, 15.1 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.5 CHAPTER 1: Polynomials over a Fiel ‘This chapter investigates the ring K{1] of polynomials over a field K and shows that K[r] has many properties which are analogous to properties of the integers, These results play an important role in obtaining canonical forms for a linear operator Ton 2 vector space V over K, RING OF POLYNOMIALS Define @ polynomial over a field K and its degree. I Let K bea field. Formally, a polynomisl f over K is an infinite sequence of elements from K in which all except a finite number of them are 0: f=(...,0,4,,.+++4j, 4). Alternatively, using a symbol, say as an indeterminant, the above polynomial is usually denoted in the form f()=a,t™++-"-F att dy. Th entry a, is called the kth coefficient of f. If m is the largest integer for which a, 70, then we say that the degree of fis n, written deg f=n. We also call a, the leading coefficient of f, and if a,=1 we call fa monic polynomial. On the other hand, if every coefficient of fis 0 then f is called the zero polynontia written f=0. The degree of the zero polynomial is not defined. Define the ring of polynomials over the field K. Let K{s] be the collection of all polynomials f(t). Addition and multiplication is defined in K[] as follows. Suppose fis the polynomial in Problem 15.1 and suppose g is another polynomial over K, say gO bt" ++ Bt by. Then the sum f-+g is the polynomial obtained by adding corresponding coefficients. That is, if mein then fli) + g(1) =a," +:++4(G,, +b)" +o+2 + (a, + By) + (Uy + Bg) Lor FFE ( 0105p oop Gy + Ong ore 9h, + By, Gy + Og)] Furthermore, the product of f and g Is the polynomial f()g() = a,b. ++ (ajby FH apb, te agby [or FE=C.. 0, dbp re es QBy + yb, a_0q)], ives, the Kth coefficient cy of fis cy =>) aby» = agb, + 4;by_y +--+ ayby. Theorem 1541 applies, ie Theorem 15.1: K[#] under the above operations of addition and multiplication is a commutative ring with unity element and with no zero divisors. [That is, K[¢] is an integra! domain.] Show how K may be viewed as a subset of K[1]. I We identify the scalar a, K_ with the polynomial f(:)=ay or ay=(...,0,dq). ‘Then the operations of addition and multiplication of elements of K are preserved under this identification: +0; a9) + ( 40505 a) Theorem 15.2: Suppose f and g are polynomials in K[¢]. Then deg( fe) =deg f+ deg g. Prove Theorem, 15.2. F Suppose fle) a," ta, and gli) =b,t"4-1 by and a,#0 and b,, #0. ‘Then fOg(t) = a,b,41°°" + terms of lower degree. Also, since the field K has no zero divisors, 4,6, #0. Thus deg(fz)—n + m= deg f+ deg g. Show that the nonzero elements of K are the units of K[Z]- F suppose f(t)g(#)=1. Then 0=deg(1) =deg( fg)= deg f+deg g. Hence deg f=0 and deg g= and f and g are scalars in K, On the other hand, if @@K and a0, then a-a*=1 andaisa unit of K[#). Remark: A polynomial g is said to divide @ polynomial f if there exists a polynomial h such that f= sk).Nee eee ae 356 J CHAPTER 15 15.6 Suppose g(t) divides (2). Show that deg g deg f. Fig dividess, ‘then there exists such that f(2)= g(h(®). Then, by Theorem 15.2, deg f= deg g + deg h> deg g. 157 Suppose f and g are polynomials such that f divides g and g divides f: Show that (a) deg fu=deg g and () f and g are associates, i.e., fl) = ke(t) where kK. 1 (@) By Theorem 15.2, deg fsdeg g and deggsdee fi Hence deg f- 7 there exist h sueh that f(i)=h(t)g(@). Since deg /==deg g, we have degh=0. In other words, A(@) =k, an element of K. 15.8 Suppose d and d’ are monic polynomials such that d divides d' and d’ divides d. ‘Then d Hy Problem 15.7, d¢ the leading coefficient of kd’ is k since d' is moni Hence ke and d=d'. 15.2. EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM, ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS This section uses the following theorems whose proofs appear in Problems 15.13-15.15. leg g. (b) Since g divides kd'(®) where KEK, The leading coefficient of @ is 1 since d is monic and Theorem 15.3 (Buclidean Division Algorithm): Let f(t) and g(t) be polynomials over a field K with g(t) #0. ‘Then there exist polynomials q(¢) and r(t) such that f(t) = q(t)g(#) + r(#) where either (=O or degr1. If f(t) has no roots, then the theorem is true. Suppose EK is a root of f(0). Then Ft)= (tae) where deg ¢= n= is another root of f(«). Substituting 2=2 in (1) yields = f(b)=(b—a)g(b). Since K has no zero divisors, and b-2#0, we must have g(b F(0) has at most_n—1 roots other than a, Thus f(¢) has at most 1 roots. Theorem 15.7: Suppose ft) is a polynomial over the real field R, and suppose the complex number z= We claim that any other root of f(t) must also be a root of g(t). Suppose b xa By induction, g(1) has at most. m—1 roots, Thus 2+ 6i,6%0, is a root of f(Q). ‘Then the complex conjugate Z=a-bi is also a root of Fle) and hence e(t)=(¢—2)(t~ 2) =? = 2ar+ a? +b? is a factor of fle). 15.17 Prove Theorem 1 HF Since dege=2, there exist g(r) and M,NGR_ such that FO) = t)g(e) + ane N Since z=a+ bi isa root of f(t) and (7), we have by substituting t= a+ bi in (1) f@)=()q(2)+#M@)+N or = 0g(z) + MQ)+N or Ma +b) +N=O Thus Ma+N=0 and Mb=O0. Since bx#0, we must have M Accordingly, f(t)=c(g(t) and F=a—bi is a root of fli). Then O+N=0 or N=0, 15.18 Suppose f(s) = 1" — 31° + 617 +251—39, Find all the roots of f(t) given that +3i isa root, F Since 243i is a root, then 2—3i is a root and c(t)=i-4r413. is a factor of fl). Dividing Sl@) by eff) we get f(t) =(F -4¢+ 13) 44-3). The quadratic formula with #+1~3 gives us the other roots of f(t). ‘That is, the four roots of f() follow: 2+3%, 2-3%, (-1#-VI3)/2, (~i-Vi3)/2. 15.19 Suppose /() is a real polynomial with odd degree. Show that f(x) must have a real root. 1 The complex roots of f(¢) come in pairs by Theorem 15.7. Hence one root of f(t) must be real. 15.20 Give a geometrical proof of the fact that a real polynomial f(0) of odd degree has a real root. Fig. 15-1POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD {) 359 I Suppose the leading coefficient of f(#) is positive (otherwise, muhtiply f(@) by —1]. Since deg f= where 1 is odd, we have Jim fQ= + and Jim. fie) ‘Thus the graph of f(#) must cross the t axis in at least one point as pictured in Fig. 15-1. 15.3. PRINCIPAL IDEAL DOMAIN, UNIQUE FACTORIZATION DOMAIN a 15.22 18.23 15.24 ‘This section proves that the ring K[t} of polynomials over a field K is a principal ideal domain and a unique factorization domain. [The reader is referred to Section 6.8 for relevant definition.) Theorem 15.8: The ring K{#] of polynomials over a field K is a principal ideal domain. If J is an ideal in K{f], then there exists a unique monic polynomial d which generates J, ie., such that d divides every polynomial fEJ. Prove Theorem 15.8. I Lot d be 2 polynomial of lowest degree in J. Since we can multiply d by a nonzero sealar and still remain in J, we can assume without loss in generality that d is a monic polynomial. Now suppose fe@J. By the division algorithm there exist polynomials g and r such that f=qd+r where either r=0 or degr 8A). Prove (ii) of Theorem 15.14. F By definition, fg Cyan Feet ettCo= DS tt where oy 2 a:b, Hence (fe)(A)= x ie "Seat and flA)elA) = (5 aA')(3 0,4’) =5 5 abatl= z GAY = (f(A).LLL 362 7 CHAPTER 15 15.37 15.38 15.39 15.40 15.41 5.43 Prove (iii) of Theorem 15.14, HP By definition, f- Gt +--+ kayt + kag, andso (kf)(A) = ka,A" ++ w+ ka,A + kal = k(a,A" + + 4,4 + ag!) = KA). Show thet any two polynomials ia a matrix 4 commute, Le., f(A)g(A) = 8(A)f(A) for any polynomials SMe) and g(t). F since f()g() = (Df), ‘Theorem 15.14 tells us that f(A)g(A) = g(A)f(A). Remark: Suppose T:V—>V- is a linear operator on a vector space V over K and suppose f(t) = a,¢ wi fat Mae. Then we define f(A) in the same way as we did for matrices: f(7" Gn” 407+ ai + dol where Tis now the identity mapping. We also say that Tos a zero or root of f(t) if f(7)==0. Furthermore, Theorem 15.14 holds for operators as it does for matrices, ‘Thus, in particular, any two polynomials in T commute, Let V be the vector space of functions which has {sin 8,c0s 8) as a basis and tet D be the differential operator on ¥. Show that D is a zero of f(t)=?-+ 1, F Apply f(D) to each basis vector: J(D)(sin 8) = (D* + (sin 8) = D*sin 8) + Hsin 8 FDY{cos 8) = (D? + 1)(c08 6) = D*(cos 8) + I(c0s 8) wsin + sing =0 cos 8 + cos 8 =O) grace each basis veetor is mapped into 0, every vector EV is also mapped into 0 by f(D). Thus f(D) =0. it A be & matrix representation of an operator 7. Show that f(A) is the mateix representation of f(T), for any polynomial /(). F Let $ be the mapping TH A, i.e., which sends the operator T into its matrix representation A. We need to prove that BFF) = f(A). Suppose f= aye" +--+ att ay. The proct i by induction on rn, the degree of f(t). Seppose n=0. Recall that (I") = where J” is the identity mapping and 1 is the identity matrix, Thus GAT) = bal’) = ay9(I") = agl = f(A) and so the theorem hoids for m=O. Now assume the theorem olds for polynomials of degree less than n. ‘Then since ¢ is an algebra isomorphism, OAT) = Ha, I" +a, 7! +--+ aT + agl") = ,6(T) A(T") + 6a, TP + TH all) = aA NY (0, A"! 45°" 4a, tagl)= f(A) and the theorem is proved (ALA Be any square matrix and let P be a nonsingular matrix of the sume order. Show that @ (PAPY'= PVA", for every postive nm, and (b) (PAP) = P°'A)P, for any polynomial f(s), 1 (@ The condition tivity holds for n= 1, Then, by induction and n>, (Papy = (PUAP)P APY = (PAP) Pa" tp) = yl (©) Suppose f(t) = a,t" #----ayt4 ay. ‘Then AP AP) = 0,(PAPY + 0,.(PUAPY oe @,(PTAP) + ag = 4,(PUAP) + a, (PAP) $04 ay(PLAP) + ag(P'P) = PGA + a, A + a,A + al) P = P~f(ADP. Suppose a matrix B is similar to = matrix A, Show that f(B) is simfar to AA) for any polynomial f(e). 1 Since 2 is similar to A, there exists a nonsingular matrix P such that B= PAP, Then, by Problem 15.41, f(B) = f(P"'AP) = P-'fayP, Thus /(B) is similar to f(A). Ket A be any square matrix, Show thet (a) (A")"=(A")? for any postive ny and (b) f(A") = [f(a]? for any polynomial f(e).POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD J 363 # (a) The condition holds trivially for n ‘Then, by induction and n>1, (AT = AMAT) AN AMY (AAT = (ANE (6) Suppose f(Q=a,t" + ay. and (kP)'=kP%, we have +a,t+ag. Then, using the fact that (P + Q) AAT) =a ATY + ay (AT eo FG AT dl 2A) +a, (AT be baat al” fa - 8 +14 a,A+ ag]? = aA" +a, te 15.44 Suppose A is symmetric. Show that f(A) is symmetric for any polynomial (7). I Since A is symmetric, AT= A. Then, by Problem 15.43, [f(A)]” = (AT) = f(A). Henee f(A) is symmetric, 15.48 Let A be an n-square matrix. Show that A ‘8 zero of some nonzero polynomial. HT Let N=n, Consider the following N+1 matrices: J, A, AX...,A®. Recall that the vector space of V of n-square matrices has dimension N= n*, Thus the above N-+1 matrices are linearly dependent, Hence there exist scalars Gy, a1...) dy Such that aA" +-+-+a,A+agl=0. Accordingly, Aisa zero of the polynomial f()=a,t" +--+ f+ a. Remark: ‘The above result is an existence proof; it does not tell us how to find a polynomial in which A is a root. The next chapter gives us such a polynomial, the characteristic polynomial of A. 15.46 Consider @ block diagonal matrix Describe f(iM) for any polynomial f(¢). I Since the diagonal blocks add and multiply independently, f(A) has the following form where the diagonal blocks are f(A), +++ f(4,): if(Ay) 0 re 0 jon=| 9 Sd 8 15.47 Consider a block triangular matrix where the A, are square matrices. Describe f(N) for any polynomial /(e). I Since the sum and product of block diagonal matrices are again block triangular matrices, and since the diagonal elements add and multiply independently, f(N) has the following form where f(A,),--. 5 f(A,) are the diagonal blocks: flay) xX . 0 flAd) + z