGHPDQGVRIGLYHUVHVRFLDO
movements, cultural elements such as music and expressive language, and ethnic elements- seems to refer
WRWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHFRJQLWLYHSUD[LVDQGFRPPRQLGHQWLW\GHYHORSHGLQDSHFXOLDUDOLJQPHQWZKLFKFRPHV
IURPHDUO\VRUHYHQIURPWKHHQGRIWKH)UDQFRUHJLPH7KXVWKHOLSGXE seems to become a collec-
WLYHDFWLRQDH[HPSODU\DFWLRQWKDWPHDQVDQGH[WHQGVZKDWWKHEDQG1HJX*RUULDNXVHGWRVLQJ.DQWDW]HQ
HWDGDQW]DW]HQGXHQKHUULEDWH]GDLQRL]KLONR7KHSHRSOHWKDWVLQJDQGGDQFHZLOOQHYHUGLH
 311 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

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$PHULFDQ6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ9RO1R
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)ODFNV5.QRZOHGJHIRU:KDW"7KRXJKWVRQWKH6WDWHRI6RFLDO0RYHPHQW6WXGLHVHQ*RRGZLQ-\-DVSHU-5HWKLQNLQJ6RFLDO
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*RYHUQVLQDQ,QWHUFRQHFWHG:RUOG"'HPRV/RQGRQ
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IDENTITY
AND PERFORMATIVITY
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 314

A Study of Movement Identity on Protest Events:

The case of The Protest Against the 2008 Hokkaido
Toyako G8 Summit

KYOKO TOMINAGA
Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology Faculty of Letters, The University of Tokyo

Abstract
This article is a case study that aims to investigate the participation in the protest against
the 2008 Hokkaido Toyako Summit held in Japan. Many social movement studies fo-
cused on establishing the movement s goal and identity. Studies about summit protest
DOVR H[SODLQHG WKDW SDUWLFLSDQWV V\PSDWKL]H ZLWK WKH PRYHPHQWV VFKHPD ZKLFK WKH
PRYHPHQWV RUJDQL]DWLRQ SUHVHQWHG GHOOD 3RUWD  GHOOD 3RUWD HW DO  7KLV
DUWLFOHSDUWLFXODUO\IRFXVHVRQDVSHFLFJURXSRISDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGRQRWVKDUHFROOHF-
WLYHLGHQWLW\ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVFHQWUDOYDOXHVDQGDWWHPSWVWRQGDGHHSURRWHG
source for participation. This research made clear that such participants took part in the
summit protest because they are bored and ravenous for special opportunities in their
KRPHWRZQ7KH\UHJDUGHGWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWDVXUEDQDQGVSHFLDOPRYHPHQWV,QWKH
SURFHVVRIFRQVWLWXWLQJWKHSURWHVWWKH\ZRUNHGZLWKDQGOHDUQHGIURPYDULRXVVHFWRUV
DQGUHVLGHQWVLQ6DSSRUR7KH\JDLQHGDQHZSRLQWRIYLHZIRUWKHLUKRPHWRZQDQGDS-
plied it. At last, some activists continued to political activity after the summit protest in
WKHLUKRPHWRZQ

Keywords
Collective Memory, Global Justice Movement, Movement Identity, Protest Event, and
Summit Protest

Introduction
This paper aims to investigate the participation in the protest against the 2008 Hokkaido Toyako Summit
held in Toyako (and Sapporo), Hokkaido, Northern Japan. The protests against international institutions
DQGPLQLVWHULDOFRQIHUHQFHVKDYHRFFXUUHGDURXQGWKHZRUOGZLWKHQRUPRXVFURZGV2YHUIW\WKRXVDQG
activists protested against the World Trade Organization (WTO) conference in Seattle in 1999 and G8 sum-
mit in Genoa in 2000. More recently, hundreds of thousands marched against Conference of Parties (COP)
15 meetings in Copenhagen (Hamanishi 2010).

Previous research called this protest Global Justice Movement (della Porta et al. 2005, della Porta ed.
2007). Protesters insisted on alter-globalization and global justice for international institution such as WTO
and IMF (International Monetary Fund), or international ministerial conferences such as G8 summit, COP,
HWF0DQ\VWXGLHVPHQWLRQHGWKDWWKLVPRYHPHQWKDVPXOWLLVVXHVVXFKDVHQYLURQPHQWZRPHQWUDGHDQWL
ZDUDQGVRRQ%HVW+HQFHYDULRXVDFWRUVJDWKHULQWRSODFHVRIPRYHPHQWIURPPDQ\ODQGV7KH\DUH
 315 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

SDUWRIWKHJOREDOVRFLDOPRYHPHQW\HWLWLVDQHYHQWRQLWVRZQ,WLVKHOGLQDOLPLWHGVSDFHZLWKLQDFHUWDLQ
SHULRGRIWLPH,WLVFDUULHGRXWE\DFWLYLVWVJURXSVDQGQHWZRUNVEXWDOVRXQGHUWDNHQE\DFURZGRISHRSOH

In this paper, I examined the various participation of the summit protest1 to explore another resource of
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FROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGUHVRXUFHPRELOL]DWLRQ,QSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKHVUHVRXUFHVDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQZKLFK
DUHQRWGLUHFWO\UHODWHGZLWKPRYHPHQWVJRDOVDQGVKDUHGYDOXHVZHUHQRWIRFXVHG5HVHDUFKHUVGLGQRW
GLVFXVVWKHIDFWRUVZKLFKDUHQRWUHODWHGWRQDWXUHRIWKHSURWHVWLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV+RZHYHUWKH\FDQEH
important resources for conducting and sustaining social movements. I analyzed the theoretical implication
RIVKRZLQJYDULRXVSDUWLFLSDWLRQVDQGUHYHDOHGWKHIDFWRUZKLFKHQFRXUDJHVSHRSOHWRWDNHSDUWLQVRFLDO
PRYHPHQWV1H[W,SURYLGHUHVHDUFKPHWKRGV6HPLFRQVWUXFWHGLQWHUYLHZIRUORFDOUHVLGHQWVLQ+RNNDLGR
LQFOXGLQJ6DSSRURDQG7R\DNRFLW\ZDVDGPLQLVWHUHGDVWKH\SOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROHWRIDFLOLWDWHWKH
summit protest. Previous studies of the summit protests did not focus on local people. Repertoires in 2008
DQWL*DFWLYLVPLQ6DSSRURDQG7R\DNR-DSDQZDVFROODWHUDOO\H[SODLQHGLQWKLVSDSHU6XEVHTXHQWO\
,DQDO\]HGWKUHHSDWWHUQSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW6\PSDWK\ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOLQWHU-
HVWLQWKHPRYHPHQWVUHSHUWRLUHVDQGFRQFHUQDERXWSURYLGLQJRZQVNLOOWRGRWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW$IWHU
HVWDEOLVKLQJWKHFDWHJRULHVWKLVUHVHDUFKHPSKDVL]HVWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQQRWDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWV
goal and identity. The participation of local residents is based on feelings and understandings for their
KRPHWRZQ6DSSRURDQG7R\DNRZDVVKRZQ

,QFRQFOXVLRQWKLVDUWLFOHPDNHVFOHDUWKDWIHHOLQJVDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISHRSOHIRUWKHLUKRPHWRZQRU
place is an important factor that mobilizes people into social movements.

Previous research
0DQ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVFKRODUVIRFXVHGRQSDUWLFLSDWLRQWRSURWHVWZKLFKLVEDVHGRQFROOHFWLYHLGHQ-
WLW\0HOOXFL0DQ\VWXGLHVDERXWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQVDUJXHGWKDWPRYHPHQWV
JRDOVDQGLVVXHVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHIRUSDUWLFLSDWLRQRIDFWLYLVWV2IFRXUVHZHPXVWVXUHO\DGPLWWKH
LPSRUWDQFHRIDPRYHPHQWVJRDOLVVXHDQGVKDUHGYDOXHV7KH\DUHLQGLVSHQVDEOHIDFWRUVLQDQ\VRFLDO
movements. Some scholars suggest that people take part in social movements because of the designated
social situation (Polleta and Jasper 2001, etc.), and other researchers argue that participation is raised by
V\PSDWKL]LQJZLWKWKDWIUDPHRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVH[KLELWHG6QRZDQG%HQIRUG%DVLFDOO\PDQ\
VFKRODUVDUJXHGWKDWSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLVRQWKHJURXQGVWKDWSHRSOHVKDUHWKHPRYHPHQWV
goal and identity.

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WLW\LVQRWDOZD\VWKHUHDVRQWRPRELOL]HSHRSOH7KHUHDUHYDULHWLHVRIIDFWRUVWKDWWULJJHUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQ
VRFLDOPRYHPHQWV3DUWLFLSDQWVLQSURWHVWVGRQRWDOZD\VNQRZDERXWWKHJRDOVDQGVKDUHGYDOXHVRIWKH
PRYHPHQW6RPHVFKRODUVIRFXVHGRQDJURXSRISDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGRQRWVKDUHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\ZLWK
WKHPRYHPHQWVFHQWUDOYDOXHV)RUH[DPSOH0DWVXLVKRZHGWKHLQDSSURSULDWHQHVVRIWKHGRPLQDQWH[-
1 In this paper, I describe protests against international institution such as WTO and IMF (International Monetary Fund), or international ministerial confer-
ences such as G8 summit as summit protests.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 316

planation of the Anpo struggle through his research, and his analysis revealed the sense of amusement
enticing people to participate in the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty (Anpo) Struggle (Matsui 2003). Aoki
DOVRVKRZHGDGLIIHUHQWWULJJHURISDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHSURWHVW&RQLFWRYHU+LJK5DGLRDFWLYH:DVWH6KH
H[SODLQHGWKHGXUDELOLW\RIWKLVPRYHPHQWE\SDUWLFLSDQWVGLYHUVLW\7KHPRYHPHQWDJDLQVWKLJKUDGLRDF-
WLYHZDVVXVWDLQHGEHFDXVHUHVLGHQWVDOORZHGSHRSOHZKRGLGQRWVKDUHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQ
this movement (Aoki 2006).

7KHVDPHWKLQJPLJKWEHVDLGRI6QRZVUHVHDUFKRI1LFKLUHQ6KLQVKX+HLVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVFKRODURI
IUDPHDQDO\VLVZKLOHKHPHQWLRQHGDERXWSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGLGQRWVKDUHPDVWHUIUDPHRIDVRFLDOPRYHPHQW

>,@GLGQWZDQWWRJRWRPHHWLQJZKHQUVWDVNHG%XWWKHQWKHSHUVRQZKRUHFUXLWHGPHVWDUWHGWHOOLQJPHDERXWWKH
PDQ\SUHWW\JLUOVWKDWZRXOGEHWKHUH6R,VDLG:HOOLWFDQWEHWKDWEDGLIWKH\KDYHDOOWKRVHSUHWW\JLUOVLQWKLV
UHOLJLRQ6R,DJUHHGWRJRWRPHHWLQJWKDWQLJKWDQGWDNHDORRNDWWKRVHJLUOV%XWWKDWLVQWZK\,MRLQHG1LFKLUHQ
6KLQVKX,WZDVWKHKDSSLQHVVDQGIULHQGOLQHVVRIWKHPHPEHUVDQGWKHIDFWWKDW,NLQGRIOLNHGFKDQWLQJWKDWPDGHPH
GHFLGHWREHFRPHDPHPEHUDQGUHFHLYHP\*RKRQ]RQVDFUHGVFUROO6QRZ

6QRZVKRZHGWKHUHDVRQVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQDVIROORZVLWFDQWEHWKDWEDGLIWKH\KDYHDOOWKRVHSUHWW\
JLUOVLQWKLVUHOLJLRQDQG6R,DJUHHGWRJRWRPHHWLQJWKDWQLJKWDQGWDNHDORRNDWWKDWJLUOV+RZHYHU
6QRZGLGQRWGHQHGWKHPDVWKHUHDVRQRIDSDUWLFLSDWLRQ6QRZDQGKLVLQIRUPDQWZRXOGUDWKHUHPSKD-
VLVWKHUHDVRQRISDUWLFLSDWLRQDVIROORZVWKHKDSSLQHVVDQGIULHQGOLQHVVRIWKHPHPEHUVDQGWKHIDFWWKDW
,NLQGRIOLNHGFKDQWLQJ6QRZGLGQRWUHJDUGDPRWLYDWLRQZKLFKWKHPDQZDQWVWRORRNDWSUHWW\JLUOVDV
WKHUHDVRQRIWDNLQJSDUWLQWKHPRYHPHQW6QRZPHQWLRQHGWKHRSSRUWXQLW\RISDUWLFLSDWLRQLQPRYHPHQWV
ZKLFKLVQRWFRQFHUQHGZLWKDPRYHPHQWVJRDO+RZHYHUKHGLGQRWGHQHWKHPDVWKHUHDVRQRISDU-
WLFLSDWLRQ+LVIUDPHDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQDUHUHVWULFWHGWRWKHIDFWRUVFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWKDPRYHPHQWV
JRDOSULQFLSDODQGLGHQWLW\0\VWXG\RSSRVHGWKLVGLVFXVVLRQDQGSURSRVHVWKDWWKHIDFWRUVZKLFKDUHQRW
UHODWHGZLWKDPRYHPHQWVJRDODUHLQFOXGHGWRWKHUHDVRQRISDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHPRYHPHQWEHFDXVHWKH\
FDQEHLPSRUWDQWUHVRXUFHVWRVXVWDLQDQGWDNHSODFHSURWHVWV,KRSHWRPDNHFOHDUWKHQHZUHVRXUFHVZKLFK
encourage people to take part in movements.

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SDUWLFLSDQWVLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVZLWKRXWWKHLUFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\2OVRQVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKHUHDUHIUHHULGHUV
in social movements (Olson 1968), and this served as a theoretical base for resource mobilization theory
(McCarthy and Zald 1977). Discussions of McCarthy and Zald suggested that there are resources to take
SODFHDQGVXVWDLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGGRQRWUHIHUWRLGHRORJ\DQGLGHQWLW\+RZHYHUVFKRODUVGHQHG
WKHHOHPHQWVUHODWHGWRDPRYHPHQWVDUJXPHQWSXUSRVHDQGLVVXHDVWKHUHVRXUFHVWRPRELOL]HSHRSOHRU
WRRUJDQL]HJURXSV7KHHOHPHQWVZKLFKGLVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHQDWXUHRISURWHVWVDUHH[FOXGHGIURPWKH
resources on their discussion,

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VFKHPDZKLFKWKHPRYHPHQWVRUJDQL]DWLRQSUHVHQWHGGHOOD3RUWDGHOOD3RUWDHWDO7KXVWKH
position of studies about summit protest has a tendency to explain that participation in a protest is based on
creating a collective identity and communicating a master frame. These studies regarded a summit protest
DVDQRUJDQL]HGSURWHVW7DUURZWKHUHIRUHWKH\HPSKDVL]HGDFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGDPDVWHU
frame of a summit protest.
 317 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

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RIEXLOGLQJFRQVLVWHQWIUDPHVWREHVKDUHG+RZHYHUSDUWLFLSDQWVGRQRWDOZD\VVKDUHDFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\
EHFDXVHVXPPLWSURWHVWVDUHMXVWOLNHDQHYHQW6XPPLWSURWHVWVDUHKHOGLQDOLPLWHGVSDFHZLWKLQDFHUWDLQ
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QRWRQO\VWUXJJOHVEXWDOVRHYHQWV,WLQFOXGHVYDULRXVSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGRQRWDOZD\VVKDUHDPRYHPHQWV
JRDO6RPHSHRSOHVKDUHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGLQVLVWWKHLURSLQLRQVE\VLQJLQJDVRQJRUZDONLQJLQDVWUHHW
EXWWKHRWKHUPHUHO\OLVWHQVWRWKHVRQJRUZDONLQJZLWKWKHPZLWKRXWNQRZLQJWKHSUREOHPVRIJOREDOLVP

Furthermore, studies about summit protests do not focuse on local residents because local participants
have little commitment to participate in a summit protest. Researches of della Porta (della Porta 2007, della
Porta et al. 2006) excluded local residents because they had a different feature from other areas in order
to take part in a summit protest. Della Porta explained that geographically close to the event, Tuscanes
QHHGHGDORZHUFRPPLWPHQWWKDQ,WDOLDQVIURPRWKHUUHJLRQVLQRUGHUWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQ(6)(XURSH6RFLDO
)RUXP>QRWHGE\WKHZULWHU@GHOOD3RUWD

0RVWRIXVZRXOGDFFHSWWKDWORFDOUHVLGHQWVQHHGHGRQO\DORZHUFRPPLWPHQWWKDQSDUWLFLSDQWVIURP
other areas. If researchers regard a summit protest as a global justice movement, it is appropriate strategy
WRH[FOXGHORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVIURPUHVHDUFK3UREDEO\SHRSOHLQORFDODUHDVWDNHORZHUFRVWDQGULVNWRSDU-
WLFLSDWHDVXPPLWSURWHVW+RZHYHUSDUWO\WKLVYLHZLVXQVDWLVIDFWRU\$GGHGWRWKLVLQGLFDWLRQP\VWXG\
VKRZVDQRWKHUIHDWXUHRIORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWV

Inhabitants in local area easily take part in a protest, therefore they have to play a primary role to set up
DQGRUJDQL]HDVXPPLWSURWHVW,QJHQHUDOUHVLGHQWVNQRZXQGHUVWDQGJHRJUDSKLFDOVXUURXQGLQJVDQGKDYH
QHWZRUNZLWKRWKHUFLWL]HQVEHWWHUWKDQSURWHVWHUVIURPRWKHUDUHD6XPPLWSURWHVWVFRXOGQRWEHHVWDEOLVKHG
ZLWKRXWORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWV,QIDFWVRPHUHVHDUFKHVDQGGRFXPHQWVDUJXHGWKDWORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVSOD\HGDQ
LPSRUWDQWUROHWRRUJDQL]HDVXPPLWSURWHVW6PLWK6DWR

,IRFXVHGRQSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGRQRWV\PSDWKL]HZLWKDPRYHPHQWVJRDODQGPDVWHUIUDPHRIDSURWHVWLQ
this paper. This article is a case study that aims to investigate the participation in the protest against the 2008
+RNNDLGR7R\DNR6XPPLWKHOGLQ+RNNDLGR-DSDQ%XWDQRWKHUTXHVWLRQUDLVHG:KDWLVWKHFRQWULEXWLRQ
RIWKLVVWXG\WRWKHWKHRU\RIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV",DQVZHUWKLVTXHVWLRQDVIROORZVWKLVVWXG\UHYHDOVYDUL-
RXVSDUWLFLSDWLRQVLQDVXPPLWSURWHVWVDQGDWWHPSWVWRQGDQRWKHUVRXUFHWRPRELOL]HSHRSOHIRUSURWHVWV,W
EHFRPHVRQHRIWKHDQVZHUVWRWKHTXHVWLRQZKLFKWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWXGLHVVKDUHG:K\VRFLDOPRYH-
PHQWVPDWWHU"DQG:K\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVVXVWDLQ".ODQGHUPDQV6RFLDOPRYHPHQWVDUHQRWRQO\
political or anti-establishment actions, but also amusement (Matsui 2003) and sanctum for activists
$RNLDQGVRRQ%\VHHLQJZLWKDQRWKHUYLHZSRLQWZKDWLVGLIIHUHQWIURPFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\WKHR-
ULVWZHFDQQGQHZUHVRXUFHVWRPRELOL]HSDUWLFLSDQWVLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV$VDFDVHRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW
SURWHVWHUVZKRGRQRWVKDUHDPRYHPHQWVJRDOFDQSOD\DQLQLWLDOUROHWRRUJDQL]HWKHPRYHPHQW,QDGGLWLRQ
WRLWE\VHHLQJIURPDQRWKHUSRLQWRIYLHZZKDWLVGLIIHUHQWIURPUHVRXUFHPRELOL]DWLRQWKHRULVWZHFDQQG
QHZUHVRXUFHWRPRELOL]HDFWLYLVWVIRUVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV,QWKHFDVHRIVXPPLWSURWHVWVORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVGR
QRWDOZD\VVKDUHSXUSRVHDQGLGHQWLW\EXWWKH\DUHHVVHQWLDOWRDFFRPSOLVKWKHSURWHVW2QRWKHUPRYHPHQWV
WKHIDFWRUVZKLFKDUHQRWUHODWHGZLWKWKHQDWXUHRISURWHVWVDUHLPSRUWDQWUHVRXUFHVWRFDUU\RXWDPRYHPHQW

Furthermore, researches about summit protests avoided to focus on local residents because local partici-
SDQWVKDYHORZHUFRPPLWPHQWWKDQRWKHUVIRUWKLVUHDVRQ,DJUHHZLWKWKLVDUJXPHQWKRZHYHUWKLVVWXG\
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 318

IRFXVHVRQORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVEHFDXVHWKH\DUHHQJDJHGLQLPSRUWDQWZRUNVWRHVWDEOLVKDQGPDQDJH*
VXPPLWSURWHVWLQ7R\DNR+RNNDLGR,QDVXPPLWSURWHVWVRPHORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVXQGHUVWDQGPRYHPHQWV
JRDOVEXWRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVGRQRW7KH\SDUWLFLSDWHQRWLQDVXPPLWSURWHVWEXWLQDQHYHQWZKHUHLQ
they stay at a campsite, and dance in a street.

7KLVSUHVHQWDWLRQSDUWLFXODUO\IRFXVHVRQDVSHFLFJURXSRISDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGRQRWVKDUHFROOHFWLYH
LGHQWLW\ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVFHQWUDOYDOXHVDQGDWWHPSWVWRQGDGHHSURRWHGVRXUFHIRUSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
DQGQHZUHVRXUFHVIRUPRELOL]DWLRQRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV

Research Methods
,QWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGIRUSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRZHUHUHVLGHQWVLQ7R\DNRDQG6DSSRUR+RNNDLGR
-DSDQ,QWHUYLHZTXHVWLRQVFRQFHUQHGWKHUHSHUWRLUHVWKH\LQYROYHGWKHUHDVRQVWKH\SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKH
SURWHVWDQGWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGSROLWLFDODFWLYLWLHV(DFKLQWHUYLHZZDVIXOO\WUDQ-
VFULEHG7KHDQDO\VLVFRPSULVHGFRGLQJWKHLQWHUYLHZWH[WVLQUHODWLRQWRWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV

$PRQJWKLUW\SDUWLFLSDQWVQLQHSHRSOHDUHZRPHQ6L[RIWKHPH[SHULHQFHGDVXPPLWSURWHVWGXULQJ
WKHLUWZHQWLHVWKLUWHHQZHUHWKHLUWKLUWLHVIRXUSHRSOHZHUHLQWKHLUIRUWLHVDQGYHLQWKHLUIWLHV7ZRRI
WKHPZHUHRYHUWKHLUVL[WLHV7ZHQW\WZRRIWKHPZHUHLQYROYHGDVRUJDQL]HUVDQGHLJKWDVSDUWLFLSDQWV2.

7KH\ZHUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKDQ\RIWKHUHSHUWRLUHVLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWQDPHO\ZKLFKZHUHWKHDFWLYLVW
camp, the media activity, the forum or the demonstration.

6XPPLWSURWHVWVDUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHVHUHSHUWRLUHV,OOH[SODLQWKHPDOLWWOHLQWKLVFKDSWHU

Activist Camp:,WLVHVWDEOLVKHGIRUORGJLQJDFWLYLVWVIURPRWKHUDUHDIRUWKHQLJKW+RZHYHULWLVQRW
merely a lodging house. Many activists prepare meals and live together. With this process, they could face
DFRQLFWRYHUWKHLUOLIHVW\OHEXWLQWKHFRXUVHRIPDNLQJFRQVHQVXVIRUWKHLUOLYLQJDFWLYLVWVXQGHUVWDQGWKH
YDOXHVHDFKRWKHU$WVXPPLWSURWHVWLQ+RNNDLGRIRXUFDPSVZHUHFRQVWLWXWHGE\-DSDQHVHJURXSVWKH
$QWL*6XPPLW+RNNDLGR$LQX0RVLU/LDLVRQWKH*$FWLRQ1HWZRUNDQGWKH([HFXWLYH&RPPLW-
tee of Sapporo Camp and Infocenter established campsites.

Media Activity:,WLVDUHSHUWRLUHLQWKURXJKZKLFKDFWLYLVWVUHSRUWWKHLUDFWLYLWLHV7KH\FRQVWUXFWHG
large-scale infrastructure (a media center), record and televise video shots. They report about other reper-
WRLUHVIRUH[DPSOHLQWHUYLHZVIRUSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHFDPSVFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQGVRRQ$W
VXPPLWSURWHVWLQ+RNNDLGRWKUHHPHGLDFHQWHUVZHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDQGPDQ\IRUHLJQDQGGRPHVWLFDFWLYLVWV
XVHGLW*PHGLDQHWZRUNSUHSDUHGPHGLDFHQWHUV

Forum: In forum, participants discuss about global issues from the standpoints of poverty and develop-
ment, environment, peace and human rights. At a protest in Hokkaido, four large forums held in Sapporo-
FLW\+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLWDQG*$FWLRQ1HWZRUNZHUHWKHOHDGJURXSV

 ,FODVVLHGWKHPLQWRRUJDQL]HUVRUSDUWLFLSDQWVEDVHGRQFHUWDLQFULWHULRQ,ISHRSOHDVVHFUHWDULHVJHQHUDORUFRUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIFHUWDLQJURXSVZKLFK
VHWXSUHSHUWRLUHVRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWWKH\DUHRUJDQL]HUV,GHQHG7KHRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVDUHGHQHGDVSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKLVSDSHU
 319 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

Demonstration:,QWKLVSDSHU,GHQHGHPRQVWUDWLRQDVDQDFWLYLW\ZKHUHSHRSOHPD\ZDONDQGGDQFH
RQ WKH VWUHHWV LQVLVWLQJ WKHLU RSLQLRQV RU JKWLQJ IRU D FDXVH$Q DQWL* SURWHVW LQ +RNNDLGR KDG RQH
ODUJHGHPRQVWUDWLRQQDPHGSHDFHZDONE\+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW*$FWLRQ
1HWZRUNDQG-DSDQ*6XPPLW1*2)RUXPSHDFHZDONZDVFRQGXFWHGE\DERXW
SHRSOH7KHUHZHUHVRPHGHPRQVWUDWLRQVLQ6DSSRURDQG7R\DNRDVZHOO

,QLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHGHLJKWHHQSURWHVWHUVWRRNSDUWLQDQDFWLYLVWFDPSIRXUSURWHVWHUVZHUHLQYROYHG
LQDPHGLDDFWLYLW\DQGWHQSURWHVWHUVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQIRUXPV7ZHQW\RQHDFWLYLVWVWRRNSDUWLQGHPRQVWUD-
tion on the streets.

7KH*6XPPLWFRQIHUHQFHZDVKHOGEHWZHHQ-XO\th and 9th in Toyako-cho, Hokkaido, Japan.

0DQ\RIWKHSURWHVWVDJDLQVW*VXPPLWZHUHKHOGLQ6DSSRURWKDWLVSUHIHFWXUDOFDSLWDOLQ+RNNDLGRDQG
7R\DNR&KRLQ+RNNDLGRDQGVRPHSURWHVWVZHUHRUJDQL]HGLQ7RN\R-DSDQHVHFDSLWDO.\RWR)XNXRND
and so on. I focused on the protests in Sapporo and Toyako, in Hokkaido in this article.

Multiple Participation
,Q WKLV FKDSWHU , VKRZHG WKUHHSDWWHUQ SDUWLFLSDQW JURXSV )LUVW , LQWURGXFHG SURWHVWHUV ZKR V\PSD-
WKL]HGZLWKWKHPDVWHUIUDPHWKDWWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQSUHVHQWHG>LQ@6HFRQG,VKRZHGSDUWLFLSDQWVZKR
H[SUHVVHGGLIIHUHQWUHDVRQVIRUSDUWLFLSDWLRQIRUFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGIRUVKDUHGIUDPHV>LQDQG
@,VDZWKDWDFWLYLVWVZKRGLGQRWFRPPXQLFDWHZLWKFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\ZHUHLQWHUHVWHGLQFDUU\LQJ
RXWUHSHUWRLUHVDQGVKDULQJWKHLUVNLOOVIRUVHWWLQJLWXS7KHVHSDUWLFLSDWLRQVDUHEDVHGRQXQLTXHUHSHUWRLUHV
of a summit protests.

Participants who consisted collective identity and sympathized with master-frame

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PHQWLRQHGE\UHVHQWUHVHDUFKGHOOD3RUWDHWDO$QGWKLVSDSHUDOVRVKRZHGWKLVJURXS,QIRUPDQW$
LVW\SLFDODFWLYLVWLQWKLVJURXS6KHKDVMRLQHGVRPHJURXSVDQGQHWZRUNVZKDWKDYHWUHDWHGHQYLURQPHQ-
WDOLVVXHVLQ6DSSRUR+RNNDLGR$WWKH6XPPLW3URWHVW6KHZRUNHGDVDVHFUHWDU\JHQHUDOLQ+RNNDLGR
3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLWDQGSUHSDUHGDIRUXPLQ6DSSRUR&LWL]HQV6XPPLW,QIRUPDQW$VDLG

$,SDUWLFLSDWHGLQVXPPLWSURWHVWEHFDXVH,WKRXJKWWKDWWKLVSURWHVWZRXOGEHDQRSSRUWXQLW\WKDWZHPDGHFRQYHU-
VDWLRQZLWKRWKHUDFWLYLVWVJURXSVDQGVHFWRUV)RUH[DPSOHWKH\DUH1*2V132VDQGWKH*RYHUQPHQWDJHQFLHV,Q
VXPPLWSURWHVWZHFRXOGJHWFRQVHQVXVDERXWORFDORUJOREDOLVVXHV3

&RPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKRWKHUDFWLYLVWJURXSVDQGFRQVHQVXVZHUHJRDOVWKDW+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)R-
UXPRQ*6XPPLWSUHVHQWHG,WSURSRVHGWKDWDQHWZRUNRI132V1*2VDQGYDULRXVFLYLOVRFLHW\
RUJDQL]DWLRQV DQG LQGLYLGXDOV ZKR ZLVK WR ZRUN WRJHWKHU DQG GHPRQVWUDWH RXU DELOLW\ WR VKDSH WKH IX-
ture of society both globally and here in Hokkaido and citizens express their opinions outside the G8
6XPPLW+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLWDVDPRYHPHQWVJRDO

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0D\th, 2010 in Sapporo.

From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 320

$ZLVKHVWRPDGHFRQYHUVDWLRQZLWKJRYHUQPHQWDFWRUVDQGVHFWRUVDQGRWKHUFLWL]HQJURXSVGXULQJWKH
DFWLYLWLHVLQ6DSSRUR7KHLQIRUPDQW$SDUWLFLSDWHWKDWVKHVKDUHGWKHVDPHIUDPHWKDWZDVDPDVWHUIUDPH
of the summit protest. This case could be explained by previous research.

Participants who do not share collective identity

Diversity of participants in the activists group is noted. Some participants expressed reasons for their
participation that is different from collective identity and shared frames. They are interested in consuming
action repertoires and providing their skills and resources.

Activists are interested in repertoires-demonstration, camp, and media center

6RPHDFWLYLVWVGLGQRWV\PSDWKL]HZLWKPRYHPHQWVJRDOVDQGWKHPDVWHUIUDPHRIVXPPLWSURWHVW7KH\
ZHUHLQWHUHVWHGDQGMXVWDWWUDFWHGWRWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQDSSHDODFWLRQVWKDWKDGYDULRXVVW\OHDQGDPXVLQJ
forms. Summit protest is characterized by the diversity of repertoires, ranging from traditional demonstra-
tion and forums to free performance like a carnival (Barr and Drury 2009).

7KHSDUWLFLSDQW$ZKRLVTXRWHGEHORZZDVLQYROYHGDFWLYLVWVFDPSRQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW6KHNQHZ
WKHIUDPHRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWEXWGLGQRWVXSSRUWWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDO6KHLQVLVWHGWKDWDQWLJOREDO-
ism and alter-globalization are not approachable issues for local residents activists. Informant A2 said:

$:KHQ,ZDWFKHGWKHGHPRQVWUDWLRQVRI:6):RUOG6RFLDO)RUXP>QRWHGE\WKHZULWHU@DQGDSURWHVWLQ6HDWWOH

:72,ZDVGHHSO\DIIHFWHG,ZDVGHOLJKWHGDQGWKRXJKWWKDWLVYHU\HQMR\DEOH-XVWDV,ZDVWKLQNLQJRILQWURGXFLQJ
such a foreign demonstration style, G8 summit arrived at Sapporo.4

Like A2, some activists regarded a summit protest as not a social movement or a protest, but a stage
ZKHUHWKH\FRXOGSHUIRUPWKHLUUHSHUWRLUHVDQGVHWXSIDFLOLWLHVIRUDFWLYLVPHJGHPRQVWUDWLRQDFWLYLVW
FDPSDQGPHGLDFHQWHU7KHDFWLYLVWVLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWRIWHQPHQWLRQHGWKHLUIUXVWUDWLRQZLWKDFWLRQV
taken place in Sapporo, Hokkaido. They took actions in Sapporo as boring and old-fashioned. In Sap-
SRURDKDQGIXODFWLYLVWVRUJDQL]HPDQ\DFWLRQVWKDWVZK\PRVWDFWLRQVLQ6DSSRURKDYHVDPHIRUPE\
same activists. A Form of protests in Sapporo tends to homogenized. They regarded the summit protest as
an urban and non-ordinary movement.

,QSDUWLFXODUPDQ\DFWLYLVWVZKRMRLQHGWKH([HFXWLYH&RPPLWWHHRI6DSSRURFDPSDQGLQIRFHQWHU
DQG*PHGLDQHWZRUNKDYHWKLVUHDVRQRISDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWDPRQJWKHYDULRXVJURXSV
ZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQVDPHSURWHVW(DFKRIWKHJURXSVWKHDFWLYLVWVFDPSDQGPHGLDFHQWHUKDGLWVRZQ
VSHFLFJRDOV

,QIRUPDQW$ZDVORFDODFWLYLVWVDQGMRLQHG*PHGLDQHWZRUN6KHZRUNVIXOOWLPHIRUWKHJURXS6KH
played a primary role in constructing the media centers. She said:

$,WLVDVDGWKDWZHGRQRWSURWHVWIRU*$OODFWLYLVWVLQ*FRXQWULHVPDNHPHGLDFHQWHUVZKHQ*VXPPLWFRQ-
ferences are held in each country. We believe that Japanese activists should establish a media center for the summit
SURWHVW3UREDEO\WKLVDWWHPSWZRXOGWDNHDORWRIFULWLFLVPV+RZHYHUZHWKLQNZHVKRXOGGRLW

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$XJXVWth, 2010 in Sapporo.

 321 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

,QIRUPDQW$GLGQRWVXSSRUWWKHPRYHPHQWVPDVWHUIUDPHWKDWRWKHUVWXGLHVPDLQWDLQHGVKHGLGQRWVD\DQ\-
WKLQJDERXWDOWHUJOREDOL]DWLRQJOREDOMXVWLFHDQGZKLFKZHUHFRQFHUQHGRIVXPPLWSURWHVWV2IFRXUVHVKH
DQGVRPHDFWLYLVWVGLGQRWGLVDJUHHZLWKDQWLJOREDOL]DWLRQDQGDQWLQHROLEHUDOLVP+RZHYHUWKH\SDUWLFLSDWH
LQVXPPLWSURWHVWZLWKWKHLUPRWLYDWLRQWKDWLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHPDVWHUIUDPHDQGFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\

$OWKRXJKWKH\GLGQRWV\PSDWKL]HZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOWKH\VWURQJO\ZLVKHGIRUWKHVXFFHVVRIWKH
*VXPPLWSURWHVW7KH\FRQWLQXHGWRVHWXSDQGRUJDQL]HWKHLURZQUHSHUWRLUHVZKLOH*VXPPLWFRQIHU-
HQFHDQGWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZHUHLQKHOG$MRLQHGWKH([HFXWLYH&RPPLWWHHRI6DSSRURFDPSDQGLQIR
FHQWHUDQGJDYHKHUHIIRUWWRFRQVWUXFWWKHDFWLYLVWVFDPS$OLYHGUHJDUGOHVVRIDQ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWV
and she took part in G8 summit protest just for curiosity in a camp. She said:

A4: Probably, many people spent a lot of resources to set up our camp. And they compromised their demand and
ZLVKHVIRUDQDFWLYLVWFDPS:HZDQWHGWRH[SUHVVDQGDFKLHYHRXURZQLGHDOV+RZHYHUZHVKDUHGWKHSXUSRVHRI
WKLVJURXSWKH([HFXWLYH&RPPLWWHHRI6DSSRURFDPSDQGLQIRFHQWHU>QRWHGE\WKHZULWHU@,QHQMR\LQJWKHVXPPLW
SURWHVWZHUHVWUDLQRXUVHOYHV,QMXVWDOPRVWSXUHO\HQMR\LQJWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZHDOPRVWFRPSURPLVHGHDFKLGHDO

,QKHUFRQIHVVLRQWKHUHLVQRVFKHPDUHFHQWUHVHDUFKVKRZHGIRUH[DPSOHDJDLQVWQHROLEHUDOJOREDO-
L]DWLRQDQGJOREDOMXVWLFH,IWKHUHZDVDQ\WKLQJVKHDUJXHGLWZDVWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOWRHQMR\WKH
camp. In the protest, to take part in repertoires involved feelings.

Activists are interested in providing their skill for activism-speaking foreign language,
playing the music, and cooking
$QRWKHUVLPLODULQVWDQFHVRPHDFWLYLVWVLQYROYHGLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZHUHPRWLYDWHGE\DIHDWXUHRI
summit protests. They had similar, but different reason of participation like A2 and A3. Their motivation
IRUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZDVEDVHGRQDQDPELJXRXVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIVXPPLWSURWHVWV

$DQG$WRRNSDUWLQELJVWUHHWGHPRQVWUDWLRQ3HDFH:DONZKLFKLQFOXGHGDERXWSDUWLFL-
SDQWV:KLOHGHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVJRLQJRQWKH\GURYHDEDQDQGSOD\HGUHFRUGHGPXVLFDPRQJWKHFURZG
7KHIROORZLQJLVZKDWWKH\VDLGWKHWULJJHUWKDWWKH\SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHSURWHVW

$,ORYHPXVLFLDQVZKRRSSRVHGWKHUHJLPHVLPSO\$FWXDOO\,KDYHQHYHUEHHQHQJDJHGLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVXQWLO
,KHDUGQHZVRIKROGLQJWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWLQ6DSSRUR

$,ZDVLQWHUHVWHGLQSROLWLFVXQGHUWKH.RL]XPLUHJLPH1HHGOHVVWRVD\,KDYHORYHGPXVLFVLQFH,ZDVDFKLOG,
QRWLFHGWKDWPXVLFKDYHKHDY\UHODWLRQVZLWKSROLWLFVLQODWHUOLIH%XW,GLGQRWEHJLQVSHFLFSROLWLFDODFWLYLWLHVWKHQ
,ZDVDE\VWDQGHU:KHQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZDVKHOGLQ6DSSRURP\SDUWQHULQYLWHGPHWRLW,WZDVDFHUWDLQRSSRU-
tunity that I changed from being bystander to being participant.

They did not have strong motivation to participate in the summit protest. At least, their participation
GLGQRWUHODWHZLWKWKHPDVWHUIUDPHDQGWKHJRDORIWKHPRYHPHQW:K\GLGWKH\SDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHVXPPLW
SURWHVW":K\GLGWKH\QRWWDNHSDUWLQRWKHUSURWHVWV",WZDVEHFDXVHRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHLUVSHFLDO
VNLOOVIURPZKDWWKHPRYHPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQUHTXLUHG$DQG$DFWHGDVDPDWHXUPXVLFLDQV7KH\KHDUG
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JRDOVRI*VXPPLWSURWHVW7KH\DYRXFKWKHPVHOYHVDVLSSDQWSDUWLFLSDQWVDQGLJQRUDQWDFWLYLVWV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 322

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IRUVXFFHVVRIGHPRQVWUDWLRQ7KHLUZRUNVUDQJHGLQYDULRXVDUHDVIRUH[DPSOHSURYLGLQJDXGLRHTXLS-
ments, invitation guests for parties, and so on. A6 and A5 had prepared demonstration at a summit protest
IRUDERXWD\HDUZKLOHEXV\LQXVXDOOLIH:LWKRXWWKHP3HDFH:DONPLJKWQRWKDYHEHHQDFFRP-
plished.

7KHRWKHUSHRSOHDOVRMRLQHGWRWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWEHFDXVHWKHLUVNLOO7KH\DOVRGLGQRWNQRZWKHJRDOV
and share collective identity of the summit protest like A6 and A5. A7 and his partner also took part in
DFWLYLVWVFDPSRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW7KH\KDGQHYHUEHHQLQYROYHGLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV+RZHYHUWKH\
ZHUHLQYLWHGLQMRLQE\RWKHUSHRSOHEHFDXVHWKH\FRXOGFRRNYHJDQIRRG$VDLG

,QW7KLVDFWLYLVWVFDPSKDGDSXUSRVHWKDWLVGLVVHQW*VXPPLW'R\RXNQRZZKDWWKLVSXUSRVHLV"+DYH\RXHYHU
GRQHRWKHUVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV"
$1R,KDGQRWGRQHDQ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWXQWLO,WDNHSDUWLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW+RZHYHU,OHDUQHGDV\VWHPRIFDSLWDO-
ism and market fundamentalism from other participants at the summit protest. My thoughts changed, sparked by this event.5

$DQGKLVSDUWQHUDOVRVDLGWKDWWKH\GLGQRWNQRZWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDO7KH\ZRUNHGZLWKRWKHUSDU-
ticipants together and studied shared values of the global justice movement in the process. In the course of
WKHLUSUHSDUDWLRQ$DQGKLVSDUWQHUEHFDPHHVVHQWLDOSHUVRQVWRRUJDQL]HDQDFWLYLVWVFDPS)XUWKHUPRUH
KHVDLGWKDW,PDGHIULHQGZLWKIRUHLJQDFWLYLVWVHDVLO\DQGIDPLOLDUO\E\KDYLQJDFRRNLQJVNLOO+LVSDU-
WLFLSDWLRQLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZDVEHFDXVHPDLQO\KLVFRRNLQJVNLOO+LVVNLOOZDVWKHPDLQIDFWRURIKLV
participation and important contribution to the camp.

$ZDVLQYROYHGWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZLWKRXWH[SHULHQFHRIHQJDJLQJDQ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWV+HWRRN
SDUWLQ&LWL]HQV6XPPLWE\+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW7KLVFDVHLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH
cases as mentioned above. He did not prepare and organize any repertoires of the summit protests, but he
ZDVLQYROYHGWKHIRUXPDFWLYHO\+HVDLG

$,KHDUGWKHQHZVIURPRWKHUSHUVRQLQXQLYHUVLW\,KHDUGWKDWPDQ\IRUHLJQSHRSOHZRXOGFRPHWRWKLVFRQIHUHQFH
,ZDQWHGWRSUDFWLFH(QJOLVKFRQYHUVDWLRQDQGWRWDONZLWK1*2PHPEHUV,ZDQWHGWRKDYHXQRUGLQDU\H[SHULHQFH0\
colleague told that South-African and Puerto Rican people gathered in this conference. I could not meet such people
during usual life.6

+HSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZLWKRXWVKDULQJWKHPDVWHUIUDPHDQGWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDO+H
ZDVLQWHUHVWHGLQSUDFWLFLQJ(QJOLVKFRQYHUVDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWK1*2PHPEHUV+HWULHG
neither talking about issues on global politics and problems of G8 summit nor proposing the course of ac-
WLRQRIFLYLOVRFLHW\+HZDVLQYROYHGLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWE\KLVDLPWRGHYHORSKLV(QJOLVKVNLOO

7KHSHRSOHZKRKDGVSHFLDOVNLOOVZHUHLQYROYHGLQWKHPRYHPHQWEHFDXVHRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVUHTXLUHG
WKHLUVNLOOWRFRQVWLWXWHWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW6XFKSDUWLFLSDWLRQLVPRUHVLPLODUZLWKWDNLQJSDUWPRUHLQIHV-
WLYDOVDQGURFNFRQFHUWVWKDQLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV+RZHYHUWKH\FKRRVHWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWDQGLWZDVD
good opportunity for them to begin other political activities.

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0D\th, 2010 in Sapporo.

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG'HFHPEHUth, 2010 in Tokyo.
 323 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

&ROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\RI/RFDO3DUWLFLSDQWVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHJRDO
of movement
As discussed, there are some participation patterns in the summit protest. Their participation is divided
LQWRWZRFDWHJRULHV7KHRQHLVWKDWSDUWLFLSDQWVVKDUHGPDVWHUIUDPHVRUJDQL]DWLRQVSUHVHQWHG7KHRWKHU
RQHLVZKLFKSDUWLFLSDQWVGLGQRWVKDUHPDVWHUIUDPHVRIWKHPRYHPHQW,QWKHODWWHUFDWHJRU\RISDUWLFL-
pants, they regarded the summit protest as an enjoyable stage of performing or an event of providing
WKHLUVNLOO+RZHYHUZK\GLGVXFKSDUWLFLSDWLRQRFFXU")RUVXFKSDUWLFLSDQWVZKDWZDVWKHVXPPLWSUR-
WHVW":KDWGLGWKH\VHHNLQWKHDQWL*DFWLYLVP"3HUKDSVPRUHLPSRUWDQW,QWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZKDW
IDFWRUVDWWUDFWHGSHRSOHZKRGLGQRWVKDUHWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDODQGFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\"

7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGLGQRWV\PSDWKL]HZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOVVKRZHGDFRPPRQIHDWXUH7KH\
HPSKDVL]HGWKHWHGLRXVQHVVRI6DSSRURFLW\DQGWKHLUXVXDOOLIH7KH\ZHUHERUHGZLWKWKHLUXVXDOOLIHLQ
6DSSRUR DQG +RNNDLGR7KH\ UHJDUGHG 6DSSRUR DV UXUDO DUHD ZKHUH WKHUH ZDV QRW DQ\ RSSRUWXQLWLHV
6RPHDFWLYLVWVKDGWHGLRXVIHHOLQJDQGIUXVWUDWLRQIRU6DSSRURFLW\$WRRNSDUWLQ&LWL]HQV6XPPLWZLWK
an aim to develop English skill. He said:

,QW+DYH\RXHYHUGRQHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRUEHORQJHGWR1*2"
$1RWKHUHZHUHIHZVWXGHQWJURXSVLQ6DSSRURDQG,ZDVQRWMRLQHGLQVXFKJURXSVDQGHQJDJHGLQDQ\VRFLDO
PRYHPHQWV,KHDUGVRPHVWXGHQWJURXSVH[LVWHGLQ6DSSRUREXW,KDGZDQWHGWRWDONZLWKIRUHLJQFLWL]HQJURXSV2Q
WKHH[LVWHGJURXSV,FRXOGQRWGRDFWLYLWLHV,KDGZDQWHGWRGR7

)RU$WKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZDVDVSHFLDORSSRUWXQLW\WKDWLQWHUDFWHGZLWKSHRSOHZKRKHKDGQHYHUPHW
and conversed in usual life. The local residents said about their boring experiences in various respects. A5
FDUULHGRXW3HDFH:DONZLWKKLVPXVLFVNLOO+HVDLGKLVIUXVWUDWLRQDERXWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQ6DSSRUR

,QW+DYH\RXHYHUGRQHDQ\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWRUEHORQJHGWR1*2"
$1R:HFRXOGQRWWDNHSDUWLQVXFKDFWLYLWLHV,Q6DSSRURDOPRVWDFWLRQVZHUHROGIDVKLRQHGEHFDXVHWUDGLWLRQDO
DFWLYLVWVRUJDQL]HGWKHP+RZHYHUDWWKHVDPHSHULRGVRPHSURWHVWHUVZHUHHQJDJHGLQLQWHUHVWLQJDFWLYLWLHVZLWK
novel costumes in Tokyo.8

$UHJDUGHGSURWHVWVLQ7RN\RDVDPXVLQJDFWLYLWLHVZLWKQRYHOFRVWXPHV&RPSDUHGZLWKVXFKSURWHVWV
in Tokyo, protests in Sapporo had old-fashioned and traditional styles, He said. For A5, the anti-G8
PRYHPHQWZDVDQLPSRUWDQWRSSRUWXQLW\WKDWKHFRXOGHQMR\XUEDQDQGQRYHOVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV,QWKH
SURFHVVRIVHWWLQJXSWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW$ZHQWWR7RN\RDQGPDGHIULHQGZLWKVRPHDFWLYLVWVLQRWKHU
DUHDDQGKHZDVGHHSO\DIIHFWHGE\WKHP

$DOVRH[SUHVVHGDFRPSODLQWRISROLWLFDODFWLYLWLHVLQ6DSSRUR6KHKDGDIUXVWUDWLRQDERXWWKHUHZHUH
QRRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRSUDFWLFHUHSHUWRLUHVVKHZDVLQWHUHVWHGLQ6KHWDONHGDERXWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQ6DS-
poro before the anti-G8 protest occurred.

$,DJUHHGZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOSURWHVWHUVRSLQLRQV)RUH[DPSOH,KDGDSRVLWLRQDJDLQVWZDUDQGDGPLWWHGDQLPSRU-

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0D\th, 2010 in Sapporo.

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$XJXVWth, 2010 in Sapporo.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 324

WDQFHRIHTXDOULJKWVIRUERWKVH[HV+RZHYHU,PDGHVHQVHWKDWPDQ\SHRSOHXQZHOFRPHDVW\OHRIWUDGLWLRQDOVRFLDO
PRYHPHQWV7KXV,WKRXJKWWKDWLWQHHGVWRFKDQJHWKHVW\OHRIGHPRQVWUDWLRQLQDVWUHHW>2PLWWHGE\WKHZULWHU@,
FRXOGQRWDFFHSWWKHZD\RIGHPRQVWUDWLRQHPSKDVL]HGSHDFHDQGIULHQGO\PHVVDJHV,FRQVLGHUHGWKDWDOOGHP-
RQVWUDWLRQVDVVHOIVDWLVHGDFWLYLW\E\SURWHVWHUV,UHFRPPHQGHGSOD\LQJWKHPXVLFZHORYHGSXWWLQJRQWKHFRVWXPH
ZHFKRRVHDQGZDONLQJZLWKDVW\OHZHSUHIHUUHG9

6XFKRSLQLRQVDUHVKDUHGQRWRQO\\RXQJSURWHVWHUVEXWDOVRROGHUSURWHVWHUV$ZDVRYHUWKHVL[WLHV
KHPDLQO\H[SHULHQFHGDVWXGHQWVPRYHPHQWLQVDQGDQWLQXFOHDUPRYHPHQWLQV+RZHYHU+HKDG
reluctant to take part in some protests since 90s. The reason of it, demonstrations tended to traditional and it
ZDVQRWHQMR\DEOHLQ6DSSRURDQG+RNNDLGR)RUKLPWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZDVHQMR\DEOHPRYHPHQW
A9 said:

$:KHQ,ZDV\RXQJDOOSURWHVWHUVZLVKHGWRDFKLHYHWKHJRDO,WZDVUHYROXWLRQEHFDXVHRXULGHDOZDVVRFLDOLVP
7KHUHIRUHRXUDFWLRQKDGYHU\VHULRXVPLQG:HDYRLGHGEHLQJH[FLWHGRXUPRYHPHQWVZHUHFDUHIXODQGVHULRXV
3HUKDSVZHZDQWHGWRHQMR\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVEXWZHWKRXJKWWKDWSURWHVWHUVPXVWEHVHULRXVDQGGRQRWHQMR\GRLQJ
DFWLRQV,WKRXJKWLWZDVIDLOXUHRIRXUDFWLYLVP10

$DOVRGLGQRWNQRZDERXWVXPPLWSURWHVWVDQGLVVXHVRIJOREDOMXVWLFHPRYHPHQWVWKHQ+RZHYHUKH
EHJDQDQGFRQWLQXHGWRFRQVWLWXWHDQGRUJDQL]HWKHDFWLYLVWVFDPS2QHRIWKHUHDVRQVRILWLWVUHSHUWRLUHV
ZDVYHU\IDVFLQDWLQJIRUKLP,QKLVFDVHSDUWLFLSDWLRQZDVQRWEDVHGRQFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\DQGPDVWHU
frames.

Some activists considered the issues of alter-globalization and global justice as remotely related
ZLWKWKHUHVLGHQWVOLIHLQ6DSSRUR'HVSLWHWKHLUFRQVLGHUDWLRQVRPHORFDOUHVLGHQWVWRRNSDUWLQWKHVXP-
PLWSURWHVW7KH\MRLQHGWRLWZLWKWKHLUH[SHULHQFHLQWKHLUKRPHWRZQ6DSSRUR7KHDJHQGDRI*VXPPLW
FRQIHUHQFHZHUHQRWUHODWHGWRORFDOUHVLGHQWVDQGVLPLODUO\WKHJRDOVDQGSXUSRVHVRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW
KDGDOVRQRWKLQJWRGRZLWKWKHDUHDZKHUHWKHSURWHVWZDVRFFXUUHG1HYHUWKHOHVVUHVLGHQWVZHUHLQYROYHG
in the summit protest. Instead of concerns about issues and problems of the movement, they took part in it
ZLWKWKHLUH[SHULHQFHLQKRPHWRZQ

7KH\KDGWHGLRXVQHVVDQGERULQJIRUWKHLUKRPHWRZQ+RZHYHUWKH\EHJDQWRFKDQJHWKHLUUHFRJQLWLRQ
LPSUHVVLRQDQGIHHOLQJIRUKRPHWRZQDVWKH\FRQVWLWXWHGDQGSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW

A3 moved from Sapporo to Tokyo after took part in the summit protest. Actually she got special ex-
SHULHQFHVLQKHUOLIHLQ7RN\R2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVKHVKRZHGKHUORYHKHUKRPHWRZQ6DSSRUR6KHVDLG

$,DOZD\VKRSHWRJREDFNWR6DSSRUR,KDGOLYHGLQ6DSSRURIRUDERXW\HDUV0\OLIHVW\OHWVLQWRP\KRPH-
WRZQLQHYHU\UHVSHFW&RPSDUHGZLWK6DSSRURDVW\OHRIPRYHPHQWVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKIULHQGVDQGDVFDOHRIFLW\
DUHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPLQ7RN\R7KHUHIRUH,DOZD\VZDQWWRUHWXUQWR6DSSRUREXW,ZDQWWRDEDQGRQDEDFNZDUG
ORRNLQJZD\RIWKLQNLQJ11

 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$XJXVWth, 2010 in Sapporo.

10 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0D\th, 2010 in Bibai, Hokkaido.
11 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$SULOth, 2010 in Tokyo.
 325 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

$ZDVDOVRERUHGLQ6DSSRURSDUWO\+RZHYHUVKHJRWDQRWKHUYLHZSRLQWRQKHUKRPHWRZQDVWDNHQ
SDUWLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW6KHQHJRWLDWHGZLWKJRYHUQPHQWDORIFHUVRWKHUORFDODFWLYLVWVDQGRUGLQDU\
ORFDOSHRSOHWRFRQVWLWXWHWKHPHGLDFHQWHU$VQHJRWLDWHGZLWKYDULRXVDFWRUVVKHJUDGXDOO\FKDQJHGKHU
YLHZVWR6DSSRUR

A2 ran in the election for the member of the National Diet from a political party X after the summit
SURWHVW6KHFKDQJHGKHUYLHZIRUKHUKRPHWRZQOLNH$6KH6DLG

$,FDPHWR6DSSRURYH\HDUVDJREXWLQWKRVHGD\V,ZDQWHGWRJR7RN\R%XWQRZ,LGHQWLI\P\VHOIDVDUHVLGHQW
in Sapporo. I began to think as such since I had engaged in the summit protest. Furthermore, the experience of election
JDYHPHZLOOWRLPSURYHPXQLFLSDOJRYHUQPHQWLQ6DSSRUR>2PLWWHGE\WKHZULWHU@,EHFRPHUHFRJQL]HGDQLPSRU-
WDQFHRIDQHLJKERUKRRGDVVRFLDWLRQ,DPLQWHUHVWHGLQFRPPXQLW\ZKHUHUHVLGHQWVPDNHDOLYLQJ12

$IWHUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWVRPHDFWLYLVWVWRRNXSLVVXHVZKDWZHUHPRUHIDPLOLDUZLWKORFDOUHVLGHQWV
2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWHUHVWLQJO\UHSHUWRLUHVWKH\FKRRVHDIWHUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZHUHPRUHYDULRXV$V
mentioned above, A2 ran for election. It is one of repertoires did not choice before the summit protest. A7
and his partner began to run a restaurant in Sapporo after the movement. They said:

$,IZHZHUHQRWLQYROYHLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWZHZRXOGKDYHUXQDTXLWHRWKHUUHVWDXUDQW
,QW,I\RXZHUHQRWWRRNSDUWLQWKHSURWHVWZKDWUHVWDXUDQWVZRXOG\RXFRQGXFWHG"
$0D\EHZHZRXOGUHJDUGDUHVWDXUDQWDVPHDQVWRHDUQPRQH\+RZHYHU,WKRXJKWLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRGRZKDWLV
ULJKWVR,UDQRXUUHVWDXUDQWZLWKP\LGHDOV7KH\DGRSWHGWRSURYLGHYHJDQPHDOV>QRWHGE\ZULWHU@,UHPHPEHUWKDW
DOOSURWHVWHUVZKRFDPHWRWKHDFWLYLVWVFDPSKDGQRPRQH\EXWPDQDJHGWROLYH,WKLQNWKDWWKH\PDQDJHWROLYH
ZLWKQRPRQH\SHUKDSVVRGR,6HHLQJDQGWDONLQJWRWKHPZDVDQLPSRUWDQWH[SHULHQFHIRUPH13

+HDQGKLVSDUWQHUOHDUQHGE\WKHLUH[SHULHQFHZKLFKWKH\FRQVWLWXWHGWKHDQWL*DFWLYLVP$IWHUWKLV
WKH\FKDQJHGWKHLUFDUULHUVGUDPDWLFDOO\7KH\VWDUWHGWRGRPRYHPHQWZLWKWKHLURZQUHVWDXUDQW7KHLU
PRYHPHQWZDVFRQQHFWHGZLWKHQYLURQPHQWDQWLQXFOHDUDQGFRPPXQLW\GHYHORSPHQW$WSUHVHQW$
DQGKLVSDUWQHUZRUNZLWKORFDOUHVLGHQWVDQGIDUPHUVLQ6DSSRURDFWLYHO\

$WUVWVRPHORFDOUHVLGHQWVUHJDUGHGWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWDVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WKDWUHOHDVHVWKHPIURPWH-
GLRXVQHVV+RZHYHUWKH\FKDQJHGWKHLUPLQGE\WKHLUH[SHULHQFHRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW

:K\GLGWKH\FKDQJHWKHLUDZDUHQHVV"$QGZK\GLGWKH\FRQWLQXHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQ6DSSRURDIWHU
WKHVXPPLWSURWHVW"7KHDQVZHULVUHODWHGWRWKHLUSURFHVVRIRUJDQL]LQJDQGVHWWLQJXSWKHSURWHVW7KHLU
DZDUHQHVVRIKRPHWRZQEHFDPHYHUVDWLOHDQGFRPSOH[EHFDXVHWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWLVKHOGLQDOLPLWHG
VSDFHZLWKLQDFHUWDLQSHULRGRIWLPH,QWKHSURWHVWWKHIDFWWKDWHQRUPRXVDFWLYLVWVJDWKHUHGLQ6DSSRUR
ZHUHH[SHFWHGE\ORFDODFWLYLVWV+RZHYHUEHFDXVHORFDODFWLYLVWVDUHYHU\IHZLQ6DSSRURWKH\FRXOGQRW
VHWXSWKHIDFLOLWLHVZKLFKZHUHDEOHWRDFFRPPRGDWHDORWRIDFWLYLVWVIURPRWKHUDUHDV7RFRQVWLWXWHWKH
IDFLOLWLHVIRUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWORFDODFWLYLVWVUHTXHVWHGDVVLVWDQFHIRURWKHUORFDOUHVLGHQWVZKRZDVQR
UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHPLQXVXDOOLIH/RFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVQHHGHGDORWRIPRQH\JRRGVDQGZRUNHUVWRVHW
XSDQGRUJDQL]HWKHDQWL*SURWHVW7KHSRZHURIDFWLYLVWVLQ6DSSRURZDVLQVXIFLHQWWRFRQVWLWXWHWKH

12 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$XJXVWth, 2010 in Sapporo.

13 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0D\th, 2010 in Sapporo.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 326

VXPPLWSURWHVWDQGWKH\KDGQRFKRLFHEXWUHO\RQE\VWDQGHUVRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVZKRZHUHXVXDOO\QR
UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHP$XVXDOO\DFWHGDVSUHVLGHQWVRIDUHDOHVWDWHFRPSDQ\$WWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWKH
asked companies in Hokkaido for aids. A10 said:

,QW<RXVDLGWKDW\RXKDGDKRSHDQGGHVSDLUWRFRPSDQLHVDQGWKHQDQFLDOFLUFOHVLQ6DSSRUR:K\GR\RXWKLQNVR"
$,KDGDKRSHEHFDXVHVRPHFRPSDQLHVGHDUO\DJUHHGZLWKRXUDFWLYLW\2YHUFRPSDQLHVJDYHWKHLUDSSURYDOWR
RXUSURMHFW+HWRRNSDUWLQVHWWLQJXS&LWL]HQV6XPPLW%\+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW>QRWHGE\
WKHZULWHU@7KHQXPEHUZDVVPDOOLQWRWKHHQWLUHFRPSDQLHVLQ+RNNDLGR+RZHYHUWKHUHZDVDIDFWWKDWFRPSDQLHV
LQ+RNNDLGRDJUHHGZLWKRXUSURMHFW,WZDVDKRSH,WKRXJKW2QWKHRWKHUKDQG,GHVSDLUHGWRVRPHFRPSDQLHV
EHFDXVHWKH\DJUHHGZLWK3HRSOHLQ+RNNDLGRV&RQIHUHQFH,WLVHVWDEOLVKHGE\+RNNDLGRSUHIHFWXUDOJRYHUQPHQW
>QRWHGE\WKHZULWHU@5HJDUGOHVVRIJRDOVDQGVKDUHGYDOXHVWKH\DJUHHGZLWKWKHDQ\SURMHFWVRIJRYHUQPHQW,ZDV
GLVDSSRLQWHGLQWKHODFNRIDZDUHQHVVRIVRPHFRPSDQLHVLQ+RNNDLGR14

%\KLVH[SHULHQFHDVDSDUWLFLSDQWLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWKHIHOWDKRSHDQGGHVSDLUIRUFRPSDQLHVZKLFK
XVXDOO\KHFRRSHUDWHGZLWK$FWHGDVDGLIIHUHQWUROHIURPDXVXDOOLIHKHIRXQGYDULRXVVLGHVRISDUWQHUVLQ
his business. A 11 also learned by his experience of the summit protest.

$,ZDVDIIHFWHGE\DFWLYLVWVLQ7RN\R2VDNDDQG.\RWR7KH\ZHUHJRRGDWFRQQHFWLQJDFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOPRYH-
PHQWVUHVRXUFHV)RUH[DPSOHWKH\XVHGWKHLUUHVHDUFKEXGJHWIRUFRQVWUXFWLQJSURWHVWHUVFRQIHUHQFHV)RUH[DPSOH
WKH\LQYLWHGDFWLYLVWVIURPIRUHLJQFRXQWULHVWRWKHLUFRQIHUHQFHE\PHDQVRIEXGJHWVLQWKH8QLYHUVLW\,WZDVLQWHUHVW-
ing for me.15

$ZDVVFKRODUDQGZRUNHGLQWKH8QLYHUVLW\LQ6DSSRUR+RZHYHUKHZDVDOVRDQDFWLYLVW8VXDOO\+H
DFWHGDVWZRUROHUHVHDUFKHUDQGDFWLYLVW%XWWKHWZRUROHVRIWHQZHUHFRQWUDU\WRHDFKRWKHULQKLP$WWKH
VXPPLWSURWHVWKHZRUNHGZLWKRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVIURPWKHRWKHUDUHDV+HZDVLQVSLUHGIURPWKHPDERXW
connecting academic and political activities.

0\UHVHDUFKPDGHFOHDUWKDWORFDOUHVLGHQWVWRRNSDUWLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHERUHGDQG
KRSHIRUVSHFLDORSSRUWXQLWLHV,QWKHSURFHVVRIFRQVWLWXWLQJWKHSURWHVWWKH\ZRUNHGZLWKYDULRXVVHFWRUV
DQGRWKHUUHVLGHQWVLQ6DSSRUR$VGLGGLIIHUHQWDFWLYLW\IURPXVXDOOLIHWKH\JDLQHGDQHZSRLQWRIYLHZ
IRUWKHLUKRPHWRZQ$WODVWVRPHORFDOUHVLGHQWVFRQWLQXHGWRSROLWLFDODFWLYLW\DIWHUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWLQ
WKHLUKRPHWRZQ6DSSRUR

Conclusion
This article reveals that some participants have other movement identities from the theores previous
UHVHDUFKUHYHDOHG,QGHWDLODVIROORZVWKHORFDOSDUWLFLSDQWVWRRNSDUWLQWKHVXPPLWSURWHVWEHFDXVHWKH\
UHJDUGHGLWDVDQXUEDQDQGXQXVXDODFWLYLW\WKDWZDVKHOGLQWKHLUORFDODQGWHGLRXVKRPHWRZQV7KH\SDU-
WLFLSDWHGLQDQDQWL*DFWLRQZLWKRXWXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDODQGVKDUHGYDOXHEXWWKH\KDG
curiosity and expectations for a novel social action.

14 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG$XJXVWth, 2010 in Sapporo.

15 7KLVLQWHUYLHZFRQGXFWHG0DUFKth, 2010 in Sapporo.
 327 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

5HVLGHQWVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHPRYHPHQWEHFDXVHWKH\KDGEHHQERUHGLQWKHLUORFDOKRPHWRZQV6DS-
SRUR7KH\H[SHFWHGWKDWWUDQVQDWLRQDODFWLYLVWVZRXOGFRPHWR6DSSRURVKRZLQJLQWHUHVWLQJDFWLYLWLHVZLWK
novel costumes. It is perseived as an extraordinary event on in every respect by residents. This factor is not
FRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOVDQGYDOXHVKRZHYHUVXUHO\PRWLYDWHVRPHSDUWLFLSDQWV

0RUHLQWHUHVWLQJO\WKH\EHJDQDQHZSURFHVVRIVHOIDOWHUQDWLYHVRQFHWKH\KDGSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHSUR-
WHVWDFWLRQ6RPHORFDOUHVLGHQWVVWDUWHGQHZPRYHPHQWVLQWKHLUKRPHWRZQDIWHUWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW7KH\
DOVRVWDUWHGDSSUHFLDWLQJWKHYDOXHVRIWKHLUORFDOKRPHWRZQVDQGEHJDQQHJDWLQJWKHMXGJHPHQWWKH\KDG
SUHYLRXVO\KROG,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH\VWDUWHGWRUHFRJQL]HWKDWWKH\WKHPVHOYHVKDGKDYHGUDJJHGLQDQLOO
FRQFHLYHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKDWORFDOLWLHVDOOLQIHULRURUYDOXHOHVVDVFRPSDUHGZLWKXUEDQVHWWLQJV7KH
UHDVRQRILWLVWKDWWKH\ZRUNHGZLWKYDULRXVVHFWRUVDQGUHVLGHQWVLQWKHSURFHVVRIVHWWLQJXSWKHVXPPLW
SURWHVW7KH\DUHJLYHQDYHUVDWLOHYLHZIRUWKHLUKRPHWRZQ

3UHYLRXVVWXGLHVPDLQO\SDLGDWWHQWLRQWRWKHFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\RIDPRYHPHQWVSDUWLFLSDQWVDQGLWV
UHODWLRQWRWKHPRYHPHQWVJRDOV7KHUHVRXUFHPRELOL]DWLRQWKHRU\DOVRIRFXVHVRQWKHIDFWRUVWKDWDUH
FRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHPRYHPHQWVSXUSRVHV+RZHYHULQWKHFDVHRIWKHSURWHVWHYHQWLWPRELOL]HGSHRSOH
ZLWKRXWWKHIDFWRUFRPPXQLFDWHGLWVJRDO7KHDZDUHQHVVDQGIHHOLQJVIRUKRPHWRZQPRELOL]HGSHRSOHWR
the summit protest. The discussion is similar from a concept of Collective Memory (Nomiya 2009), but
SURYLGHVQHZSHUVSHFWLYHIRUWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWWKHRU\,QWKLVFDVHSDUWLFLSDQWVPHPRU\IRUKRPH-
WRZQLVGLVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHJRDOVVKDUHGYDOXHDQGLVVXHVRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW

Local participants regarded the summit protest as a special opportunity to release them from boring
KRPHWRZQ3HUKDSVWKH\PLJKWWDNHSDUWLQFRQFHUWVKRZVLQVWHDGRIWKHVXPPLWSURWHVW+RZHYHUDIWHU
the summit protest, local residents continued to involve in social movements in Sapporo. This article is not
discussed the matter directly, but this should be considered as one of effects of the global social movement.
It still needs much revision and research to argue it.

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Prof. Daishiro Nomiya, Eiji Hamanishi, Takashi Matsui, and participants in the session of
Protests against Global Summit Meeting in the 84th annual meeting of Japan Sociological Society, in
Kansai University, on September 2011 for comments earlier version of this paper.

References
$RNL67KH'XUDELOLW\DQGWKH9LVLRQRI3DUWLFLSDQWVLQ3URWHVW0RYHPHQWV,QWKH&DVHRIWKH&RQLFWRYHU+LJK5DGLRDFWLYH
Waste, 6KDNDLJDNX.HQN\X (80), pp. 219-244.
%DUU'DQG'UXU\-$FWLYLVW,GHQWLW\DVD0RWLYDWLRQDO5HVRXUFH'\QDPLFVRI'LVHPSRZHUPHQWDWWKH*'LUHFW$FWLRQV
6RFLDO0RYHPHQW6WXGLHV 8(3), pp. 243-260.
%HQIRUG5DQG6QRZ')UDPLQJ3URFHVVHVDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV$Q2YHUYLHZDQG$VVHVVPHQW$QQXDO5HYLHZRI6RFLRORJ\
(26), pp.611-39.
Best, J.: 2007, 6RFLDO3UREOHPV1HZ<RUN::1RUWRQDQG&RPSDQ\
Della Porta, D. (ed.), 2007, 7KH*OREDO-XVWLFH0RYHPHQW&URVV1DWLRQDODQG7UDQVQDWLRQDO3HUVSHFWLYHV, Harndon: Paradigm Publishers.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 328

Della Porta, D., Andretta,M., Mosca, L. and Reiter, H. (eds.), 2006, *OREDOL]DWLRQ)URP%HORZ7UDQVQDWLRQDO$FWLYLVWVDQG3URWHVW
1HWZRUNV, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
*RRGZLQ--DVSHU-0DQG3ROOHWWD):K\(PRWLRQV0DWWHULQ-*RRGZLQ-DPHV0-DVSHUDQG)3ROOHWWD3DVVLRQDWH3ROLWLFV
(PRWLRQVDQG6RFLDO0RFHPHQWV, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp.1-24.
Hamanishi, E.: 2010, Global Movements around G8 summits: Cross-national Organizational Characteristics, World Congress of
6RFLRORJ\5&6HVVLRQ*OREDOVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV$VLDDQGEH\RQG6ZHGHQ*RWKHQEXUJ
+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW7KH5HSRUWRQWKH$FWLFLW\RI+RNNDLGR3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW, Sapporo: Hokkaido
3HRSOHV)RUXPRQ*6XPPLW
Klandermans, B.: 1995, The Cultural Analysis of Social Movements, in Johnston, H. and Klandermans, B. (eds.) Social Movements and
Culture, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota press, pp. 3-24.
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6RFLRORJRV (27):228-48.
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Climate Change Problem, &ROORTXLXP (5), pp.96-116.
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%RUGHUV, (4), pp. 117-140.
Olson, M.: 1965, 7KH/RJLFRI&ROOHFWLYH$FWLRQ3XEOLF*RRGVDQGWKH7KHRU\RI*URXSV, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Poletta, F. and Jasper, J. M.: 2001, Collective Identity and Social Movements, $QQXDO5HYLHZRI6RFLRORJ\ (27), pp.283-305.
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6QRZ'$DQG5RFKIRUG%(-U:KRUGHQ.6DQG%HQIRUG'5)UDPH$OLJQPHQW3URFHVV0LFURPRELOL]DWLRQDQG
0RYHPHQW3DUWLFLSDWLRQ$PHULFDQ6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZSS
7DUURZ67KH1HZ7UDQVQDWLRQDO$FWLYLVP, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 329 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

Ocup(arte)!: Cultural Engagement in The University

of Puerto Rico Student Movement, 2010

KATHERINE EVERHART
Vanderbilt University

Abstract
5HFHQWO\ZHKDYHZLWQHVVHGWKHXVHRIFUHDWLYHWDFWLFVE\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWDFWLYLVWV
particularly by student activists from Greece, France, Spain, London, California, Chile-
and most recently, the activists occupying Wall Street. Clad in costumes and masks,
WKHVH\RXQJDFWLYLVWVVWDJHHYHQWVZKLFKDLPWRJDUQHUWKHDWWHQWLRQRIWKHPHGLD
educate others of their grievances, and provoke others to participate in the movement.
Existing literature on culture and social movements have failed to account for the use of
performance and spectacle in activism. Given the proliferation of these tactics, it is nec-
HVVDU\IRUVFKRODUVDQGDFWLYLVWVWRH[SORUHQRWRQO\KRZFKRLFHRIHQJDJHPHQWZKHWKHU
SROLWLFDORUFXOWXUDOPD\LPSDFWHQJDJHPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQEXWLWLVDOVRQHFHVVDU\
to explore the outcomes of these different forms of participation. Does cultural en-
JDJHPHQWVXFKDVSHUIRUPLQJDFWLYLVWDUWOHDGWRDGHHSHQHGSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQW"2U
UDWKHUDVVRPHKDYHVXJJHVWHGGRWKHVHFUHDWLYHSURWHVWVOHDGWRSDUWLFLSDWLRQZLWKOLWWOH
URRWVLQSROLWLFDODFWLYLVP"7KLVUHVHDUFKRQWKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWDW7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI
Puerto Rico of 2010 provides insight into the interlocking dynamics of culture and poli-
WLFV%DVHGRQREVHUYDWLRQDQGLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVWKLVUHVHDUFKH[SORUHVWKHG\QDPLFV
of the cultural and political engagement that took place during the 62-day occupation of
WKHXQLYHUVLW\7KLVUHVHDUFKKDVIDUUHDFKLQJLPSOLFDWLRQVLQH[SORULQJDQHZUHSHUWRLUH
RISURWHVWDVZHOODVIXUWKHUVRXUNQRZOHGJHRQWKHFXOWXUDOZRUNWKDWWDNHVSODFHZLWKLQ
social movements.

Keywords
Art, Culture, Social Movements, Protest, Politics

Introduction
,QWKHVWULNHWKHUHZDVQRDUWDQGLWZDVDYHU\ERULQJVWULNH
/DZ6WXGHQWRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFR

2Q$SULOWKHVWXGHQWVRI7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFREHJDQDKRXUVWULNHWRSURWHVW-
QDQFLDODXVWHULW\PHDVXUHVWKDWZRXOGLPSDFWWKHDFFHVVLELOLW\RIWKHSXEOLFXQLYHUVLW\V\VWHPIRUPDQ\VWX-
GHQWVRQWKHLVODQG7KHVHDXVWHULW\PHDVXUHVLQFOXGHG&HUWLFDWLRQDQLPSRVHGJRYHUQPHQWEXGJHWFXW
RIPLOOLRQIURPWKHXQLYHUVLW\EXGJHWWKHHOLPLQDWLRQRIWXLWLRQZDLYHUVIRUVRPHVWXGHQWVDSURSRVHG
WXLWLRQLQFUHDVHDQGDQHZVWXGHQWIHHRIDQQXDOO\:KHQWKHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQUHIXVHGWRQHJRWLDWHZLWK
WKHVWXGHQWVWKHKRXUVWULNHWXUQHGLQWRDQLQGHQLWHVWULNHDQGRFFXSDWLRQRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\IRUGD\V
$IWHUWKHRFFXSDWLRQRIWKH5LR3LHGUDVEHJDQWKHUHPDLQLQJWHQFDPSXVHVZRXOGDOVREHFRPHRFFXSLHG
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 330

UHVXOWLQJLQDFRPSOHWHVKXWGRZQRIWKHHQWLUHXQLYHUVLW\V\VWHPRQWKHLVODQGZLWKWKHRQHH[FHSWLRQRIWKH
Medical Sciences building. During the 62-day occupation, the students, organized in action-committees by
academic discipline, set up camp sites at each of the seven entry gates surrounding the campus. Inside the
RFFXSDWLRQVWXGHQWVQDYLJDWHGWKHGD\WRGD\OLYHGH[SHULHQFHVRIWKHRFFXSDWLRQ7KHVLJQLFDQWSUHVHQFH
RIDUWDQGFXOWXUDOZRUNE\WKHVWXGHQWVDVZHOODVWKHLURUJDQL]DWLRQDOWDFWLFVGLIIHUHQWLDWHGLWIURPSUHYL-
ous strikes at the university, as many referred to these 62-days as the creative movement.

'XULQJWKHRFFXSDWLRQRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\DOLQHRISROLFHRIFHUVVXUURXQGHGWKHLFRQLFLURQJDWHVRIWKH
8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFR%ULJKWEOXHEDUULFDGHVVHSDUDWHGWKHSROLFHIURPWKHQXPHURXVVXSSRUWHUVZKR
DUULYHGGDLO\WRGHPRQVWUDWHVROLGDULW\ZLWKWKHVWXGHQWV2QHDIWHUQRRQGXULQJWKHVXPPHURIWKHDUW
FROOHFWLYHNQRZQDVWKH8QLWRI&ORZQ3ROLFHDUULYHGDWWKHPDLQJDWHRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\'UHVVHGLQEODFN
helmets, shirts, pants, and military boots, some members carried brooms and others carried brightly colored
SODVWLFZDWHUJXQVEXWDOOPHPEHUVZRUHDEULJKWUHGFORZQQRVH6ORZO\WKHPHPEHUVRIWKH&ORZQ3R-
OLFHDSSURDFKWKHSROLFHRIFHUVDQGSODFHDERZORIGRJIRRGLQIURQWRIHDFKRIFHURQHDWDWLPH$VWKH
DWPRVSKHUHEHFRPHVWHQVHUWKH&KLHIRIWKH8QLWRI&ORZQ3ROLFHUDLVHVWKHEXOOKRUQDQGVKRXWV(DW(DW
Eat! For those observing the performance, the message is clear. In the days leading up to the performance,
WKHUHKDGEHHQQXPHURXVFODVKHVEHWZHHQWKHRIFLDOSROLFHIRUFHDQGVWXGHQWSURWHVWRUVDQGVXSSRUWHUV
$IWHUWKHVHFODVKHVSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQWKHSROLFHIRUFHZHUHDFFXVHGRIDEXVLQJWKHLUSRZHUVPDQ\RIFHUV
UHVSRQGHGWKH\ZHUHVLPSO\IROORZLQJRUGHUV7KH8QLWRI&ORZQ3ROLFHVWUHHWSHUIRUPHUVZHUHFDOOLQJ
attention to the conformity and lack of interrogation of the actions of the police force by the government,
LQVLQXDWLQJWKH\ZHUHDFWLQJLQZD\VQRGLIIHUHQWWKDQGRJVWKDWVLPSO\IROORZWKHRUGHUVRIWKHLURZQHUV

*OREDOO\ZHKDYHZLWQHVVHGVWXGHQWSURWHVWRUVXWLOL]LQJDYDULHW\RIFUHDWLYHWDFWLFVDQGDUWLVWLFSHUIRU-
mances for protest. These artistic displays and performances of protest generate considerable debate by
DFWLYLVWVUHJDUGLQJWKHLUHIIHFWLYHQHVVSURYRNLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHXVHRIFUHDWLYHWDFWLFVLQWKHSROLWLFDO
DUHQD%HUH]LQ(GHOPDQ-XULV3HUULQ3ROOHWWD5HHG6KHSKDUG
7XFNHU*LYHQWKHSUHVHQFHDQGGLIIXVLRQRIWKHVHFUHDWLYHWDFWLFVLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRTXHVWLRQZKHWKHU
WKHVHG\QDPLFDQGFRORUIXOWDFWLFVUHSUHVHQWDWUDQVIRUPDWLRQLQUHSHUWRLUHVRISURWHVW-XULV6KHSKDUG
",QDGGLWLRQJLYHQWKHLQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURIZD\VVXFKDVSROLWLFDOFXOWXUDOO\DQGDFDGHPLFDOO\LQ
ZKLFKLQGLYLGXDOVFDQHQJDJHZLWKLQDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWKRZGRHVWKHSUHVHQFHRIFKRLFHLPSDFWSDUWLFLSD-
WLRQ"$QGODVWO\ZKDWDUHWKHRXWFRPHVRIWKHVHYDULRXVW\SHVRIHQJDJHPHQW"'RHVFXOWXUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
OHDGWRDGHHSHQHGHQJDJHPHQWLQWKHPRYHPHQWSROLWLFDOO\"2UGRHVLWOHDGWRSDUWLFLSDWLRQZLWKOLWWOHURRWV
LQSROLWLFDODFWLYLVP"7KHVHTXHVWLRQVKDYH\HWWREHIXOO\H[SORUHGLQOLJKWRIWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHVHFUHDWLYH
tactics and artistic performances in modern-day protest.

This ethnographic research on the student movement at The University of Puerto Rico (UPR) provides
DQH[FHSWLRQDOFDVHLQZKLFKWRH[SORUHG\QDPLFVRIFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWLQSURWHVW7KLVUHVHDUFKLVEDVHG
RQKRXUVRIREVHUYDWLRQDQGLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVZLWKYDULRXVLQGLYLGXDOVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHPRYH-
PHQWDVZHOODVGRFXPHQWDWLRQIURPZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW8WLOL]LQJWKHQDUUDWLYHVRIP\SDUWLFLSDQWV
,DPDEOHWRH[SORUHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWWKDWRFFXUUHGGXULQJWKH
GD\RFFXSDWLRQRI7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFRDW5LR3LHGUDV0RUHVSHFLFDOO\WKLVSDSHUH[SORUHV
WKHZD\VLQZKLFKDUWLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWZHUHSUHVHQWLQWKH835VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWDVZHOODV
KRZVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVGHVFULEHWKHLPSDFWRIFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWRQWKHPRYHPHQWFRQFHUQLQJUHFUXLWPHQW
and participation.
 331 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

Review of literature
Repertoires of Action

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GHQHG DV GLVWLQFWLYH FRQVWHOODWLRQV RI WDFWLFV DQG VWUDWHJLHV GHYHORSHG RYHU WLPH DQG XVHG E\ SURWHVW
groups to act collectively in order to make claims on individuals and groups (Taylor and Van Dyke 2004:
7LOO\*HQHUDOO\WKHVHVWUDWHJLHVIDOOLQWRIRXUPDMRUFDWHJRULHVFRQYHQWLRQDOVWUDWHJLHVVXFK
DVOREE\LQJRUYRWLQJFRQIURQWDWLRQDOVWUDWHJLHVVXFKDVPDUFKHVDQGVWULNHVYLROHQWDFWVVXFKDVERPE-
LQJDQGULRWLQJDQGODVWO\FXOWXUDOIRUPVRISROLWLFDOH[SUHVVLRQVXFKDVWKHXVHRIPXVLFDUWDQGVWUHHW
SHUIRUPDQFHV,QWKHFXUUHQWOLWHUDWXUHWKHUHLVDWKDWVSHFLFDOO\DQDO\]HVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSRIFXOWXUDOIRUPV
RISROLWLFDOH[SUHVVLRQVXFKDVDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHVWRZKDWDUHJHQHUDOO\SHUFHLYHGDVWUDGLWLRQDOIRUPV
RISURWHVWVXFKDVPDUFKHVRUGHPRQVWUDWLRQV7KHUHKDVEHHQOLWWOHDQDO\VLVRIKRZWKHVHFXOWXUDOIRUPVRI
protest can be mapped onto social movement outcomes, such as participation and recruitment.

Participation and Recruitment

One of the primary goals for social movements is recruiting individuals and groups to participate in the
PRYHPHQW6RFLDOPRYHPHQWDFWRUVQGLWQHFHVVDU\WRWUDQVIRUPRUGLQDU\DFWRUVIURPWKHEURDGSRSXOD-
WLRQLQWRLQGLYLGXDOVWKDWSDUWLFLSDWHLQSURWHVWDFWLYLW\'UDZLQJXSRQWKHZRUNRI6FKXVVPDQDQG6RXOH
UHFUXLWPHQWLVJHQHUDOO\GHQHGDVUHSRUWHGSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQDSURWHVWDFWLYLW\GLUHFWHGDWHLWKHUDORFDORU
national problem (2005: 1088).

7KHHPSLULFDOTXHVWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWLDOUHFUXLWPHQWRUVWDWHGPRUHVLPSO\ZK\VRPHLQGLYLGXDOVSDUWLFL-
pate in a movement and others do not- has continued to surface as a dominant concern in research on so-
FLDOPRYHPHQWV6QRZHWDO7KHH[LVWLQJOLWHUDWXUHKDVIRFXVHGRQWKUHHSULPDU\H[SODQDWLRQVIRU
GLIIHUHQWLDOUHFUXLWPHQWQDPHO\SV\FKRORJLFDOGLVSRVLWLRQVELRJUDSKLFDODYDLODELOLW\DQGVRFLDOQHWZRUNV
0LVVLQJIURPWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWOLWHUDWXUHRQUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQLVDGLVFXVVLRQRIKRZFXOWXUDO
dynamics, such as the use of art and creative tactics, may play a role in recruitment and participation.

Psychological Dispositions
Early explanations of recruitment focused on psychological dispositions at the individual-level. Much
RIWKLVUHVHDUFKVWDWHVWKDWDQLQGLYLGXDOH[SHULHQFLQJDFHUWDLQDPRXQWRISV\FKRORJLFDOGLVWUHVVPLJKWQG
LWQHFHVVDU\WRMRLQDVRFLDOPRYHPHQWLQRUGHUWRDOOHYLDWHWKHVHSUHVVXUHV5RFKIRUGDQG%XUNH9LW-
erna 2006). These scholars outlined numerous psychological dispositions that might lead to joining a social
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.RUQKDXVHU/H%RQ0F$GDPDQG3DXOVHQ6HHPDQGHSULYDWLRQDQGJULHY-
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DQGDQG6WDUNDQGSHUVRQDOSUREOHPVDQGWURXEOHV6WDUNDQG%DLQEULGJH2QHRIWKHFULWLTXHV
of the literature on psychological dispositions is that the motivation for joining a social movement is located
ZLWKLQWKHLQGLYLGXDOZKLFKODFNVDQH[SODQDWLRQIRUZK\FHUWDLQJURXSVRUW\SHVRILQGLYLGXDOVPD\EHPRUH
or less inclined to join social movements.

Biographical Availability
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 332

organizational and macro-structural elements of social movements, research explaining recruitment shifted
to explore more structural explanations (McAdam 1986). Biographical availability is one of the most cited
H[SODQDWLRQVIRUZKHWKHURUQRWDQLQGLYLGXDOHQJDJHVLQSURWHVW%H\HUOHLQDQG+LSS6FKXVVPDQ
DQG 6RXOH  0F$GDPV FRQFHSW RI ELRJUDSKLFDO DYDLODELOLW\ VWDWHV WKDW WKH DEVHQFH RI SHUVRQDO
FRQVWUDLQWV LPSDFWV WKH OHYHO RI SHUFHLYHG ULVN WKXV ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH LQGLYLGXDO LV UHFUXLWHG LQWR WKH
PRYHPHQW6FKXVVPDQDQG6RXOH$PDMRULW\RIWKHOLWHUDWXUHIRFXVHVRQYHPDMRUVWUXFWXUHVWKDW
impact the level of risk from participation for the individual-namely, marital status, family, employment,
LQFRPHDQGDJH0DQ\RIWKHVHSUHGLFWLRQVPDGHUHJDUGLQJELRJUDSKLFDODYDLODELOLW\KDYHSURYHQZURQJ
DVWKHUHFDVHVZKHUHEHLQJDSDUHQWLQFUHDVHVDFKDQFHRIEHFRPLQJLQYROYHGLQSURWHVWDFWLYLWLHV1HSVWDG
DQG6PLWK6FKXVVPDQDQG6RXOH

Social Networks
More recently, a large body of literature claims that the most important variable in predicting recruit-
PHQWDUHVRFLDOQHWZRUNV'L[RQDQG5RVFLJQR.LWWV0F$GDPDQG3DXOVHQ6FKXVV-
PDQDQG6RXOH7KHVHVFKRODUVDVVHUWWKDWWKHVWURQJHVWSUHGLFWRULQZKHWKHURUQRWDQLQGLYLGXDO
LVUHFUXLWHGLQWRDPRYHPHQWLVKDYLQJFRQWDFWZLWKVRPHRQHLQWKHPRYHPHQW-DVSHUDQG3RXOVHQ
6QRZHWDO6FKRODUVKDYHVWUXJJOHGWRGHQHH[DFWO\KRZVRFLDOQHWZRUNVLPSDFWUHFUXLWPHQWDV
WKHUHLVOLWWOHGLVFXVVLRQRIZKDWDFWXDOO\KDSSHQVZLWKLQVRFLDOQHWZRUNVRWKHUWKDQDVLPSOHLQYLWDWLRQWR
participate (Hirsch 1990).

7KHUHDUHDVPDOOQXPEHURIVFKRODUVWKDWVXJJHVWZKDWLVPRVWLPSRUWDQWDERXWVRFLDOQHWZRUNVLVWKH
FXOWXUDOZRUNWKDWWDNHVSODFHZLWKLQQHWZRUNV.LWWV0F$GDPDQG3DXOVHQ5RVFLJQRDQG'L[-
RQ7KHVHVSDFHVPD\DFWLYDWHIHHOLQJVRIVROLGDULW\DQGDVHQVHRIVKDUHGLGHQWLW\ZKLFKSURYLGHV
HYLGHQFHWKDWVRFLDOQHWZRUNVDUHQRWRQO\LPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHSHRSOHDUHH[SOLFLWO\DVNHGWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQ
the movement-but rather due to embeddedness in the FXOWXUHRIWKHPRYHPHQW.LWWV0F$GDPDQG
3DXOVHQ5RVFLJQRDQG'L[RQ

Cultural Engagement

The importance of culture in social movements suggest there be additional unexplained factors-outside
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participation. There is evidence of the importance of cultural dynamics in a handbook for the Direct Action
1HWZRUN'$1GXULQJWKH%DWWOHRI6HDWWOHSURWHVWVRIDVDFWLYLVWVZULWHDERXWWKHXVHRIFXOWXUH
ZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWWRUHFUXLW

7UDGLWLRQDOGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQGSURWHVWVZKLOHHVVHQWLDORIWHQWLPHVDOLHQDWHWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFDQGDUHLJQRUHGE\
SROLF\PDNHUV7DNLQJWRWKHVWUHHWVZLWKJLDQWSXSSHWWKHDWHUGDQFHJUDIWLDUWPXVLFSRHWU\DQGWKHVSRQWDQHRXV
HUXSWLRQRIMR\EUHDNVWKURXJKWKHQXPELQJLVRODWLRQ:HPXVWVWULNHWRXVHDOORXUVNLOOVLQKDUPRQ\WRFUHDWHDQHQ-
GXULQJV\PSKRQ\RIUHVLVWDQFH7KHFDFRSKRQ\DJDLQVWFDSLWDOZLOOEHGHDIHQLQJZKHQQLQHGD\VRIODUJHVFDOHWKHDWUH
SUHSDUDWLRQVFXOPLQDWHLQWKHODUJHVWIHVWLYDORIUHVLVWDQFHWKHZRUOGKDVHYHUVHHQ:HZLOOPDNHUHYROXWLRQLUUHVLVWLEOH
(my emphasis) (Reed 2005: 255).

,ZLOOQRZWXUQWRH[SORUHWKHZD\VLQZKLFKDUWDQGFXOWXUHKDYHEHHQGLVFXVVHGLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQW
literature regarding recruitment and participation.
 333 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

Art and Culture

3UHYLRXVZRUNRQWKHXVHRIDUWDQGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDVGHPRQVWUDWHGKRZWKLVPDOOHDEOHIRUPKDVWKH
potential to evoke strong emotions, produce solidarity through participation, and communicate grievances
$GDPV(\HUPDQDQG-DPLVRQ+DOIPDQQDQG<RXQJ0RRUHDQG5REHUWV5HHG
5R\7D\ORUHWDO7XFNHU2YHUDOODUWKDVPDQ\FKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKDWPDNHLWDQLP-
portant mechanism for social movement activists. The existing literature, related to recruitment and partici-
SDWLRQIRFXVHVRQWZREURDGDUHDVUHJDUGLQJWKHXVHRIDUWLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV2QHDUHDLVKRZDUWLVWLFDQG
cultural productions have the capability of disseminating information, delineating grievances, and provoking
dialogue. Another area is related to pleasures of protest, such as producing emotions of fun and excitement.

Dissemination of Information, Grievances, and Dialogue

$UWLVWLFREMHFWVFDQEHUHDGLO\XVHGWRFRQYH\DPHVVDJHZKHWKHUWKLVPHVVDJHLVDERXWDSURWHVWVFKHG-
XOHGLQWKHXSFRPLQJZHHNRUWKHJULHYDQFHVRIWKHPRYHPHQWRUSUHVHQWLQJDQLPDJHWKDWSURYRNHVRWKHUVWR
HQJDJHLQDFRQYHUVDWLRQDERXWWKHPRYHPHQW$GDPV&KDIIHH,VDDF0F&DXJKDQ
0RUULVRQDQG,VDDF5HHG5RVFLJQRDQG'DQDKHU7KHVHDXWKRUVVXJJHVWWKDWGLVVHPLQD-
WLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQWKURXJKDUWLVWLFSURGXFWVLVDQHFHVVDU\FRPSRQHQWRIUHFUXLWPHQWDQGPRELOL]DWLRQKRZ-
ever, certain art forms may vary in their ability to disseminate information. A mural may be more durable
DQGORQJODVWLQJKRZHYHUGLIIHUHQWLQIRUPDWLRQPD\EHFRQYH\HGLQDPXUDOVXFKDVVLPSOHPHVVDJHVDQG
YLVXDOVLQFRPSDULVRQWRVWUHHWSHUIRUPDQFHVZKLFKPD\EHPRUHHHWLQJDQGUDQGRPEXWPD\EHDEOHWR
LQFRUSRUDWHPRUHFRPSOH[QDUUDWLYHVDQGDUHDFFHVVLEOHWRLQGLYLGXDOVZKRPD\EHLOOLWHUDWH

$QRWKHUZD\WKDWDUWFDQEHXVHGZLWKLQPRYHPHQWVLVWRSURYRNHGLDORJXH$GDPV5HHG
7D\ORUHWDO0RVWO\WKHVHVFKRODUVGLVFXVVKRZDOUHDG\UHFUXLWHGPHPEHUVRIWKHPRYHPHQWFDQ
XVHWKHVHVSDFHVRIDUWLVWLFSURGXFWLRQWRHQJDJHLQFRQVFLRXVQHVVUDLVLQJKRZHYHULQWKHZRUNRI7D\ORU
HWDOZHQGWKDWDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHVLQWKLVFDVHGUDJSHUIRUPDQFHVFDQHQKDQFHUHFUXLWPHQWE\
provoking dialogue not only among existing activists, but also among potential constituents.

The dissemination of information, articulation of grievances, and provocation of dialogue through artis-
tic objects suggests the impact these art forms may have on recruitment, particularly as these forms may be
DEOHWRUHDFKSRWHQWLDOFRQVWLWXHQWVZKRZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHOHIWRXWRILQIRUPDWLRQVRFLDOQHWZRUNVIURP
WKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQW)RUH[DPSOHLQGLYLGXDOVZKRFRQVLGHUWKHPVHOYHVWREHDSROLWLFDOPD\QRWEHSULY\
WRLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWXQIROGLQJVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKRZHYHUWKH\PD\KDYHDFFHVVWRDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHV
SDUWLFXODUO\VWUHHWSHUIRUPDQFHVLQZKLFKWKH\EHFRPHLQIRUPHGDERXWWKHFXUUHQWJULHYDQFHVRIVSHFLF
movements. Artistic objects may be a more accessible, but also perceived as less politicized, means of re-
cruiting from the general public.

Pleasures of Protest

5HFHQWO\DVPDOOQXPEHURIVFKRODUVKDYHVWDUWHGWRH[SORUHKRZSURWHVWDQGDFWLYLVPFDQEHIXQDQG
HQWHUWDLQLQJNQRZQDVWKHSOHDVXUHVRISURWHVW*RRGZLQHWDO5HHG6KHSKHUG7XFNHU
 0RUH VSHFLFDOO\ VFKRODUV KDYH VWDUWHG WR FRQQHFW D PRYHPHQWV FXOWXUH ZLWK WKH DFWLYDWLRQ RI
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 334

,IHPRWLRQVDUHLQWLPDWHO\LQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVE\ZKLFKSHRSOHFRPHWRMRLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVWKH\DUHHYHQ
PRUHREYLRXVLQWKHRQJRLQJDFWLYLWLHVRIWKHPRYHPHQWV7KHULFKHUDPRYHPHQWVFXOWXUHZLWKPRUHULWXDOVVRQJV
IRONWDOHVKHURHVGHQXQFLDWLRQRIHQHPLHVDQGVRRQWKHJUHDWHUWKRVHSOHDVXUHV*RRGZLQHWDO

A dynamic movement culture that portrays a movement as exciting, fun, and pleasurable can provoke
SRWHQWLDOFRQVWLWXHQWVWREHFRPHLQYROYHGLQWKHPRYHPHQW2QHVXFKH[DPSOHLVIRXQGLQ5HHGV
ZRUNRQWKH%DWWOHRI6HDWWOHSURWHVWVZKLFKGHPRQVWUDWHVKRZSOHDVXUHVRISURWHVWVXFKDVWKHHQMR\PHQW
of carnivals and costume balls-leads to higher levels of participation. What is yet to be fully explored is
WKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHVHIRUPVRISURWHVWDQGZKDWKDYHEHHQUHIHUUHGWRDVPRUHWUDGLWLRQDODQG
SROLWLFDOIRUPVRISURWHVW'RWKH\RSHUDWHWRVXSSOHPHQWRQHDQRWKHU"2UUDWKHUGRSOHDVXUDEOHIRUPVRI
SURWHVWGLVWUDFWIURPSROLWLFDOIRUPVRISRUWHVW"

7ZRUHFHQWZRUNVE\6KHSKHUGDQG7XFNHUH[SORUHWKHKLVWRULFDOUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ

art, culture, play, creativity, aesthetics and politics. Both scholars apply these concepts to a broad number
RI PRYHPHQWV UDQJLQJ IURP WKH 6LWXDWLRQLVWV WR WKH  JOREDO UHYROXWLRQV WR$&7 83 WR WKH<RXQJ
/RUGVDQGPRVWUHFHQWO\WKHJOREDOMXVWLFHPRYHPHQWDQGFRPPXQLW\JDUGHQRUJDQL]DWLRQV7KHVHQHZ
WRROVSOD\IXODQGDHVWKHWLFWDFWLFVDUHQHFHVVDU\LQDSROLWLFDOHQYLURQPHQWWKDWKDVEHFRPHIUXVWUDWHGZLWK
URXWLQL]HGF\FOHVRISURWHVWDQGHOHFWRUDOSROLWLFVWKXVDFWLYLVWVQHHGWRUHO\XSRQWDFWLFDOO\VLOO\VWUDWHJLHV
WKDWGLVUXSWDQHQYLURQPHQWZKHUHSURWHVWKDVEHFRPHQRUPDOL]HGDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HG+RZHYHUXSIRU
debate is the impact these tactics have on the political arena.

,QKLVFRQFOXVLRQ6KHSKHUGFODLPVWKDW SOD\IXOSURWHVWLVOLWWOHPRUHWKDQZD\VIRUDFWLYLVWVWR

EORZRIIVWHDPDQGHDVHWHQVLRQV,IWKHVHWDFWLFVDUHWREHLQXHQWLDOLWLVQHFHVVDU\IRUWKHVHH[SUHVVLRQVWR
EHZHOOPDWFKHGZLWKFOHDUO\DUWLFXODWHGJRDOV7KHUHDUHDOVROLPLWDWLRQVWRWKHVHIRUPVRISURWHVWVXFKDV
WKHFXOWXUDOO\ERXQGQDWXUHRIWKHVHW\SHVRIFRPPXQLFDWLRQVZKLFKGRQRWDOZD\VFRPPXQLFDWHZHOODFURVV
race and class lines (Shepherd 2011). Given the fact that playful protest is on the rise among student move-
PHQWVZRUOGZLGHVWDUWLQJLQDVZHOODVKDYHSOD\HGDVLJQLFDQWUROHLQWKHPRVWUHFHQW2FFXS\PRYH-
PHQWVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRUHYLVLWWKHVHUHODWLRQVKLSVVSHFLFDOO\KRZGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWDYDLODEOH
WRDFWLYLVWVDUHUHODWHGWRUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ*LYHQWKHZLGHUDQJHRISURWHVWDFWLYLWLHVGRHVFKRLFH
OHDGWRLQFUHDVHGUHFUXLWPHQWDPRQJSRWHQWLDOFRQVWLWXHQWV",VLWSRVVLEOHWKDWFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWPD\OHDG
WRDPRUHSROLWLFL]HGHQJDJHPHQWZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW"2ULQFRQWUDVWGRHVFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWDFKLHYH
IHZPHDVXUDEOHRXWFRPHVIRUDPRYHPHQW"2YHUDOOWKHH[LVWLQJOLWHUDWXUHRQDUWDQGFXOWXUHLQVRFLDOPRYH-
ments has eluded an empirical exploration of the impact of artistic and cultural engagement on recruitment
DQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ7KHUHIRUHLWLVQHFHVVDU\JLYHQWKHFRPSOH[UHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQFXOWXUHDQGSROLWLFVWR
begin investigating the narratives of activists regarding cultural and political engagement.

Research questions
This ethnographic research on the student movement at The University of Puerto Rico explores the rela-
WLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQW:KLOHWKLVSDSHUFDQQRWIXOO\DGGUHVVWKLVUHODWLRQVKLS
WKLVSDSHUZLOOIRFXVVROHO\RQWKHZD\VLQZKLFKDFWLYLVWVUHODWHSOD\IXODQGFUHDWLYHWDFWLFVWRUHFUXLWPHQW
DQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ6SHFLFDOO\WKLVSDSHUDGGUHVVHVWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVUVWLQZKDWZD\V
ZDVDUWLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWSUHVHQWLQWKH835VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWVHFRQGKRZGRVWXGHQWDFWLY-
LVWVGHVFULEHWKHLPSDFWRIWKHVHYDULHGFKRLFHVRIHQJDJHPHQWRQWKHPRYHPHQW"
 335 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

Methods and data

7KLVUHVHDUFKHPSOR\VHWKQRJUDSKLFHOGZRUNWRH[SORUHWKHG\QDPLFVRIFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWDQG
activism in The University of Puerto Rico student movement of 2010. My research is based on 25 hours of
REVHUYDWLRQDQGLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVDVZHOODVGRFXPHQWDWLRQIURPZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW8WLOL]LQJWKH
QDUUDWLYHVRIP\SDUWLFLSDQWV,H[SORUHWKHG\QDPLFVEHWZHHQFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWWKDWWRRN
SODFHGXULQJWKHGD\RFFXSDWLRQRI7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFRDW5LR3LHGUDVZLWKDVSHFLFIRFXV
on themes of recruitment and participation.

My observational data is based on observations of actual protest events that took place during the sum-
PHURIZLWKLQWKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQW2YHUWKHFRXUVHRIVL[ZHHNVLQWKHHOG,REVHUYHGVHSDUDWH
demonstrations and marches that took place in a variety of locations in San Juan. During these observa-
WLRQV,ZDVDEOHWRGRFXPHQWWKURXJKHOGQRWHVDXGLRUHFRUGLQJVDQGSKRWRJUDSKVWKHYDULHGIRUPVRI
SDUWLFLSDWLRQSUHVHQWDWWKHVHHYHQWV0\REVHUYDWLRQVDOVRSURYLGHGDFFHVVWRVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWZLWKLQWKH
PRYHPHQWDVZHOODVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRFROOHFWPRYHPHQWGRFXPHQWDWLRQ

7KHLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKHVXPPHUVRIDQGZLWKDYDULHW\RILQGLYLGX-
als-student activists, movement leaders, artists, journalists, and student council members. I employed pur-
SRVLYHVQRZEDOOVDPSOLQJDVHDFKQHZFRQWDFWZDVDEOHWRVXJJHVWDGGLWLRQDOLQGLYLGXDOVIRUVXEVHTXHQW
LQWHUYLHZV1RWRQO\LVWKLVGDWHLPSRUWDQWIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHXQIROGLQJRIHYHQWVZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW
EXWPRUHVSHFLFDOO\VWXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGWRGLVFXVVWKHXVHRIDUWDQGFXOWXUHZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWWKH
LPSDFWRIDUWDQGFXOWXUHRQWKHPRYHPHQWDQGWKHLURYHUDOODQDO\VLVRIWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFXOWXUH
and politics.

Findings
2YHUDOOVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVIRFXVHGRQWKUHHPDMRUDUHDVRIDUWDQGFXOWXUHWKDWZHUHSUHVHQWGXULQJWKH
GD\RFFXSDWLRQRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\ZKLFKZHUHWKHSUHVHQFHRIDUWLVWLFREMHFWVDQGSHUIRUPDQFHVWKHFXOWXUHV
RIWKHVL[FDPSVLWHVDQGWKHFXOWXUDOFDOHQGDUVRIWKHFDPSVLWHV,ZLOOQRZWXUQWRH[SORUHHDFKRIWKHVH
DUHDVZKLOHIRFXVLQJVSHFLFDOO\RQKRZVWXGHQWVGHVFULEHGWKHLPSDFWRIWKHVHDUWLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOIRUPV
of engagement on recruitment and participation.

Artistic Productions

7KURXJKRXWWKHGD\RFFXSDWLRQRI7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI3XHUWR5LFR5LR3LHGUDVFDPSXVWKHUHZDV
DVWURQJSUHVHQFHRIDUWLVWLFSURGXFWLRQDQGFRQVXPSWLRQ$ZLGHYDULHW\RIDUWIRUPVZHUHSUHVHQWVXFK
as: street performances, a radio soap opera, political cartoons, murals, poetry and literature readings, pro-
test chants, videos, photographs, musical performances, and dance performances. Artistic performances
DWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDUHQRWQHZLQ3XHUWR5LFRKRZHYHUVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVGLVFXVVHGKRZWKHDUWLQWKH
835VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWRIGLIIHUHGVLJQLFDQWO\IURPWKHDUWRISDVWPRYHPHQWV2QHRIWKHSULPDU\
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKDWGLIIHUHQWLDWHGDUWLQWKLVSDUWLFXODUVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWZDVWKHHPSKDVLVRQSHUIRUPDQFH
ZKLFKRQHSDUWLFLSDQWUHIHUUHGWRDVPRYLQJDUWOLNHVWUHHWDUWDQGSHUIRUPDQFHDUWZKLFKLVFDSDEOHRI
moving from one location to another in the attempt to expose to the greatest number of people.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 336

'XULQJWKHRFFXSDWLRQWKHUHZHUHVHYHUDODUWLVWFROOHFWLYHVDQGJURXSVWKDWUHJXODUO\HQJDJHGLQSHU-
IRUPDQFHVERWKLQVLGHDQGRXWVLGHWKHJDWHVRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\QDPHO\WKH8QLWRI&ORZQ3ROLFH3DSHO
Machete, and Sembrando Conciencia. While these three do not exhaust the full list of performances that
WRRNSODFHRYHUWKHGD\RFFXSDWLRQWKH\SURYLGHLQVLJKWLQWRWKHYDULRXVZD\VWKDWVWUHHWWKHDWUHZDV
GHSOR\HGZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWDVZHOODVZKHQDVNHGWRGHVFULEHWKHDUWVWXGHQWVZLWQHVVHGGXULQJWKH
occupation, they generally mentioned one of these three street performances. One other form of art that
ZDVRIWHQPHQWLRQHGE\SDUWLFLSDQWVZDVWKHUDGLRVRDSRSHUDVKRZRQ5DGLR+XHOJDDVWXGHQWUXQUDGLR
VWDWLRQFUHDWHGVSHFLFDOO\WRGHYHORSFRPPXQLFDWLRQVGXULQJWKHRFFXSDWLRQQDPHG$PRUGH%DUULFDGD
/DVWO\RQHRIWKHODUJHVWFXOWXUDOHYHQWVWKDWWRRNSODFHGXULQJWKHRFFXSDWLRQZDVWKHFRQFHUWFDOOHG9LYDQ
/RV(VWXGLDQWHVZKHUHYDULRXV3XHUWR5LFDQPXVLFLDQVOLNH&DOOHSHUIRUPHGDFRQFHUWLQVXSSRUWRI
the student movement.

An Exciting and Dynamic Movement of Spectacle

,QWHUPVRIUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQVWXGHQWVVSRNHRIKRZWKHSUHVHQFHRIDUWSURGXFHGDG\QDPLF
DQG H[FLWLQJ PRYHPHQW ZKLFK XOWLPDWHO\ HQKDQFHG PRELOL]DWLRQ$FWLYLVWV VWDWHG WKDW VWUHHW WKHDWUH RI
VSHFWDFOHDQGFDUQLYDOPDGHWKHPRYHPHQWPRUHG\QDPLFZKLFKKHOSHGWRJHQHUDWHLQFUHDVHGPRELOL]D-
tion and media coverage of the movement. For example, a performance artist and professor at the UPR
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WKHQXGHSDLQWHGERGLHV,WLVVRPHWKLQJYHU\GLIIHUHQWYHU\QHZ$OORIWKDWLVHVVHQWLDOO\LPSRUWDQWIRU
PDNLQJDUHDOODVWLQJOHJDF\RIWKHVWULNH:KLOHWKHUHZHUHLQQRYDWLYHDUWLVWLFIRUPVSUHVHQWLQWKH835
VWXGHQWPRYHPHQWWKHFDUQLYDOHVTXHDWPRVSKHUHRISROLWLFDOHYHQWVLVZHOONQRZQRQWKHLVODQG2QHRI
my participants, a professor at the UPR, says:

0RVWSROLWLFDODQGSXEOLFHYHQWVLI\RXGRQWKDYHPXVLFRUIRRGRUGULQNWKHQLWLVQRWDJRRGHYHQW,WIROORZVWKDW
ZHKDYHDKLJKWXUQRXWUDWHIRUHOHFWLRQVPXFKKLJKHUWKDQWKH86DERXWWR,WKDVWRGRZLWKWKLVFDUQLYDO
HVTXHDWPRVSKHUH,WVWKHFDUDYDQVVSHHFKHVWKHPXVLFDORWRIHQWHUWDLQPHQW,WLVJHWWLQJWKHPDZD\IURPWKHLU
KRPHVDQGSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHSXEOLFZLWKPDVVLYHVXSSRUW,QWKLVFDVHRIWKH835WKHDWPRVSKHUHLVSDUWRIWKH
reason people do go out and participate.

7KLVLOOXPLQDWHVKRZWKHSUHVHQFHRIDUWLVWLFREMHFWVDQGSHUIRUPDQFHVLQWKHVWXGHQWPRYHPHQWFUH-
ated a dynamic and exciting movement that enhanced recruitment and participation in the movement. The
SUHVHQFHRIDUWZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWRSHUDWHGWRQRWRQO\UHFUXLWDGGLWLRQDOVWXGHQWVWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKH
PRYHPHQWEXWZDVDOVRFDSDEOHRIUHFUXLWLQJIURPWKHZLGHUSRSXODWLRQWRPRELOL]HVXSSRUW(YLGHQFH
ZDVGHPRQVWUDWHGLQWKHEURDGVXSSRUWWKHVWXGHQWVZHUHDEOHWRJDUQHUDWODUJHHYHQWVVXFKDV9LYDQ/RV
Estudiantes, the musical concert held in support of the movement.

Campsite Cultures
Many students have referred to the 62-day occupation as the creative movement, not only based on
the strong presence of art-but also the organizational form of the occupation. Many students spoke of need-
LQJWREHDEOHWRUHVSRQGWRDFRQVWDQWO\FKDQJLQJHQYLURQPHQWLQFUHDWLYHDQGLQQRYDWLYHZD\V,QRWKHU
ZRUGVWKHVWXGHQWVIRXQGWKHPVHOYHVIURP'D\2QHVHHNLQJWRFUHDWH an alternative.

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+XPDQLWLHV (GXFDWLRQ 6FKRRO )LQH$UWV DQG 1DWXUDO 6FLHQFHV ZKLFK IRUPHG WKH VL[ RULJLQDO DFWLRQ
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 337 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

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WRWKHJDWHWREHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKDWSDUWLFXODUJDWH+RZHYHUDVWLPHSDVVHGWKHFDPSVEHJDQWRGHYHORS
GLVWLQFWLGHQWLWLHVLGHRORJLHVDQGFDPSFXOWXUHV2QHVWXGHQWGHVFULEHGWKHZD\VLQZKLFKWKHVHFDPSV
formed a microcosm of broader society,

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DFWLYLWLHV(YHU\RQHGLGVRPHWKLQJGLIIHUHQW7KH6RFLDO6FLHQFHVZHUHDOZD\VWU\LQJWRJHWLQYROYHGZLWKVHFXULW\
7KH)LQH$UWVZHUHPRUHOLNHWKHQLJKWSHRSOHWKHRZOVWKH\GEHXSDOOWKURXJKWKHQLJKWGRLQJHYHU\WKLQJDQGWKHQ
\RXZRXOGQWQGDQ\RIWKHPGXULQJWKHGD\6RLWZDVLQWHUHVWLQJ,WZDVOLNHDORWRIOLWWOHWRZQVDOOFRQQHFWHGWR
one another politically.

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QDPHVRIWKHFDPSVWKHW\SHRIFORWKLQJWKH\ZRUHWKHEDUULFDGHVWKH\EXLOWDWWKHJDWHDQGPRUHEURDGO\
WKHLUSUHIHUHQFHIRUDFWLRQWDFWLFVDQGLGHRORJLHV2QH/DZ6FKRROVWXGHQWGHVFULEHGWKHQDPHVRIWKHFDPSV

(YHU\FDPSKDGDGLIIHUHQWLGHQWLW\(YHU\FDPSZDVGHVLJQDWHGWRRQHRIWKHIDFXOWLHVRUDFWLRQFRPPLWWHHV(DFK
FDPSKDGDGLIIHUHQWQDPH6SDUWDZDV6RFLDO6FLHQFHV9LHWQDPZDV+XPDQLWLHV7KH7ULEHZDV(GXFDWLRQ0LGGOH
(DVWZDV)LQH$UWV'LVQH\ZDV1DWXUDO6FLHQFHVDQGXV%HYHUO\+LOOVQRWQHFHVVDULO\DSSRLQWHGE\XVEXWZHWRRN
LWDVRXURZQ:HXQGHUVWDQGWKHQDWXUHRIKRZGLIIHUHQWVFKRROVKDYHGLIIHUHQWQDWXUHVRIDFWLRQ

7KHVHQDPHVUHHFWHGWKHLGHRORJLHVDQGFKRVHQVWUDWHJLHVRIHDFKFDPS)RUH[DPSOH6RFLDO6FLHQFHV
ZDVQDPHG6SDUWDEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHVHHQDVWKHVROGLHUVRIWKHPRYHPHQWWKH+XPDQLWLHVFDPSZDV
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]RQHWKH(GXFDWLRQ6FKRROZDVUHIHUUHGWRDVWKHWULEHGXHWRWKHLUWLJKWNQLWRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGWKHSUHVHQFH
RIZKDWVRPHSDUWLFLSDQWVUHIHUUHGWRDVWKHPDWULDUFKRIWKHJDWH)LQH$UWVHDUQHGWKHQDPH0LGGOH(DVW
primarily due to their location, but also their preference for avoiding political ideologies, the Natural Sci-
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WKH/DZ6FKRROZDVUHIHUUHGWRDV%HYHUO\+LOOVGXHWRWKHKLJKHUVRFLDOFODVVRIPDQ\RIWKHPHPEHUVDV
ZHOODVWKHLUSUHIHUHQFHVIRUQRQFRQIURQWDWLRQDOWDFWLFV

1RWRQO\GLGWKHQDPHVRIHDFKFDPSUHHFWWKHPHPEHUVDQGLGHRORJLHVRIWKHFDPSLWZDVDOVRUHHFW-
HGLQRQHRIWKHUVWWDVNVHQFRXQWHUHGE\HDFKFDPSWKHEXLOGLQJRIDEDUULFDGHDWWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHJDWHVWR
keep the administration or police forces from entering the campus. One of the most striking comparisons
LVEHWZHHQWKHEXLOWEDUULFDGHVRIWKH+XPDQLWLHVDQG6RFLDO6FLHQFHVDVFRPSDUHGWR%HYHUO\+LOOV*LYHQ
WKHLUSUHIHUHQFHIRUQRQYLROHQFHDQGQRQFRQIURQWDWLRQDOWDFWLFVWKH/DZVWXGHQWVLQLWLDOO\YRWHGDJDLQVW
EXLOGLQJDEDUULFDGHDWWKHLUJDWH+RZHYHUDIWHUGLVFXVVLRQVDQGFRQVHQVXDOGHFLVLRQPDNLQJFDPSXV
ZLGHLWZDVDJUHHGWKDWDOOJDWHVPXVWEXLOGDEDUULFDGH)DFHGZLWKWKLVGHFLVLRQWKH/DZVWXGHQWVEXLOWD
YHU\VPDOOXQDVVXPLQJEDUULFDGHWKDWZRXOGFRPPXQLFDWHWKHLULGHRORJ\,QFRPSDULVRQWKH+XPDQLWLHV
DQG6RFLDO6FLHQFHVWXGHQWVXWLOL]HGDVPDQ\IRXQGREMHFWVDVSRVVLEOHUDQJLQJIURPSDOPWUHHSUDZQVWR
WUDVKFDQVWRGHVNVDQGEDVLFDOO\WKUHZDVPXFKDVSRVVLEOHXSDJDLQVWWKHJDWHVWRNHHSDQ\RQHIURPHQWHU-
LQJUHHFWLQJWKHLUSUHIHUHQFHIRUPRUHUDGLFDOWDFWLFV

Essentially, these differences are based on distinct ideologies that impact the preferences for actions and
WDFWLFV)RUH[DPSOHRQH+XPDQLWLHVVWXGHQWVSRNHWRPHDERXWKRZGLIIHUHQW9LHWQDPFDPSZDVIURP
others.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 338

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DJHRIROGHUVWXGHQWV2XUDFWLRQLVPRUH,OOVD\ZHDUHPRUHDZDUHRIWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVDQGWU\WRZRUNDURXQGWKHP
:HFKDOOHQJHWKHPE\WLSSLQJXQGHUWKHWRHVRIZKDWZHFDQDQGFDQWGR:HWDNHWKDWLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQZKHQZH
GHFLGHRQRXUDFWLYLWLHV$QGDOOWKDWFRPHVLQWHUPVRIGLIIHUHQWGLVFRXUVHVFRPLQJIURPGLIIHUHQWFDPSV6SDUWDKDG
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2QHRIWKHPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJDVSHFWVRIWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQDOIRUPLVWKDWVWXGHQWVZHUHDEOHWRFKRRVHWKH
ZD\VLQZKLFKWKH\ZHUHHQJDJHGLQWKHPRYHPHQW(YLGHQFHZDVIRXQGE\WKHIDFWWKDWGHVSLWHWKHIDFW
WKDWWKHFDPSVUHSUHVHQWHGFHUWDLQDFDGHPLFGLVFLSOLQHVDQGFROOHJHVWKHUHZHUHRFFDVLRQVZKHQLQGLYLGXDO
VWXGHQWVFKRVHWREHLQYROYHGZLWKDGLIIHUHQWFDPSRUWKHIDFWWKDWHQWLUHDFDGHPLFGLVFLSOLQHVFKRVHWR
FDPSRXWVLGHRIWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOO\DVVRFLDWHGDFDGHPLFFROOHJH)RUH[DPSOHDIHZVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVUH-
FRXQWHGWRPHKRZWKH\FKRVHWRPRYHWRWKH+XPDQLWLHVFDPSIURPWKH(GXFDWLRQFDPSFLWLQJUHDVRQV
VXFKDVIHHOLQJPRUHDOLJQHGZLWKWKHLGHRORJLHVRI+XPDQLWLHVWKDQZLWK(GXFDWLRQ$QRWKHUH[DPSOHLV
WKHIDFWWKDWWKHGUDPDVWXGHQWVDOWKRXJKWKH\ZRXOGKDYHWUDGLWLRQDOO\EHHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH)LQH$UWV
GHSDUWPHQWFKRVHWRFDPSZLWKWKH+XPDQLWLHVGXHWRWKHLUPHQWDOLW\WKDWWKHVLWXDWLRQRIWKHLUGHSDUWPHQ-
WDOUHVRXUFHVLVPRUHDOLJQHGZLWK+XPDQLWLHVWKDQZLWKRWKHU)LQH$UWVVWXGHQWVVXFKDVWKH$UFKLWHFWXUH
VWXGHQWV,QWKLVZD\VWXGHQWVZHUHSUHVHQWHGZLWKPXOWLSOHZD\VLQZKLFKWRHQJDJHLQWKHPRYHPHQW
ZKLFKXOWLPDWHO\OHGWRLQFUHDVHGUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ

Cultural Calendars
7KHVWXGHQWVZHUHDOVRIDFHGZLWKORJLVWLFDOFRQFHUQVLQWKHRFFXSDWLRQVXFKDVFUHDWLQJFRPPLWWHHVDQG
VFKHGXOHVWROOWKHQHHGVRIVHFXULW\FRRNLQJFOHDQLQJQHJRWLDWLQJFRPPXQLFDWLRQKRZHYHURQHRIWKHLU
SULPDU\WHQHWVZDVWKDWHYHQWKRXJKWKHVFKRROZDVRFFXSLHGHGXFDWLRQZRXOGQRWVWRS7KHUHIRUHWKH
VWXGHQWVZRXOGEXLOGDOWHUQDWLYHVWRWUDGLWLRQDOPHWKRGVRIIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQ2QHRIWKHLQWHUHVWLQJZD\V
WKLVKDSSHQHGZDVWKURXJKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIFXOWXUDOFDOHQGDUV7KHVHFDOHQGDUVH[LVWHGDWWKHOHYHORI
FDPSVLWHEXWDOVRFDPSXVZLGH$ZLGHYDULHW\RIHYHQWVFRXOGEHIRXQGRQWKHVHFDOHQGDUVUDQJLQJIURP
PRYLHYLHZLQJVWROHFWXUHVIURPIDFXOW\DQGXQLRQOHDGHUVWRPXVLFDOMDPVHVVLRQVWRSRHWU\UHDGLQJVWR
\RJDWRDUWLVWLFZRUNVKRSV

These events provided multiple opportunities for individuals to participate and engage in the movement,
 339 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

WKXVHQKDQFLQJWKHOLNHOLKRRGWKDWDPRUHGLYHUVHJURXSRILQGLYLGXDOVZRXOGSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHPRYHPHQW
,QWKLVZD\DQLQGLYLGXDOZKRNQHZPRUHDERXWDVSHFLFVXEMHFWVXFKDVDUWPDNLQJDQDUFKLVPRUOPV
FRXOGVWLOOEHLQYROYHGLQWKHPRYHPHQWGHVSLWHWKHLUSROLWLFDODIOLDWLRQV)RULQVWDQFHRQHVWXGHQWOHDGHU
UHFRXQWHGWRPHKRZWKHVHFXOWXUDOHYHQWVXQIROGHGRUJDQLFDOO\DVDVWXGHQWZRXOGH[FODLPWKDWWKH\NQRZ
LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWDQDUFKLVPRUPDNLQJPXVLFRUGDQFLQJDQGZRXOGVWDWHWKH\GOLNHWRKROGDQHYHQWIRU
other students to attend. As mentioned earlier, these events ranged from the more politically charged, such
DVDQDUFKLVPWKH9LHTXHVSURWHVWVRUWKHODZVRIWKHXQLYHUVLW\WRWKRVHOHVVSROLWLFDOO\FKDUJHGVXFKDV
PRYLHVFUHHQLQJVPXVLFSHUIRUPDQFHVZRUNVKRSVRQKRZWRPDNHDUWKHOGE\WKHPHPEHUVRIWKHDIRUH-
mentioned group, Papel Machete), jam sessions, and even, exercise, such as yoga.

7KH\FXOWXUDOFDOHQGDUVZHUHDZD\RINHHSLQJSHRSOHDFWLYH:KDWZHGLGLQ%HYHUO\+LOOVZHFUHDWHGWKHVHERKH-

mian events, spaces for folk singing and portraying literature and talking, like a get-together. We held these bohemian
HYHQWVHYHU\WZRZHHNVZKHUHSHRSOHIURPRXWVLGHFDPHLQ:HKDGWKRVHHYHQWVWRJHWSHRSOHLQVLGHWRVHHZKDW
ZDVKDSSHQLQJDQGVKDUHWKHHYHQW

1RWRQO\ZHUHWKHVHFXOWXUDOHYHQWVDZD\RINHHSLQJWKRVHDFWLYHO\HQJDJHGLQWKHPRYHPHQWE\FDPSLQJ
on the campus, but also of getting individuals from outside the campus inside to participate in the event, thus
HQKDQFLQJWKHOHYHORIUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQ,QWKLVZD\VWXGHQWVIRXQGQXPHURXVZD\VWRHQJDJH
ZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWKRZHYHULQGLYLGXDOVIURPWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFZHUHDOVRHQFRXUDJHGWRSDUWLFLSDWH

7KHLQFOXVLRQRIDUWDQGFXOWXUHZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWZDVQRWKDSSHQVWDQFHEXWUDWKHUDVWUDWHJLFGHFL-
VLRQPDGHE\VWXGHQWOHDGHUV)RULQVWDQFHRQHRIWKHJRDOVZDVWRLQFRUSRUDWHDVPDQ\GLIIHUHQWYRLFHVDV
possible. In a manifesto distributed by the Humanities action-committee leading up to an initial 48-hour
VWULNHVWXGHQWVUHIHUWRWKHUVWRFFXSDWLRQDV2FXSDUWH7KH\VWDWH7KURXJKRXWWKHGD\ZHZLOOKDYH
SHUIRUPDQFHVPXVLFSRHWU\DUWZRUNVKRSVDQGFRQFHUWV:HZLOORFFXS\DJDLQVWIXQGLQJFXWVGHFUHDVH
RIVWXGHQWVULJKWVDQGPRUDWRULXPRQWXLWLRQZDLYHUV,QWKHPRYHPHQWGRFXPHQWDWLRQDFWLYLVWVGHP-
onstrate their strategic incorporation of artists and art-making practices in the struggle, as these different
YRLFHVZLOOEULQJQHZWDFWLFVWRWKHLUUHSHUWRLUH%\LQFRUSRUDWLQJVHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQW
WKHPRYHPHQWZDVFDSDEOHRIJHQHUDWLQJDG\QDPLFPRYHPHQWZKLFKGUHZLQGLYLGXDOVLQWRSDUWLFLSDWH
JLYHQWKHVKHHULUUHVLVWLELOLW\RIWKHPRYHPHQWDVZHOODVSURYLGHQXPHURXVFKRLFHVIRUKRZWRSDUWLFLSDWH
in the movement.

Conclusions
Student activists recognized the importance of artistic and cultural engagement for producing a move-
PHQWWKDWZRQWKHVXSSRUWRIERWKWKHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF6RPHVWDWHGWKLVZDVMXVWGXHWRWKH
XQLTXHQHVVDQGLQQRYDWLYHQHVVRIWKHPRYHPHQWLQFRQWUDVWWRRWKHUPRYHPHQWVDVVWDWHGE\D/DZ6FKRRO
student and student leader,

$UWZDVDYHU\LPSRUWDQWLWZDVPRUHWKDQLPSRUWDQWLWZDVRQHRIWKHWKLQJVIURPWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWWKDWGLIIHUHQWL-
DWHGWKHVWULNHIURPRWKHUVWULNHV,WUHDOO\PDGHLWXQLTXH7KHDPRXQWRIVWXGHQWVWKDWZHUHFUHDWLYHZRXOGQWKDYH
necessarily been before the strike. Like, you never really made anything creative or anything considered artistic, but
\RXZHUHKHUHVR\RXWRRNSDUWLQLWDQGSDUWLFLSDWHGLQLWDQGWKDWZDVJRRG6WXGHQWVZHUHH[SRVHGWRLWDQGEHFRPH
DSDUWRILWWKDWZRXOGQWQHFHVVDULO\EHSDUWRILWEHIRUHWKHVWULNH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 340

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diverse group of individuals to become involved and support the movement. One of the reasons for this
ZDVWKDWDUWDQGFUHDWLYLW\FUHDWHGDSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHPRYHPHQWDVOHVVSROLWLFDODVGHVFULEHGE\DVWXGHQW
DFWLYLVWIURPWKH/DZ6FKRRO$UWZDVDWRROIRUEHLQJVXFFHVVIXO<RXWDNHDZD\DUWDQGWDNHDZD\SDUWRI
WKHFUHDWLYLW\DQG\RXZRXOGQRWEHDVVXFFHVVIXO\RXZRXOGVHHPYHU\SROLWLFDODQGQRWXQLYHUVLW\OLNH
$QRWKHUUHDVRQZDVWKDWLWSURYLGHVYDULRXVZD\VWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHPRYHPHQWDVGHVFULEHGE\RQHRIWKH
VWXGHQWOHDGHUVDQG+XPDQLWLHVVWXGHQW'HQLWHO\DORWRISHRSOHJRWLQYROYHGEHFDXVHRIWKHVWULNHLWVHOI
QRWEHFDXVHRIWKHDUWEXWLQVWHDGDUWZDVWKHZD\WKH\SDUWLFLSDWHG,WZDVWKHZD\WKH\ZHUHSDUWRILW

While some described these forms of engagement as distinct from more traditional and political forms
RIHQJDJHPHQWVRPHDFWLYLVWVGHVFULEHGDUWDQGFXOWXUHDVVLWHVRIUHVLVWDQFHDVLIPDNLQJWKHVHWZRDUHQDV
distinct from one another is an error in itself. One of the student leaders and primary organizers of the stu-
GHQWPRYHPHQWGHVFULEHGWKHQHHGWREXLOGFRQVFLRXVQHVVDQGUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHVHYDULRXVDVSHFWV
RISXEOLFOLIHDVKHGHVFULEHVDQDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHKHZLWQHVVHG

%XWWKDWVSROLWLFDOWRR:KDWZHJDLQHGLQWKHUVWPRYHPHQWDOORIWKHGUDPDDUWFXOWXUHLWZDVFHQWHUWRRXU
SROLWLFV,WZDVDQLPSRUWDQWWKLQJZHZHUHGLVFXVVLQJLWDJDLQWKLVZHHNLQP\VWXG\JURXSWKHZRUNRIDUWDQGFXOWXUH
LQSROLWLFV,WKDVVXEVWDQFHWRR<RXNQRZLWVLPSRUWDQWWREXLOGDUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKRVHDVSHFWVEHFDXVHDKX-
PDQEHLQJLVQRWMXVWWKHSROLWLFDODVSHFWRUMXVWWKHFXOWXUDODVSHFWRUMXVWWKHDFDGHPLFDVSHFWZHDUHFRPSOH[KXPDQ
EHLQJV:HDUHDOORIWKDW,WKLQNLWVLPSRUWDQWLWLVSDUWRIWKHSROLWLFDOSURFHVV

$OWKRXJKPDQ\RIWKHVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVIHOWDVLIWKHXVHRIDUWDQGFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWZDVH[WUHPHO\
LPSRUWDQWWRVXFFHVVIXOUHFUXLWPHQWDQGSDUWLFLSDWLRQRWKHUVDVVHUWHGWKDWWKHUHDUHFRQVLGHUDEOHFRQVH-
TXHQFHVWRDUHOLDQFHRQWKLVIRUPRIHQJDJHPHQWIRUWKHPRYHPHQWDVDZKROH

2QHRIWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIWKHXVHRIDUWDQGFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWLVWKDWLQGLYLGX-
als may become solely involved in the movement as an artist, but not become involved in the discussions
WKDWZHUHSHUFHLYHGDVPRUHSROLWLFDO2QHHGXFDWLRQVWXGHQWUHFRXQWHG

3HRSOHVDZWKHDUWDQGJRWLQYROYHGEHFDXVHWKH\VDZDQRSSRUWXQLW\WREULQJVRPHWKLQJWRWKHWDEOH7KHUHZDV
GHQLWHO\DORWRIWKDWEHFDXVH,VDZDORWRISHRSOHSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHVEXWQRWSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQ
the discussion meetings.

Similarly, another student remarked that by recruiting individuals to support the movement through cul-
WXUDOPHDQVSURYLGHVZKDWZDVUHIHUUHGWRDVDIDOVHVHQVHRIVXSSRUW7KLVSDUWLFXODUVWXGHQWDMRXUQDOLVW
DQGVXSSRUWHURIWKHPRYHPHQWEXWQRWDSDUWLFLSDQWGHVFULEHGWKHODUJHFRQFHUWWKDWZDVKHOGLQ6DQ-XDQ
in support of the students. The concert called Vivan Los Estudiantes, featured numerous musicians from
3XHUWR5LFRZKRVXSSRUWHGWKHVWXGHQWVVXFKDVSRSXODUPXVLFDOJURXS&DOOH

,UHPHPEHUZKHQ&DOOHFDPHGXULQJWKHUVWVWULNHDORWRISHRSOHFDPHDQGVWXGHQWVZHUHVD\LQJ2KZHKDYH
JUHDWVXSSRUWORRNRXWKHUHDWDOOWKRVHSHRSOHZKRFDPHRXWKHUHWRKHDUWKHVHPXVLFLDQVOLNH&DOOH%XWWKDWVWKH
WKLQJWKH\FDPHWRVHH&DOOHDQGSUREDEO\PRVWZHOODORWRIWKHPWKH\GRQWJLYHDVKLWDERXWWKH8356RWKH\
,PQRWVD\LQJLWLVEDGEXWLWGRHVQWWHOOWKHWUXWK,WZRUNVIRUWKHDGYDQWDJHRIWKHVWXGHQWVEXWDWWKHVDPHWLPH
LWZRUNVDJDLQVWWKHP%HFDXVHWKH\DFWXDOO\WKLQNWKH\KDYHWKDWVXSSRUWEXWLQWKHHQGWKH\DUHEDVLFDOO\DORQH
 341 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

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DIDOVHQRWLRQRIKRZHPEHGGHGWKHVHVXSSRUWHUVDUHLQWKHPRYHPHQW,WVXJJHVWVWKDWVRPHLQGLYLGXDOV
PD\RQO\SDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHHYHQWVWKDWDUHVHHQDVIXQDQGH[FLWLQJZKLOHQRWEHLQJLQYROYHGLQWKHPRUH
SROLWLFDOHYHQWVVXFKDVSROLWLFDOPHHWLQJVZKHUHGHFLVLRQVDUHPDGHDERXWKRZWRSURFHHGZLWKWKHVWXGHQW
movement.

$QRWKHUWHQVLRQWKDWSURGXFHVFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUWKHPRYHPHQWLVKRZFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWPD\SUR-
GXFHWRRPXFKRIDIRFXVRQWKHVSHFWDFOHDQGSDUW\OLNHDWPRVSKHUHZKLFKVWULSVDZD\WKHVHULRXVQHVVRI
the movement. While discussing the nature of protest on the island of Puerto Rico, one of my informants
UHPDUNHGWR,WVPRUHDERXWWKHVSHFWDFOH3URWHVWKHUHLQ3XHUWR5LFRLVPRUHDERXWFDUQLYDOWKDQSROL-
WLFV:HYHJRWHYHU\WKLQJEXWWKHIXQQHOFDNH:KLOHVRPHRIP\SDUWLFLSDQWVZRXOGVXJJHVWWKLVLVZK\
HOHFWLRQVRQWKHLVODQGKDYHKLJKHUUDWHVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQRWKHUVVXJJHVWWKDWWKLVGHDWHVWKHVHULRXVQHVV
RISROLWLFV7KHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGMRXUQDOLVWVWDWHGWKDWWKHVHFDUQLYDOHVTXHSHUIRUPDQFHVDQGIRFXVRQWKH
spectacle take the seriousness out of the issues-and in contrast to other participants, suggested that the pub-
lic may not understand that the students are serious. This student compared the student movement in Chile
to the student movement in Puerto Rico,

,GRQWNQRZLWVHQWHUWDLQLQJDQGVRPHWLPHV\RXQHHGHQWHUWDLQPHQWGXULQJWKHVWULNHVEHFDXVHLWLVYHU\VWUHVVIXO
DQG\RXQHHGWLPHWRUHOD[DQGOHDUQDWWKHVDPHWLPH,ZDVMXVWUHDGLQJDERXWWKHQHZVLQ&KLOHWKH\DUHGRLQJDORW
RISHUIRUPDQFHDQG,WKLQNWKDWLWWDNHVWKHVHULRXVSDUWIURPWKHPRYHPHQWDQGQRUPDOSHRSOHWKDWDUHQRWVWXGHQWV
see it as a joke. So you have to be careful. Every performance should have a purpose and even though it could be
HQWHUWDLQLQJSHRSOHQHHGWRNQRZWKDWLWLVDVHULRXVWRSLF%XWLI\RXGRQWGRWKDWDQG\RXMXVWGRSHUIRUPDQFHVDQG
DFWLYLWLHVWRJDLQDWWHQWLRQIURPWKHPHGLDRUIRUQRSXUSRVHDWDOOLWFRXOGZRUNDJDLQVWWKHPRYHPHQW,WVKRXOGEH
HQWHUWDLQLQJEXWLWVKRXOGDOZD\VKDYHDSXUSRVHDQGWKDWSXUSRVHVKRXOGEHFOHDUWRDOOWKHDWWHQGHHV$QGLWVKRXOG
DOZD\VVWD\FOHDUWKDWLWLVDVHULRXVPDWWHU

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H[DPSOHVLQP\LQWHUYLHZVZLWKVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVRIDQDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPDQFHWKDWODFNHGDFOHDUSROLWLFDO
agenda.

2YHUDOOVWXGHQWDFWLYLVWVKDYHFRQLFWLQJRSLQLRQVRQWKHLPSDFWRIDUWDQGFXOWXUHLQWKHVWXGHQWPRYH-
PHQWLQ3XHUWR5LFR+RZHYHUP\GDWDGHPRQVWUDWHVWKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOVZKRZHUHVWURQJO\LQYROYHGLQ
WKHPRYHPHQWVWDWHWKDWDUWDQGFXOWXUHZDVDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHPRYHPHQWVSHFLFDOO\LPSDFWLQJWKH
recruitment and participation of a diverse population.

Implications
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ZD\VIRULQGLYLGXDOVWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQDFWLYLVP:KLOHVRPHLQGLYLGXDOVPD\SDUWLFLSDWHDVSROLWLFDODFWRUV
E\ OHDGLQJ SROLWLFDO RUJDQL]DWLRQV RU FRRUGLQDWLQJ SURWHVW WKHUH DUH DOVR LQGLYLGXDOV ZKR SDUWLFLSDWH DV
FXOWXUDODFWRUVE\FUHDWLQJDUWFROOHFWLYHVDQGRUJDQL]LQJFXOWXUDODFWLYLWLHV+RZHYHULQGHVFULELQJWKH
GLDORJLFUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQSROLWLFVDQGFXOWXUHLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRUHFRJQL]HWKHVHWHUPVDUHQRWHDVLO\GLV-
WLQJXLVKHGQRUVKRXOGZHH[SHFWWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVSDUWLFLSDWHLQPRYHPHQWVVROHO\LQRQHDUHQDDVRSSRVHG
WRRWKHU,QVWHDGWKLVZRUNH[SORUHVKRZWKHVHYDULHGIRUPVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQPD\RSHUDWHWRVXSSOHPHQWRQH
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 342

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RUIUDJPHQWDWLRQZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQW)RUH[DPSOHVRPHDFWLYLVWVPD\ZRUU\WKDWWRRPXFKHPSKDVLVRQ
creative and artistic tactics are merely symbolic and do not produce real change.

2QHRIWKHEHQHWVRIFXOWXUDOIRUPVRIHQJDJHPHQWLVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVDUHDEOHWRDYRLGW\SLFDOSDUWL-
VDQVKLSDOLJQPHQWVDVZHOODVLWVXJJHVWVDFWLYLVPFDQEHIXQLQVWHDGRIWKHGROGUXPVRIGDLO\SROLWLFV,Q
DGGLWLRQFXOWXUDOUHFUXLWPHQWPD\QGPRUHVXSSRUWLQUHSUHVVLYHHQYLURQPHQWVZKHUHSROLWLFDODOLJQPHQWV
KDYHUHDOZRUOGFRQVHTXHQFHV$SROLWLFDODQGIUDJPHQWHGSROLWLFDOJURXSVGHPRQVWUDWHLQFUHDVHGUHFUXLW-
PHQWWKURXJKFXOWXUDOHQJDJHPHQWDVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKH)LQH$UWVVFKRROZKLFKDYRLGHGDQ\RYHUWSROLWL-
FDOLGHRORJLHVZLWKLQWKHLUFDPS/DVWO\FXOWXUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQPD\LQWXUQEHFRPHVXVWDLQHGHQJDJHPHQW
DVVRPHLQGLYLGXDOVPD\LQLWLDOO\SDUWLFLSDWHLQDPRYHPHQWDVDQDUWLVWLFSHUIRUPHUKRZHYHUWKH\PD\
become politicized in the process and begin to act as a core political participation. For example, an indi-
YLGXDOPD\SDUWLFLSDWHE\KHOSLQJSDLQWPXUDOVIRUDPRYHPHQWKRZHYHUWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVDVDQDHVWKHWLF
activist may propel the individual to join an existing political organization, even at times, playing a strong
UROHZLWKLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQ7KLVGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOHOLPLQDWHVWKHLUFXOWXUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQ
KRZHYHUWKH\MXVWEHFRPHPRUHSROLWLFL]HGLQWKHSURFHVV

7KLVUHODWLRQVKLSDOVRKDVFRQVLGHUDEOHFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUWKHPRYHPHQW2QHLVVXHZLWKFXOWXUDOSDUWLFL-
SDWLRQLVWKHHDVHLQZKLFKLQGLYLGXDOVFDQGLVHQJDJHIURPWKHPRYHPHQW,IDQLQGLYLGXDORQO\SDUWLFLSDWHV
in the cultural events of the movement-such as concerts for solidarity, it may be easier to stop demonstrat-
ing support for the movement as opposed to individuals that are active members of political organizations.
Similarly, the perception of the media and other political actors-such as the opposing forces-may be shaped
by these cultural dynamics of the movement. It is possible that the movement may not be considered a seri-
ous political movement, if the image of the movement focuses on subcultural dynamics and artistic presen-
tations. For example, the media may trivialize the movement by documenting and publishing articles about
WKHIDVKLRQRIPRYHPHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVZLWKRXWSD\LQJDWWHQWLRQWRRWKHUZRUNRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV7KHUHDOVR
H[LVWLQWHUQDOWHQVLRQVZLWKLQWKHPRYHPHQWLQUHIHUHQFHWRERWKSROLWLFDODQGFXOWXUDOSDUWLFLSDQWV7KHUH
DUHWHQVLRQVDPRQJPRYHPHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVSDUWLFXODUO\EHWZHHQWKRVHZKRSDUWLFLSDWHVROHO\DVSROLWLFDO
DFWRUVYHUVXVWKRVHZKRSDUWLFLSDWHDVFXOWXUDODFWRUVWKDWPD\OHDGWRIUDJPHQWDWLRQLQWKHPRYHPHQWRU
potential dissolution.

6XEVHTXHQWUHVHDUFKVKRXOGWDNHXSQRWRQO\PRUHIXOO\H[SORULQJKRZSURWHVWFDQSURGXFHIHHOLQJVRI
MR\ZLWKLQSURWHVWRUVEXWDOVRZKDWUROHWKHVHPRUHV\PEROLFDQGFXOWXUDOO\ULFKDUWLVWLFGLVSOD\VSOD\LQ
FRQFHSWVRISROLWLFDOHQJDJHPHQW7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWZHQHHGWRUHWKLQNRXUFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQVDQGPHD-
surements of political engagement. In that forms of cultural engagement, such as producing a radio soap
opera or performing street theatre, may be just as important to protest as voting or signing a petition.

References
$GDPV-DFTXHOLQH$UWLQ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV6KDQW\WRZQ:RPHQV3URWHVWLQ3LQRFKHWV&KLOH6RFLRORJLFDO)RUXP
%HUH]LQ0DEHO3ROLWLFVDQG&XOWXUH$/HVV)LVVXUHG7HUUDLQ$QQXDO5HYLHZRI6RFLRORJ\
%H\HUOHLQ.UDLJDQG-RKQ5+LSS$7ZR6WDJH)RUD7ZR6WDJH3URFHVV+RZ%LRJUDSKLFDO$YDLODELOLW\0DWWHUV)RU6RFLDO
0RYHPHQW0RELOL]DWLRQ0RELOL]DWLRQ
Chaffee, Lyman G: 1993, Political Protest and Street Art: Popular Tools for Democraticization in Hispanic Countries, (Westport, CT:
 343 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY

*UHHQZRRG3UHVV
'DYLHV-DPHV&HG:KHQ0HQ5HYROWDQG:K\$5HDGHULQ3ROLWLFDO9LROHQFHDQG5HYROXWLRQ1HZ<RUN)UHH3UHVV
'L[RQ0DUFDQG9LQFHQW-5RVFLJQR6WDWXV1HWZRUNVDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQW3DUWLFLSDWLRQ7KH&DVHRI6WULNLQJ:RUNHUV
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(\HUPDQ5RQDQG$QGUHZ-DPLVRQ0XVLFDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV0RELOL]LQJ7UDGLWLRQVLQWKH7ZHQWLHWK&HQWXU\1HZ<RUN
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*ORFN&<7KH5ROHRI'HSULYDWLRQLQWKH2ULJLQDQG(YROXWLRQRI5HOLJLRXV*URXSVLQ5/HHDQG0(0DUW\HGV5HOLJLRQ
DQG6RFLHW\1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVSS
*RRGZLQ-HII-DPHV0-DVSHUDQG)UDQFHVFD3ROOHWWD3DVVLRQDWH3ROLWLFV
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+LUVFK(ULF6DFULFHIRUWKH&DXVH*URXS3URFHVVHV5HFUXLWPHQWDQG&RPPLWPHQWLQD6WXGHQW6RFLDO0RYHPHQW$PHULFDQ
6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
+RIIHU(ULF7KH7UXH%HOLHYHU7KRXJKWVRQWKH1DWXUHRI0DVV0RYHPHQWV1HZ<RUN+DUSHU&ROOLQV3XEOLVKHUV
-XULV-HIIUH\63HUIRUPLQJ3ROLWLFV,PDJH(PERGLPHQWDQG$IIHFWLYH6ROLGDULW\'XULQJ$QWL&RUSRUDWH*OREDOL]DWLRQ3URWHVWV
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,VDDF/DUU\0RYHPHQWV$HVWKHWLFVDQG0DUNHWVLQ/LWHUDU\&KDQJH0DNLQJWKH$PHULFDQ/DERU3UREOHP1RYHO$PHULFDQ
6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
-DVSHU-DPHV0DQG-DQH3RXOVHQ5HFUXLWLQJ6WUDQJHUVDQG)ULHQGV0RUDO6KRFNVDQG6RFLDO1HWZRUNVLQ$QLPDO5LJKWVDQG
$QWLQXFOHDU3URWHVW6RFLDO3UREOHPV
-XGDK-6+DUH.ULVKQDDQGWKH&RXQWHUFXOWXUH1HZ<RUN-RKQ:LOH\DQG6RQV
.LWWV-DPHV$0RELOL]LQJLQ%ODFN%R[HV6RFLDO1HWZRUNVDQG3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQ6RFLDO0RYHPHQW2UJDQL]DWLRQV0RELOL]DWLRQ
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/RDQG-RKQDQG5RGQH\6WDUN%HFRPLQJD:RUOG6DYHU$7KHRU\RI&RQYHUVLRQWRD'HYLDQW3HUVSHFWLYH$PHULFDQ
6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
0F$GDP'RXJ5HFUXLWPHQWWR+LJK5LVN$FWLYLVP7KH&DVHRI)UHHGRP6XPPHU$PHULFDQ-RXUQDORI6RFLRORJ\
0F$GDP'RXJDQG5RQQHOOH3DXOVHQ6SHFLI\LQJWKH5HODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ6RFLDO7LHVDQG$FWLYLVP$PHULFDQ-RXUQDORI
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0F&DXJKDQ(GZDUG-$UWDQG,GHQWLW\LQ0H[LFDQDQG&KLFDQR6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV5HVHDUFKLQ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV&RQLFWV
and Change 27, 219-259.
0RUULVRQ'DQLHO5DQG/DUU\,VDDF,QVXUJHQW,PDJHV*HQUH6HOHFWLRQDQG9LVXDO)UDPH$PSOLFDWLRQLQ,::&DUWRRQ$UW
Social Movement Studies.
0RRUH5\DQDQG0LFKDHO5REHUWV'R,W<RXUVHOI0RELOL]DWLRQ3XQNDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV0RELOL]DWLRQ
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([FKDQJH0RELOL]DWLRQ
3HUULQ$QGUHZ-&LWL]HQV6SHDN7KH'HPRFUDWLF,PDJLQDWLRQLQ$PHULFDQ/LIH&KLFDJR7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV
3ROOHWWD)UDQFHVFD&XOWXUHDQG,WV'LVFRQWHQWV5HFHQW7KHRUL]LQJRQWKH&XOWXUDO'LPHQVLRQVRI3URWHVW6RFLRORJLFDO,QTXLU\
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New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 344

5RFKIRUG-DQG(%XUNH5HFUXLWPHQW6WUDWHJLHV,GHRORJ\DQG2UJDQL]DWLRQLQWKH+DUH.ULVKQD0RYHPHQW6RFLDO3UREOHPV
399-410.
5RWKPDQ-3ODQQLQJDQG2UJDQL]LQJIRU6RFLDO&KDQJH$FWLRQ3ULQFLSOHVIURP6RFLDO6FLHQFH5HVHDUFK1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD
University Press).
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6FKXVVPDQ$ODQDQG6DUDK$6RXOH3URFHVVDQG3URWHVW$FFRXQWLQJIRU,QGLYLGXDO3URWHVW3DUWLFLSDWLRQ6RFLDO)RUFHV
1083-1108.
6HHPDQ0HOYLQ2QWKH0HDQLQJRI$OLHQDWLRQ$PHULFDQ6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
6KHSKDUG%HQMDPLQ3OD\&UHDWLYLW\DQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV,I,&DQW'DQFH,WV1RW0\5HYROXWLRQ5RXWOHGJH$GYDQFHVLQ
6RFLRORJ\1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
6WDUN5RGQH\DQG:LOOLDP6LPV%DLQEULGJH1HWZRUNVRI)DLWK,QWHUSHUVRQDO%RQGVDQG5HFUXLWPHQWWR&XOWVDQG6HFWV7KH
American Journal of Sociology 85, 1376-1395.
6QRZ'DYLG$/RXLV$=XUFKHU-UDQG6KHOGRQ(NODQG2OVRQ6RFLDO1HWZRUNVDQG6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV$0LFURVWUXFWXUDO
$SSURDFKWR'LIIHUHQWLDO5HFUXLWPHQW$PHULFDQ6RFLRORJLFDO5HYLHZ
7D\ORU9HUWD/HLOD-5XSSDQG-RVKXD*DPVRQ3HUIRUPLQJ3URWHVW'UDJ6KRZV$V7DFWLFDO5HSHUWRLUHRIWKH*D\DQG/HVELDQ
0RYHPHQW5HVHDUFKLQ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV&RQLFWVDQG&KDQJH
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9LWHUQD-RFHO\Q3XOOHG3XVKHGDQG3HUVXDGHG([SODLQLQJ:RPHQV0RELOL]DWLRQLQWR6DOYDGRUDQ*XHULOOD$UP\$PHULFDQ
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345 IDENTITY AND PERFORMATIVITY
NEOLIBERALISM
AND GLOBALIZATION
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 348

From the save movements to the live ones.

An analythical approach to the evolution of social
movements in Valencia in the last two decades

RAFAEL XAMB OLMOS and XAVIER GINS SNCHEZ

Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology at the University of Valencia

Abstract
&DVHDQDO\VLVZLWKTXDOLWDWLYHPHWKRGRORJ\EDVHGRQSDUWLFLSDQWREVHUYDWLRQDQGLQ
GHSWKLQWHUYLHZVWRPHPEHUVRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRIWKHPHWURSROLWDQDUHDRI9DOHQFLD
ZLWKWKHDLPRIFRQWULEXWLQJWRWKURZOLJKWRQWKHYDOLGWKHRUHWLFDODSSUR[LPDWLRQVWR
H[SODLQWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVRIWKHODVWWZRGHFDGHVIURPD
communicative perspective.

Keywords
FRPPXQLFDWLYH UHVRXUFHV ,&7 VRFLDO PRYHPHQWV  WKHRULHV RI FROOHFWLYH DFWLRQ
Valencian Country.

Introduction
7KHELUWKLQRI6DYHWKH%RWDQLFDO*DUGHQPDUNHGWKHEHJLQQLQJDQGTXLFNH[SDQVLRQRID
QHZW\SHRIRUJDQL]DWLRQRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQ9DOHQFLDIRUPRUHWKDQRQHGHFDGHZKLFKVSUHDGDOO
over the Valencian Country (Cuc, 2008), the Balearic Islands and Catalonia (Grau, Iiguez, and Subirats,
2008). They are platforms of organizations based on the defense of the territory and the cultural heritage
DQGRIFULWLFDQGSURJUHVVLYHRULHQWDWLRQ$OEHUWDQG+HUQjQGH]ZKLFKKDYHEHFRPHDJHQWVWKDW
stress the patrimonial value through communicative actions (Rausell and Martnez, 2005).

:KLOVWWKH6DYHIRUPXODORVHVVWUHQJWKLQWKH9DOHQFLDQ&RXQWU\DQHZRQHJHUPLQDWHVIURPLWWKDW
VKDUHVZLWKWKRVHPRYHPHQWVWKHLURUJDQLFIRUPDQGDOVRDELJSDUWRIWKHLUSDUWLFLSDQWVEXWWKDWFOHDUO\
GLIIHUVIURPLWLQLWVDLPVDQGYLQGLFDWLRQVZKLFKLVV\PEROLFDOO\UHHFWHGLQWKHGHQRPLQDWLRQWKH\XVH
Benimaclet Viu1 (Live Benimaclet), Russafa Conviu2 (Russafa Coexists), Patraix Viu3 (Live Patraix), Mae-
strat49LX/LYH0DHVWUDW7KHUVWRQHWKDWXVHVWKLVIRUPXODLV;XTXHU9LX5/LYH;XTXHU7KRVHDUH
PRYHPHQWV IRFXVHG RQ FUHDWLQJ DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\V RI FRH[LVWLQJ RQ WKH YLQGLFDWLRQ RI SXEOLF VSDFH WKH
alternative economy, the environmental sustainability and the democratic participation.

1 Organization focused on the neighbourhood of the same name that binds civic associations and individuals.
2 ,QLWLDWLYHIURPVFKRROSDUHQWVVDVVRFLDWLRQVWUDGHUVDQGUHVLGHQWVDVVRFLDWLRQVRIWKH5XVVDIDQHLJKERXUKRRGZKRSODQD
ZHHNIXOORIDFWLYLWLHVWRSURPRWHWKHFXOWXUHDQGORFDOWUDGHRIWKHQHLJKERXUKRRG
3 Periodic publication of the residents association of the Patraix neighbourhood.
4 $VVRFLDWLYHSODWIRUPRIWKH9DOHQFLDQUHJLRQRIWKHVDPHQDPH7KHLUUVWDFWLRQGDWHVEDFNIURP
5 )RFXVHGRQWKHGHIHQFHEXWDOVRRQWKHDOWHUQDWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKH;~TXHUULYHU
 349 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

'XULQJ WKH GHYHORSPHQWRIWKRVHPRYHPHQWVRQ0D\DQHZIRUPRIFLWL]HQPRELOL]DWLRQ

DURVHYHU\LQXHQFHGE\SUHYLRXVPRELOL]DWLRQVVXFKDVWKH08JDUWH6DPSHGUR
DQGE\VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVJHQHUDWHGRQOLQH1HJUL2OLYHUHVHWDO$IWHUWKHLQLWLDOPRPHQWV
WKHVWDELOL]DWLRQRIWKH0PRYHPHQWPRYHGLWRXWWKHPDLQVTXDUHVDQGLQWRWKHVWUHHWVRIWKHQHLJKERXU-
KRRGVDQGVPDOOWRZQVZKHUHLWKDVVWDUWHGWRZRUNLQOLQHDQGRULQFROODERUDWLRQZLWKWKHQHLJKERXUKRRG
PRYHPHQWIRUPHGE\JURXSVDPRQJZKLFKVWDQGRXWGXHWRWKHLUG\QDPLVPWKRVHZHKDYHJHQHULFDOO\
called the Live movements.

7KHGLIIHUHQWIRUPVRIPRELOL]DWLRQWKDWFRH[LVWLQFRQWHPSRUDU\9DOHQFLDDOORZWRSRLQWRXWSRVVLEOH
FRUUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHIDFWRUVZKLFKPRWLYDWHPRELOL]DWLRQSROLWLFDODQGHFRQRPLFDODQGWKHIRUPLW
DFTXLUHVDQGKRZLWFRPPXQLFDWHVLWVHOIKRZFULWLFDOFLWL]HQVRUJDQL]HDQGH[SUHVVWKHPVHOYHV7KHWHP-
porary predominance or importance of an object of vindication entails the predominance of one form or
another of collective mobilization depending on the uses of communication.

$OOWKLVYHU\EHDULQJLQPLQGWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOHYROXWLRQWKDWDIIHFWVVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDVZHOODVSRZHU
LWVHOIDQGWKXVDIIHFWVWKHIRUPVRIRSSUHVVLRQDVZHOODVWKHIRUPVRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQWKHRQHVGHULYHG
IURPWKHSURJUHVVRIWKH,7&ZKLFKDIIHFWWKHH[WHUQDODQGLQWHUQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQVPDNHLQIRUPDWLRQ
RZEHWWHUDQGEHPRUHH[WHQVLYHPDNHWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQVPRUHH[LEOHDQGVSHHGXSWKHSURFHVVHV

,QWKLVSDSHUZHSURSRVHZLWKHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHVREWDLQHGIURPWKHDQDO\VLVRILQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZV
WRDFWLYHPHPEHUVRIWKHVDLGJURXSVWKDWDOWKRXJKQHZWHFKQRORJLHVDIIHFWWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQDOIRUPDQG
the resources of social movements using part of the contributions of the Resource Mobilization theory of
0F&DUWK\0F$GDP=DOGDQG7DUURZWKHDGDSWDWLRQRIWKHSHRSOHVUHVSRQVHWRWKHNLQGRI
FRQLFWWKURXJKFRPPXQLFDWLRQLVZKDWPDLQO\WUDQVIRUPVWKHPRYHPHQWDORQJWKHOLQHVRIWKH&ROOHF-
WLYH,GHQWLW\WKHRULHVRI7RXUDLQH0HOXFFL2IIH/DUDxDDQG*XVHOG/DUDxDDPE
*XVHOG/DUDxD

Theoretical perspective
7KHDQDO\VLVRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQWKH9DOHQFLDQ&RXQWU\PDNHVLWQHFHVVDU\WRGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQ
KRZ FROOHFWLYH DFWLRQ LV RUJDQL]HG DQG KRZ PRELOL]DWLRQ H[SUHVVHV LWVHOI SXEOLFO\7KH RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI
VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDVXQGHUJRQHYHU\LPSRUWDQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVPDLQO\LQWKHVEXWPD\EHZKDW
has been perceived as a more relevant transformation has been the repertoire of actions these organizations
KDYHGLVSOD\HG7KHLQYROYHPHQWRIWKHVRFLDOEDVHKDVEHHQPRUHLQWHQVHDQGZHFDQHYHQDVVHUWWKDWLQ
VSHFLFFDVHVWKHSRWHQWLDOEDVHKDVQRWLFHDEO\ZLGHQHGDQGWKDWLWFDXVHGODUJHUPRELOL]DWLRQV

This set of changes affects the actors and their repertoire of action, but also changes their vindications. Actors,
actions and vindications6 feedback each other and are dialectically transformed, a fact that makes it very hard
WRRLGHQWLI\WKHFDXVDOHOHPHQWVRIWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVZKLFKRQWKHRWKHUKDQGFRQVWLWXWHVWKHELJH[SODQDWRU\
FKDOOHQJHRIWKHWKHRULHVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQWKDWZHFDQQRWVROYHKHUH+RZHYHUWKHDQDO\VLVZHVHWRXWWULHV
WRVHDUFKHOHPHQWVRIFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWKUHHZHWKLQNFDQKHOSWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHWULSOHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ

6 ,QWKLVSDSHUGXHWRVSDFHOLPLWDWLRQVZHZLOOIRFXVRQWKHDFWRUVDQGWKHDFWLRQVDQGZLOOLQFOXGHYLQGLFDWLRQVRQWKHODWWHU
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 350

$VIRUWKHDFWRUVLWFDQEHDVVHUWHGWKDWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIVRFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQVLVUHTXLUHGWREHDEOHWRWDON
DERXWVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV%XWVWLOOZHFDQQRWDQDO\]HWKHLQVWLWXWLRQVJHQHUDWHGE\WKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV
DQGWKHFXUUHQWVRIVRFLDORSLQLRQLQIDYRXURIWKHLVVXHVGHDOWZLWKE\WKRVHJURXSVLQWKHVHQVHSURSRVHG
E\7RXUDLQH0DJDOORQDVLILWZHUHWKHVDPHWKLQJ,QWKHVDPHZD\WKDWDPRYHPHQWFDQQRWEH
linked exclusively to one group or organization (Adell, 2000).

Theoretical approaches based on the Resource Mobilization have focused their attention on the capabil-
LW\RIWKHSROLWLFDOFXOWXUDODQGWHFKQRORJLFDOFRQMXQFWXUHWRSURYLGHJURXSVZLWKUHVRXUFHVDQGVSHFLFDOO\
their members, to transform reality in favor of their interests (Natalucci and Prez, 2008). This approach is
XVHIXOWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOHYROXWLRQLVDEOHWRSURYLGHZLWKWRROVWKHFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQWKDW
WUDQVIRUPVWKHIRUPVRIDFWLRQE\WDNLQJDGYDQWDJHRIWKHP%RWKWHFKQRORJLFDODVZHOODVKXPDQUHVRXUFHV
(taking into account the education and technical training o use technology of the participants in the mobili-
]DWLRQFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGGHFLVLYHHOHPHQWVZKHQLWFRPHVWRDQDO\]HWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQIRUPRIWKHJURXSV
of social movements and, above all, the one during periods of social upheaval like those recently occurred
DURXQG0D\%XWWKLVDSSURDFKLVPRVWXVHIXOPD\EHUHJDUGLQJWKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHRU-
JDQL]DWLRQVDQGWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFZKLFKWKURXJKWKH,&7H[SHULHQFHVDWUXHFRPPXQLFDWLYHUHYROXWLRQ

)RUDXWKRUVVXFKDV(LVLQJHU0F$GDP7LOO\RU7DUURZ$UHFKDYDOHWDWKLVDSSURDFKLV

LQVXIFLHQWWRH[SODLQWKHFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQVLQFHLWGRHVQRWWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WLQZKLFK
mobilization occurs. The Political Opportunity Structure theory considers the political context a key ele-
ment to understand the emergence of the movements and their cycles of expansion and contraction. That
VXJJHVWVFROOHFWLYHPRELOL]DWLRQZLOOGHSHQGRQWKHFDSDELOLW\WRLQWURGXFHFKDQJHVWKURXJKSUHVVXUHWKH
LQXHQFHRUWKHDFFHVVWRSROLWLFDOSRZHU0RUHRYHULWZLOOUHVRUWWRFXOWXUDOIDFWRUVWRLQWHUSUHWWKHDIOL-
ations of the participants in these movements bringing a certain cultural perspective to the individualist
rationalism of the prevailing theory until the events of May 1968.

)URPRXUSHUVSHFWLYHLWLVQRWHZRUWK\WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WLQZKLFKWKHPRELOL-
]DWLRQRFFXUVDERYHDOOLQDKLVWRULFDOSHULRGOLNHWKHRQHZHDUHVWXG\LQJ,WVWDUWVZLWKWKHFRQVROLGDWLRQRI
WKHULJKWZLQJSROLWLFDOKHJHPRQ\DQGWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIXOWUDOLEHUDOSURJUDPVZKLFKVHULRXVO\DIIHFW
GLIIHUHQWVRFLDOVHQVLELOLWLHV%HVLGHVZHWKLQNLWLVHVVHQWLDODVZHZLOOVKRZODWHUWKDWWKHLGHQWLFDWLRQV
ZKLFKDOWKRXJKUHOXFWDQWO\5RGUtJXH]WKLVSHUVSHFWLYHLQFRUSRUDWHVWRHQFRXUDJHMRLQLQJDQGSDU-
ticipating explain more properly the individual mobilization than the managerialist-rationalist vision of the
Resource Mobilization perspective.

+RZHYHULWLVQRWDEOHWKDWWKHSROLWLFDOFKDQJHZHDUHWDONLQJDERXWGLGQRWH[DFWO\IDFLOLWDWHPRELOL]D-
tion. On the contrary, the increase of social movements that started from 1995 in the Valencian Country
SRLQWVRXWDVDPRELOL]DWLRQIDFWRUWKHODFNRIFDSDELOLW\RISROLWLFDOLQXHQFHRIZLGHSRSXODWLRQJURXSV
LQYLHZRIWKHLQFUHDVHRIZURQJVWKDWDIIHFWWKHP

,WLVQHFHVVDU\WRUHVRUWWRWKHDSSURDFKWKDWFRPHVIURPWKH1HZ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWVDQGWKH&ROOHFWLYH
,GHQWLW\WKHRULHVZLWK0HOOXFFLDVDUHIHUHQFHDXWKRUWRQGHOHPHQWVRIDQDO\VLVRIWKHFROOHFWLYH
action expressed as social movements. This mobilization form is said to (1) have its origin in situations
LGHQWLHGDVXQIDLUWKHVHLQMXVWLFHVFDQQRWEHUHVROYHGWKURXJKWKHUHJXODUFKDQQHOVRIDFWLRQDQG
(3) the participants in social movements gather for action around alternative models and collective ideals.
7KLVSHUVSHFWLYHKHOSVXVWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKHSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WLVDIXQGDPHQWDO
 351 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

IDFWRUIRUPRELOL]DWLRQ0RUHRYHULWDOVRDOORZVXVWRWWKHKLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHLQWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKH
VRFLDOPRYHPHQWVVLQFHDPRQJWKHIDFWRUVWKDWIRUPWKHPZHFDQQGWKHFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHRIROGVRFLDO
PRYHPHQWV)LQDOO\WKLVDQDO\VLVDOORZVXVWRRYHUFRPHWKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQZKLFKZHKDYHGHVFULEHGDERYH
UHJDUGLQJWKHIDFWWKDWWKHELJJHVWPRELOL]DWLRQRFFXUVLQWKHPRVWDGYHUVHSHULRGIURPWKHSRLQWRIYLHZRI
the political opportunities.

$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHHYROXWLRQRIVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVLQUHFHQW\HDUVUHTXLUHVWKHVWXG\RI
the political and social structures of each moment, as they determine the situations of perceived injustice.
,WLVDOVRQHFHVVDU\WRGHDOZLWKWKHLGHRORJLFDOHOHPHQWVZKLFKFDXVHLQRQHVHQVHRUWKHRWKHUWKHVDLG
SHUFHSWLRQRIVRFLRSROLWLFDOLQMXVWLFH%HVLGHVZHVKDOOKDYHWRZRUNRQWKHPRWLYDWLRQVWKDWFDXVHERWK
RIWKHPWRWDNHWKHIRUPRIPLOLWDQFLHVRUDIOLDWLRQVWRFXUUHQWVRIRSLQLRQ7RXUDLQHWKDWIRUPLQSUDFWLFH
the experiences of social movements.

This brief tour by theoretical approaches about the collective action cannot forget that each one of
them has its origin in the analysis of the practice of different places and historical moments, and also the
FRQGLWLRQDOLW\RIWKHWKHRUHWLFDODQGLGHRORJLFDOWUDGLWLRQVWKH\FRPHIURP$SDUWIURPZKHWKHUWKHWRROV
of analysis offered by them are satisfactory even for the analysis of the movements of the territories of
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UHDFKLQJWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNV

Regarding actors
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vidual formalization of social movements there are all kinds of organizations, of very diverse ideological
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of associative creativity has taken place (Ario, 2004: 104) that has affected all kinds of associations. In
RXUUHVHDUFKZHKDYHIRFXVHGRQWKHSROLWLFDOJURXSVRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRUWKHGHIHQFHRIVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO
ULJKWV7KHVHRUJDQL]DWLRQVQHHGWREHDQDO\]HGIURPDQDSSURDFKZKLFKDOORZVXVWRFRQVLGHUWKHLUKLVWRUL-
FDOHYROXWLRQWKHSHUVRQDOUHDVRQVIRUDIOLDWLRQDQGMRLQLQJRIWKHLUSDUWLFLSDQWVWKHLQWHUQDOQHWZRUNV
HVWDEOLVKHGE\WKHPDQGWKHFRQQHFWLRQZLWKRWKHUIRUPXODVRISROLWLFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQOLNHSDUWLHVWKHUHOD-
WLRQDOHOHPHQWVZLWKWKHSRWHQWLDOVRFLDOEDVHLQJHQHUDODQGZLWKWKHVRFLDOEDVHLQSDUWLFXODUDQGDOVRWKHLU
DFWLRQVWUDWHJLHVDQGWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOUHVRXUFHVXVHGE\WKHP)URPPLGGOHVRQZDUGDWUDQVIRUPD-
WLRQLQWKHLQVWLWXWLRQDODFWRUVWDNHVSODFHDVZHOODVLQWKHUHVWRIWKH6SDQLVK6WDWHDVDUHVXOWRIWKHDV-
VRFLDWLRQVDOOLDQFHVDQGFRPELQDWLRQVWKDWWRRNSODFHDPRQJSUHYLRXVSHULRGVJURXSVIROORZLQJWKHVWDJH
of associationist individualism, partly thanks to the introduction of the ICT resources (Alberich, 2007: 80).

7KHUROHRIOHDGHUVKLSZKLFKZHFDQDOVRFDOOYDQJXDUGUHSUHVHQWVDELJSDUWRIWKHGLVFXVVLRQVWKHR-
rists directly linked to the social movements have taken part in (Iglesias and Errejn, 2005). Identifying the
leaders in the different forms of social movements that occur in the Valencian Country can unveil one of
WKHLUFRQVWDQWVLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKYDULDEOHHOHPHQWVVXFKDVWKHPRELOL]DWLRQFDSDELOLW\DQGWKHNLQGRIDF-
WLRQVGLVSOD\HG7KHVHWZRODVWYDULDEOHVDUHWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIWKHFRPPXQLFDWLYHIDFWRUZKLFKQHHGVWREH
NQRZQWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHDSSDUHQWWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV/HWXVWKHUHIRUHFRQVLGHUWKHVHW
RIUHODWLRQVKLSVRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGSDUWLFLSDQWVLQVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDYHZLWKHDFKRWKHUDQGDOVRWKHRQHV
WKH\KDYHZLWKWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLFWKDWDUHWKHEDVLVRIWKHSXEOLFRSLQLRQVWUDWHJLHVDQGWKHDFWLRQVWUDWHJLHV
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 352

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EDVH$OEHULFKZLWKLQWKHQHZIRUPVRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQ,IZHNQRZWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKH
GLIIHUHQWJURXSVWKDWIRUPWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGHVSHFLDOO\WKHLUOHDGHUVFDUHHUZHZLOOEHDEOHWRHV-
WDEOLVKWRZKDWH[WHQWWKHPRYHPHQWVDUHDFWXDOO\QHZVWUDWHJLFSUDFWLFHVEHIRUHQHZSROLWLFDOFRQMXQFWXUHV
%XWQRWRQO\WKDWZHZLOOQHHGWRNQRZWKHH[LVWLQJQHWZRUNVEHWZHHQWKRVHJURXSVWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
FKDQQHOVDQGWKHVWUDWHJLHVWRLQXHQFHWKHSXEOLFRSLQLRQIURPZKLFKWKHW\SRORJ\RIDFWLRQGHULYHVIURP
WKHWHFKQLTXHVRIGLVSOD\DQGRISROLWLFDOLQXHQFH

/LNHLQWKHFDVHRIDFWRUVLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRXQGHUVWDQGWKHSUDFWLFHVLQDKLVWRULFDOIUDPHZRUNWKDWKHOS
XVWRUHODWHWKHPWRWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WDVZHOODVWRWKHRZQHYROXWLRQVRIVRFLDODFWRUVRIWKHPRYH-
PHQWV$FWRUVDQGSUDFWLFHVRYHUODSLQDZD\VRPHWLPHVLWLVYHU\KDUGWRGLVWLQJXLVKWKHDFWRUIURPWKH
practice. In fact, practice itself determines the actor, and the former is, in turn, determined by the latter and
E\WKHYLQGLFDWLRQ7KHYLQGLFDWLRQZLOOGHSHQGRQWKHSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHDFWRUVDQGRIWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDO
FRQWH[WDQGLQWXUQZLOODOVREHKLWE\WKHSUDFWLFHLWVHOI

Regarding practices
7KHDQDO\VLVRIWKHSUDFWLFHVUHTXLUHVWKHVWXG\RIDVHWRIYDULDEOHVLQRUGHUWRHVWDEOLVKFRPSDULVRQ
FULWHULD$SULRULZHWKLQNWKRVHKDYHWREHWKHDFWRUVWKHYLQGLFDWLRQWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGWKHVRFLR
political context.

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RIFROOHFWLYHPRELOL]DWLRQRIULWXDOSUDFWLFHVRIVSDWLDORFFXSDWLRQ$GHOOZKLFKDUHWKHUHVXOWRID
collective consciousness concerning matters of political and cultural vindication that gather every year in
GHPRQVWUDWLRQVDFWVDQGFXOWXUDODFWLRQVOLNHFRQFHUWV7KRVHJDWKHULQJVGHPRQVWUDWHVRPHVRFLDOSRZHU
RILQGLYLGXDOVDQGJURXSVZKRWKLQNSROLWLFDODQGLQVWLWXWLRQDODFWLRQVSDFHVDUHQRWHQRXJK7KLVNLQGRI
PRELOL]DWLRQFRQVLVWVRIDFRQWLQJHQWRIKLJKO\DZDUHSRSXODWLRQWKDWPDLQO\XVHVPHGLDDQGFRQYHQWLRQDO
UHVRXUFHVWRLQFUHDVHWKHFROOHFWLYHFRQVFLRXVQHVVDQGVHFRQGO\WU\WRLQXHQFHRQWKHGHFLVLRQVRIWKH
SROLWLFDOSRZHU$ELJSDUWRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVFRPHIURPRUJDQL]DWLRQVEXWDQRWKHUSDUWPRELOL]HVRQO\
RQWKHVHRFFDVLRQV,QDQ\FDVHLWLVDORQJUDQJHPRYHPHQWRIYLWDODIOLDWLRQVWKDWEHFRPHDOWHUQDWLYH
EHKDYLRXUVDERYHDOOFXOWXUDOO\ZLWK&DWDODQWKHLURZQODQJXDJHFRQGHQVLQJDVHULHVRIFXOWXUDOVLJQLHUV
and a certain class consciousness. It is a response to the perception of a historically unresolved structural
problem that promotes the sensibilization before unfair situations in other levels and that has its correspon-
dence in political parties that until the regional elections of 2011 had little parliamentary representation7
DQGDFHUWDLQSRZHUDWPXQLFLSDOOHYHO

The persistence and the extent of their acts under scenarios of media silence (Gins, 2011) attaches
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ZLWKLQWKH6SDQLVK6WDWHFRQWH[W*LQpVLQZKLFKORQJUDQJHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVKDYHDVLJQLFDQW
importance inversely proportional to the media coverage of their vindications.

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 353 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

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*DUGHQDVWKHVHFRQGPRVWVWXGLHGPRYHPHQW6RUULEHV$OEHUWDQG+HUQjQGH]$GHOO
7RUUHV6DQWDPDULQD0LUDOOHV5DXVHOO&XFy*RQ]iOH]5DX-
VHOODQG0DUWtQH]*LQpVDQGOLQNHGWRWKHPRVWDJJUHVVLYHSKDVHRIQHROLEHUDOGHYHORSPHQWDO-
LVPSXWLQWRSUDFWLFHE\WKHFRQVHUYDWLYH'tD]2UXHWDJRYHUQPHQWWKDWWDNHVSRZHUWKDWVDPH\HDU
7KHPRYHPHQWKDVDOUHDG\EHHQREVHUYHGIURPGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVVRWKDWZHDOWKRXJKLQDUHODWLYHO\
VXSHUFLDODQGGHVFULSWLYHZD\KDYHDIDLUO\FRPSOHWH;UD\RIWKHLUVRFLDOFRPSRVLWLRQLWVRUJDQL]DWLRQDO
IRUPXODWKHLUGLVFXUVLYHDQGDFWLRQUHSHUWRLUHDQGWKHQHWZRUNVDVZHOODVWKHFRPPXQLFDWLYHVWUDWHJLHV
they use to make their messages visible. Nevertheless, more profound studies are needed that link these
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the aspects relating to its members motivations for action. And, above all, studies are needed that explain
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VRFLDOPRYHPHQWV6WLOOPXFKSUDFWLFHLVQHHGHGWRYHU\ZHOOXQGHUVWDQGZKDWWXUQHGWKH9DOHQFLDQ&RXQ-
WU\LQWRVXFKDXQLTXHVFHQDULRWRGHYHORSWKLVIRUPXODRIFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQZLWKVXFKDUHPDUNDEOHVXFFHVV

7KH6DYHPRYHPHQWVKDGDQLQGLVSXWDEOHSURPLQHQFHXQWLODSSUR[LPDWHO\ZKHQDPDVVLYHGHP-
RQVWUDWLRQZDVKHOGRQWKHVWUHHWVRI9DOHQFLDZLWKSHRSOHIURPDOORYHUWKH9DOHQFLDQ&RXQWU\XQGHUWKH
PRWWR&RPPLWPHQWWRWKH7HUULWRU\7KDWGHPRQVWUDWLRQZDVSULRUWRWKHUHJLRQDOHOHFWLRQVWKDWLQFUHDVHG
WKHULJKWZLQJSROLWLFDOKHJHPRQ\LQWKHJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKXVDQHQGRUVHPHQWWRWKHLUSROLFLHV,WZDVD
GLVLOOXVLRQPHQWWRV\PSDWKL]HUVDQGDFWLYLVWVRIWKH6DYHPRYHPHQWVZKRWRJHWKHUZLWKVRPHGUDPDWLF
local defeats, contracted their activity. But, far from deactivating itself, part of the members (collective and
individual) of the Save movements started to change their action strategy.

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HQYLURQPHQWDOLVWYLQGLFDWLRQVRIWKH6SDQLVK6WDWH*RQ]iOH]0DWHXDQG'RPtQJXH]ZKHQ
WKHVWZRYLQGLFDWLRQVLQIDYRXURIWKHPHDGRZRI(O6DOHUDQGWKHEDQNRIWKH7XULDULYHUZKLFK
FURVVHVIURP:HVWWR(DVWWKHFLW\RI9DOHQFLDZHUHSXWLQWRSUDFWLFHZLWKVLPLODUIRUPXODVWRWKRVHRIWKH
Save movements.

The main characteristics of the Save movements are that their promoters are (1) a set of organized groups
DQGLQGLYLGXDOVDPRQJZKLFKZHOOSUHSDUHGSURIHVVLRQDOVVWDQGRXW6RUULEHVWKDWWKHLUJRDOVDUH
YHU\VSHFLFDQGDUHOLQNHGWRWKHGHIHQFHRIWKHFXOWXUDORUQDWXUDOKHULWDJH$OEHUWDQG+HUQjQGH]DQG
WKDWWKHLUJKWLQJIRUPVIRFXVRQSURPRWLQJDIDYRXUDEOHSXEOLFRSLQLRQWKURXJKPHGLD*RQ]iOH]
,QIDFWWKHPHGLDFRYHUDJHRIWKHLUPRELOL]DWLRQVZKLFKWKH\DOUHDG\KDGLQWKHVLVSDUWO\WKHUHDVRQIRU
their success.

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above referenced demonstration and also peaks of mobilization like the collection of signatures for the Per
O+RUWD,/38 (Gmez, 2008).

In the third place, it should be considered for the analysis another form of collective action that occurs
LQLVRODWHGPRPHQWVZKLFKLVPDVVLYHXQSUHGLFWDEOHDQGKDVKLJKWUDQVIRUPDWLYHSRWHQWLDO7KLVLVWKH
FDVHRIWKHPRELOL]DWLRQVQDPHGDIWHUWKHGDWHWKH\RFFXUUHGDQGEHWWHUNQRZQIRUWKDWWKDQIRUWKHGHQRPL-
8 3HRSOHV/HJLVODWLYH,QLWLDWLYHLQWRSDVVDODZWRSURWHFWWKH9DOHQFLDQHOGVZKLFKFROOHFWHGVLJQDWXUHVDX-
thenticated by the Census Bureau and that the Bureau of Les Corts, ruled by the PP, deemed inadmissible.
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 354

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V\PSWRPDWLF,QWKLVFDVHZHFDQDFFHSWPRELOL]DWLRQFDQEHH[SODLQHGLQLWVEHJLQQLQJZLWKFRQFHSWVOLNH
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WRKDYHLPSDFWRQ+RZHYHUWKLVWKHRU\GRHVQRWH[SODLQWKHODUJHSRSXODUUHVSRQVH7KHPDVVLYHSURSRU-
WLRQVRISURWHVWVDUHGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHLUPHGLDFRYHUDJHZKLOVWWKHWUDGLWLRQDOJURXSVOHDGHUVKLS
LVPRUHTXHVWLRQHGDQGLVPRUHGLIFXOWWRQG,WLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDWWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHVHPRELOL]DWLRQVLVD
VWURQJSUHVVXUHSHUFHLYHGE\WKHSRSXODWLRQDQGH[HUWHGE\WKHSRZHU

:LWKWKH1HZ6RFLDO0RYHPHQWVWKHRU\ZHFDQH[SODLQKRZWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDQDGYHUVHSROLWLFDOFRQ-
WH[WSURPRWHVMRLQLQJVRFLDOPRYHPHQWVDQGKRZWKHVHMRLQLQJVRFFXUEDVHGRQDOWHUQDWLYHDSSURDFKHV
WRWKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\,QWKLVVHQVHWKHZURQJVSHUFHLYHGE\PDQ\FXOWXUDOO\DZDUHFLWL]HQVZRXOGOHDGWR
action independently of the political opportunity structure, very adverse in the origins of the Save move-
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changes in the participation formulas and the contents of the vindications cannot be attributed to only to
the internal changes in the organizations. In this sense, it is true that their endogenous capacity increased
WKDQNVWRWKHPRELOL]DWLRQRISRZHUIXOKXPDQUHVRXUFHVIURPZKLFKWKH\QXUWXUHWKHPVHOYHVDQGZLWKWKH
ERRPLQJRIWKH,7&WKDWSURYLGHWKHPZLWKRUJDQL]DWLRQDOH[LELOLW\DQGFDSDELOLW\WRLQXHQFHWKHPHGLD
and, therefore, the population. But the importance of this variable is still not enough to explain the change
LQWKHYLQGLFDWLRQV)RULWVSDUWWKHSROLWLFDORSSRUWXQLWLHVVWUXFWXUHZDVQRWQRULVWKHULJKWRQHIRUWKH
PRELOL]DWLRQYRODWLOLW\ZHKDYHWDONHGDERXW

Regarding context
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It is marked by the progressive development of alternative media and complementary to the mass media
PRELOHSKRQHV,QWHUQHWHOHFWURQLFQHZVSDSHUVZHEVZHEORJVHPDLOVRFLDOQHWZRUNVOLNH)DFHERRNRU
7ZLWWHUZKLFKKDYHEHHQDQLPSRUWDQWGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHGLVFXUVLYHGHPRFUDF\DQGRIQHZSRVVLELOLWLHV
RIVRFLDOPRELOL]DWLRQ;DPEy$OWKRXJKPDVVPHGLDHVSHFLDOO\WHOHYLVLRQVWLOOKDVDELJLQXHQFH
SRZHUWKHDFWLRQRIWKHQHZHOHFWURQLFPHGLDWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGFLWL]HQDFWLRQWKURXJKQHWZRUNV
offers possibilities of social conversation and discussion never seen before and modulates the action of the
WUDGLWLRQDOKHJHPRQLFPHGLD,IIURPWKHVZHFDQDVVHUWWKHPDVVPHGLDFRSURGXFHSROLWLFV$JRVWL-
ni, 1984), never as today, social movements had such fast and effective media in spreading their messages,
EXWGHSHQGLQJRQWKHPRPHQWWKHLUSXEOLFUHFHLYHVLWEH\RQGWKHDFWLYLVWV:HFDQVWDWHWKHHIFLHQF\RI
WKHQHZPHGLDLQSUDFWLFDOO\DOOWKHVXFFHVVIXOPRELOL]DWLRQVRIWKHODVWGHFDGHERWKDWJOREDOOHYHODQGLQ
national and local spaces (Castells, 2010). Therefore, in democratic societies the importance of spreading
WKHLQIRUPDWLRQDQGWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQSURFHVVHVGHULYHGIURPLWPD\OHDGHYHQLQVSHFLFPRPHQWVWR
force changes in political decisions.

The methodology: empirical, historical and comparative

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RSHUDWLRQV)RUWKHUVWRQHZHUHGXFHRUVHOHFWUHJDUGLQJWKHREMHFWDVIRUWKHVHFRQGRQHZHDGRSWDQG
FRPELQHVHYHUDOPHWKRGVGHSHQGLQJRQWKHDVSHFWVRIVRFLDOUHDOLW\ZHIDFH
 355 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

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(social movements in the Valencian Country) to external and internal communication dynamics, leav-
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SURFHVVHVLQVWLWXWLRQDOSROLFLHVDQGGHHSLQJLQWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDODQGFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W7KHIDFWWKDWIHZ
researches have been made about social movements in the Valencian Country represents such an opening
RIWKHHOGRIDQDO\VLVDVZHOODVDQDOPRVWWRWDODEVHQFHRIUHIHUHQFHZRUNVWKDWYHU\PXFKMXVWLI\UHGXF-
ing them in order to make the research approachable.

As for the methods to be used, the empirical perspective, related to facts and phenomena under study
WKURXJKREVHUYDWLRQSURFHGXUHVHWKQRJUDSK\DQGRIDQDO\VLVRIODQJXDJHLQGHSWKLQWHUYLHZVEHFRPHV
WKHD[LVRIUHIHUHQFHRIWKHUHVHDUFK:LWKWKHHWKQRJUDSKLFPHWKRGZHDQDO\]HWKRVHDVSHFWVRIWKHRE-
MHFWLQZKLFKWKHGLUHFWSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGWKHDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHUHVHDUFKHUVWKHPVHOYHVZLWKLQWKHVRFLDO
PRYHPHQWVPHHWLQJVZRUNUHXQLRQVGLVFXVVLRQVFRRUGLQDWLRQVHVVLRQVWDONVSUHVVFRQIHUHQFHVDQGDOVR
PREVGHPRQVWUDWLRQVVLWLQVDQGRWKHUPHDQVWRH[HUWSUHVVXUHDQGRIGHQXQFLDWLRQKDVDOORZHGWKHPWR
KDYHDGHHSDQGDFRQWLQXRXVNQRZOHGJHRIWKHREMHFWLYHVSURMHFWVIRUPVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQFRPPXQLFD-
WLRQVWUDWHJLHVDQGOHDGHUVKLSVRIWKHVRFLDOPRYHPHQWV:HKDYHWULHGWRUHEXLOGWKHORJLFRIWKHVSHFLF
VHQVHW\SLFDORIWKHVLWXDWLRQDOORJLFRIVRFLDOSUDFWLFH2UWt7KURXJKWKHTXDOLWDWLYHPHWKRGZH
DGGUHVVWKRVHDVSHFWVDQGOHYHOVRIUHDOLW\LQZKLFKZHWU\WRHVWDEOLVKLGHQWLWLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHVWKURXJK
the analysis of language, singularities regarding the interpretation of reality and social communication and
ideological constructions (Ibez, 1986: 60-61).

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gency process of the modern social movements. An analysis focused on the evolution of the uses of commu-
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the genesis of the present and, resorting to the comparative method, describe and try to explain the change.

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FKURQLFDSSURDFKZHDQDO\]HWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WWKHDFWLRQRIVRFLDOPRYH-
PHQWVWKHPHGLDDQGWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQSXEOLFVGLVWLQJXLVKLQJEHWZHHQWKHGLIIHUHQWXVHVRIWKHFKDQQHOV
DQGWKHSHFXOLDULWLHVRIWKHSURGXFWV)URPDGLDFKURQLFDSSURDFKZHLQYHVWLJDWHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ
social change and the transformation of social movements, their communicative products and their publics.

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WKHODQJXDJHFRGH%XWIDUIURPWKHIRUPDOLVWDQGVWUXFWXUDOLVWOLQJXLVWLFVZHDSSURDFKVSHHFKIURPWKH
social dimension and regard the speaker from the logical dialogical and intertextual condition of the human
being, from its condition of social animal. We assume speech has extra-discursive referents and that, among
these, are the social practices partially constitutive of discourse (Bourdieu, 1985).

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LQWHUYLHZOHDGVXVWRZKDWKHFDOOVWKHH[SUHVVLYHIXQFWLRQ7KHLQWHUYLHZHHVSHDNVIURPKLVELRJUDSK\XQ-
GHUVWRRGDVWKHVHWRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKH[SHULHQFHGHYHQWV7DONVDERXWLQIRUPDWLRQKHKDVH[-
SHULHQFHGDQGWKDWDULVHVLQWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQZLWKDVLQJXODURULHQWDWLRQGLVWRUWLRQDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ7KHQ
WKHJHQHUDWHGVXEMHFWLYLW\RIWKHLQIRUPDWLYHSURGXFWLVWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFDQGOLPLWDWLRQ7KLVLVKRZWKH
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VLQFHLWDLPVWRDFKLHYHDGLUHFWH[SUHVVLRQRIWKHDGGUHVVHUVDWWLWXGHEHIRUHKLVPHVVDJH$ORQVR
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 356

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action of social movements, the perception of the media on their thematic diffusion of the movements and
obstacles to excellence in informative and communicative practices both internal and external. Regarding
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and crystallized stereotypes, explicit or underlying ideologies, routes and vital and professional careers,
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tions of the discussed phenomena.

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vironment, the collection of anecdotes and personal trajectories, the situation and use of Catalan in social
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social movements, journalists and politicians, and the market of communication.

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Actors and internal communication

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pation in the genesis of the communication committee of the 15-M Valencia: I had joined ATTAC, I had
joined Real Democracy right before this started (...). That does not mean there cannot be incorporations
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 357 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

This is, in our opinion, one of the keys of the Save movements formula: regroup the efforts of previous
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and of a certain social consensus. These vindications have a value in themselves, but they are mainly useful
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residents and members of ideologized groups that go to support them to live together and feedback each
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bit disappointed that

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from PSOE and from el BLOC.

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the parties in the project and says that also the opposition political parties against PP strongly supported
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the movement.

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it stands out that the ITC resources are intensively used to the extent of their possibilities. Besides, also out
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 358

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It seems clear that those movements are the result of strategies of the old social movements to the ex-
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can say that the Save movements, therefore, form a social movement that is the result of the recombination
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of face-to-face meetings, in fact, can be seen as a sign of health since the more decadent Save movements lost
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 359 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

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an intern communicative opportunity (e.g. email use), these technologies are rather seen as an obligation
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form the movement. As the communication committee member of the 15-M Valencia declared: I created
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base. Communication is the key to understand the transformations in actor of the mobilization, since it can
activate public opinion, it can increase the social base and active groups become very extensive. In the
case of experiences like 15-M, 2011 or 13-M, 2004 ICT played a key role in activation of public opinion
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External communication: the kind of action

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form of movement arises such as the communicative one exclusively focused on communication and not
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media resources to accommodate all the informations generated by society and that do not appear in the traditional media.

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and putting their efforts and strategies into it. They produce information and elaborate materials for con-
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Their strategy is to impact on the media and not so much the indirect incidence of it on the public admin-
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From Social to Political.
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Domnguez, 2011: 177)

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Vindications
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The vindications of the Save movements, but also the 13-M and the 15-M ones have a characteristic in
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 361 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

,WVPD[LPXPH[SUHVVLRQLVWKH0LQZKLFKWKHPDLQVTXDUHDQGWKH,&7ZHUHQRWRQO\GHVLJQHGDV
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From the Save movements to the Live ones

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WHUQDODVZHOODVH[WHUQDO+LVWRULFDOPRYHPHQWVKDYHDQDVVRFLDWHGFODVVLFDOFRPPXQLFDWLYHIRUPEDVHGRQ
FRQYHQWLRQDOPHGLD7KHLUFRPPXQLFDWLRQLVXQLGLUHFWLRQDOWKHLUOHDGHUVKLSLVFOHDUO\GHQHGWKURXJKWKHLU
RIFLDOVSRNHVPHQWKDWDUHWKHUHIHUHQFHRIWKHPHGLDDQGRIWKHSXEOLFLQJHQHUDO7KHSXEOLFGRHVQRWIXOO\
LGHQWLI\ZLWKWKHLQWHUHVWVWKRVHPRYHPHQWVGHIHQGDQGWKHLUPRELOL]DWLRQVDUHORQJUDQJHDQGULWXDO0D\
April 25, March 8...). Those mobilizations are predictable in their form (strikes, demonstrations, gatherings)
and taking the streets via the institutional channels and other regulations. Among these organizations unidi-
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communications are very different since private information is managed (not suitable for neophytes and for
members of other organisations) and an external one designed for the media and produced by professionals.

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WKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHVHWRISRVWPDWHULDOLVWYDOXHV,QJOHKDUWZLWKZKLFKWKRVHFLWL]HQVLGHQWLI\
themselves. They hold middle-range mobilizations, focused on the defence of the cultural or natural heri-
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WRVHUYHDOWUXLVWLFDOO\7KDWLVZK\WKRVHDUHYHU\SRZHUIXOPRYHPHQWVEHFDXVHWRWKHGHIHQFHRISHUVRQDO
LQWHUHVWVRIWKRVHDIIHFWHGWKH\DGGWKHZRUNRIVWURQJO\LGHRORJL]HGDQGWUDLQHGLQGLYLGXDOV7KHLUVRFLDO
EDVHLVPRUHH[WHQVLYHDVZHOODVLWVSRWHQWLDOEDVH7RLQXHQFHLWWKH\XVHDOOWKHWHFKQLTXHVDQGFRPPX-
QLFDWLYHUHVRXUFHVWKH\KDYH7KXVLQPDQ\FDVHVWKHDFWLRQVDUHVSRQWDQHRXVVHHNVXUSULVHPDJQLWXGH
VLQJXODULW\DQGRULJLQDOLW\WRDSSHDURQWKHPHGLD7KHSUHVVXUHWKH\H[HUWRQWKHSRZHULVWKURXJKPHGLD
External and internal communications tend to converge because these groups are more transparent. But
internally the strategy is reserved regarding the appearance on the media.

Short-range movements are, in themselves, communication. They are the result of media conjunctures
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7KHLUPDJQLWXGHUHVSRQGVWRPHGLDFRYHUDJHRIHYHQWVWKDWLQRWKHUFLUFXPVWDQFHVZRXOGJRXQQRWLFHG
%XWZK\QRWJRXQQRWLFHG"%HFDXVHWKHSUHVVQHHGVQHZVZKLFKZHZRXOGWLQH[WHUQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ
DQGGXHWRWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKH,7&UHVRXUFHVWKDWDOORZWRIHHGEDFNQHZVLQDFRQWLQXRXVORRS0HGLD
stimulate the action and that stimulus is increased by internal resonance in the social base of the movement
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WKDWDWWKHHQGDUHGLVVROYHGEHFDXVHZKDWEHIRUHZDVUHJDUGHGDVH[WHUQDOQRZLVDOVRLQWHUQDODQGHYHU\-
thing is fully transparent. Discussions are public and there are no secrets. Everyone can really participate
and, undoubtedly, that encourages participating in them. The contents, the aims of mobilization are general,
DPELJXRXVDQGPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDO7KHDFWRULVWKHQHJULDQPXOWLWXGH,QWKLVPXOWLWXGHWWKHPHPEHUVRI
WKH6DYHPRYHPHQWVZKRDUHZHOFRPHDQGQRWVRPXFKWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHKLVWRULFDORUJDQL]DWLRQVZKR
are there but hide (since they are not seen in a good light) their initials.
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New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 362

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WLRQV%XWDOVRE\KRZWKH\XVHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ7KLVH[SODLQVPDQ\RIWKHFKDQJHVLQWKHRWKHUWKUHHVLQFH
LWVHUYHVDVDFRQQHFWLQJOLQNLWVWUXFWXUHVWKHP&RPPXQLFDWLRQXQLWHVRUVHSDUDWHVDFWRUVGHQHVWUDWHJLHV
and actions and can also subordinate the vindications.

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SHQVZKHQLWLVQRWWKHULJKWRQH,IDSSDUHQWO\WKHDFWRUVEDFNRXWDWWKHVDPHVSHHGDVWKH\H[SDQGZH
KDYHWRDVNRXUVHOYHVDERXWWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVPRELOL]DWLRQKDVRQLWVSDUWLFLSDQWV2XUH[SHULHQFHVKRZVXV
WKDWWKH6DYHPRYHPHQWVPLGGOHUDQJHDVZHOODVWKH0RUWKH0VKRUWUDQJHFRQYHUJHRQZRUNLQJ
LQQHLJKERXUKRRGVLQDPL[WXUHEHWZHHQWKHJHQHUDOYLQGLFDWLRQDQGZRUNLWVHOI7KXVPDQ\RIWKHSDUWLFL-
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PRUHVLOHQWZRUNEXWPRUHSURGXFWLYHDQGVDWLVI\LQJUHJDUGLQJVSDWLDODQGWHPSRUDOSUR[LPLW\7KHVDPH
KDSSHQVZLWKWKH0SDUWLFLSDQWVZKRDUHVWLOOPRELOL]HGLQWKHQHLJKERXUKRRGV7KRVHIRUPVRIPRELOL]D-
WLRQWKDWLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQZHFDOOHG9LXPRYHPHQWVDUHGHYHORSLQJLQRXUQHLJKERXUKRRGVZLWKDOWHUQDWLYH
practices, avoiding the traditional media system and based on the internal communication that ends up being
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5DXVHOO3&RQVLGHUDFLRQHVVREUHHOWUiQVLWRGH9DOHQFLDKDFLDOD&LXGDG*OREDO&LXGDGHV
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5DXVHOO3DQG-0DUWtQH]3ROLWLFDFXOWXUDOHQ9DOHQFLD3DWULPRQLRUHFXUVRV\SDUWLFLSDFLRQFLXGDGDQD%UDoDO
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DFFLyQFROHFWLYD\ORVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHV(VSDFLRV3~EOLFRV
6DPSHGUR90XOWLWXGHVRQOLQHLQ96DPSHGURHG00XOWLWXGHVRQOLQH/RVOLEURVGHOD&DWDUDWD0DGULG
6DPSHGUR95HGHVGHQXGRVRYDFtRV"1XHYDVWHFQRORJtDV\WHMLGRVRFLDO'RFXPHQWDFLRQ6RFLDO
6DQWDPDULQD%0RYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVXQDUHYLVLyQWHyULFD\QXHYDVDSUR[LPDFLRQHV%ROHWtQGH$QWURSRORJtD8QLYHUVLGDGGH
$QWLRTXLD
6RUULEHV-(OPDOHVWDUXUEjD9DOqQFLDDSURSzVLWGHOVVDOYHP0qWRGH
7DUURZ6(OSRGHUHQPRYLPLHQWR/RVPRYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVODDFFLyQFROHFWLYD\ODSROtWLFD$OLDQ]D0DGULG
7RUUHV91XHYRV\YLHMRVPRYLPLHQWRVFLXGDGDQRVHQHO3DLV9DOHQFLDQRLQYLWHGSURFHHGLQJLQ0RYLPLHQWRVVRFLDOHVKR\
$YDQ]DQGRKDFLDXQDGHPRFUDFLDWUDQVIRUPDGRUD8QLYHUVLWDWG$ODFDQW$ODFDQW
7RXUDLQH$$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWRWKH6WXG\LI6RFLDO0RYHPHQWV6RFLDO5HVHDUFK
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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 364

Civic society, democratization and globalization

in Latin America

ILAN BIZBERG
El Colegio de Mxico associate member of the CADIS-EHESS.

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causes: the general democratization of most of the countries of the continent (excluding Cuba) and the
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FRXQWULHVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHWKLVUHJLRQ7KHHLJKWLHVVDZWKHGLVSODFHPHQWRIWKHPLOLWDU\IURPSUDFWLFDOO\
all Latin governments and the return of the military to their barracks in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile,
8UXJXD\(FXDGRUDPRQJRWKHUV,Q0H[LFRGHPRFUDWL]DWLRQEHJDQZLWKWKHHOHFWRUDOUHIRUPRIWKDW
legalized leftist parties, among others the communist party, as a response to the important mobilizations of
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and other non-ideological currents.

&RLQFLGHQWDOO\WKHVHFRXQWULHVZKHUHXQGHUJRLQJRQHRIWKHLUPRVWVHULRXVHFRQRPLFFULVLVWKDWODVWHG
ORQJHQRXJKWREHFRPHNQRZQDVWKHORVWGHFDGHDQGWKDWUHVXOWHGLQWKHIDFWWKDWWKDWPRVWRIWKHFRXQ-
tries (more successfully in the biggest ones), to a greater or lesser extent abandoned the economic model
that they had been pursuing until then, based on the intervention of the State in the economy, an empha-
sis on the internal market, the protection of local industry, a social policy mainly designed to protect the
ZRUNHUVRIWKHPRGHUQHFRQRPLFVHFWRUVDQGWKHFHQWUDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQLQDPRGHOWKDWFDQEHFRQVLGHUHG
DVHJPHQWHGIRUGLVPZKHUHE\WKHZRUNHUVDQGPLGGOHFODVVHVZHUHZDUUDQWHGWKHUHVRXUFHVQHFHVVDU\WR
DFTXLUHWKHSURGXFWVWKDWWKHSURWHFWHGLQGXVWU\ZDVPDQXIDFWXULQJ7KHHFRQRPLFPRGHONQRZQDV,P-
SRUWVXEVWLWXWLRQLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ,6,ZDVLPSOHPHQWHGWKURXJKDQDWLRQDOSRSXODUDOOLDQFHDOVRFDOOHG
SRSXOLVWZKLFKJDYHVRFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQVDFHQWUDOUROHIXQGDPHQWDOO\ODERULQH[FKDQJHIRUWKHLUVRFLDO
DQGSROLWLFDOEDFNLQJRIWKH6WDWHDQGLWVHFRQRPLFSROLFLHVWKHJRYHUQPHQWZRXOGJLYHFRQFHVVLRQVWRWKH
ZRUNHUVLQWHUPVRIVDODULHVEHQHWVDQGVRFLDOSROLFLHV

,Q VRPH FRXQWULHV WKH PLOLWDU\ HQGHG WKH VRFLRSROLWLFDO SDFW VLQFH PLG V EDVLFDOO\ IRU SROLWLFDO
UHDVRQV&KLOH8UXJXD\\$UJHQWLQDDQGPRGLHGWKHHFRQRPLFPRGHO,QRWKHUVWKH
QHZPRGHOZDVLPSOHPHQWHGDVDUHVSRQVHWRWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLVRIWKHV,QERWKFDVHVWKHQHZPRGHO
FRQVLVWHGLQWKHRSHQLQJRIWKHHFRQRP\WRERWKSURGXFWLYHDQGQDQFLDOFDSLWDOVWKHRULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGV
exports instead of to the internal market, the retreat of the State from the economy, the reduction of gov-
ernment employees and the reduction of the scope and extension of social policies. The transformation of
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American economies on their capacity to compete in the external market and attract foreign capital. This
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GHUHJXODWLRQDQGH[LELOL]DWLRQRIWKHODERUPDUNHWV,QWKHFRXQWULHVZKHUHWKHWUDGHXQLRQVZHUHVWLOO
VWURQJWKLVGHPDQGHGWKDWWKH\EHVDSSHGDQGWKDWJRYHUQPHQWVWKDWZHUHSURQHWRWKHLUSUHVVXUHEHLVR-
lated from them. This usually meant the centralization of social policies in the hands of the State, in general
WKRXJKDWUDQVLWLRQIURPDFRUSRUDWLVWVRFLDOSROLF\FRQWUROOHGRUQHJRWLDWHGZLWKWKHXQLRQVDQGRWKHUVRFLDO
organizations to a centralized, focalized assistance oriented social policy. Paradoxically, this also demand-
 365 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

ed a process of decentralization, from a collective bargaining at the branch level to a locally set negotiation.
This led to the decentralization of education and health programs to the local (State or municipal level), that
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center of the agenda of the Chilean youth.

$OORIWKLVKDVKDGWKUHHFUXFLDOFRQVHTXHQFHVRQVRFLDOOLIHLQ/DWLQ$PHULFD

1. The central social actor of the ISI period, fundamentally the labor movement (although this included
other socio-political actors such as the peasants and poor urban inhabitants) lost its centrality, together
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the case of the SHURQLVWDVLQ$UJHQWLQDDQGWKDWRIWKH&87LQ%UD]LO,WPXVWEHPHQWLRQHGWKDWZKLOH
WKLVDFWRUZDVFHQWUDOLQWKHLQGXVWULDOVRFLHW\RIWKHGHYHORSHGFRXQWULHVIRUPRUHSURIRXQGUHDVRQV
DV7RXUDLQHKDVDIUPHGWKH\H[SUHVVHGDVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOJRDOWKDWRIWKHRULHQWDWLRQRILQGXVWULDO
VRFLHW\LQWKH/DWLQ$PHULFDQFRQWH[WLWZDVPDLQO\DSROLWLFDODFWRUFHQWUDOEHFDXVHRILWVDOOLDQFH
ZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWLVW6WDWH

7KHGHFOLQHRIWKHPDLQDFWRUVRIWKH/DWLQ$PHULFDQ;;WKFHQWXU\KDVJLYHQZD\WRQHZPRYH-
PHQWVPRUHVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO7KHQHZPRYHPHQWVWKDWHPHUJHGLQWKHQHZGHPRFUDWLFDQGJOREDO-
L]HG/DWLQ$PHULFDFRQWH[WKDYHERWKRULHQWHGWKHLUGHPDQGVWRZDUGVWKHGHHSHQLQJRIGHPRFUDF\DQG
against the excesses of neo-liberalism. In this context, the most interesting of these movements have
instrumentalized their actions against neo-liberalism in order to denounce the limits of liberal de-
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of a more active citizenry that does not ask for concessions from the State (typical of the social struggle
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marriage, divorce) rights.

Power, decline and recovery of the Latin American labor movement

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interests in particular. In some countries such as Argentina and Brazil the base of the resistance under the
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ers meet each other daily in the factory and have the same basic interests. On the other hand, if one compares
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situated in the most strategic sectors of the economy (petroleum, electricity, transportation, central public
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that played against the unions. For one part, this actor suffered from the opening of most of the economies of
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the economy. The formal industrial branches and the State functionaries had been the heart of the traditional
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 366

unionism. This evolution contradicted the fact that in most of the countries in the Continent, the process of
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ished greatly in most of the Latin American continent, to the exception of Brazil and Argentina.

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modernization (Lindenboim, 2004:23). The agreement could be called segmented Fordism, in the sense that
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The military coups of the sixties and seventies ended this pact. The only exception is Brazil, as the
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capital goods. Both the Chilean and the Argentinean military shifted to promoting a liberal economic model
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DVHFRQGDU\UROH7KHFULVLVRIZDVWKHHQGRILPSRUWVXEVWLWXWLRQLQWKHFRXQWULHVWKDWKDGFRQWLQXHG
LPSOHPHQWLQJLWVXFKDV0H[LFR,QWKHODWWHUWKHGLVFRYHU\RIKXJHRLOUHVRXUFHVKDGDOORZHGIRUWKH
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sectors in order to stop distribution, as oil exports and the debt based on the expectations of these exports
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entrepreneurs, foreign capital and the State. This coalition proceeded to ample privatizations, retreat of
the State from the economy, a shift from a contributory and pay as you go social security system to an in-
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mainly assistance oriented system.

There have clearly been exceptions to this general tendency of a decline of labor and other traditional social
movements. In Argentina and Brazil, the trade union movement has succeeded in maintaining or recovering
LWVIRUFH,Q%UD]LOWKLVKDVKDSSHQHGHVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKHSUHVLGHQF\RI/XODEHWZHHQDQGZKLOH
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 367 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

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parties decided to contest electoral the plebiscite of Pinochet in 1987 (Oxhorn, 1994), and Mexico after the
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WKURXJKHOHFWLRQVE\WKH35,UHJLPHZLWKWKHSROLWLFDOUHIRUPRI%L]EHUJ$]L]7KHIDFW
that in both of these countries the movements that resisted the dictatorship, retained its importance, partly
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radical Alfonsin and to the government of De la Rua that led to the 2001 economic and political crisis.
7KHSHURQLVWDVQHJRWLDWHGZLWKDQGUHVLVWHGWKHMXVWLFLDOLVWD and very liberal Menem government and have
become a crucial partner in the Kirchner and Fernandez governments (Palomino y Trajtenberg, 2006). The
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.LUFKQHUJRYHUQPHQWWRDOO\ZLWKLW7KLVJRYHUQPHQWDSSRLQWHGDSURODERUODZ\HUDWWKH0LQLVWU\RI/D-
ERUZKRSURPRWHGFROOHFWLYHQHJRWLDWLRQVDWWKHEUDQFKOHYHOHQFRXUDJHGWKHIRUPDOL]DWLRQRIWKHODERU
market, raised real salaries (both minimal and median) and eventually re-nationalized the pension funds (in
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the SHURQLVW&*7ZKLFKUHXQLWHGDIWHUKDYLQJGXULQJWKH0HQHPSUHVLGHQFLHVGXHWRGLVDJUHHPHQWVRYHU
WKHSRVLWLRQWREHWDNHQZLWKUHVSHFWWRLWVOLEHUDOPHDVXUHVZKLOHSDUWRIWKH&*7FRQVLGHUHGWKDWLWVKRXOG
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most important branches of the economy, and served to negotiate salaries, prices and taxes in order to
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appeared a number of (temporary or permanent) tripartite counsels, such as the Socio-Economic Counsel
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VXUHVRUODZVWKDWZHUHWRDIIHFWWKHLQWHUHVWVRIZRUNHUV5LHWKRI

There are other traditional movements and organizations that have persisted. One example is the 0RYLPHQ
WRGRV7UDEDOKDGRUHV5XUDLVVHP7HUUD, that demands an agrarian reform in a country, that has never had one,
DQGWKHXQLRQL]DWLRQRIWKHUXUDOZRUNHUV7KLVPRYHPHQWZDVIRXQGHGLQDQGLQFUHDVHGLWVIRUFHLQWKH
UHQHZHGDJUDULDQFRQLFWVRIWKHQHZGHPRFUDF\7KHSUHVVXUHVXSRQWKHGHPRFUDWLFJRYHUQPHQWVUHVXOWHGLQ
the fact that the Brazilian society grasped the unjust distribution of land that existed in their country and the liv-
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set the agrarian reform in the political agenda and push the presidency of Cardoso to distribute land to 570,000
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have been actively organizing in unions, most of them in the CUT, ideologically close to the governing PT.1

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From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 368

Nonetheless, there has been a clear shift from the demands of labor and other socio-political actors
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UHJLPHVRIWKHVHYHQWLHVDQGHLJKWLHVZKLFKZHUHOHGE\WKHODERUXQLRQDQGRWKHUSRSXODURUJDQL]DWLRQV
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Although one can interpret these movements as reactions to the situation created by the retreat of the State,
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react against the social effects of neo-liberalism, as did the Zapatista uprising in Mexico, the Indian move-
ment in Ecuador and Bolivia, the SLTXHWHURV and other spontaneous movements in Argentina, the CUT and
the 6HP7HUUDLQ%UD]LOWKHLUPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFDQGPRVWFUXFLDOVLJQLFDQFHRIWKHLUDFWLRQLV
WKHLUFODLPVWRWKHUHVSHFWRIKXPDQULJKWVRIULJKWVWRGHQHWKHLUFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLW\LQHWKQLFUHOLJLRXV
OLQJXLVWLFWHUPVWKHULJKWVRIFLWL]HQVWRZRUNKHDOWKHGXFDWLRQVHFXULW\DVZHOODVWRGHFLGHXSRQWKHZD\
individuals make use of their body, their sexuality, their subjective dignity.

New types of movements and social actions.

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TXLWHPDVVLYHLQPRVW/DWLQ$PHULFDQFRXQWULHVDVDUHVXOWRIWKHUHWUHDWRIWKH6WDWHDQGWKHGHFUHDVHRILWV
investment in social politics. The increasing fragility of the population submitted to neo-liberalism, during
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of the needs of the population, a negative characteristic of society rather than a positive characteristic of
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WKLUGVHFWRURUWKH21*PRYHPHQWZKHUHE\ZLWKRWKHUEHQHFHQFHRUJDQL]DWLRQVWKH\WULHGWRVXEVWLWXWH
ZKDWWKHJRYHUQPHQWVZHUHQRWGRLQJ,QPDQ\FDVHVZKHQPRUHOHIWLVWRUFHQWULVWJRYHUQPHQWVWRRNSRZHU
DQGUHQHZHGZLWKWKHVRFLDOSROLFLHVWKH\PDGHXVHRIWKHVHRUJDQL]DWLRQVDVDZD\RIPDNLQJWKHLUSROL-
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organizations and to their instrumentalization by the government, and by the loss of their autonomy and their
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&KLOHDQG0H[LFR,QERWKWKHOLEHUDOHFRQRPLFPRGHOZDVYHU\RUWKRGR[DQGLQERWKWKHQHZGHPRFUDWLF
JRYHUQPHQWVDVERWKDPDQQHURIJDLQLQJHIFLHQF\DQGOHJLWLPDF\UHDFKHGRXWWRWKH21*V

7KHUHDUHRWKHUDFWLRQVRULHQWHGWRZDUGVDPRUHSRVLWLYHJRDOWKDWRIGHPDQGLQJULJKWV:LWKLQWKHVH
PRYHPHQWVZHFDQVXUHO\FRXQWWKHKXPDQULJKWVPRYHPHQWVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQVWKDWHPHUJHGGXULQJWKH
GLFWDWRUVKLSDQGWKDWZHUHFUXFLDOLQVRPHFRXQWULHVWRH[HUWSUHVVXUHIRUWKHUHWXUQRIGHPRFUDF\VRPHRI
them have survived the transition but have transformed themselves. There are, on the other hand, the Indian
movements, that demanded the recognition of their identity, the right to be different. There are other move-
PHQWVWKDWRQHFDQDVVLPLODWHWRWKLVJHQHUDOWHQGHQF\WRZDUGVWKHGHPDQGRIULJKWVUDWKHUWKDQFRQFHVVLRQV
IURPJRYHUQPHQWVXFKDVWKHULJKWWRZRUNWRVRFLDOVHFXULW\WRKHDOWKDVDIHHQYLURQPHQWGLYRUFHDERU-
tion, gay marriage, among others.

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Mexico, the movement rejecting the assimilationist policies that the Latin American governments had been
 369 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

implementing and demanding their right to exist and be recognized as an autonomous nation, started in
(FXDGRUDQG%ROLYLDLQWKHVHYHQWLHV,QPRVWFDVHVWKLVPRYHPHQWZDVDLGHGLQLWVRUJDQL]DWLRQE\FKXUFK
representatives. In the amazon region of Ecuador, it began by reacting to the intervention of the oil compa-
nies in their region and in the action transformed themselves into a cultural movement, that united in a na-
tional the &RQIHGHUDFLyQGHODV1DFLRQDOLGDGHV,QGtJHQDVGHOD$PD]RQLD(FXDWRULDQD&RQIHQLDHZKLFK
DFFRUGLQJWR$OERZDVWKHUVWLQGLDQRUJDQL]DWLRQWRDGRSWWKHWHUPQDWLRQ$OER;,Q%ROLYLD
WKH.DWDULVWDPRYHPHQWWKDWJUHZVWURQJO\GXULQJWKHVL[WLHVDQGVHYHQWLHVEHJDQDVDSHDVDQWRUJDQL]DWLRQ
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GLFDOQLFDGH7UDEDMDGRUHV&DPSHVLQRVGH%ROLYLD&VXWFEWKDWZDVFUXFLDOLQRUGHUWRDVVXUHWKHHOHFWLRQ
RI(YR0RUDOHVDVWKHUVW,QGLDQSUHVLGHQWRIDPDMRULWDULDQ,QGLDQFRXQWU\DV%ROLYLD,ELG

Although these indigenous movements actively intervened against neo-liberal measures such as the
VLJQLQJRI1$)7$EHWZHHQ0H[LFRWKH86DQG&DQDGDDJDLQVWWKHVHOOLQJRIJDVWRIRUHLJQFRPSDQLHV
DQGWKHSULFHRIZDWHUFKDUJHGE\SULYDWHFRPSDQLHVLQ%ROLYLDDQGWKHGROODUL]DWLRQRIWKHHFRQRP\RI(F-
XDGRUWKHVHQVHRIWKHVHPRYHPHQWVUHDFKHGRYHUWKHVHVRFLRHFRQRPLFDFWLRQVLQRUGHUWRSRLQWWRZDUGV
WKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHULJKWWREHGLIIHUHQWZLWKRXWUHMHFWLQJWKHODUJHUQDWLRQDOVWUXFWXUH7KHDFWLRQVDJDLQVW
QHROLEHUDOPHDVXUHVZHUHLQDVHQVHDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRLQWHUYHQHLQWKHSROLWLFDOVWDJH7KLVKDGGLIIHUHQW
UHVXOWVLQWKHFDVHRI0H[LFRWKH(=/1ZDVDFUXFLDOFDWDO\VWRIWKHGHPRFUDWLFWUDQVLWLRQDOWKRXJKLWGLG
QRWGLUHFWO\LQWHUYHQHLQWKHSROLWLFDOVFHQHDQGLQIDFWPDUJLQDOL]HGLWVHOIIURPLWLQWKHFDVHRI(FXDGRU
OHGWRLWVGHIHDWZKHQLWDOOLHGZLWKWKHPLOLWDU\WKDWVWDJHGDFRXSDJDLQVWWKHHOHFWHGJRYHUQPHQWDOEHLW
FRPSOHWHO\FRUUXSWDQGLQHIFLHQWWKDWRI%XFDUDP,QWKHFDVHRI%ROLYLDWKHSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHVRFDOOHG
JDVDQGZDWHUZDUVDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIDXQLRQRIFRFDSURGXFHUVLQWKHUHJLRQRIWKH&KDSDUpWKDW
FRQWHVWHGWKHDJUHHPHQWVEHWZHHQWKH%ROLYLDQDQGWKH86JRYHUQPHQWVWRHUDGLFDWHWKHSURGXFWLRQRI
the plantations of coca, set the stage for the election of its leader Evo Morales to the presidency of Bolivia
LQ,QDOOWKHVHFDVHVWKHSURWHVWDJDLQVWWKHHFRQRPLFPRGHOZHQWIDUEH\RQGWKHHFRQRPLFSURWHVWV
,W XVHG WKHVH LQ RUGHU WR DIUP LWV LQGLJHQRXV LGHQWLW\ DQG GHPDQG ULJKWV IRU WKHVH SRSXODWLRQV VRFLR
economic, cultural, political, and in some cases territorial (Le Bot, 2009).

,QRWKHUFRXQWULHVVXFKDVLQ$UJHQWLQDWKHVHW\SHVRIPRYHPHQWVZHUHVWURQJO\LQXHQFHGE\WKHKX-
PDQULJKWVPRYHPHQWWKDWHPHUJHGGXULQJWKHPLOLWDU\JRYHUQPHQW6PXORYLW]FUXFLDOWRH[SODLQ
WKHYLFWRU\RIWKHUDGLFDOSDUW\ZLWK$OIRQVLQDJDLQVWWKHSHURQLVWDV. On the other hand, many of the move-
ments in this country emerged from the effects of neo-liberalism during the Menem administration and the
economic, social and political crisis of 2001-2002. In contrast to the past, these movements did not point
their demands to the government, for compensations, but rather in more general terms to rights. From the
ULJKWWRNQRZZKDWKDSSHQHGWRWKHSHRSOHDQGFKLOGUHQWKDWGLVDSSHDUHGGXULQJWKHGLFWDWRUVKLSWKHFKLO-
GUHQWKDWZHUHDEGXFWHGWRWKHULJKWWRZRUNWRKDYHVRFLDOVHUYLFHVHWF

The SLTXHWHURPRYHPHQWVEHJDQZLWKWKHSURWHVWDJDLQVWWKHFORVXUHRISODQWVLQWKHVRXWKRIWKHFRXQWU\
1HXTXHQ6DOWDDQG-XMX\E\WKH0HQHPJRYHUQPHQWSODQWVWKDWLQPDQ\FDVHVZKHUHWKHRQO\VRXUFHRI
HPSOR\PHQW7KHLUUHSHUWRU\FRQVLVWHGRIORFDOUHYROWVRIVPDOOWRZQVSXHEODGDVDQGURDGEORFNLQJV7KLV
PRYHPHQWDFFRPSDQLHGWKHLPSUHVVLYHLQFUHDVHRIXQHPSOR\PHQWIURPWRWKHFULVLVRIIURP
LQWRLQDQGLQWKHZDNHRIWKHFULVLV'XULQJWKHQH[W\HDUVDQGHVSHFLDOO\GXULQJ
the De la Rua government that led to the 2001 crisis, these movements extended to the rest of the country
DQGHVSHFLDOO\WRWKH%XHQRV$LUHVUHJLRQZKHUHWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHQHROLEHUDOHFRQRPLFPRGHOZHUHPRUH
dramatic and concerned mainly private enterprises (Svampa an Pereyra, 2004). This situation led to the
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 370

occupation of hundreds of the closing enterprises and their administration in a cooperative manner by the
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assistance programs applied in Mexico and Chile. This program consists of temporal employment in com-
munal tasks such as the building or rehabilitation of roads, clinics, schools, etc., rather than a monetary
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other types of social actions: the FDFHUROD]RV, the HVFUDFKHVDVZHOODVWKHVSRQWDQHRXVDVVHPEOLHV
at street corners, called DVDPEOHDVGHEDUULR. In addition, the human rights organisations continued de-
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GLVFXVVHGLQ&RQJUHVVE\FROOHFWLQJVLJQDWXUHV)RUWKHUVWWLPHLQWKHKLVWRU\RI%UD]LODQGPRVW
SUREDEO\LQ/DWLQ$PHULFDWKHSRSXODWLRQZDVDEOHWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQDQDFWLYHPDQQHULQWKHHODERUDWLRQRI
the Constitution and not only the political elites (Chaves Texeira, HWDO). This process enhanced the exist-
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ones. This resulted in very intense discussions among organizations, associations, academics for almost
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PDQGVWKDWZRXOGEHVXEPLWWHGWR&RQJUHVV,ELG7KLVSURFHVVQRWRQO\JDYHELUWKWRDYHU\SURJUHVVLYH
&RQVWLWXWLRQGLIFXOWWRFRPSO\ZLWKEXWWKDWVHUYHVDVDUHIHUHQFHIRUWKHSROLWLFDODFWRUV

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the Christian groups called comunidades de base and different leftist (communist, Trotskyists, Maoists)
JURXSVFRQVROLGDWHGGXULQJWKHWUDQVLWLRQDQGVWD\HGLQRSSRVLWLRQIRUPRUHWKDQWZHQW\\HDUVSUHYHQWHG
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active connection to unions and other social actors and to innovate its public policies in the municipalities it
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 371 NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

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More recently, the drug and other illegal activities related violence and the repressive policy of the
governments have given birth to more or less massive and spontaneous actions against violence and for
the right to be able to live a normal life. In many occasions these actions have been sparked by a hideous
FULPHVXFKDVWKHRQHRI"""LQ$UJHQWLQDWKHVRQRIDZHOONQRZQHQWUHSUHQHXU0DUWtLQ0H[LFRDQGWKDW
of a Mexican poet, Javier Sicilia. There has been a transformation of these movements, at least in the case
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to another that is critical of the repressive and militarist policies of the government, that is demanding the
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QRQGHFODUHGZDUDJDLQVWGUXJVDURXQGWKHULJKWWRNQRZWKHGHWDLOVRIHDFKRIWKHVHGHDWKV

Concluding remarks
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in important manners from those that existed before. In the sixties, seventies and eighties, the dominant
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from the government or from private interests through exerting pressure on the government. These interests
ZHUHLQJHQHUDOZHOORUJDQL]HGDQGFHQWUDOL]HGDQGDFWHGDVPXFKDWWKHVRFLDODVDWWKHSROLWLFDOOHYHO
6LQFHWKHHLJKWLHVZHKDYHVHHQDGHFD\RIWKHVHPRYHPHQWVDQGWKHHPHUJHQFHRIPRUHDWRPL]HGVRFLDO
actors that raise their demads in terms of rights rather than concessions and that generally stay at the social
or cultural level of action rather than at the political. In terms of Arato they are actors that are self-limiting
(Arato, 2000).

This is clearly the case of the indigenous movements that separated their action from that of the agrarian
PRYHPHQWDQGDUHFXUUHQWO\GHPDQGLQJLQWKHUVWSODFHWKHULJKWWREHGLIIHUHQWWKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLU
FXOWXUDOHWKQLFUHOLJLRXVLGHQWLW\)URPWKLVEDVLVZLOOGHULYHRWKHUHFRQRPLFVRFLDODQGHYHQSROLWLFDO
rights.

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVLQFHWKHV/DWLQ$PHULFDKDVVHHQWKHHPHUJHQFHRIDJUHDWQXPEHURIRUJDQL]D-
WLRQVRUUDWKHUDVVRFLDWLRQVRIFLYLFVRFLHW\GHGLFDWHGWRWDFNOHPDQ\RIWKHSUREOHPVDQGZDQWVRIGLIIHU-
HQWVHFWRUVRIVRFLHW\FDXVHGE\WKHUHWUHDWRIWKH6WDWH0DQ\RIWKHVHRUJDQL]DWLRQVZHUHLQVWUXPHQWDOL]HG
by the governments in behalf of their public policies programs as in Mexico and Chile, or they became
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LQ%UD]LODQG$UJHQWLQDFLYLFVRFLHW\RUJDQL]DWLRQVGHDOLQJZLWKSULYDWLRQVDQGVSHFLFGHPDQGVRIGLIIHU-
ent sectors of society, managed to transform their action into one claiming for rights. Argentina did so in
WKHWUDGLWLRQRIWKHKXPDQULJKWVDQGODERU:HKDYHPHQWLRQHGWKHZD\LQZKLFKLQ$UJHQWLQDDQLPSRUWDQW
DUUD\RIDVVRFLDWLRQVDQGRUJDQL]DWLRQVGHGLFDWHGWRFODLPIRUULJKWVKDYHGHYHORSHGZRUNKHDOWKVRFLDO
security, etc. These movements (including the SLTXHWHURV and factory occupations), as Perruzotti y Smulo-
YLW]VD\VXSSRVHDFUXFLDOGLIIHUHQFHZLWKWKHVRFLDODFWLRQDQGWKHVRFLDOL]DWLRQRIWKH$UJHQWLQLDQVRFLHW\
From Social to Political.
New Forms of Mobilization and Democratization. 372

that characterized the country during the dominance of unions and SHURQLVP, (one can say the same for
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EHVDLGRI%UD]LOZKHUHWKHZULWLQJRIWKH&RQVWLWXWLRQDVZHOODVRIWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHSDUWLFLSD-
tory budget has made individual and associations more and more conscious and active in demanding rights
UDWKHUWKDQFRQFHVVLRQVRIWKHJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKHLPSRVLWLRQRIWKHLQWHUHVWVRIVSHFLFVRFLDOFDWHJRULHV

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