INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY:

FINAL PAPER
Chris Vergatos

MAY 8, 2017
BRADLEY UNIVERSITY
ETE 655- Dr. Finson
 HOME TEAM

AWAY TEAM

The above graphic organizer is a visual representation of my own unique

instructional theory. Like a soccer match, the classroom has players, rules, coaches, a

time frame and an end goal. There are losses, wins and even ties. Sometimes the

match is difficult, sometimes it is easy similar to how different topics are taught and

learned in a classroom. As this paper goes into detail about the different components of

my instructional theory, there will be times where certain strategies and techniques can

be interchangeable to adapt an instructional theory of your own, modeled after this

graphic organizer. While applying a purpose for every component of a soccer match, I

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will include information about each subtopic to shed light on information that might be

unfamiliar to the reader. Pros and cons will be discussed which can provide insight on

whether or not it would fit into your own classroom or align with your own teaching style.

There will be 19 components that we will discuss that comprise this instructional

theory. Each component is represented by a symbol in the graphic organizer. There are

numbers 1-11 which signify the 11 players on a soccer field per team. Other graphics

being represented are the soccer ball, clock, coach (yellow circle), referee (black circle),

home team, away team, the field and the team as a whole. The formation of players is

set in an order that also speaks to how the subtopics are interrelated and connected.

The goalie is represented by the number 1 in the above graphic and this will

represent teacher-self assessment. Teacher self-assessment allows teacher to reflect

on their teaching and determine what changes need to be made to maximize effective

learning for students. Teacher self-assessment is similar to a goalie in soccer. In soccer

the goalie tries to prevent goals from being scored on the team. Occasionally, some

goals slip by, but the goalie has to learn from these mistakes and improve his skills to

better prevent that from happening in the future. If a teacher can reflect upon

themselves and improve their techniques and methods, then they will have a better

chance at succeeding.

Teacher Self-Assessment

Teacher self-assessment is a great improvement technique for any teacher to

utilize. Self-assessment of a teachers instruction and delivery methods can provide

valuable insight on what a teacher is doing right in the classroom and what they are

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doing wrong. Teacher self-assessment can be defined in a variety of different ways, but

simply put it is the ability for a teacher to reflect on their teaching practices and make

changes to their instruction based on this reflection. This improvement technique can

take a variety of different formats and can use various resources to achieve an effective

self-assessment. Some teachers record themselves teaching, while others reflect after

every activity, every lesson, every class period or every day. Depending on how you

best manage your time and how in-depth you dissect your teaching practices and

outcomes, can ultimately determine how successful your self-assessment was and if it

will actually help you improve within your classroom. Self-assessment can be difficult to

motivate yourself to do, especially because of the change that may have to come from

assessing yourself. There might be some serious problems plaquing your classroom

and the way you instruct your students and this might be apparent throughout a teacher

self-assessment. If you dont act on the critiques that you notice about yourself, then no

progress is being made. Teachers who want to improve will be able to use their teacher

self-assessment techniques and make direct changes based on their honest critiques of

themselves.

There are a number of pros that go along with teacher self-assessment. Pros

such as more effective teaching practices, lessons being enhanced to become more

engaging for students, differentiation of content and activities being a few on the list. But

more generally, the benefits of teacher self-assessment can be summed up with a how

they help them assess fundamental beliefs and assumptions about learning, learners,

and teaching, as well as differences between their perceptions of practice and those

held by students in their classroom. A process of reflection will help to identify the

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personal characteristics and practices that must change to improve motivation and

achievement for each student (McCombs, 1997). As teachers continuously reflect on

their teaching practices, they will be able to better understand how to improve or modify

lessons and activities in order to help the students. Another pro of teacher self-

assessment is that self-evaluation can provide useful data by offering information and

perspectives that may be unavailable from other sources (Carrol, 1981). While getting

evaluated by an administrator, displaying your own self-assessment as a teacher can

show determination, improvement over time and organization skills that can help lead to

promotions, salary increases and extension of contracts with the school.

The cons of teacher self-assessment generally have to do with how thorough the

self-assessment is. If a teacher isnt honest with themselves about what improvements

need to be made, then they are not going to feel they need to improve anything in their

classroom. Some teachers tend to make excuses for certain actions or management

techniques and therefore refuse to see that they may need to improve in that area of

their teaching practice. Teacher self-assessment can be very general and lead to very

minor changes, which might not address issues that are bigger and more pressing.

Depending on how frequently and to what extent you address your teaching practices,

there might be inconsistencies that are difficult to identify, making improvements more

difficult.

During my student teaching experience, my cooperating teacher would always

ask me after a lesson how I think it went and what did I see going wrong. He would

sometimes ask me why I did something the way I did and this constant reflection made

me more vigilant and aware of how my teaching practices were being perceived and

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how effective or ineffective they are. From my reflections and discussions with my

cooperating teacher, I was able to see my teaching skills improve and I felt more

confident as a teacher when I was in front of the classroom or had to deal with a student

one on one or even in small groups. Self-assessment was also a very prominent aspect

of the teacher licensing program, EdTPA. This new licensing program was introduced

this past year and my class was the first official run through of how effective the

licensing actually was. Throughout the process, we had to develop lesson plans, film

ourselves teaching students those lesson plans and assess how the instruction went

based on our assessment results. Throughout the prompts, there was constant

reflection and self-assessment required and many of the questions seemed repetitive

due to how similar in nature they were. I think this process allowed me to be more

thorough in the way I design lessons and implement them and I think it was a great

licensing program for other states to hopefully adopt. Rather than just a teaching test or

a completion of student-teaching, this licensing program required much more thought

and consideration to all aspects of my teaching.

Numbers 2-3-4-5 represent the defensive players, or in this case, body

language, eye contact, set and closure and emotion. Like defensive players, these

four teaching skills are the back bone of any good instructional theory. Defensive

players prevent the goalie from being scored on and from letting down the team overall.

Without a strong defense, the midfield and forwards would not be able to do their thing

because there would be less organization and less cooperation overall. A teacher with

good body language, eye contact, set and closure and emotion will have a better

chance of being able to communicate with their students. A defense on a soccer team

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allows the same benefit. Being able to communicate up the field and defend against

goals is part of what makes a great defense.

Body Language

Body language within the classroom can be defined as the non-verbal

communication that a teacher uses to interact with their students. Anything from

physical movement to facial gestures can be considered body language, and if utilized

correctly, can be a very helpful tool for communicating with students and building a

strong and safe classroom environment. The pros of good body language in the

classroom are helping build a strong and positive teacher-student relationship and also

the impact on classroom management of students. Body language is a great way to

help students get back on track when they lose focus or are misbehaving. The cons of

body language within the classroom are really based on how a teacher goes about

using body language. Body language can be either helpful or detrimental to the

classroom environment, depending on how the teacher goes about using it. Confidence

is a body language skill that can help set the base for how a teacher interacts with

students within their classroom.

According to the National Education Association (NEA), the U.Ss largest

professional organization for educators, lack of confidence is a red flag to students.

(Ruland, 2015.) If students perceive that the teacher is not confident or is timid in their

delivery methods and teaching styles, the teachers authority and respect can be

jeopardized by students trying to take advantage of their teacher. In an article relating

to body language, published on the NEAs website, the author provides a list of Dos

and Donts when using body language in the classroom. Posture is a great way to

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convey interest and respect for the students, so standing up straight and not being

slumped over can help students see that you are interested in what they are saying,

while also setting the bar for what type of posture the teacher expects back from their

students. Barriers are another way that body language can affect the classroom

environment. A teacher should avoid crossing their arms when speaking and shouldnt

use objects to stand in front of, i.e a desk or podium. The more exposed you are to the

students, the more approachable you appear. Another thing the NEA points out in their

article is to be conscious of facial expressions and be sure to look the way you want to

be interpreted. For example, raising your eyebrows could lead a student to think you are

questioning what they are saying and could lead to confusion. Smiling a lot and making

eye contact with students is a big factor that shows you are encouraging your students

and making them feel comfortable. The more comfortable students feel, the more likely

they are to participate in class and interact with their fellow peers. The poses that a

teacher strikes are also very important in mastering good body language. Putting your

hand on your chin or putting your arms out in an inquisitive manner lets the students

know what you might be asking of them, such as to think longer about a question or to

ask any questions they might have. Staying on time is an important aspect in the

classroom, but be sure to avoid looking at your watch when students are talking to show

that you are truly interested in what they must say.

Body language can either make your classroom management task an extremely

easy one or a very difficult one and it takes time to perfect good body language. A lot of

the times, a teacher must determine for themselves what is appropriate body language

based on the students they have in their class. Body language manifests itself in the

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classroom the moment the students come into the class. The way the teacher greets

the students each day can be a huge factor that determines success. Standing outside

of your class as students are moving from class to class can have a positive impact on

students perception of you. Instead of waiting for students to come into your classroom

while sitting at your desk, typing on your computer, standing outside allows you to

interact with students in a more casual setting and set the tone for the classroom that

day. While I was student teaching, I waited outside of the classroom before every period

to chat with students in the hallway and as they made their way into my classroom. This

was a great way for me to make eye contact and interact with every student on an

individual basis before the class began. Another body language technique I used was

not having facial reactions to student comments that were inappropriate. I found out that

yelling or scolding students didnt change their behavior, so instead I would look at them

until they realized that their comment was immature and distracting. This technique also

changed depending on the group of students I had in a particular period of the day.

Sometimes instead of staring back at the student emotionlessly, I would ignore the

comment completely and continue with the lesson. The main body language skill that I

utilized during my time was smiling. I found that smiling made me seem approachable

and students could be more comfortable around me, which translated to them

participating more in the classroom.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is a major teaching skill that is vastly important within the classroom

and in creating a positive rapport with students, as well as mutual respect. Eye contact

can be defined relatively simply in that it requires the teacher to look at students in their

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eyes when communicating with them. Even in my own personal schooling experience, I

found that my teachers were more effective and personable when they looked at me the

eyes. This in turn made me feel that they respected my opinion and so I was more

interactive within their class due to this. I remember my high school chemistry teacher

was a culprit of poor eye contact and to this day is the only teacher I have had where

the eye contact negatively affected the classroom. When I had the teacher for chemistry

it was her first year at the school, so she seemed a bit timid already from that. When

she was going over notes and lecturing in class, she looked above the students. So

instead of standing in the front of the class and looking at individual students directly,

she would stand there and look at the clock in the back of the room or a poster on the

back of the wall and it was extremely frustrating. Over time the whole class noticed and

we would talk about it throughout the day how this teacher would not look at us in the

eyes. It was annoying and also distracting, which caused our class to become less

participatory and continuously off track due to the lack of classroom management the

teacher possessed.

According to Smart Classroom Management, an organization devoted to different

techniques to improve classroom management skills for teachers, eye contact is one of

the most important qualities in good classroom management. In an article published on

Smart Classroom Managements website, the author states that longer eye contact is

associated with trust, good feelings and rapportall of which are important leveraging

qualities. (Linsin, 2009.) Although the article discusses the benefits of eye contact, it

also mentions that too much eye contact can be intimidating and end up having a

reverse effect on students. Rather than feeling that they are being listened to by the

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teacher, the eye contact could make students feel uncomfortable and cause them to

close up. Eye contact manifest itself in the classroom every time the teacher interacts

with the student because whether you are looking at the student directly in the eyes will

be apparent right away. Lack of eye contact could cause students to have

misconceptions about you as a teacher, and also shows a clear discord in mutual

respect, which is a big part of good classroom management skills.

In his book, Theory Into Practice, R. Lewis Hodge discusses the importance of

eye contact in the classroom. The author states awareness is personalized through eye

contact. The teacher, then, can personalize this contact with every student in his

class through eye contact. This interpersonal communication can begin with initial eye

contact with each student entering the classroom even if the teacher does not have the

opportunity to speak with each one. (Hodge, 1971, p 265.) Changing how much eye

contact is necessary for each student with each class can be difficult at first due to the

lack of knowledge about the students in the classroom. As a teacher becomes more

aware of their students learning needs, teaching skills, such as eye contact, will

become easier to utilize effectively. Ultimately, eye contact is a huge factor in

developing positive rapport with students and building relationships that will affect

learning throughout the school year.

Set and Closure

Set and closure are extremely important to any classroom activity because they

begin and end the lesson. Set is used to grab the attention of the students and pull them

into the activity they are about to engage in. Set can be defined as the frame of

reference used to begin a particular learning activity. (n.d.) Closure, however, is

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defined as the means for drawing to a close a particular learning activity. (n.d.) Set

and closure can be difficult for newer teachers to deliver effectively due to lack of

experience, but time and exposure to different students and classroom environments

will help with this.

According to Set and Closure Skills, there are five goals in order to establish set.

These five goals include motivating the learner, establishing clear goals and objectives,

tying in students prior knowledge, establishing an expectation of participation

throughout the activity and facilitating the activity as it is being completed by students.

Set can be established by both teachers and students through the use of guiding

questions. Instead of establishing set by yourself as a teacher, use guiding questions to

get students to think about the big idea of the lesson. Review questions to start the

class period help students focus in on what will be covered for the day based on where

they left off from the previous day. Part of establishing set is creating a clear goal for the

class period. A way to do this effectively is writing it down on the board before the

students walk in and keep it written in the same location each day. This way students

know right away what the goal for the class is.

Set and Closure Skills also describes the five goals necessary in achieving

closure. One or more of the following objectives should be met in order achieve closure

that is beneficial to students, including assessing progress made throughout the lesson,

providing continuity through explanation of the application of what was just learned,

summarizing the main ideas, allowing time for students to review the material and

making decisions on what was just covered in the lesson. Closure doesnt have to be at

the end of the class, though some teachers find this to be an organic time slot to

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achieve closure. More importantly, closure can be achieved any time as long as it aligns

with the objectives listed above. If there are multiple learning tasks within a lesson,

closure might be very beneficial to the students after each learning task to ensure that

the students are on track and understand the process taking place. Just like set, closure

can also be prompted by students, rather than just the teacher. Closure is very effective,

but can be harder to achieve than establishing set. In order to make sure closure is

achieved a teacher should reflect on their lessons on daily basis and determine what

went right, what went wrong and how to improve the lesson for next time. This will help

achieving closure become more natural and effective, not just for the students, but also

for the teacher.

When I was completing my student teaching, I established set by listing a clear

objective on the white board for each class and color-coded a concise timeline of the

class period for each class that I taught. For example, my 4th period World Geography

class had the objective of the class, a timeline of events, and homework for the day

listed in green while my 7th hour Enriched U.S History class had each of those items

listed in blue. The location for each item stayed the same and there was a designated

spot for each class, so that a student never had a valid excuse for not knowing what

was expected of them for the day. Each class would begin with a review question which

was to be completed upon arrival into the class, relating to a topic discussed the

previous day. After five minutes, we would discuss the question and then tie into our

topic for the current day. This allowed students a refresher of where we left off and have

time to motivate them for the activity about to take place. Clear expectations and goals

caused less confusion and the change in attention and participation improved

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drastically, as my semester of student teaching came to an end. While I was

establishing set at the beginning of the class, I was achieving closure at the end. At first,

I was consistently running out of time at the end of class and would forget to leave

space to wrap up the lesson. This caused students to leave the class without any idea

of what to expect the next day or any way for me to answer clarification questions or

summaries of the topic. By the time I was able to achieve closure more effectively, my

established set was improving and my overall teaching became more fluid and the

students seemed more engaged and knowledgeable on the topics we covered.

Set and closure go together hand-in-hand and effective teachers will utilize both

of these teaching skills in their classrooms. The pros of set and closure are that they

make the classroom a more structured environment where expectations and goals are

clear to the students. A teacher who effectively incorporates set and closure into their

classroom will condition the students for the routine the class follows as the year goes

on. Students will know what to expect each day, be aware of objectives and informed on

the procedures for the class. More structure due to set and closure can reduce

misbehavior and increase student engagement and retention rates due to students less

likely to be misguided or confused throughout the class period. The cons of set and

closure can be seen when a teacher incorporates the two ineffectively, or isnt

consistent with the implementation of both teaching skills. Though set and closure take

time to master, the sooner a teacher is exposed to using these skills, the faster they will

improve on them and the sooner they will become an effective teacher.

Emotions (Accepting/Expressing)

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 Emotions are a huge factor in the classroom that sometimes get overlooked by

teachers. As teachers, it is easy to get caught up in the rush of the school day and the

work that comes with it and this can cause us to forget that our students are very

emotional and fragile human beings. According to the National Association for the

Education of Young Children, Its been known for more than 100 years that a childs

emotional life strongly influences his interpersonal relations, behavior, and learning

(1998). This being said, you can see how emotions would be something that is relevant

to the teaching skills repertoire. Being able to show emotions to students allows the

teacher to connect with them on a human level. Even though teachers and students are

very different, we are similar in that we are all emotional beings that can be set off by

any given stimuli. As a teacher, it is crucial that we understand what emotions are and

these can be looked at generally as the feelings of students based on their daily lives.

Some days a student could show very positive emotion in the class while the next day

that same student could be distraught. Both instances could very well have nothing to

do with you as a teacher or anything that happens at the school and instead is the result

of family issues or problems with friends.

As a teacher we are there for students to help them grow. Part growing is

through emotional response and it is the job of the teacher to be patient and responsive

to students showing signs of emotional need. Sometimes a simple smile and a hello is

enough to change a students entire day around while making a joking comment to a

student might be interpreted as mean and end up hurting that students feelings.

Teachers need to be conscious of their students emotions and tread lightly when

disciplining students. Students arent the only ones who show emotion in the classroom

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though. Teachers also have emotions and should express them responsibly. Negative

emotions brought from home into the classroom have an adverse effect on students and

can cause them to have reservations about you as a teacher. While I was student

teaching I made sure never to yell at the students or show signs of anger or sadness. I

would try to have a smile on the whole time and when dealing with students with

emotional stress I was always calm in my response. Even when students would erupt in

class due to anger, I wouldnt overreact and instead would address the problem in a

cool and collected manner. Teachers need to keep in mind that emotions are neither

good nor bad but are natural reactions to our experiences. (Pinto, 1997) So instead of

getting upset at a student for acting out, I would look at the situation from their

perspective and realize that more often than not, I was not the cause of the emotional

outbreak, but I could help the student dealing with it.

The pros of accepting and expressing emotions is that the teacher and student

establish a connection of mutual respect towards one another. If the teacher reacts

appropriately to the emotions presented by their student, then the student will establish

a trust towards that teacher. This form of trust helps the teacher build relationships with

other students in the classroom and creates an environment where students can feel

safe and comfortable. Accepting and expressing emotions increases the likelihood of

students participating in class and their perception of learning is positively affected. The

cons of accepting and expressing emotions is when doing so causes a hostile

environment. Yelling at a student for something they did wrong isnt the appropriate

response, though showing signs of disappointment is not out of the questions. Negative

emotions shouldnt be suppressed, but rather utilized to make a point and done so in a

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calm and collected way. Positive emotions can also be a con if they are overly

emphasized. For example, a student could be really happy they did so well on a test

and scream out in joy. This is not an appropriate response because it is distracting other

students and is not considerate of other students emotions. Also a con of expressing

and accepting emotions is that if the teacher is not in tune with emotions themselves,

they can overreact or not react appropriately and hinder student learning because of

this.

Numbers 6-8-10 represent the midfielders and they signify reinforcement,

questioning, games and simulations. The midfielders represent games and

simulations, reinforcement and questioning. Like midfielders I want these three to be at

the center of my instructional theory because I want them to control the ball/ learning

objective and have movement up the field towards a goal/achievement. I feel that

games and simulations will be a very helpful way to engage my students while adhering

to their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and being able to create an environment that

helps foster an interest in overall learning and success. Positive reinforcement is a very

effective way to increase student understanding. Reinforcement is like a midfielder

because it can drop back to help with teaching skills on defense, or move up to help the

forwards progress with teaching methods to assist in obtaining learning

objectives/scoring goals.

Questioning

Questioning techniques allows the teacher to ask guiding questions and

questions that can lead to drawing new conclusions for students, and this is

representative of a midfielder because they can create leading plays for forwards or

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even score themselves sometimes. Questioning is another teaching skill that sometimes

gets overlooked, but is extremely important within the classroom. Questioning can be

defined as asking questions to students in order to check for understanding and

comprehension of the material being covered. Questioning is not designed as a way to

catch students off guard, though teachers sometimes use questioning as a way to

embarrass students who might be distracting the class. This is not how questioning

should be used in the classroom.

There are several types of questioning that teachers have adopted in their

classrooms. Reciprocal teaching, or asking questions between the students and teacher

to gain further understanding is perhaps the most common of questioning techniques

that is used in schools. This type of questioning requires the teacher to look at

questions not to retrieve small bits of specific information, but instead to gain conceptual

knowledge of the topic being discussed. (Palinscar, 1982) Using questioning as a

classroom management strategy is also fairly common amongst teachers. According to

Jones and Jones, questioning should be used for students to stay focused and attentive

throughout the class period (2001). This method of questioning should be monitored

closely to determine that students are actually increasing their understanding, rather

than just altering their behavior. Fedje and Irvine decided on eight types of questions

that should be implemented when using questioning from their book Questioning to

Promote Thinking (1982) which included observation, recall questions, similarities and

differences questions, conclusion questions, grouping and categorizing questions,

ordering questions, cause and effect questions and proving questions. These different

types of questions cover almost every way that a teacher could implement questioning

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strategies into their classroom and can be used as a guide for determining when to ask

certain questions. Regardless of what questions are being asked and what response is

desired, timing is the most important factor when asking students. If not enough time is

given for students to think about the question and possible answers, the teacher will

continuously answer for the students which will condition them to stop trying to answer

questions. The same concept goes for waiting too long to answer questions. Students

will begin to get restless and irritated that they dont know the answer and could just end

up waiting for the teacher to tell them the answer. Questioning can be used any time in

the learning process. The beginning, middle and end of a lesson are perfect spots to

ask students question to check for comprehension.

There are many pros to effective questioning within the classroom. The most

important pros of good questioning is that students will have a better understanding of

the material, while also not just being given an answer. If the timing is mastered, then

questioning can be one of the best ways for a teacher to gain some insight on the pace

of the class and how they are comprehending the material in an informal way.

Questioning provides students an opportunity to get clarification on problems they are

having and allows teachers a platform to test virtually any concept that is being taught.

The cons of questioning relate to what questions are being asked, when they are being

asked and how much time is given to answer the questions. If students are being asked

too simple of questions, then it might be hard to gauge student understanding of the

material. The same goes for asking too complex of questions, which can lead to

students being completely confused. Questioning should be deliberate and have a

purpose in mind. If questions are just thrown out at random times throughout the lesson,

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it can be distracting to students and also get them off task. Allowing for appropriate time

for students to answer question is another area that can be hard to master at first. The

main cons of questioning are HOW it is done. If the teacher doesnt have a clear goal or

objective behind the questions being asked, then it likely the students will not be able to

grasp the concepts trying to be conveyed.

Games and Simulations

Using games and simulations is a fantastic teaching strategy that can be used to

boost student engagement and comprehension. Generally, games and simulations

require students to apply their understanding of the topic in a interactive way. Games

and simulations are very common in the school setting and often many teachers play

games with their students without the students being aware that they are playing a

game. Games and simulations have the ability to elicit curiosity, create a demand for

more knowledge and enable students to discover knowledge through explanation

(Edelson, 1998).

The pros of games and simulations is that it provides students an alternative

outlet to express their understanding of a topic. Students dont have to worry about truly

failing when they are playing a game, so that fear of failure goes away. Students are

able to learn from their mistakes in an engaging format and due to the popularity of

games across the nation, they are already familiar with the general platform of video

games, making them easier to implement in the classroom. Other pros include students

having to complete a task from information they learned, rather than just reciting

information they memorized. Games and simulations also provide the teacher with a

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more accurate assessment of the students understanding (Simulation Technology,

2005).

Despite the clear benefits of games and simulations, there are also some cons

that go along with this teaching strategy. The most disputed con is the reputation that

games often get by outside community. Sometimes people think games arent

appropriate in the classroom, but that depends on how they are implemented. Another

common con of games and simulations is that they can be distracting to students and

can cause them to lose focus of the objective and just play the game for fun. Games

that dont have a clear purpose often distract students from the objective of a lesson.

Games are a great way to support a lesson and make an objective clear for students,

but if they dont understand the reason for what they are doing, then it just a task that is

not really helping them learn. Games need to be age appropriate and target a specific

range of skills and goals appropriate for the level of the student.

While I was doing my student teaching I often played review games with students

that allowed them an alternative review of subject matter before a test or quiz. The

game involved a Jeopardy style format, but with a slight twist. The class was split into

two teams, and students each had an opportunity to answer a question within the

allotted time. If they answered incorrectly, the other team would have the opportunity to

answer. Whoever got the answer to the question correct would receive points for their

team, as well as the option to shoot a ball into a basket for additional points. The

students could shoot from up close or from farther away and would receive more points

based on their distance from the basket. The students really enjoyed the game and

participated more in the review because they wanted the opportunity to shoot the ball in

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the basket. I learned this game in middle school because my seventh-grade science

teacher played it with us. I thought it was so fun and helpful then that I decided to

incorporate it into my own classroom.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement has been used throughout history to prompt/encourage certain

actions. Psychologists have used this method in their experiments and have found that

it is a crucial part of the learning process. Teachers have also used this method in their

classrooms in order to illicit responses from students. A common form of reinforcement

in school could be when a teacher says you will get a homework pass if you turn in a

signed permission slip by the correct date. The teacher is trying to get a response (the

signed permission slip) by offering her students a reward (a homework pass). More

simply, reinforcement can be defined as the operation of presenting a reward following

a response. (Finson, 1984) Reinforcement in the classroom can have several forms, all

of which have a reward following the desired response.

B.F Skinner, a renowned psychologist, determined that reinforcers can be

defined in three different ways: what they are, how they are administered and what

effects they have. (Finson, 1984) Though the reinforcers can be defined in three ways,

there are two kinds of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement

increases the likelihood a response/behavior will be added, while negative

reinforcement increase the likelihood that a response/behavior will be taken away. As

Finson states, positive reinforcement strengthens actions that produce consequences

(1984) and negative reinforcement decreases or limits actions that produce

consequences. (1984) Reinforcement is seen in the classroom in both positive and

21
negative types. A teacher might say that the whole class will be punished if any student

is caught up out of their chair during the learning activity. This would be an example of

negative reinforcement because the teacher is trying to decrease the probability of

students getting up out of their seats. A teacher might also say that whoever answers a

question correctly will receive a bag of chips. This is an example of positive

reinforcement because the teacher is trying to increase the probability of students

answering questions correctly. There are countless ways to incorporate positive and

negative reinforcement in the classroom, but before integrating it a teacher should be

aware of both the pros and cons of reinforcement.

The pros of reinforcement are that it can be used to change behaviors or actions

of students towards something more desired. According to Simply Psychology, a

website dedicated to psychology articles for students, there are many pros of both

positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement can be used to develop a pattern of

behavior that adds to a conducive learning environment of the classroom, as well as

providing a reason for the students behavior. Other pros include the students engaging

in risks that are appropriate within the guidelines of the reinforcement, as well as

fostering a classroom without competition, while still offering admiration or praise for

student work.

The cons of reinforcement are what teachers need to be weary of when trying to

implement reinforcement skills into their classroom. Cons of using reinforcement include

decrease in student confidence, students refusing to participate and an increase chance

of creating a threatening classroom environment. Other cons such as dependency on a

reward in order to participate can really affect student learning. Motivation is drastically

22
decreased if the reward is taken away or students might not be intrigued by the reward

and thus not participate because of that. Reinforcement can be very detrimental to the

classroom if not implemented carefully. While I was student teaching, my cooperating

teacher warned be about using reinforcement all the time due to the students being

conditioned towards a reward for any behavior that is deemed favorable by the teacher.

I found this to be true when I offered candy for returning permission slips and students

kept asking if they would receive candy if they turned in homework or if they completed

their assignment on time. It was not how I wanted the students to react, and it took a

few days of struggle with the students to get them back to a system with little

reinforcement opportunities. I found that the reward of knowledge or even a good grade

in the class was not the most favorable one for most my students that semester.

Numbers 7-9-11 represents the forwards and they signify lecture and

discussion, cooperative learning and discovery learning. These three are grouped

together because they will be the main teaching methodologies that I incorporate into

my instructional theory and they are the three factors with which to best achieve

learning objectives for students in my opinion. Each of these methodologies will help

students understand the objective that is being conveyed like a forward helps to score

goals and win soccer games through attacking the ball head on. Students will engage in

attacking objectives through lecture and discussion, cooperative learning and

discovery learning.

Lecture and Discussion

Lecture and discussion is a very common teaching methodology that is generally

used in some capacity in every classroom. In the traditional sense, lectures are usually

23
done by the teacher while the students listen and/or take notes. Afterwards, the teacher

will ask questions relating to the important concepts discussed in the lecture and the

students will discuss it either openly amongst themselves or in a structured way

introduced by the teacher. A more concrete definition of lecture is oral methods of

giving information, generating; understanding; creating interest (Brown 1978, Osterman

1975). Discussion, on the other hand, is generally based around the lecture. Discussion

is simply talking about a topic to exchange ideas in a group. There are different types of

lecture methodologies that teachers use. These include the Classical Method, the

Problem-Solving Method, the Sequential Method and the Comparative Method (Brown

1978). Each of these methods has different pros and cons relating to their

implementation.

The Classical Method is perhaps the most widely used method of lecturing. This

method includes having breaking down sections of information into main topics, and

informing the class when a new section is beginning and ending. The pros of this

method are that it is easy for the students to follow along and take notes. The con of this

type of lecture method is that it can become routine, and end up boring the students if

consistently used without an additional stimulus.

The Problem-Solving Method aims to explain different viewpoints and

perspectives in a way that requires a solution for implementation. Included in this

method are six aspects: statement of problem, solutions, key point, examples,

qualifications and summary. This method allows the students to engage more in the

lecture, rather than simply taking notes. The pros of this method are that student

engagement increases and stimulation stays consistent throughout the lecture. The

24
cons of this method are that it can be difficult to implement effectively. If the teacher isnt

organized in the delivery and facilitation, the students can get off track and lose focus.

The Sequential Method is generally used to timeline events in a historical setting

or determine a sequence that steps should be taken in a mathematical problem. The

pros of this method are that it can be easy to chronologically explain something to

students and can be broken down into steps to follow for different math courses. Other

classes can utilize this as well such as a science class learning the scientific method or

an English class learning the steps to writing a paper. The con of this method is that it

can be very hard to draw the audiences attention and is difficult to convey importance

through the typical delivery method of this type of lecture.

The Comparative Method has similar aspects of the sequential and classical

methods of lecturing and looks at more than one problem or idea and possible solutions

to those ideas. This method is very demanding from students and might be utilized after

the students have been exposed to other types of lecture methods beforehand. The

pros of this method is that it can allow students to problem solve in a more complex

format and helps with concept analysis of main ideas of a topic. The cons of this method

are that if the delivery is not organized, students can become confused and mix up

different facts and perspectives with the other topics of discussion.

Discussion is usually what happens during or after the lecture and there are a

few different types of discussion. Generally, discussion includes whole class, small

group and individual. Each type of discussion speaks for itself, and can be utilized in

different ways. Whole class discussion can be beneficial to share ideas amongst the

class, but can allow some students to lose focus or not contribute. Small group

25
discussion can also be beneficial because it allows more students to discuss ideas in an

open format and then come together to discuss main points. The cons of small group

discussion are that some students can monopolize the conversation and other students

can agree with ideas to avoid truly participating. Individual discussion allows the teacher

to discuss topics one-on-one with a student which requires the student to understand

the information that they are discussing while allowing the teacher to determine what

students are fully grasping concepts and topics. The cons of this type of discussion are

that it can be very time consuming and distracting for other students who are not

participating.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is another way that students can achieve an instructional or

learning objective. Through collaboration students can approach a topic from a different

angle and are able to draw different conclusions from what they learned from their

peers. I want to further incorporate this into my instruction methods because I truly feel

it is important in student learning. Cooperative learning can be a great method to utilize

in the classroom. There are five elements that make up cooperative learning

environments (Johnson, 1998). These elements include positive interdependence,

individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, interpersonal and small group social

skills and group processing. Essentially, cooperative learning is allowing students to

work together to draw conclusions and provide constructive conclusions to problems

being asked. Most teachers have engaged in cooperative learning activities throughout

their own educational experience and it is a natural form of teaching and learning.

Without realizing, many teacher have also utilized cooperative learning in some capacity

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within their own classroom, even if it didnt share the same name. Group work can be

very beneficial to the students if it is set up correctly and facilitated effectively.

There are many pros to cooperative learning for the students who participate in it.

These pros include promoting beneficial interdependence in students. Cooperative

learning allows students to work together in a team and determine the strengths and

weaknesses of each team member. Someone who might be better at the writing aspect,

might elect to take the notes for the group, while one of the more creative students

might opt to come up with ideas for the project. Determining what students need to

accomplish in the group is a great way for students to learn and has real-world

applications for many business and scientific career paths. Another pro is that it allows

students to be held independently accountable. Once roles are assigned and students

understand what is expected of each team member, if a task is failed to be completed,

then a student didnt uphold their end, and that student, rather than the entire group,

can be reprimanded. Similarly, it might be up to the group to pick up the slack of a group

member, which has real world application into almost any job where team work is a key

component. Team work skills are one of the biggest pros to cooperative learning as

almost nothing requires the work of just one person outside of the schooling experience.

Cons of cooperative learning generally happen when the teacher sets up the

activity in a hasty manner or is poorly organized and a bad facilitator. If the teacher

doesnt go over directions thoroughly, students could be confused and end up frustrated

when they arent sure what is expected of them. Distractions in the classroom can also

lead to group work suffering, and it is up to the teacher to facilitate a productive

classroom environment so that all groups and students can succeed. If a student

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monopolizes the conversation and tries to take control of the entire group, the work

might be adequate, but student cooperation might not have been present. Instead of

three or four students contributing, one student might take the lead, do most of the work

and the other students receive credit for work they didnt complete. Not only is this not

fair, but it also doesnt show improvements in learning or growth for the students who

did not participate.

Cooperative learning was a methodology I tried to use frequently during my

student teaching experience. Students seemed to work more productively when they

were able to socialize in groups, even if it wasnt with their friends. I think that it took

some of the pressure off students because the work was no longer individual, and they

were able to collaborate. I started off incorporating this methodology and due to my lack

of experience, I was not very attentive at facilitating the small groups and the work that

was being completed. After I began to realize that the students seemed distracted after

collaborative learning activities, I tailored my teaching style to better facilitate the

classroom experience for all students. The students work improved after this, and I only

had a few instances of students getting off task or not participating in their group.

Discovery/Inquiry Learning

Discovery and inquiry learning go together to form a symbiotic relationship.

Discover learning requires students to find out for themselves what concepts and

information is important. Inquiry learning is a way of finding out (National Science

Education Standards, 1996.). A more concrete definition is inquiry refers to the diverse

ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the

evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in

28
which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an

understanding of how scientists study the natural world (Inquiry Handbook, N.D.).

Both methods require students to be at the forefront of their own education. Discovery

and inquiry learning are closely related to constructivism which is covered in the next

subsection. Discovery learning aims to have students become curious about different

topics and find out what the student is interested in within that topic. Inquiry learning is

essentially the means to discovering the information that has yet to be found.

There are many pros to discovery and inquiry learning. These pros include

students improving their ability to process information and independently work on

assignments and problems. Other pros include a student being interested in something

they enjoy or find curious, which increase intrinsic motivation, a very positive factor in

student growth. Since students are engaging in aspects of the topic that interest them,

behavior issues within the classroom decrease and students become more focused

because they enjoy what they are doing and learning. Instead of the teacher doing all of

the work for the student to learn something, there is emphasis on the student doing the

learning. (Inquiry Handbook, N.D.) One the more important pros of this methodology is

that students learn the how to achieve a result, rather than just the end result. They

learn the steps to achieving a goal and understand why they came to a certain

conclusion, which is a valuable aspect in the learning process.

There are a few cons to discovery and inquiry learning. One of these cons is that

depending on the need of the student, they might not be as self-sufficient as their

classmates and need extra time and attention from the teacher. Another con is that the

students are completely self-reliant and will still need some information and resources to

29
be provided to them, which can add extra work to the teachers schedule that might not

be available in the school day. Students who work independently and inquire and

discover on their own could determine something as a fact, when really it is incorrect.

These misconceptions can be engrained in the student as definitive and can be very

difficult to correct later. Students might all come to separate conclusions, which can lead

them to misunderstand the main concepts of a topic. Instead of progressing forward, the

teacher would have to back track and correct the misconceptions to avoid further

mistakes. Also, due to the vast scope of ideas and concepts students are exploring,

their questions might be too complex for a teacher to answer correctly which can

mislead students and create additional confusion within the classroom.

I tried to incorporate discovery and inquiry based learning into my student

teaching classroom, but found it to be a difficult task. I think that because of my lack of

experience and the freedom that comes with this methodology, the students became

unfocused more quickly. Due to the large class sizes, (over 25 students in most

classes) it was hard to facilitate. My cooperating teacher let me take control, so he

offered little assistance when activities didnt go as planned. He told me that it was a

learning experience and not to worry if something went wrong. I tried to use my

teachers aide, but found that she was inadequately trained to assist with student

questions and behavior management issues. I learned some valuable lessons from it

all, and I think that when I am in my own classroom again, I will be able to slowly

incorporate this methodology without as many problems as I faced initially.

The referee represents accountability and credentialing and licensing which

ensures that rules are not broken during the match or in this case, during the school

30
year and that if the coach doesnt do a good job then there will be consequences that

could result in termination. The referee oversees the match and alerts the appropriate

party whether a rule has been broken or foul needs to be called. Accountability and

credentialing and licensing all work to make sure that teachers are qualified and that

ineffective teachers are removed from schools like a outraged player would be from a

match.

Accountability

Accountability is something that has become increasingly important in schools

and school district across the country and in a time where the education system is

highly flawed and ineffective, accountability could not be more important. If a change in

how schools operate and the results they produce is going to take place, accountability

needs to be the guiding principles that determine if changes need to be made to how a

school functions. Multiple accountability strategies for assessment have been

suggested. Some these include:

Examine prior test scores, and revise teaching strategies in weak areas.

Align curriculum within and across grade levels

Develop new curricular materials and instructional approaches

Provide multiple test forms and test validity information concerning

children with disabilities and different language backgrounds should be publicly

available.

Tests should align with state standards

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 Report cards that summarize school report cards.

Help schools that perform poorly, and reward those who excel.

Take over schools that never get better over time (Kelley, 2002).

Though multiple suggestions have been offered to increase accountability, the data

does not support the efforts being made. The following statistics show shocking realities

that face our education system and the teachers that are employed.

Out of 95,500 tenured Illinois teachers, an average of only two are fired

each year

Only 1 out of 930 evaluations of tenured teachers result in and

unsatisfactory rating.

In the last ten years, 83% of school districts have not rated a tenure

teacher unsatisfactory.

In the last 18 years, 94% of school districts have never attempted to fire

any teacher who was tenured (Reeder, 2005).

Accountability is a hard problem to tackle because there is more to teaching and

maintaining a job that just the results you produce. Due to emotional attachments that

people have to one another, some teachers are never fired because of seniority or

because the administration likes the person individually. These small components make

up a larger portion of schools and tenured teachers are even harder to get rid of after

they are tenured. Instead of going through the legal measures to get rid of ineffective

tenured teachers, younger more effective teachers are often let go. Teachers who are

32
not held accountable due to poor administration often catch on to this and their job

performance is affected. If no one is managing you, it is extremely easy to stop following

procedures that you see as time consuming or ineffective, even if they are designed and

proven to help you as a teacher. Teachers who are not held accountable slip into a

mundane way of doing things and their classrooms become boring and monotonous

and they are living for the end of the school day every day. Students catch on to this

and then realize that they dont have to try as hard because the teacher isnt trying as

hard and then the slippery slope sends test scores and student performance spiraling

downwards.

Accountability is continuously a problem that the American education system

faces and to see that accountability is effective, steps need to be made to improve the

way we evaluate and employ teachers. Administration also needs to be held

accountable because often times there is ineffective ways or lack of evaluations for

teachers, so feedback is not received or it is ingenuine and then the administration

reports that everything is fine when really there could be a number of teachers at a

school who are adding to the ineffectiveness of the students achievement.

Collaboration among educational professionals is a good way to brainstorm ideas for

how to combat ineffective accountability and how to increase effective accountability in

schools and districts across the country. Though it is a tough conversation to have,

especially if it affects your colleagues, accountability is crucial to the improvement of the

American education system.

Credentialing and Licensing

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 Credentials and licensing for each state can vary and depending on the age level

that you teach at, the variety in which you are assessed to qualify for a teaching license

can differ. For the sake of usefulness, I will not go into detail about every credentialing

and licensing template that is available for each state, but I will go into detail about

Illinoiss teacher licensure program because it is the one that I went through to receive

my professional educators license to teach. Generally, every state requires that you

have completed some sort of practicum, most often times student-teaching where you

are underneath a current teacher and are able to get hands-on experience in an actual

classroom on a consistent basis. Aside from student-teaching, there is usually a test of

some sort that needs to be passed before you can receive a teaching license. Most

states offer reciprocity with other states for teaching licenses, so if you get a teaching

license in Illinois, you also are guaranteed a teaching license in 37 other states in

America, barring you pass their state history test and other minor paperwork

requirements. Credentials vary by state as well. For example, my teaching license for

secondary is valid for grades 9-12 in Illinois, but in Tennessee I would be allowed to

teach 7th-12th grade.

There is currently no universal licensure program in the country, but EdTPA is

one that is gaining popularity in the Big 5states: Illinois, Texas, New York, Florida,

California. EdTPA is run by Pearson, which a big educational company most notable for

their textbook distributions. EdTPA was different than Illinois previous licensure

program which required the completion of student teaching and passing a basic skills

test to ensure that you were a capable teacher. EdTPA requires you to film yourself

teaching in your student teaching placement and assess your students on something

34
they learned in your teaching segment. There are also prompts to complete as you go

through the process that ask you to reflect and evaluate your own teaching, the

students learning and how to make changes to better improve student learning and

your overall teaching styles and techniques. The minimum score to pass is a 35 for

most disciplines in the state of Illinois. The following link can provide more information

about EdTPA and the process that goes into it: http://www.edtpa.com/Home.aspx

The pros of EdTPA is that it requires the teacher candidate to produce evidence

of their teaching that is judged against a set of standards that are predetermined so it is

easier to determine if a teacher is qualified because the evidence is more objective than

a standardized test that EdTPA replaces. Filming yourself teaching really helps you

understand what you need to change because you can see yourself doing it, rather than

having to recall every moment throughout your school day. There are also cons that are

associated with EdTPA. Many people criticize EdTPA because it is run by a private

organization, rather than mandated by the state government. Some people claim this is

a form of privatizing public education because the state just hired out someone to

handle it for them. A private company can then set whatever fees and payments they

see as fit, which puts a capitalistic approach on the licensure of teachers who are

largely entering the public education system. Privacy concerns have also surfaced when

regarding EdTPA. Some people feel that a private company shouldnt be given video

access of students for the sake of licensure and that it is unethical. Because the teacher

candidates are required to get permission slips from students before filming there are

still loopholes that dont fully protect students rights which is a valid reason for why

EdTPA can be a negative thing. Also, EdTPA might just be here for a short time and it is

35
hard to tell the legacy it will have on licensure. Due to constant changes in policy,

licensure can change on a regular basis which makes teacher preparation programs

less consistent across the board and standards become varied based on the state that

you receive your license.

The overall team represents learning styles, gender equity and

multiculturalism. Even if the team does not succeed overall, as long as you are trying

to be inclusive, gender equal and adhering to different learning styles, then you will

have a good environment created that will encourage students to come and try their

best and be comfortable in a place where learning can benefit them greatly. Creating an

atmosphere that sets the stage for equality in the way students are treated and the way

that students learn. Like a soccer team, these aspects of a classroom and an

instructional theory are the fundamentals to building comradery and shifting towards

achieving learning objectives.

Learning Styles

Every student learner is different from the next so it makes sense that every

student learner will have different learning styles and ways that they receive and

interpret information. Though there are numerous learning styles that have been

developed and researched by education and psychological theorists, there are some

that stand out as more prominent in schools. Learning styles refers to the concept that

students differ in regard to what mode of instruction is most effective for them (Pashler,

McDaniel, Rohrer & Bjork, 2012). Differing learning style incorporation in the classroom

is crucial in order to appeal to the variety of learners in the school. When we use

differing learning approaches and processes in a course and point them out to our

36
students as to how they match with the differing learning styles, students can see how

we are attempting to address their individual needs (Hawk & Shah, 2007, p. 15) Many

teachers can find it easy to teach a certain way, but a good teacher should offer

alternative and duplicative ways to connect with the differing learning styles pushes us

to use differing learning approaches and activities in class (Hawk & Shah, 2007, p.

15).

There are many pros to offering different learning styles for students to explore.

Overall, the results of research that indicate higher student performance in courses

when faculty matches learning activities with students learning styles (Hawk & Shah,

2007, p. 8). So students who are given opportunities to succeed by being engaged with

different learning styles actually show proof that their student performance is greatly

improved. As we continue to dive into the student learner and the various aspects that

make up the student learner, we will see that incorporating various learning activities

into the curriculum will have a positive impact on students. Also, because of the results

schools look for in students, we are much more skills driven when we are trying to teach

students. Possessing skills over knowledge is key, due to the increase in 21st century

literacies. By offering learning activities that greatly impact students variety of learning

styles we are enabling more diversity of thought and application, rather than a set way

of doing things.

There are a few cons associated with incorporating various learning styles into

the curriculum, even though they are mostly associated with time management and

practicality. Most teachers tend to stick to a consistent method of teaching because it

becomes easier for them and they have to put less effort forward to engage students.

37
Unfortunately, these teachers tend to be the least engaging, and their students are often

times bored in class. Teachers say that offering learning activities that appeal to all

learning styles would be impractical because it would take too much time and the

teacher wouldnt be able to actually get any teaching done due to how overworked they

are. Ultimately, these teachers are the ones that tend to be ineffective and last very

short time spans at a school. As a teacher, you have to be adaptive and be ready to

change the way you teach on a consistent basis.

Overall, I think that using different learning styles in the classroom is very much

needed especially as we continue to learn more about how student learners act and

behave and interact in school. I remember my own high school was really good at

incorporating various learning activities to try to engage all of the students. Since my

high school was the best public high school in the state of Tennessee, the teachers and

administration were adamant about how they engaged the student learner. As a high

school student, I never really noticed that we were being exposed to various learning

styles, but looking back it is clear. The benefits for me were substantial. The experience

I received in high school has made my college career easier than I had anticipated and

for that I am very grateful that my high school made it a point to incorporate various

learning styles in the classroom.

Gender Equity

Gender equity is a huge topic that has been a reoccurring issue in the public

education system, as well as American society, and the two are closely tied together.

Throughout the 20th century, gender equity was a huge issue in American society and it

reflected into the classroom. Women didnt even have the right to vote until the 19th

38
amendment was passed in 1920, not to mention the continual wage gap that has

existed between men and women since then. If schools are discriminating the quality of

education based on sex due to cultural components that are expressed by

administration or teachers, that school needs to be reevaluated and corrected of this

injustice. The 1970s became a time when gender equity had to be addressed as a

major issue within the public education system. Educational sex discrimination became

illegal in 1972 when Congress passed Title IX of the Educational Amendments to the

Civil Rights Act. Under the 1988 Civil Rights Restoration Act, Title IX states, No person

in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be

denied benefits of or be subjected to discrimination under any education program of

activity receiving Federal financial assistance (Golombisky, 2002, p. 53-54).

Gender equity within schools is extremely beneficial for students because it

shows that in order to be successful you dont have to be of a certain gender. It also

deconstructs the social norms of men being superior to women which has been a major

component of American society up until just recently. People who feel that gender

equity is negative are most likely misogynistic and their opinions should be ignored for

providing rationale behind the negative effects of gender equity. For those who deny

that gender equity is an issue are also clearly misinformed or blind to the gender gap

that our country is still to this day facing. When looking at gender equity there are some

factors to consider when addressing the issue. According to the research by

deLacoste (deSimone & Durden-Smith, 1987), the corpus collosum (a thick bundle of

fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain) is twice as large in females

than in males. With this larger link between their two brain hemispheres, females

39
appear to have a stronger connection between their logical left hemispheres and their

creative, affective right hemispheres, allowing females to switch back and forth between

the hemispheres faster than males (Funk, 2002, p. 5). If gender equity was a matter of

one thinking that males are smarter or faster thinkers than females, this would prove

that idea quite wrong. Clearly, women are just as mentally equipped, if not more so as

younger girls, then their male counterparts.

I feel gender equity has a lot to do with our societal norms and especially with the

rise of the current presidential administration. The bigotry and misogyny that has arisen

due to this past election has baffled me because no matter what the president says,

there seem to be no repercussions for him. His comments that degrade and objectify

women are absurd and though people complain and lash out, nothing actually happens

and the millions of people that support the president hold his opinions and values as

their own. The stigma that gender equity is not an issue is extremely apparent if you talk

to people about the issue. People have a very misconstrued idea of what gender equity

actually looks like and many people will say they support it, until it comes time to do

something about it within their own lives. The lack of gender equity is a cultural and

societal norm that needs to be deconstructed, but that can only happen when there is a

leader who can guide the American people to this ideal.

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism, like gender equity, is a very prominent issue within schools

across America. Due to the lack of diversity in some communities, multiculturalism can

potentially be hard to see in a classroom and in some classes, it might be hard to

incorporate into the curriculum. Dictionary.com defines multiculturalism as the

40
preservation of different cultures or cultural identities within a unified society, as a state

or nation. In our increasingly diverse country and world, it is important that students

interact with people from other cultures so that they can learn about them and become a

more open-minded individual. There are many people in the educational realm who

support multiculturalism, but like any idea, theory or strategy in education there is some

opposition to the multiculturalism.

There are many pros associated with multiculturalism. These include exposing

children to various traditions and environments, allows children an opportunity to grow

and it is a fairly simple way to begin vocational training. When only one culture is

learned about, it becomes easy to believe that this culture is superior to all others. A

multicultural education shows children [and adults] the strengths that everyone brings to

the table (Lombardo, 2015). If students are only informed about one type of culture or

perspective their outlook on the world will be very limited and one-sided. When we can

learn from our differences, we become stronger as a people. Multicultural education

encourages this process by helping us all to see the world in a different way.

Sometimes what we may think is the best solution to a problem really isnt because of

what other cultures have already discovered (Lombardo, 2015). Students learn better

when they can engage with others that are different from them and in a globalizing

world, being able to communicate with those who are culturally different from you is very

important.

There are also a number of cons associated with multiculturalism. These cons

include people believing that students lose a bit of their own personal identity, that the

values of some cultures might be inappropriate for students in our society and that it can

41
create conflicts among families. These are all problems that take a bit of common sense

and cultural patience until they can be fully eradicated from the social mindset. Who we

are is just as special as who others are. Many multicultural education programs focus

only on other cultures without providing an education within the culture of the student. It

is important to know oneself just as it is important to know about what makes other

people tick (Lombardo, 2015). If students lose their own identity, there can be serious

implications, but this is perhaps an extreme case. A more prominent con is that younger

children are more impressionable so the difference in cultures may have negative

effects on students. Not every culture supports racial equality. Some cultures focus on

the family group only. Others are self-ruling entities that remove the idea of a ruling

government. Some support pacifism and others support war. These different values can

sometimes be confusing or have a detrimental effect on a students education

(Lombardo, 2015). Also since many communities could have similar values or be similar

in race or religion, the introduction of new ideas might challenge these values and

understandings of the world and there could be lashing out from these families, which is

unfortunate and sad, but inevitably a problem that faces this country, especially in this

day and age.

Overall, I support multiculturalism in schools and it has personally helped me

become a more open-minded person. My middle school had a large portion of the

student population being Kurdish, Hispanic and black, so there were always students in

my classes that were different from me and I really enjoyed that. My high school was

also very diverse and because it was an academic magnet school, there was a push to

be more multicultural in all our classes. I think that my multicultural education has

42
defined who I am and how I see the world. Without that exposure to various cultures

throughout my childhood, I would have a very different and perhaps close-minded world

view.

The coach represents direction giving and feedback and criticism. Like a

coach, the teacher has the ability to increase morale and be more effective in how they

teach/coach to ensure that students can grow. If a coach gives bad directions on plays

or advice on how to play the game, the players will be negatively impacted by the poor

coaching. If a student gets bad directions from a teacher they will likely be confused and

then they are negatively impacted by it because their end product isn't what the teacher

was expecting and that's because of the initial directions that were given. The same

goes for feedback and criticism. If a coach gives no feedback or criticism then the

players will never think they need to improve. The same applies to a teacher. If a coach

gives overly negative feedback and criticism, then the players morale is impacted and

the player will potentially play less or be scared of the coach and their work is in turn

negatively affected. The same goes for a teacher. If positive feedback and constructive

criticism are used by a coach, then there will be a better chance of players growing and

being able to achieve at a higher level. The same can be said about a teacher.

Direction-Giving

Direction-giving is another part of the learning process that is overlooked for its

importance. This teaching skill is the basis of an activity and can either cause students

to know exactly what is expected of them or lead them to ask countless questions that

distract from the main point of the activity. Direction-giving is part of establishing set, but

due to its importance can be looked at singularly. Without clear directions students have

43
no guide for the activity and therefore have to ask the teacher follow up questions that

leads to inconsistency among student performance. The most important part of direction

giving is that they are specific (Inspiring Teachers [IT], 2006). If directions are vague

then most likely student responses will be vague and not meet the expectation that the

teacher might have set. Direction giving is a skill that most teachers assume they are

good at, but it is hard to determine until actually being exposed to it on a consistent

basis.

When I first started my student teaching, I explained directions for activities and

assignments very informally and casually, under the impression that since it made

sense in my head, it should make sense in the head of the students. That was my first

mistake. Over time and through the guidance of my cooperating teacher I learned to be

as specific as possible and to go over directions very slowly. A technique I adopted to

improve my direction giving was to have the students repeat back to me the directions.

This insured that they at least heard the directions, and then I could get a good idea of

what needed to be reclarified. This technique reduced the amount of questions that

were being asked that pertained to simple logistical problems, such as guidelines and

what sources were appropriate to use. I also found that always providing the students

with a hard copy of directions was extremely helpful. The hard copy let the students

refer to directions whenever they needed, rather than continuously asking me or their

other classmates.

The pros of direction giving are that they clarify student questions relating to a

learning activity before the student engages in the work. Direction giving is the basis for

the assignment so if the teacher gives clear and concise directions, it is likely the

44
students will be less confused when completing the activity. Direction giving also allows

students a consistent time to ask clarification questions, knowing that when directions

are being given that it is an appropriate time to ask for more clarification on the

assignment. Cons of direction giving are that if they are not clear, students will be more

confused and the teacher might end up back tracking continuously to help their students

understand. Also if the language used is unfamiliar to students, then they can be very

confused. According Teaching Children with Developmental Disabilities, it also

important that teachers provide the directions in a vocabulary the students can

understand, as well as incorporate visual cues as needed to help children to better

grasp the directions. (Teaching Children with Developmental Disabilities [TCDD],

2007).

Direction giving can generally be found at the beginning of a learning activity and

this is where it naturally occurs in the classroom. It wouldnt make sense to give

students an assignment and assume they know what is expected without informing

them upfront. Direction-giving establishes the goals of the assignment and generally

doesnt take up much time. Most teachers think it is only a small part of the learning

process and though it is a small part in relation to time, it is very crucial to student

understanding. One sentence can be enough to stump a student and have them feeling

completely confused. When planning for direction giving time, be sure to think of all

aspects of the assignment and try to look at the assignment from the student

perspective. This will make it easier to avoid mistakes and reword directions to make

more sense.

Feedback and Criticism

45
 Feedback and criticism are two very necessary parts to the learning process and

though they may not seem like it at first, they are skills that teachers need to understand

in order to be more effective. The way a teacher gives feedback and criticism to their

students can have many implications on any particular student. Feedback and criticism

can be defined simply as a teacher response or reaction to student work involving a

learning activity. There are various other definitions of feedback and criticism out there,

but the one provided is perhaps the easiest to illustrate. Teachers use feedback and

criticism in order to improve student learning and support student growth. Reflecting

back on my years throughout the public school system, there are plenty of times I can

remember getting very positive feedback and constructive criticism from teachers. That

feedback and criticism was extremely beneficial in developing my writing skills and

improve my understanding of Pre-Calculus, to name a few. On the other hand, I also

received feedback and criticism that was very negative or unhelpful in solving an issue

with my work. I found that this feedback correlated strongly with my lack of chemistry

skills in high school. As one can imagine, feedback and criticism has the power to really

help students who are struggling to understand concepts and ideas or even need help

with small details.

Feedback and criticism comes in many different forms and are not consistent

across all schools or classrooms. What might work in one school might not work in

another, while a technique that works for elementary students might still be applicable to

high school students. People usually think of feedback being positive and criticism being

negative, but that is only a matter of perception. Feedback and criticism can be both

positive and/or negative and from my own personal experience I have found that

46
constructive criticism goes a longer way if there is positive feedback scattered

throughout the work. Students seem much more willing to listen to your constructive

comments when they are also being praised in other areas. If a teacher only negatively

criticizes a students work, then that student is less likely to learn from their mistake and

instead just get upset. Also if a teacher is not specific and offers very general

comments, the student could view this as unhelpful or ingenuine and thus discredit

further feedback and criticisms from the teacher. According to a study done on student

learning outcomes, Feedback is more effective when it is concrete, specific, focused,

and descriptive. (Rucker & Thomson, 2003)

Different techniques for feedback and criticism are helpful for teachers struggling

with how to be more effective in their grading. Columbia University published an article

discussing ways to incorporate feedback and what type of feedback is beneficial to

students. In order to keep students motivated and engaged they offered six different

methods when grading. These methods include establishing a climate of trust and

respect, not overwhelming students, keeping comments impersonal, referring back to

your grading criteria, phrasing comments in I terms (I got lost here. Im confused, etc.),

structuring your comments as questions or suggestions and rephrase the papers main

point and using questions to identify errors. (Columbia University, n.d.) These

techniques dont have to all be present in order to provide helpful feedback and criticism

and they can also be used as a basis for verbal comments, rather than just written

comments.

The pros of feedback and criticism are that students can get direction on how to

improve their work and have a basis from which they can grow from. Feedback and

47
criticism, if completed with attention to detail, can be the tipping point in a student who is

performing below expectations and can help them get back on track. Students are also

given a realistic understanding of how doing a poor job on something can have much

bigger consequences than just a bad grade on a paper. By offering feedback and

criticism, the teacher provides the student with a way to improve, which makes the

student a better learner and can motivate the student to achieve at a higher level. The

cons of feedback and criticism are usually seen when there is a lack of attention to a

students work or if the feedback is too critical or if a student is patronizingly praised.

When students are criticized too much, they will take the feedback as unfair, while if

they are praised for adequate work, then they will either be unmotivated to improve or

given a false impression that they are meeting expectations.

The home team fan section represents community involvement and family

involvement. The more fans you have at your games, cheering you on and supporting

the team, the better the players are going to feel and the more validated they are going

to feel when facing more difficult opponents. It boosts the confidence of a team when

there is a big and supportive fan base that are consistent and encouraging. The same

goes for how a community and family involvement affect student learning at school and

in the classroom.

Family Involvement

Family involvement is extremely important in the education sector because

parents are the ones that either reinforce or allow certain behaviors to take place at the

home and those can transfer to the school the next day. Low family involvement can

show lower achievement rates in students, a lack of motivation and constantly

48
distracted students. Many people attribute success of students to their wealth, with poor

students doing significantly worse than their rich counterparts. According to the National

Education Association, Research shows that the most accurate predictor of a students

achievement in school is not income or social status, but the extent to which that

students family is able to: Create a home environment that encourages learning;

Express high (but not unrealistic) expectations for their childrens achievement and

future careers; Become involved in their childrens education at school and in the

community (NEA, 2007). In general, students with higher family involvement tend to do

better in school.

There are multiple pros to family involvement. First, parents who volunteer in the

school can be a valuable resource to a teacher who may feel overwhelmed at certain

parts of the day. Parents can sometimes provide resources that the school cant afford

or help raise money for certain school supplies or events. Also, students who are aware

that their parent is actively involved with the school have less of a chance of getting into

behavioral trouble because they know the consequences could be severe and

potentially immediate. Parents who are involved are aware of how their child is doing

academically and chaperones on field trips are always hard to find, which shows that

parent involvement really benefits a school and the overall achievement of the students.

The more parent involvement increases the chance that a student will do better in

school. Parent involvement sometimes has a ripple effect and all it takes is one parent

to start a culture of involvement at the school.

There are also some cons associated with family involvement. Sometimes

parents can get too involved and helicopter over their own student which increases

49
level of stress, distraction and anxiety in the student. Parents can also be unfairly

biased towards their student and cheating can take place without the teacher or student

being aware what is going on. Parents can sometimes try to dominate the classroom,

which can cause an unnecessary clash between the parent and the teacher. Sometimes

parents can express their personal views which can be inappropriate for the classroom

setting and can serve to distract students rather than engage them in work. If a parent

brings additional children to the school, this can also create a distracting environment

and takes away the benefits that parent involvement can have in the classroom.

There are multiple ways to increase family involvement at schools. Some tips for

ways to get parents and families more involved include allowing parents to volunteer at

the school, creating a strong Parent Teacher Organization (PTO), adding more events

that require parents to attend, such as fundraisers, food drives and sporting events.

Many people think that there is only a few ways to increase parent involvement, but they

fail to see that some families get involved in different ways. While I was completing my

student teaching, I often went to home basketball games to support the school and my

students who played on those teams. Those parents were often seen selling tickets for

sporting events and promoting general school spirit around the community, which paid

off because the team placed 3rd in state when I was there. Other ways parents can get

involved is just through simple parent-teacher conferences, and this was the most

discouraging thing about my student-teaching placement. Though we had two days for

parent-teacher conferences, only 2 parents showed up the entire time. I asked my

teacher why that was and he said it was because many people in the community had

multiple jobs or just felt that their student was doing fine, even if they werent. I think

50
parent and family involvement is a great way for communities to come together and

build up a school that could potentially use the help.

Community Involvement

Community involvement is extremely important for schools and students. Not

only are there many social benefits, there are also many civic benefits to getting

students involved in the community. Community involvement can take a variety of

forms. Some of the more common forms of community involvement involve starting a

recycling program, picking up trash around the surrounding neighborhood, fundraising

for a cause or collaborating with local government to organize awareness or some other

event to the community. The scope of community involvement is virtually limitless and it

is in a schools best interest to get involved with the community in some capacity due to

the relationship the school naturally will have with the community.

There are multiple pros to community involvement for schools. These pros

include getting students mind off of work and they can focus on something like giving

back which increases levels of intrinsic motivation. Community involvement is a great

way for students to begin networking and expanding their relationships outside of just

their friend group or school. Other pros include stress relief, which is an increasing issue

in schools as test scores are high stakes areas that students can think too much into.

Service learning can also be tied to community involvement, so that you can incorporate

learning activities and lesson plans into the work you do for the community. Though

there are a lot of pros, there are also some cons associated with community

involvement. Most of the pros are associated with not being able to do enough when

you do get involved in the community. Community involvement takes time and

51
organization, and this can be difficult to schedule with other priorities scattered

throughout the school year. Because community service is never truly finished, starting

a community involvement project could potentially lead to more issues being seen and

more involvement necessary to fully complete a project. Another problem with

community involvement is that it can be difficult to motivate the students to care,

especially if the community involvement is something that doesnt genuinely interest the

students. It will be hard to get everyone in the class on the same page, but hopefully it

allows them the opportunity to discuss why certain projects are more important and that

is a good quality to have, especially in a social studies classroom.

When I was in elementary school, one of our staff members started a recycling

program at the school and it really took off. From being just at the school to being open

to the entire community, recycling became a huge trend that she started and was able

to raise a lot of awareness. Students got involved by volunteering to help unload cars to

recycle receptacles on the weekends when the recycling center was open. The school

would have recycling dumpsters delivered every weekend so that the neighborhood and

surrounding community could drop off recyclables. It became so popular that eventually

the recycling receptacles became permanent at the school. My middle school got

involved in the community by raising money on an annual basis for a local charity, and

we also had a lot of canned food drives. Sometimes community involvement isnt even

realized by the students because it just feels like something fun that they do in school,

and they dont think about it for what it truly is. Overall, community involvement played a

big part in my public education experience, though I never really thought about it like

that until I needed to reflect on my schooling. Students should be active participants in

52
community involvement whether they attend public school or not. Adding value to the

community you live in is a great way to get involved and see your work really pay off.

The soccer ball represents the overall learning objective. If the entire team cooperates

and works together, than it will be easy to score a goal or have that learning objective

reached. But if the team is outmatched or does not play together properly or effectively,

the ball can be scored on your own team, and this is where a teacher needs to

reevaluate their techniques and possible shift some items around.

The field itself represents overall classroom management. If there is poor

classroom management, then there will be poor results and it will be harder to reach

learning objectives for students. Poor classroom management is like a muddy or patchy

field. If the field is not upkept and there are a bunch of divets throughout the field, then it

will be harder to move the ball up the field and it will make the pace of the game. Plays

begin to not work as well when the field is poorly maintained and the same goes for

lesson plans when there is poor classroom management.

Classroom Management

Classroom management is defined as the actions teachers take to create an

environment that supports and facilitates both academic and social-emotional learning

(Evertson & Weinstein, 2006, p. 4). Classroom management is done through a variety

of techniques and depending on the classroom you have and the way the students

interact and behave the techniques you use to manage your classroom could vary by

class period or by school year. Regardless, the classroom is a place that has some

consistencies, so your classroom management techniques shouldnt be that drastically

53
different for each class you teach. Generally, classrooms have the following

characteristics:

one teacher leading instruction for 20 to 40 students of varying backgrounds;

a designated period of instructional time each weekday;

a physical space including equipment, furniture, and materials in which to

coordinate all instruction and interactions;

dynamic settings in which actions and events change rapidly;

a designated purpose (e.g., specified content area[s] to cover); and

accountability for demonstrating evidence of student learning (Evertson &

Poole, 2008).

In creating a classroom management plan, it is important to look at all the

components and instances in a classroom that could leave students an opportunity to

be confused, disrupted or unfocused. The learning styles used as a teacher need to

have ties to classroom management. For example, a learning-centered classroom uses

classroom management techniques while still providing a quality education. If the

students know what they are doing because they were informed by the teacher, they

are more likely to stay on track and behave appropriately. A few examples of this

include:

how and when to move from group to group

what the appropriate noise and voice levels are for group interactions

how, when, and from whom to get help with academic content

54
 how, when, and from whom to get help with procedural content

how, when, and where to obtain needed materials (Evertson & Randolph,

1999).

These might not seem like classroom management techniques, but they maintain

consistency from students and allow little room for students to deviate from expectations

and act out in the classroom, disrupting the learning environment for the class.

Classroom management is a hotly debated topic in the educational realm. The

term classroom management to some is synonymous with discipline, punishment, or

control. And while some see discipline as the implementation of negative

consequences or tight teacher control, others view this word as indicating the self-

discipline we have as a goal for students to ultimately achieve (Evertson & Poole,

2008). Due to the inconsistencies among research in a wide variety of educational

environments, only recently within the 21st century has there been a deliberate process

to gather collective research on classroom management techniques and results. No

matter the techniques used by teachers, it is clear that classroom management changes

depending on your personal teaching style. Teachers should collaborate, but some

techniques might not work effectively in your classroom. There are certain general traits

to every classroom management plan, but the minor details might need to be adjusted

based on the students, school, subject matter, etc. Overall, I think my own classroom

management skills were challenged and strengthened during my student teaching

experience and I am excited to apply what I learned there towards my future classroom.

55
 The clock represents time on task and like a clock it represents how much time

is left in class or during the match. There are times when pauses are acceptable, but

like a soccer match, the time doesn't stop even when the ball is out of play. In a

classroom, a teacher has a limited amount of time It is usually around 45 minutes which

is how a long a soccer match half is. If you have block scheduling at your school you

can look at it as full 90 minute class period or a full match. No matter how long you

have, even in soccer the entire time is not spent on scoring a goal, but rather slowly and

deliberately working the ball up the field using every player for the function they have in

the overall end objective. If time on task is utilized effectively and every player does

their part then it is easier and faster to move the ball up field and more learning

objectives can be reached and more goals can be scored.

Time on Task

Time on task refers to the amount of time that students are actually working on

assignments or engaging in some sort of learning stimulus, rather than being distracted

or socializing with their friends or on their phones. The time on task will never be the full

length of the class and there are a variety of reasons for that. For starters, even the

most well managed class of students will have questions or personal issues that can

arise throughout the class period that inevitably disrupt the learning environment.

Teachers need to understand how the students in their classrooms behave so that they

can maximize time on task.

A teacher who maximizes the time students stay on task will see less

behavior problems and more care in the work from the students. If the students are

distracted and off track, then this reflects the teacher and how they are engaging the

56
students. The more a teacher can get students to stay focused, the better the students

will perform. Four steps to incorporating time on task in students starts with explanation,

modeling, guided practice and independent practice. The pros and cons of time on task

are simple. The pros are that if students spend more time on task, they will understand

the material better and perform better on assessments. The cons of time on task are

that if a student isnt on task, they will be less prepared and understand the material far

less. There isnt really a con to maximizing time on task within the classroom setting.

A few tips to increase time on task include a few components:

1. Accurately diagnose each students knowledge and skill level

2. Prescribe learning tasks appropriate to a students levels

3. Structure engaging lessons around the learning tasks and give clear,

concise task directions

4. Have substantive teacher-student interaction during the lesson, such as:

modeling, guiding students as they practice, asking probing questions, giving corrective

feedback (Florida Education Association, n.d).

Ultimately, time on task is extremely important, but can also prove to be the

hardest part about teaching. Students are constantly losing focus and decreasing

attention spans play a huge role in how much time is spent on tasks within the

classroom. Students might seem like they are on task, but if they continually are

distracted and disrupted by others or their cellphones, it is hard to justify how much time

is actually spent on task. To maximize time on task, a teacher needs to be informed on

the behaviors and personalities of the students and to better assist the students the

57
teacher needs to address these issues to maximize time on task. Creating a time task

chart can be a helpful way to begin to increase time on task within your own classroom.

The following image is an example of a time on task chart:

The opposing fan base represents student misconceptions and they are the

challenge to scoring/achieving learning objectives. Sometimes the misconceptions are

strong, making it harder to overcome them and move past so that learning objectives

can be reached. The team that a soccer team plays is going to bring obstacles and

students who believe a certain thing about education are going to be that opposing fan

base that is extremely amped and gets in your head. If you allow student

misconceptions to run the classroom, then you hand over the game to the students to

ignore and become disengaged bystanders in the classroom.

Student Misconceptions

Often times the student learner is misunderstood and misconceptions about them

are made, as well as the student learner having their own misconceptions about

learning. Teachers and students both misunderstand each other and this can lead to a

lack of fluid communication between students and the teacher. This has an impact on

the learning environment and if misconceptions go on without being addressed, they

can lead students to doubt themselves and their abilities. There are many

misconceptions revolving around the student learner. Some of the more popular

misconceptions are that basic facts come before deep learning, rigorous education

means a teacher talking, covering it means teaching it, teaching to student interests

means dumbing it down, acceleration means rigor, a quiet classroom means good

learning, traditional schooling prepares students for life (Strauss, 2012).

58
 The pros to misconceptions revolving around learning, the teacher and the

students are that these misconceptions are not true. So students who come in with

predispositions about learning, will quickly realize that what they initially thought about it

wasnt entirely true. Teachers can use these misconceptions to their advantage by

working to engage students in why they feel a certain way. I think this a great

opportunity for students and teachers to reflect on their educational experience and

determine why they feel the way they do. Once this is done, the teacher can begin to

reshape the mindset of the students on learning, and students can have possibly a

more enlightened understanding of the misconceptions revolving around learning.

The cons of misconceptions revolving around learning, the teacher and the

students have very dire consequences if not addressed. Since students often have a

predisposition about learning that can be fairly negative due to past experiences with

teachers, classes and even other students. This can cause students to be less open to

trying new learning activities and can often times lead them to be less motivated in

completing assignments or participate in class. Teachers need to be aware that every

students experience involving education and learning is going to be different, but in

order to avoid the problems associated with those, the teacher should really address

these misconceptions at the beginning of the school year or as they come up.

When I was a student in middle and high school, I had a lot of misconceptions

revolving around education and student learning. First, I figured that if you were in

advanced classes, that automatically made you smarter than the other students. Due to

how my middle school was set up, the classes were divided by how advanced students

were. For example, I took geometry in 8th grade while many other students were two

59
years below me in math. Because we were in different, harder classes, we had the idea

that we were smarter, when in fact it had nothing to do with that. In high school, I

thought that if I participated in class, I would be able to learn the material, without

having to do outside studying. I quickly learned that this was not the case and that after

failing my first quiz, I realized I need to look at the way I learned and change my habits

to best benefit myself.

Summary

Overall, there are many aspects of a match of soccer that can be related to

education and how the different components interact. Hopefully, this has been insightful

on my own instructional theory and my own teacher style can be visualized a bit. My

instructional theory will become more developed as I grow as an educator over the

years and I look forward to how my instructional theory shapes to encompass so many

aspects of education and teaching that I left out in this extensive paper. When it comes

down to it, there is no one way to educate students. There are countless ways and by

being genuine, kind-hearted and open to ideas an educator can truly create a classroom

environment where students enjoy learning and are interested in the material. Education

is a field that relies on teachers who are up to face the challenges set before them, and

to adapt to overcome obstacles that stand in the way of educating students to be

informed and engaged citizens and open-minded, individual thinkers. Like a soccer

match, depending on the different aspects that make up a soccer match, the outcomes

reflect it. Teachers who put forth the effort will be much more likely to succeed and win

a FIFA World Cup Championship within the classroom.

60
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