General verb introduction

There are five basic sentence structures in English. More complex sentences are created with
one of these basic structures at its core.

Subject-verb The girl sings.

Casey ran.
Subject-Verb-Direct Object I ate the apples.

She kicked the ball.

Subject-Verb-Indirect Object I go to the cinema.

It remains in the box.

Subject-Verb-Adjective Colin is handsome.

I am happy.
Subject-Verb-Adverb Sarah runs quickly.

Maria talks quietly.

Subject-Verb-Noun I am a student.

John is a plumber.

There are also three main auxiliary verbs you need to understand in English. Auxiliary verbs
help the main verb by adding different tenses, mood, and voices.

Auxiliary verbs

Will Be Do Shall
Would Should Can Could
 May Might Must Have

I should be cooking dinner right now.

She would like to hike Mount Shasta one day.

They must come over by 4pm.

There are three main auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have. These three can either be main
verbs or auxiliary verbs.

Form To be To do To have
Base form Be Do Have
Present form Am/is/are Do/does Have/has
Past form Was/were Did Had
Present participle Being Doing Having
Past participle Been Done Had

To be is the most used verb in the English language. It can be used to create the passive voice
or progressive sentences.

I am eating lunch

He was chosen to participate

To do, as an auxiliary verb, is always followed by the infinitive of the main verb. It is used in
negative sentences, in questions, and to add emphasis to a positive sentence.
 She does run in the mornings, I swear!

Do you like cake?

To have is another one of the most common verbs used in English. It is often used in questions
and perfect sentences.

Have you seen my cat?

Has he finished his homework yet?

General verb introduction

There are five basic sentence structures in English. More complex sentences are created with
one of these basic structures at its core.

Subject-verb The girl sings.

Casey ran.
Subject-Verb-Direct Object I ate the apples.

She kicked the ball.

Subject-Verb-Indirect Object I go to the cinema.

It remains in the box.

Subject-Verb-Adjective Colin is handsome.
 I am happy.
Subject-Verb-Adverb Sarah runs quickly.

Maria talks quietly.

Subject-Verb-Noun I am a student.

John is a plumber.

There are also three main auxiliary verbs you need to understand in English. Auxiliary verbs
help the main verb by adding different tenses, mood, and voices.

Auxiliary verbs

Will Be Do Shall
Would Should Can Could
May Might Must Have

I should be cooking dinner right now.

She would like to hike Mount Shasta one day.

They must come over by 4pm.

There are three main auxiliary verbs: to be, to do, and to have. These three can either be main
verbs or auxiliary verbs.

Form To be To do To have
Base form Be Do Have
 Present form Am/is/are Do/does Have/has
Past form Was/were Did Had
Present participle Being Doing Having
Past participle Been Done Had

To be is the most used verb in the English language. It can be used to create the passive voice
or progressive sentences.

I am eating lunch

He was chosen to participate

To do, as an auxiliary verb, is always followed by the infinitive of the main verb. It is used in
negative sentences, in questions, and to add emphasis to a positive sentence.

She does run in the mornings, I swear!

Do you like cake?

To have is another one of the most common verbs used in English. It is often used in questions
and perfect sentences.

Have you seen my cat?

Has he finished his homework yet?

 Affirmative, interrogative and negative form

Verbs in English come in three main forms: the affirmative, the negative, and the
interrogative.

The affirmative= asserting that something is true or valid.

The negative= a reply denying something.

The interrogative= asking a question.

Heres an overview of how each form is structured for most verb tenses in the English language.

Verb Tense Affirmative Negative Interrogative

Present Simple I see you. I dont see you. Do I see you?
Present continuous Shes reading. Shes not reading. Is she reading?
Past simple I cooked dinner. I didnt cook dinner. Did I cook dinner?
Past simple continuous They were skiing. They werent skiing. Were they skiing?
Present perfect We have seen it. We havent seen it. Have we seen it?
Present perfect Weve been singing. We havent been Have we been
continuous singing. singing?
Past perfect She had studied. She hadnt studied. Had she studied?
Past perfect continuous She had been She hadnt been Had she been
studying. studying. studying?
Future simple I will travel. I wont travel. Will I travel?
Future simple He will be travelling. He wont be Will he be
continuous travelling. travelling?
Future perfect He will have finished. He wont have Will he have
finished. finished?
Future perfect He will have been He wont have been Will he have been
continuous finishing. finishing. finishing?
Conditional It would work I wouldnt work. Would it work?
Conditional continuous They would be They wouldnt be Would they be
running. running. running?
Conditional perfect She would have been She wouldnt have Would she have
happy. been happy. been happy?

Simple present

1. Simple present use

When to use simple present

This tense has a range of uses; however, it doesnt express actions happening in the moment. It
can be expressed in three different ways: affirmative, interrogative, and negative. Well start with
the general outline of present simple in the affirmative form.

Using simple present

To express general truth, emotions, and I play soccer.

repeated or habitual actions.
She volunteers at school.

My parents live in Maine.

To express a fixed event or arrangement in
the near future.
To express a future event after certain
conjunctions like: as soon as, before, after,
or until.
To give directions or instructions.
Kerrys plane arrives at 6pm.
My appointment is at 8am tomorrow.
I will come after I run 10 miles.
I will come over as soon as I find my keys.
Take a left at the light and continuer
another 5 minutes.

Rules for conjugating simple present:

 Use the base of the verb to conjugate present simple. Add an -s to the base for the third person
(she thinks, he cleans, etc.)

Verbs ending in -y should be changed to -ies (study studies) for the third person. Come
exceptions are play (plays) and pray (prays).

Add an -es to verbs that end in -ss, -ch, -sh, and -x (wash washes, hush hushes)

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Run run runs
Study study studies
Catch catch catches
Pass pass passes

To be is one of the most important verbs to know. As an irregular verb, it can also be a bit
harder to master.

Subject pronoun Full form Contracted form

I Am Im
You Are Youre
He/she/it Is Shes
We Are Were
They Are Theyre
 They arrange the chairs each morning. She arranges the chairs each morning.

I sing in a choir. He sings in a choir.

We are angry at the courts decision. She is angry at the courts decision.

Add do/does before the subject to switch from the affirmative simple present to interrogative.
Do will precede all subject pronouns except the third person. The subject pronouns it/she/he
require does. The new sentence structure will look like this:

Do/does + subject + verb

The negative form also requires do/does:

Subject + do/does +not + Verb

Interrogative Full negative Contracted negative

Do I run? I do not run. I dont run.
Do you run? You do not run. You dont run.
Does she/he/it run? She does not run. She doesnt run.
Do we run? We do not run. We dont run.
Do they run? They do not run. They dont run.

2. Simple present continuous

 The present continuous is used to describe an action happening right now. It is composed of
two parts. It begins with the verb to be in present tense, which is then followed by present
participle of the main verb. The present participle is the verb base + -ing.

Using present continuous

An action happening right now. Youre reading a description of present

continuous.
A future plan that has already been Shes going to London in the spring.
planned.
A continuous, repeated action. Im always practicing guitar.

A temporary situation. Shes working late tonight.

Im doing my homework.

Harry is fixing his bike.

Caroline isnt running much because of her injury.

Were going on vacation next week!

Verbs to avoid in present continuous

There are some verbs that should be avoided in present continuous; instead, use them in simple
present. As a rule of thumb, these verbs refer more to a state of being (as opposed to an action).
Here are some of the most common of these verbs:
 To notice To believe To wish To regret
To weigh To smell To fear To hope
To dislike To contain To taste To see
To doubt To assume To be To want

They cover emotions, senses, opinions, measurements, and mental states. However, this doesnt
mean these verbs can never be used in present continuous. Rather, its best to double-check
them.

Simple past

1. Simple past use

The simple past is used to describe an action that has already been completed in the past. It
may refer to the recent or very distant past.

Using the simple past

A completed action in the past (or series of
completed actions in the past).
A period of time in the past.
I walked the dog last night.
I ran five miles, then I showered, and
afterwards, I went to work.
I lived in France for three years.

I worked at the Embassy for three months.

Past generalizations that are no longer the Cars were less fuel efficient in the 80s.
same.
Pip was a shy child.
Past habits (that have since changed). I played basketball in high school.

I trained to be a ballerina in my twenties.

 Rules for conjugating simple past:

Base verb + -ed

Common irregular verbs include: speak ( spoke), make ( made), take ( took), etc. Its
best to memorize the irregular verbs.

Verb Past simple Passive voice

Call Called Was called
Pay Paid Was paid
See Saw Was seen
Finish Finished Was finished

Examples:

I called the hotel yesterday.

I saw the play last week; it was great!

The company was sold to the highest bidder.

Lacy ran three marathons last year.

Irregular verbs
Draw drew Fly flew Catch caught Cut cut
Make made Hold held Fight fought Give gave
Meetmet Say said Singsang Tell told
Write wrote Sell sold Spendspent Sleep slept
 2. Simple past continuous

The past continuous, also called the past progressive, describes an action or event that began
in the past and is still ongoing. The action wasnt completed in the past (like with the simple
past).

Using the past continuous

To describe an action that was interrupted I was sleeping when the alarm went off.
by a shorter action.
I was concentrating until my phone rang.
Expressing a change of mind. I was going to start school, but I decided to
travel for the year instead.
To provide background information or The birds were chirping.
description.
The sun was shinning.
A specific time stated during the course of At 3pm I was giving an important
a past action or event*. presentation at work.

* A sentence in simple past, that includes a specific time, indicates the start or end of the action (ex: At 8am I ran
five miles, instead of, At 8am I was running five miles). In the second example, 8am interrupts the run, which had
already started.

Rules for conjugating past continuous:

Was/were (the past simple of to be) + present participle of main verb

Verb I/she/he You/we/they

 Sing Was singing Were singing
Call Was calling Were calling
Ask Was asking Were asking
Write Was writing Were writing

Examples:

Cat was speaking to her mother when the phone ran out of battery.

The ocean waves were crashing along the shore.

I called you at 8pm last night, what were you doing?

At 8pm I was eating dinner with my girlfriend.

I was thinking about eating pizza for dinner, but I want to be healthier this year. I ate
a salad instead.

3. Expressions using the simple past

The simple past is used to describe actions started in the past and have also been completed in
the past. There are many specific words and phrases that require the simple past.

Yesterday Last night One year ago

 The day before yesterday Many years ago In the past
At that time The other day A long time ago
A short time ago Yesterday afternoon Recently
(specific dates) The month before last The week before last

Last year I went to China.

The week before last she and I went out to dinner.

I was born may 1st, 1989.

Present perfect

1. Present perfect use

This can be a hard tense to learn, especially for non-native English speakers. Present perfect
cannot be used with specific expressions of time (such as: yesterday, last night, when I lived in
Minneapolis, etc.). It can be used with non-specific expressions, like: never, ever, many times,
etc. For example: I have been to France, or, Ive never been to Japan. However, it is
incorrect to say: I have been to France for 4 month.

Using present perfect

Describing experiences They have traveled all of South America.

Signe has lived in Dominica.

Describing change The rose bush has grown so much.

The paint has faded.

Past accomplishment, without a specific Stacy has won gold metals before.
date
 Actions that are expected to be completed I still havent finished this paper.
in the future
It hasnt stopped raining yet.
Multiple actions or events throughout time Weve given this presentation four times.

They have seen the movie many times.

Rules for conjugating present perfect:

Have/has + past participle

The past participle usually ends with: -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n.

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Swell Have swollen Has swollen
Live Have lived Has lived
Close Have closed Has closed
Study Have studied Has studied

Examples:

Many people have climbed mount Kilimanjaro.

The child has grown so much over the years.

Theyve fought on several occasions.

 Ive worked in Silicon Valley.

2. Present perfect continuous

Present perfect continuous is used for events or actions that started in the past and continue
into the present.

Using present perfect continuous

To describe an event started in the past that Ive been cleaning houses for three months.
is still happening.
Sarah has been waiting all day for you.
To describe recent events or actions. Ive been really healthy lately.

Theyve been working so hard this week.

Rules for conjugating present perfect continuous:

Has been/ have been + present participle (base verb + ing)

Verb I/you/we/they She/he/it

Wait Have been waiting Has been waiting
Sleep Have been sleeping Has been sleeping
Work Have been working Has been working
Drinking Have been drinking Has been drinking
Examples:

She has been practicing piano so much in the recent months.

Youve been travelling for weeks now.

Ive been cooking since 3pm.

There are certain verbs that normally are not conjugated in the present perfect continuous
(instead in the present perfect). These verbs include: understand, know, want, and know.

Ive been understanding your lectures. I have understood your lectures.

3. Expressions using the present perfect

Present perfect cannot be used with specific expressions of time like yesterday, one month
ago, etc. It is used with unspecific expressions of time as seen in the table below.

Ever Never Once

So far Already Before
Recently To date In the last year

I have been to Japan in the last year.

She has never been to my favorite restaurant.

They have hiked Mount Hood before.

Past perfect

The past perfect is used to show that one event happened before another one. It doesnt matter
which event is mentioned first in the sentence, as the past perfect clarifies their temporal order.

Using the past perfect

 First event Second event
I had left Before shelly arrived at the office.
Clara had done the dishes When I returned this morning.
I had just boarded the airplane When my mother called me.

Rules for conjugating past perfect:

Paste tense of have + -past participle of main verb

Its often used with specific expressions of time, like:

o After, before, by the time, etc.

Verb Affirmative Negative Interrogative

Call Had called Hadnt called Had [you] called?
Pay Had paid Hadnt paid Had [you] paid?
See Had seen Hadnt seen Had [you] seen?
Finish Had finished Hadnt finished Had [you] finished?

Examples:

After I had called the hotel I saw you.

The company had been sold by the time you emailed me.

Lacy had just run a marathon when we ran into her yesterday.

Simple future
 1. Simple future use

The simple future is very easy to conjugate and can be used for a range of reasons.

Using the simple future

To predict a future event. It will snow tomorrow.

You will be tired later.

To express ones willingness to do
something or to request help.
Used to express a promise to do something.
Ill help clean the apartment.
Ill help Luke with his anthropology
assignment.
I will take care of grandma.

Ill keep it a secret.

I wont tell anyone.

Used to give an invitation. Will you be my date to the ballet?

Will you wash the car?

Rules for conjugating simple future:

Will + verb infinitive (without to)

Its also possible to replace will with shall; however, shall isnt common (and a bit dated). It
may be best to stick with will.

Examples:

Shell make a great politician one day.

 Dont fret; Ill mop the floor.

Ill be careful while driving.

Will you fix my computer?

The subject pronouns and will are almost always used in their contracted form; this makes
recognizing the contracted form very important.

I will = Ill

You will = youll

She will = shell

We will = well

They = theyll

Will not = wont

2. Future continuous

The future continuous implies that the action or event being described has not yet
finished. Furthermore, this event or action will be completed sometime in the future

Using the future continuous

 A specific time used as a future I will be watching the movie when she
interruption to a future continuous action*. boards her flight.

Shell be cooking when I arrive at home.

Used to predict the future. Theyll be dancing all night!

Well be waiting all week Im afraid.

Used as a polite way to ask about future
information.
When combined with still, it is used to
describe a present-day action that will
continue in the future
Will you and Tom be attending the
wedding next week?
Shell still be in waiting for an answer.
Ill still be wearing this dress tonight.

*The interrupting action is conjugated in simple present- not simple future.

Rules for conjugating future continuous:

Will be + present participle (verb base + -ing)

Like the simple future, suture continuous is conjugated the same with all subject pronouns

Verb All pronouns Contraction example

Sing Will be singing Ill be singing
Watch Will be watching Youll be watching
Jump Will be jumping Hell be jumping
Eat Will be eating Theyll be eating

Examples:

Tell Signe that well still be cleaning up this mess and we wont be done by lunch.
 Will you be enrolling in college next fall?

Ill be crying when Adam when he arrives tomorrow!

3. Expressions using the simple future

Common expression of the future Examples

One day after the present Tomorrow my dad will be late to work.

Tomorrow night, Ill be working.

In a (specific period of time) In a year, he will be in the United States.

In a week, I will start my work contract.

This (specific time) This year, I will finish my degree.

This week, I will work a lot.

The (period of time) after (same period of
time)
Next (specific period of time)
The week after next, I will be in France.
The day after tomorrow Shell already have
left.
Next week Sarah will be busy.

Next year I will be 30.

On (a specific day) On Monday, I will meet with my mom.

On Tuesday, she wont be at work.

Conditional and conditional perfect

 The present conditional is used to describe an imaginary situation or habitual actions of the
past (in place of used to).

Would + infinitive

I would get coffee nearby in the mornings.

If she lost her wallet, I would loan her money.

If I didnt have a job, I would move back home.

The conditional perfect is used for something that might have happened in the past.

Would + have + past participle (infinitive+ -ed)

Verb Full form Contracted from

Walk Would have walked Wouldve walked
Sing Would have sung Wouldve sung
Study Would have studied Wouldve studied
Repeat Would have repeated Wouldve repeated
 If She had lost her wallet, I would have lent her money.

If I didnt get a job last month, I would have moved back home.

Infinitive

The English infinitive has two forms: the to-infinitive and the zero infinitive.

Using the infinitive

To express intention or purpose. She went to ask your uncle for money.

The maid is here to clean the house.

As the subject of the sentence (only the to-
infinitive).
To describe how something will be used
(only the to-infinitive).
After make, let, and had better (only
the zero infinitive).
In sentences with too much and enough
(only the zero infinitive).
In a question that asks why to offer a
suggestion (only the zero infinitive).
To be or not to be, that is the question.
To learn, that is the goal of education.
Do you want something to eat?
They have instruments to play.
They had better find a new home.
Let me make you dinner.
There is too much snow to drive.
I dont have enough money to buy it.
Why turn around now?
Why wait until tomorrow?
 As a judgment (only the to-infinitive). That was a weird thing to say.

This is a great place to eat!

Rules for making the infinitive:

The to-infinitive: to + verb base

The zero-infinitive: only the verb base

Jim should play guitar more often; it was lovely!

Mom made me go to my room.

I want a large glass to drink milk.

Why not stay here this weekend?

What a nice thing to say!

I went to the store to buy food.

A negative infinitive requires not before the infinitive.

I decided not to attend the concert.

 She would rather not cook tonight.

The gerund

The gerund is often mistaken for a verb because it ends in -ing ; however, its used as a noun
in sentences. The gerund can be used as the subject, object, or complement for a sentence. It is
made by adding -ing to the infinitive of the verb.

Read reading

Sing singing

Learn learning

Reading is one of my favorite things ! (Subject of sentence)

Sally enjoys swimming. (Object of sentence)

His favorite hobby is singing. (Complement of sentence)

When the gerund is used as the complement, the infinitive can also be used :

His favorite hobby is to sing.

Just add not to make the sentence negative.

 Sally enjoys not swimming.

There are specific phrases that require the gerund, for example: cant bear, cant stand, to be
worth, its no use.

I cant bear seeing you with him.

Its no use cleaning that dress now. The stain is set.

Imperative

The imperative form gives an order, warning, or advice. Use the infinitive of the verb
(without the to) to create the imperative from.

Give me the phone.

Do your laundry!

Dont move.

Come here now!

Dont tell him now. I think that would be a mistake.

 Subjunctive

The subjunctive almost identical to the indicative form; however, in some instances it is
noticeable. It is employed to emphasize the importance of something and after certain phrases.
For example, the subjunctive is not noticeable after the subject pronoun you.

Here are common expressions and verbs that require the subjunctive:

It is best that Advise that Demand that

It is crucial that Insist that Recommend that
It is important that Request that Suggest that
It is a good idea that Ask that Propose that
It is a bad idea that Urge that Command that

When the subjunctive is noticeable, its usually only changes the third person pronoun by
dropping the -s. Take this comparison of the indicative and subjunctive conjugations of work as
an example.

Indicative Subjunctive
I work I work
You work You work
She/he/it works She/he/it work
We work We work
They work They work

Subjunctive usually indicates a command or request, wishes, or improbable situations.

 It is important that he decide today.

I ask that she be here earlier tomorrow morning.

Its a bad idea that Kiralyn work all weekend.

They insist that he be the next director of international affairs.

Irregular verbs

When it comes to irregular verbs, the best option is just to memorize them. Heres a list of 25
of the most common irregular verbs in the English language. While we cannot make a
comprehensive list of all irregular verbs, this list serves as a good jumping-off point.

Infinitive Past simple Past participle

Be Was/were Been
Become Became Become
Begin Began Begun
Choose Chose Chosen
Come Came Come
Do Did Done
Eat Ate Eaten
Feel Felt Felt
Fly Flew Flown
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Get Got UK: got USA: gotten
Go Went Given
Have Had Had
Leave Left Left
 Make Made Made
Meet Met Met
Pay Paid Paid
Put Put Put
Read Read (pronounced red) Read (pronounced red)
Say Said Said
Sell Sold Sold
Sing Sang Sung
Sit Sat Sat
Think Thought Thought

Question tags

Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a
question. They are often added to cajole the other person into agreeing with the statement, and
are used almost exclusively during informal interactions. There are either positive or negative
question tags, depending on the main statement.

Positive statement, + Negative question tag

Negative statement, + Positive question tag

A question tag must be the opposite of the main statement. If the main statement is positive,
the question tag is negative (and vice versa). It is formed with the verb followed by the subject
pronoun.

Jasmine is a teacher, isnt she?

Malina doesnt like broccoli, does she?

 Maia likes skiing, doesnt she?

Henry passed his exam, didnt he?

If the verb is in simple present, form the question tag with do/does. If its in past simple, use
did. For future tense, use will/wont. In general, the question tag matches the tense in the main
statement.

He ate his lunch, didnt he?

They didnt pack a lunch, did they?

We dont take off our shoes, do we?

Ill speak next, wont I?

Hell study tonight, wont he?

Conditional sentences tenses

Conditional phrases can be used in past, present, and future; however, they more importantly
break down into two categories: real and unreal. As the names suggest, the real conditional
describes real situations, while the unreal conditional describes imaginary situations.
 Conditional sentences are always composed of two clauses. The conditional clause (that
begins with if) shouldnt contain would or will.

If + conditional clause tense, + main clause

This chart maps out the different conditional phrases possible, including their purpose,
structure, and examples.

Past real conditional Past unreal conditional

This expresses past real-life situations. It This describes an unreal past condition and
implies a change in habits. the probable past consequence.

[If +simple past, +simple past]
If I had time, I ran.
Present real conditional
This is also called the zero conditional. It is
used to describe general knowledge.
[If + past perfect, +perfect conditional]
If I had had time, I would have run.
Present unreal conditional
This is used to describe what you would
generally do in an imaginary situation.

[If + simple present, + simple present] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I run. If I had time, I would run.
Future real conditional Future unreal conditional
This type refers to a real present or future This refers to an imaginary future situation.
situation.

[If + simple present, + simple future] [If + simple past, + would + infinitive]
If I have time, I will run. If I had time, I would run.

Sequence of tenses
 The verb tense used in a subordinating clause changes depending on the tense used in the
main clause. Here are the basic rules to follow.

Main clause Subordinate clause Example

Present or future tense The subordinate clause may be I think he will be ok.
in any tense depending on
what is being expressed. I think he is ok.

I think he was ok.

Past tense
Paste tense when expressing
general knowledge.
Future tense in a clause that
begins with: when, until,
before, or after.
Expressions like: if only,
wish that, it is time that
This clause must also be in
past tense.
In this case, the subordinate
clause is in present tense.
You cannot use future in the
subordinate clause here.
These phrases are usually
followed by past tense.
I thought he was ok.
She was there when he
arrived.
My father told me that
honesty is the best
policy.
She will come after you
call her.
Ill clean up after we eat
dinner.
If only I remembered
earlier.

Reported questions

Reported questions are a form of reported speech. Yes or no questions are usually reported
with if or whether (I asked if he likes coffee). When there is a question, use the question word
(Who, what, where, when, how) without any auxiliary verbs. Reported questions do not need
question marks.

CORRECT: He asked what time school starts.

INCORRECT: He asked what time does school start.

CORRECT: He wanted to know if he was ready.

INCORRECT: He wanted to know if was he ready.

Direct question Reported question

He said, "Where did you go?" He asked me where I went.
Sally said, "What time is it?" Sally asked what time it was.
I said, "Why are you running?" I asked why he was running

Nouns

1. Noun determiners

Determiners are words found in front of a noun that clarifies what the noun references. The
type of determiner depends on the type of noun. Is it plural or singular? Is it countable or
uncountable? There are a wide variety of determiners in English. Heres a basic breakdown of
the different determiners found in the English language.

Articles Demonstrative Possessive Quantifiers Numbers Ordinals

A, an, the This, that, My, your, Each, every, One, two, First,
these, those, our, his, some, any, seven, thirty, second,
etc. hers, their, much, many, etc. third, etc.
etc. etc.

Heres a chart to help you learn when to use each type of determiner.

Singular countable nouns Plural countable nouns Uncountable nouns

A, an, the The
A cat jumps. The marbles are green.
The house is blue.
This, That These, those
This cat jumps. Those marbles are green.
That house is blue. These marbles are white.
Some, any, no Some, any, no
I am no doctor. Some people are rude.
Some guy just called. I dont have any animals.
Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns
Your bed is large. Her dishes are still dirty.
His leg is broken. My classes are great!
Every
Every plant needs water.
Few, a few, fewer, the fewest
I have a few ideas.
There are fewer people in
Denmark than China.
Many, more, most
I have many ideas.
She has the more stamps in
her passport than you.
Numbers, a number of
Eight horses galloped away.
A number of students started
to protest.
Another, the other Other, the other
Another girl called me. The other lawyers were upset.
The
The water is cold.
This, that
This is good evidence.
That is powerful wind.
Some, and, no
I have no time.
She doesnt have any time.
Possessive pronouns
Show me your evidence.
Little, a little, less, least
There is a little water left.
I have little hope.
Much, more, most
Chocolate cake has the most
sugar.
How much coffee is left?
Other, the other
The other evidence isnt
convincing.
 Enough Enough

They have enough There is enough rice for

assignments. everyone!
All, all the All, all the

All cars have wheels. All the beauty in the world

amazes me.
All the birds have flown
south.
Neither, either

Neither team won the

tournament.
Each

Each dessert tasted great!

One of the, many of the

Shes one of the girls.

One of the cars is broken.

2. Numbers in plural nouns

Numbers become determiners when they are placed before a noun. Cardinal numbers
expresses the quantity, while ordinal numbers express a sequence. The noun must be plural for
cardinal numbers above one.

Cardinal Ordinal
One cat Third place
Two cats Second chance
Three cats First sight

A thousand seagulls flew over my house last night!

My mother has two cats.

I won second place in the 100-meter race.

There are three buildings on campus.

It was love at first sight.

GN And. Depends GN prec form (it rains several cats and dog/ it rains several cats and dogs)

3. This, that, these, those

This, that, these, those can be used as determiners. In this context, this and that can be
applied to all single countable and uncountable nouns. On the other hand, These and those are
used with plural nouns (meaning they are countable). They are placed before the noun.

Uncountable single noun This water tastes weird.

Countable single noun That cat is so cute!

Countable plural noun Those clothes are so expensive!

When used as pronouns this, that, these, and those are used to refer to things or ideas. This
and these are used when the thing is in close proximity to us, while that and those are used for
objects further away.

This is my house.

These are my dogs.

Those students wont last long.

That cat scared me yesterday.
4. Using reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence. The
reflexive pronoun becomes the direct object in the sentence. This means the subject and the
direct object represent the same thing. Singular reflexive pronouns end in -self and plural
reflexive pronouns end in -selves.

Myself Yourself Himself Herself

Itself Ourselves Themselves Yourselves

As an example lets look at this sentence:

Bill saw Katy (or her).

Bill sees someone else in this sentence (indicated my the pronoun her). Now heres the same
sentence in reflexive form:

Bill saw himself.

Here are some more examples:

I saw myself in the mirror.

You should do the work yourselves.

 The building collapsed in on itself.

The meaning of some verb changes when paired with reflexive pronouns:

She found herself struggling to breathe.

(She was surprised she was struggling to breathe.)

I saw myself has a politician when I was younger.

(I imagined that I would be a politician when I was younger.)

5. Countable vs uncountable nouns: Many vs much, few vs little, amount of vs number of etc.

Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three cats. These
nouns have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either one or a/an as a
determiner. To form a question about countable nouns we ask "how many?"

one (a) house two houses

one (a) chair two chairs
one (a) kid two kids
one (an) idea two ideas

Many We have many bottles of water.

Much There is much love in the world.
Few There are a few dogs in the park.
Little I see little evidence of criminal intent.
Amount of A large amount of research is ready to be
published
Number of A number of students protested today.
 Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and objects
that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases, they do not
have a plural form.

water rice research salt

sugar water love evidence
beauty anger coffee oil

To ask about the quantity of uncountable nouns, we must use "How much?"

How much research is there on brain cancer?

I want some coffee.

There is a lot of beauty in the world.

The amount of evidence available is unbelievable.

*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For example,
hair is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.

Q: How much hair does your baby have?

A: she doesnt have very much hair yet.

 Ive noticed Tom has a few gray hairs these days.

6. The plural form of compound nouns

In general, we add an -s or -es only to the most significant word (also called the base word) of
a compound noun.

Pear tree Pear trees

Mother-in-law mothers-in-law

Changing room changing rooms

Add an -s or -es at the end if there doesnt appear to be a base word or its one word.

Toothbrush toothbrushes

Forget-me-not forget-me-nots

Paperclip paperclips

7. Specific and general numbers

 People may easily get tripped up when trying to decide if a large number is plural or not. Is it
million or millions? Lets take a look at when large numbers should be singular and when they
should be plural.

For specific numbers, you do not add an -s to hundred, thousand, or million.

There are 320 million Americans.

This stadium can seat five thousand people.

You will need to add an -s if the number is unspecified, and instead just expresses an
approximate number. Hundreds, thousand, and millions are often followed by countable nouns.

There are hundreds of people here!

The sky is so clear, well be able to see millions of starts tonight.

There are hundreds of bears in Yosemite National Park.

8. Noun gender

In general, there is no gender distinction between masculine or feminine nouns in

English. However, there are a few exceptions to that rule.

If you would like to emphasize the gender, you may add the word male or female before the
noun.
 I have two male cousins.

She has a female friend.

Many animals (mainly domesticated animals) have a masculine and feminine noun.

Animal Feminine Masculine

Lion Lioness Lion
Pig Sow Boar
Horse Mare Stallion
Tiger Tigress Tiger
Cattle Cow Bull

There do exist a few exceptions beyond domesticated animals; however, there are so few
gendered words its best just to memorize them.

Masculine
Actor, boy, bridegroom, brother, count,
czar, dad, duke, emperor, god, heir, hero,
host, king, husband, master, prince, uncle,
wizard, waiter, etc.
Feminine
Actress, girl, bride, sister, countess,
czarina, mom, duchess, empress, goddess,
heiress, mistress, heroine, hostess, queen,
princess, aunt, witch, waitress.

9. Collective nouns

Collective nouns are single words that represent more than one person, place, idea, animal, or
thing.
Common collective nouns

Class Herd Jury Team Army

Council Audience Crowd Swarm Mob
Crew Staff Choir Panel Stack

It can be difficult to decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural. In Britain, you can
really decide if you would rather refer to the collective noun in the singular or plural. However,
the United States has a much stronger preference for presenting collective nouns as
singular. Perhaps the trickiest part about collective noun is verifying that your writing remains
consistent. Once youve decided, every reference to the collective noun must reflect your initial
choice.

The council was quiet; they were deep in though.

Instead The council was quiet; it was deep in thought.

10. Preposition placement

Prepositions describe the relationship between the subject and the object of a sentence. A
noun is always follows a preposition.

Subject + verb Preposition Noun

I am On The bed.
She sat By The ocean.
Rene is looking For Me.

Determiners
1. A vs An

When deciding between the articles a and an, evaluate the initial sound of a word, and not
necessarily the initial letter. Use a when the word starts with a consonant sound.

a coat

a lamp

a bottle

use an when the word begins with a vowel (A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y) sound.

an eagle

an octopus

an extra ticket

There are exceptions and inconsistencies to this rule. The most notable among them is the
H. If the word starts with a hard h sounds (as is the case with holy, high, and hover),
employ a. If the word begins with a silent or unstressed h (like in honor, historic, and
hour), use an.

After an hour, lacey returned from the store.

She called it an historic event.

Another common exception to the rule are words that start with the long u sound, for
example: unique, union, eulogy. In this case,

There is an unusual smell in the house.

This is a united country.

This is a university with a large campus.

2. Countable vs uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that we count with numbers, for example: I have three
cats. These words have a singular and a plural form. The singular form can use either one
or a/an as a determiner.
 one (a) two houses
house
one (a) chair two chairs
one (a) kid two kids
one (an) idea two ideas

When asking a question about the amount of a countable noun, we use How many?

Q: How many houses do you have?

A: I have just one house.

Q: How many ideas did your team brainstorm during the meeting?
A: We came up with seven ideas.

Uncountable nouns cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and
objects that are difficult to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases,
they do not have a plural form.

water rice research salt To ask about the quantity of

sugar water love evidence uncountable nouns, we must
beauty anger coffee oil use How much?

How much research is there on brain cancer?

I want some coffee.

There is a lot of beauty in the world.

*Each languages differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. For
example, hair is uncountable in English, unless referring to individual hairs.

Q: How much hair does your baby have?

A: she doesnt have very much hair yet.

Ive noticed Tom has a few gray hairs these days.

3. Some vs Any

The words some (including somebody and something) and any (as well as anything and
anybody) are used when the speaker cannot specify or doesnt need to specify and exact
amount. They can be used with countable and uncountable nouns.
As a general rule, some is used in positive sentences:

I got some great produce at the farmers market this weekend.

Id like some water.

Lets make some cookies tomorrow!

Somebody is at the door.

And any is usually used in negative sentences or questions:

Do you have any ideas for Kristas birthday party?

Did anybody send you the notes for the meeting on Friday?

I didnt do anything this weekend.

4. Definite vs indefinite articles

In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. A and An are indefinite articles; whereas
the is a definite article. There are several ways to distinguish when to use a definite or an
indefinite article in English.

A and an are used for several different reasons:

1. Before an unspecified singular noun.

an umbrella can be very helpful on a rainy day.

2. Before number collectives.

a gallon of milk

3. Before nouns that form adverbial phrases about quantity, degree, or amount.

a slight breeze
 a bit of snow

The is used to:

1. When there is a definite noun, or the noun was previously specified.

Can you hand me the paperwork from yesterday.

2. Indicate the noun is unique

The Grand Canyon is an amazing place.

The moon is bright tonight.

3. Indicate a natural phenomenon

The wind is an important aspect of life in the south of France.

4. Reference to a period of time

The renaissance was an exciting time.

5. Indicate all the members of one family

The Bradford family left for their annual ski trip.

6. Before the superlative form

This is the finest jewelry.

The least comfortable.

 7. Before ordinal numbers

The 41st ceremony.

5. Omitting articles (no determiner)

There are many different cases where articles need to be omitted before a noun. Many
should just be memorized over time, while other rules hold fairly consistent.

1. The names of countries, continents, cities, days, months, languages, certain diseases, and
sciences.

North America has three countries.

January is my least favorite month.

Italian is a beautiful language.

Malaria poses a risk in tropical environments.

2. Omit and article before a noun when it is used in a general way.

Olive oil is often used in Italian cooking.

Cheetahs can run faster than humans.

3. Before a phrase that is made up of a preposition + a noun.

They went to school on foot.

Lacey is at school.

Many American students are in debt.

4. Before proper, abstract, and material nouns. However there are exceptions, for
example: The United States, The Dominican Republic, and The Bahamas.

London is one of the most populated cities on the planet.

Rice cooks in 20 minutes.

 Idealism is unrealistic.

5. Omit the article when the noun follows the phrase kind of.

What kind of food do you want?

Thats the kind of sportsmanship we need.

6. Before a mealtime.

Breakfast will be ready soon.

I had lasagna for dinner.

7. Before common nouns that are in pairs.

The bond between father and son is strong.

I pronounce you husband and wife.

6. Each vs every

Learning the difference between each and every requires a nuanced understating of
English. The two words, while not identical, are similar in meaning and use.

Each is used when there are two objects or individual items or members in a group.

She put makeup on each eye.

The cat left a scratch on each of lilys legs.

Each student has unique interests.

Unlike each, the word every stresses all the members or items in a group. It is used with
adverbs (like practically, almost, rarely etc.) and in reference to repeat events. It can also
be used as a pronoun (whereas each cannot).

Every child must take the standardized tests.

I go to the dentist every six months.

Nearly every family got a discount at the market today.

7. Using determiners

There are six types of determiners in the English language. Determiners take on a variety
of functions in a phrase; however, they always modify a noun. In many cases it can be hard
to distinguish determiners and adjectives because they both modify nouns.

Adjectives usually describe or modify the quality of a noun.

I have a purple notebook.

Determiners express information about definiteness, proximity, relationship, and quantity.

They are placed before the noun in a sentence.

Articles A, an, the An elk ran through the field.

Possessive My, your, his, hers, their My cat doesnt like your dog.
pronouns
Demonstrative This, that, those, these This documentary is more interesting
pronouns than that one.
Interrogative Which, what, whose Which country would you like to see?
pronouns
Numerals One, two, dozen etc. Lets buy a dozen eggs.
Quantifiers Many, all, Many families use the public library.

8. Ordering determiners

Determiners are broken into three main categories: predeterminer, central determiner,
and postdeterminer. As the names indicate, they must appear before the noun in the
correct order.

Predeterminers include multiplying expressions, fractions, and the words all and
both. You dont usually two predeterminers in the same sentence.

Ten times the size

One half the amount

Both my sisters

Central determiners include articles, possessive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.

All your cats

 Half the airplane

All those activities

Finally, postdeterminers include cardinal and ordinal numbers, as well as general ordinals,
and quantifiers. Unlike predeterminers, there can be multiple postdeterminers in the same
sentence.

Your next two meetings

All his subsequent writings

Our many achievements

Pronouns

1. Pronouns - general

A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun or noun phrase. They are very versatile and can do
anything, grammatically speaking, that a noun can do. They may act as the subject, direct object,
indirect object, etc., of a sentence. There are a wide variety of types of pronouns.

Type of pronoun Definition Examples

Indefinite pronoun
Personal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Relative pronoun
Refers to one or more
unspecified noun.
Refers to a specific noun.
Indicated possession or
ownership.
Used to point out something
specific.
Ends in -self or -selves.
Refers to a previously
mentioned noun.
Anybody, anything, each,
either, nobody, something,
someone, etc.
It, you, I, what, him, they,
who, whom, etc.
Its, mine, your, her, his, our,
yours, their, etc.
This, that, these, those, such,
none, etc.
Myself, yourself, themselves,
itself, etc.
Who, whom, that, which,
whomever, whichever, etc.
 Interrogative pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Intensive pronoun
Used to introduce a question. What, which, who, whom,
whose, etc.
Used to indicate mutual Each other, one another
action.
Also ends in -self or -selves, Myself, yourself, himself,
and used to emphasize their themselves, itself, etc.
antecedents. They are
grammatically non-essential
to the sentence.

Many people confuse nominative and objective pronouns. In this sentence, for example: "Your secret
is save with John and I" (it should really be: "Your secret is save with John and me"). Nominative
pronouns are used as subjects in a sentence, while objective pronouns are used as objects.

Nominative pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they

(used in place of the subject)

Objective pronouns Me, you, him, her, it, us, them

(used in place of the object)

Nominative pronouns:

She went to the store.

We watched a movie last night.

 It was very hot.

Objective pronouns:

Carina spoke to us yesterday.

Reba explained the project to Todd and me earlier today.

2. Who, whom, whose

The quickest way to distinguish between who and whom is to use the he/him method. Replace the
who or whom with either he or him. This method is actually quite simple once youve given it a try.

He=who

Him= whom

Lets take this question as an example:

1. Who/whom called the police? We need to decide which is correct.

2. Write the answer to the question using either he or him.

He called the police. This means the sentence requires who.

3. The answer is : Who called the police?

Whose is a possessive pronoun and is used to identify who owns a specific object.
Whose shoes are in the hallway?

The shoes belong to Jimmy.

Whose car has enough seats?

Claras car has enough seats!

3. That, which or who

Who, that, and which can all be used as relative pronouns in a sentence (meaning they are used to
refer back to a noun previously mentioned). This means that they can be easily confused if you dont
understand how each one is used.

The first question you should ask is whether or not the noun is a human. Who is a relative pronoun
that always refers to humans, while that and which usually refer to things.

I am the kind of person who likes math.

The teacher who started last week is very young.

Things get a little more complicated when trying to distinguish when to use that or which. To start,
both American and British English agree that you should never use that to introduce a non-restrictive
relative clause (a clause that is non-essential to the sentence). Furthermore, commas should offset non-
restrictive relative clauses.

My blue car, which I bought last year, is having engine problems.

The dog, which is grey, is lipping.

 When it comes to restrictive relative clauses, the rules vary between British and American
English. American English uses that rather than which to introduce a restrictive clause. On the other
hand, it is acceptable to use either in British English. There is no comma before a restrictive clause.

British English: Sally wore the shoes which looked best.

American English: Sally wore the shoes that looked best.

4. Which vs what

So whats the difference between what and which when they are being used as interrogative
pronouns? Theres little difference between the two; however, English speakers prefer to use which
when there are a limited number of choices. What is used for questions where the answer is unlimited.

Which What
Which dessert are you going to choose? What is your favorite dessert?

Which teacher do you prefer? What did you learn today?

Which language is easier to learn- Spanish or What will you do tomorrow?
Arabic?

5. Pronoun order

When it comes to pronoun order, there are a few basic rules to follow. Firstly, place the first person
pronoun (I or me) after any other pronoun. Secondly, place third person pronouns first.

Bret and I went to the movies last night.

He sent a copy to Jane and me.

When speaking or in informal writing, it is perfectly fine to switch the order occasionally. The
meaning of the sentence will not be lost.
6. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns can take on three different roles within a sentence: the direct object, indirect
objects, and prepositional complements.

Reflexive pronouns are used as direct objects with transitive verbs. The direct object in this kind of
sentence receives the action of the verb.

Transitive verbs

Enjoy Help Hurt

Introduce Prepare Teach
Satisfy Cut Blame

I hurt myself while skiing last week.

Bob taught himself to dance.

She introduced herself to me this morning.

They can also be indirect objects. In this case, the indirect objects show for whom the action is being
performed.
 I bought myself a dress.

He got himself another beer.

Prepositional complements helps by completing the meaning of a prepositional phrase.

She left the keys for herself under the mat.

I bought some flowers for myself.

Unlike many other languages, English doesnt use reflexive pronouns after verbs that describe typical
things people usually do for themselves. For example: To wash, to shave, to dress, etc. The only reason
to add a reflexive pronoun after a verb like this is for emphasis.

Tom shaved yesterday.

Tom shaved himself despite his broken arm.

7. Indefinite pronouns

In definite pronouns dont refer to a specific person, place, or thing. They all begin with one of four
qualifiers: some, any, every, or no.

Person Place Thing

Everyone Everywhere Everything

Everybody
Someone Somewhere Something

Somebody
Anyone Anywhere Anything

Anybody
No one Nowhere Nothing

Nobody

The pronouns with some or any qualifiers are used to describe incomplete or indefinite quantities.

I want to travel somewhere this summer.

Its so hot outside! Id go swimming anywhere.

The pronouns with every describe a complete quantity, while no describes an absence.
 Everything is booked for our trip.

Nothing has arrived.

To form a negative sentence with an indefinite pronoun you must use any.

I dont know anybody at this party.

She didnt bring anything the meeting.

8. One as a pronoun

One can be used as a pronoun in many different ways. Its sometimes used numerically, as a general
group or people, as a reflexive pronoun, or even a possessive pronoun. It can be singular (one) or plural
(ones).

Reflexive: If one falls on ice, one could hurt oneself badly.

Possessive: One must learn from ones experiences.

Numerical: I have two dresses. One is blue and the other is pink.

Plural: I like most types of pie. The fruit ones are my favorite.

Adverbs

1. Many vs Much

When to use much

The word much is required if the noun is uncountable. As a reminder, uncountable nouns
cannot be counted with numbers. They include abstract ideas and objects that are difficult
to count (gases, liquids, small and numerous objects). In most cases, they do not have a
plural form.

water rice research salt

sugar water love evidence
beauty anger coffee oil

I dont have much sugar

 There is so much beauty in the world.

There isnt much coffee left.

*Each language differs on what nouns are considered countable and uncountable. Refer to
countable vs uncountable nouns for more information.

When to use many

Many is used with countable nouns; therefore, nouns that have a plural form such as
dollars, bananas, and houses.

I have so many bananas.

She doesnt have many dresses.

My father has many friends.

2. Adverbs and comparisons of equality

To show an equality between two items in a comparative phrase we can use one of four
sentence structures: asas, nearly, quite, and just. These create a positive sentence
structure; however, each one means something slightly different.

Jonathan is as funny as Tom

This sentence plainly states that Tom and Jonathan are both equally funny.

Jonathan is nearly as funny as Tom

In these two phrases, we see a shift from the subjects being equally funny to Jonathan being
almost as funny as Tom. This indicates a slight difference between the two.

Jonathan is just as funny as Tom

Jonathan is quite as funny as Tom

Here, the just and quite emphasize that the two items are the same. For example, this
would be used if the interlocutor doesnt believe that two are equal.

3. Adverb position
There are three possible positions for adverbs within a sentence: The initial position, the
mid position, or the end position.

The initial position is before the subject of the sentence. Youll most likely see linking
adverbs (e.g. however, although, moreover, etc.), time adverbs (e.g. today, then, again,
etc.), and viewpoint adverbs (e.g. luckily, officially, thankfully, etc.) in this position.

Today, Jeremy ate his lunch outside.

Luckily, I caught the bus this morning.

I invited Tom. However, he couldnt come.

The mid position favors indefinite frequency adverbs (e.g. always, never, often etc.),
location adverbs (e.g. high, low, ahead, etc.), and adverbs of degree (e.g. probably,
clearly, almost, etc.). The mid position is after the first auxiliary verb.

The Red Cross has always been helpful.

I havent quite finished my homework.

Hes obviously going to be late.

The end position is where youll find definite frequency adverbs (e.g. last week, every
year etc.) and adjectives of manner (e.g. easily, quickly, well, etc.). They will be placed at
the very end of a sentence.

I go horseback riding every year.

She drove fast.

I write carefully.

4. What does an adverb do?

Adverbs add description to sentence by modifying a verb. In some cases adverbs can
also modify adjectives, and even other adverbs.

Carrie sang loudly.

The cat ran quickly.

The examples above show adverbs modifying verbs (to sing and to run). They can also
modify adjectives and other adverbs.

The movie was quite interesting.

(The adverb quite is modifying the adjective interesting)

She swims very fast.

(The adverb very is modifying the adverb fast)

An adverb answers the question how. This is a helpful tip for those first learning to use
or write with adverbs.

How did Carrie sing?

She sang loudly.

How did the cat run?

The cat ran quickly.

How fast does she swim?

She swims very fast.

Adjectives

1. Adjective order

When we use more than one adjective in front of a noun, there is a specific order in
which they must appear. In a sentence, the adjectives usually appear after the determiner,
and before the noun they modify. The breakdown of the nine categories is found in the
chart below.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number Opinion Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose

Most nouns do not have more than three adjectives in front of them.
 Her ugly old cat

The blue shopping bag

A few new French wines.

Adjective types Examples

Number One, three, a few, several
Opinion Silly, charming, comfortable
Size Large, small, tiny
Age Old, young, new, 12-year-old
Shape Square, rectangular
Color Red, blue, green
Origin American, French, Ghanaian
Material Wood, iron, ceramic
Purpose Running (where the purpose of the
noun is to run e.g. running shoes)

2. Superlative adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns, giving them descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Superlative adjectives are used to describe the noun to the upper and lower limits of a
quality. There are some basic rules on how to convert an adjective into a superlative
adjective.

Add -est onto a one-syllable word to make the superlative form. If this word ends with
an e, just at the st.

Fine finest

Large largest

Two-syllable adjectives that end in -y require you to change that letter to an -i and then
add on the -est.

Funny Funniest

Groovy grooviest

For all adjectives that are two or more syllables, use the words most or least to indicate
either the upper, or the lower limit of the adjective.

Comfortable most comfortable / least comfortable

 Rectangular most rectangular / least rectangular

3. Comparative adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns, adding descriptions about size, color, shape, origin, etc.
Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: This table is bigger
than that one.

Add -er onto a one-syllable word to make the comparative form. In some cases an
adjective ending in a consonant requires us to double that consonant before adding the -
er. When it already ends with an -e, just add on the -r.

Large larger

Fat fatter

When a two-syllable adjective ends in a -y, we must change it to and -i before adding the
-er.

Crazy crazier

Happy happier

Three-syllable adjectives require adding more or less.

Comfortable more comfortable / less comfortable

American more American / less American

Uncomparable adjectives describe absolute conditions. You cannot use modifiers like more or less
with them. They cannot be used in the comparative form either.

Most common uncomparable adjectives

Absolute False Favorite Impossible

Perfect Possible Inevitable Complete
Broken Only Ideal Infinite
Fatal Adequate Whole Unique
4. Comparative adjective sentence structure

Comparative adjectives are used to compare two nouns. For example: This dog is faster
than that one. It is used with the word than, which compares the two items. Below you
can see the two sentence structures possible.

Subject + To be + Adjective + -ER + Than

The dresser is bigger than the chair.

The soup is spicier than the lasagna.

Subject + To be + More + Adjective + Than

Lisa is more comfortable than me.

Bruno is more studious than Casey.

5. Superlative adjective sentence structure

The superlative adjective is used to distinguish one item over all the other items in a
group by using -est or the most / least. Below are the two sentence structures possible
with superlative adjectives.

Subject + To be + The + Adjective + -EST

She is the youngest child.

New York City is the coolest city in the world.

Subject + To be + The + Most + Adjective

Lisa is the most organized person ever.

This exam is the most important part of our grade.

6. Adjectives and linking verbs

A linking verb is used to express further information about the subject, instead of an
action. While to be, to become, and to seem are always linking verbs, others are only
sometimes used as linking verbs. Here are some of the most common linking verbs in
English:

To feel To taste To smell

To appear To look To feel
To grow To prove To remain

To distinguish these verbs from their action form and linking form, try replacing the verb
in question with is in the form of a question. If the question makes sense, its in the linking
verb form.

Kerry grew tired after dinner. Was Kerry tired after dinner?
*The question makes sense with this sentence; therefore, to grow is being used in
the linking verb form.

Chris grew roses in his garden. Was Chris roses in his garden?
* This question doesnt make sense. This means the verb to grow is being used in
the action verb form.

Usually, only adverbs come directly after a verb in a sentence, modifying it. However, if
its a linking verb, it will be followed by an adjective as well.

Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective

Kiralyn appeared tired
The house was cold

This can be a complicated grammar rule to understand. While the adjective appears
after the linking verb, it doesnt necessarily come directly after it. If the adverb describes
the adjective, the adverb will come after the verb and before the adjective.

Subject + Linking verb + Adverb + Adjective

The Cat was alarmingly still
I felt unusually happy

7. Compound adjectives

Compound adjectives are a combination of two or more adjectives that modify the same
noun. They require a hyphen to avoid confusion. Examples include:
 French- Small-town Slow-moving Up-to-date
speaking
All-too- Low-risk Ill-equipped Sure-footed
common
Long-winded Part-time Open-minded Four-year

Erin received high marks on her well-written essay.

Luna installed a state-of-the-art technology in her office.

Stephanie was broken-hearted after her soccer team lost.

There are several other formulas that can be used to make compound adjectives. For
example:

Noun + present participle or present participle or adjective

Record-breaking

Oven-baked

World- famous

Adjective + present participle or present participle or noun

Slow-moving

Cold-blooded

Last-minute

A compound adjective, composed of a number followed by a time period, requires a

hyphen and the singular form of the time period.

A three-week vacation, not three-weeks vacation

A two-year contract, not two-years contract

8. Adjectives and comparisons of equality

 To show an equality between two items in a comparative phrase we can use one of four
sentence structures: asas, nearly, quite, and just. These create a positive sentence
structure; however, each one means something slightly different.

Jonathan is as funny as Tom

This sentence plainly states that Tom and Jonathan are both equally funny.

Jonathan is nearly as funny as Tom

In these two phrases, we see a shift from the subjects being equally funny to Jonathan being
almost as funny as Tom. This indicates a slight difference between the two.

Jonathan is just as funny as Tom

Jonathan is quite as funny as Tom

Here, the just and quite emphasize that the two items are the same. For example, this
would be used if the interlocutor doesnt believe that two are equal.

Prepositions

1. For, since, ago, during

These are four common prepositions expressing time. They are often confused and take
some practice to master proper use.

For Since Ago During

Used to express This introduces a Use ago to discuss This is used when
how long a time specific time in the a past time period referring to
period lasts. past and continuing in relation to the something that
up until the present present. happens with a
or defined moment period of time or
in the past. when referring to
entire time period.
For+ [time period] Since +[time period] [time period]+ ago During+[time period]

I lived in France for three years

Erin worked at the bank for two weeks before quitting.

Ive been very politically engaged since 2008.

 Ive been tired since last week.

The civil right movement happened over 50 years ago.

How long ago did you start driving? I began driving eight months ago.

During the summer I did a lot of travelling.

Cameron was very sick during high school.

2. Prepositions across, over, and through

Across, over, and through are prepositions used to situate movement and position
occasionally time as well.

Across is used to indicate from one side of something to another in reference to

something with sides or limits (example: a city, a road, a bridge). Across also indicates that
the same thing is happening in many places at the same time. Finally, in American English
the phrase across from is used to show that something is on the other side.

The bridge went across the widest part of the Mississippi river.

Shes waiting across from the old movie theatre.

People celebrated Independence Day all across the Unites States.

Through is used for the movement from one side to the other when you are considered
in something (like a forest or grass).

Sadie skipped through the field. Sadie skipped across the field

Over means that something is in a higher position in relation to something else. It can
also refer to movement.

From my apartment, you can see over the whole city.

Last year we drove over the mountain pass.

* Note that over and across are also used as adverbs.

3. At, in, on
 In, on, at are all prepositions that can refer to time or location.

In (general) Centuries Country In the 1700s

Decades City In May
Months Neighborhood In Romania
Years In Berlin

On (more specific) Days Streets On Thursday

Weekends Avenues On Christmas
Holidays On Wall Street

At (specific) Hours Address At 7am

Meal times Specific location At my house
Times of day At lunchtime
At night

My mother was born in the 20th century.

I live on Humboldt Street.

Ill call you on Christmas day.

Will you come over at 8pm please?

Lionel was born in Maine.

He proposed to me at breakfast time.

No prepositions are needed before:

Today, yesterday, tomorrow

This year, month, etc.
Last night, week, etc.
Next week, month, etc.

4. Among & between

Among and between are both prepositions. In general, we use between when referring
to only two people or things, while among is used for three or more. Lets break down their
specific uses in detail below.
Among
Belonging to a specified group. This usually means a plural noun or collective noun follows
among.

Sadie was among the seven girls selected to read their poetry.

I was among the 50 americans trapped in the building

Surrounded by people or things, or within that group of people or things.

Henry walked among the deer.

Used to show choice and division when three or more people or things are involved.

The money was divided among all seven participants.

Between
The space separating two people or things. The nouns can be singular or plural and are two
distinct items.

The dog slept between Erin and Joseph.

The time separating two events or dates.

My great-grandmother was born sometime between 1850 and 1860.

Used to show choice and division between two people or things.

Katy had to decide between living in China or Greece.

5. What is a preposition and when to use one

What is a preposition?
A preposition is a word that describes the relationship between a noun, pronoun, or
another element in a phrase. Prepositions are only found in prepositional phrases. A
phrase is a part of speech, or a sentence, that acts together to perform a certain task. A
prepositional phrase, is a phrase composed of the preposition followed by a noun or
pronoun. Prepositional phrases will take on one of the two forms below.

Of In To For
With At From By
About As Into Like
Between Over Against Before
 Preposition + Noun, pronoun, or clause

A prepositional phrase must start with a preposition and be followed by either a noun,
pronoun, or clause. It may also include modifiers in between those two, such as adjectives
and adverbs.

To + bed

In + time

From + our crazy + aunt

With + me

At + my + house

At + the closest + grocery store

Preposition + Modifier + Noun,

pronoun, or
clause

A prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of the sentence; prepositional
phrases operate as adjectives or adverbs. They are important because they answer
questions like: which one? Where? When? How?

The towel on the floor is all wet.

Where is the towel? (on the floor)

Our class before noon was cancelled.

Which class? (before noon)

The email from the professor contained very important information.

Which email? (From the professor)
Complex Prepositions

Complex prepositions work the same way as regular prepositions; however, they are
two or three words combined to make a single preposition.

Two-word prepositions

According to As for As to But for

Along with Alternative to Away from Aside from
Because of Contrast to Due to Except for
Relative to Equally with Except for Apart from
From: word + simple preposition

Three-word prepositions

In spite of In aid of In lieu of In front of

In case of In view of In place of In regard to
In reference to In comparison to In order to In relation to

From: simple preposition + noun + simple preposition

6. Unnecessary prepositions

For the most part, prepositions are not used with transitive verbs because they require
direct objects. Here are some of the most common transitive verbs:

Ask Attend Buy Take

Lose Make Love Find
Contact Need Discuss Raise
Join Describe Use Want

I want cake.

Can I use your umbrella?

Lets discuss the homework.

* These verbs are followed by direct objects.

When a sentence has a list of nouns, a preposition is only required before the first noun,
not each noun in the list.

I went to buy a cake with chocolate and whipped cream.

I walked across a field and bridge this afternoon.

7. No splitting auxiliary verbs with prepositions

 A preposition cannot be placed between an auxiliary verb and its main verb. Sometimes adverbs may
be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.

I will change my bike.

NOT I will to change my bike.

I should have gone to the park earlier.

NOT I should have to gone the park earlier.

You can, however, add an adverb after the first auxiliary verb in certain cases.

I should already have gone to the park, its too dark now!
8. Ending a sentence with a preposition

While it is perfectly fin to end a sentence with a preposition for informal writing, it isnt
acceptable in formal writing. Here are some examples showing how you can rephrase a
sentence ending with a preposition.

Which drawer should this go into?

OR Into which drawer should this go?

9. Per and measurements

Per is used to describe prices or times in relation to weight, speed, or other times.

Five miles per hour same as: five miles an hour

$7.80 per kilo same as: $7.80 for one kilo

$20 per hour to rent this boat same as: this boat costs $20 for each hour of use.

10. As vs Like

Many people have a hard time deciding whether to use like or as. Traditionally, like is used as a
preposition and as is used as a conjunction. Although, now-days like is often employed as a conjunction.
To distinguish between the two, look at what follows the as/ like. Use like if it is not followed by a verb
and as if there is a verb.

He swims like a fish.

Sally acted as if she wasnt upset.

I acted just as you would have in that situation.

 Youre acting like my little brother!

Conjunctions

1. Expressions of contrast

But and although/though are conjunction of contrast used to connect ideas that contrast.

But is a coordinating conjunction that must be placed in between the main idea and the
contrasting idea. Coordinating conjunctions are used between two main clauses.

The dress is beautiful but impractical.

My dinner was delicious but too expensive.

Although/though are subordinating conjunctions that link a main clause to a

subordinate contrasting clause. They can also be placed at the start of the sentence.

She is nice although I dont see her much.

He is very smart though he tries to hid it.

2. Understanding coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give
equal weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a
simple acronym:

FANBOYS

For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Coordinating conjunctions are used to give equal weight to the two main clauses. They
can also be used to connect to items in a list. While it isnt grammatically incorrect to start
a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, many advise against this practice to help avoid
fragments.

Main clause Coordinating Main clause

conjunction
The dog hates to swim but He loves to go on walks.
I want to go out ton eat but The babysitter is sick

Main clause Item Coord. item

conjunction
The party will have cake and Cookies.
I wan to try salsa or tango

3. Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to link subordinating clause to a main clause. This
means that, instead of equal emphasis for each clause, there is one clause that is considered
the principal phrase.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

as soon as because whenever

as long as Just as wherever

after once now that

although if unless
provided even until

There are two main patterns a sentence with subordinating conjunctions can
take. Firstly, the sentence may begin with the subordinating conjunction and subordinate
clause. An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent
on the main clause.

Subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause , main clause

 Even if its cold , + , we are going on a hike.

Although Ive seen it before, Ill see that movie with you tomorrow.

As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.

*Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.

The second structure puts the main clause before the subordinate clause.

Main clause + subordinate conjunction + subordinate clause

I liked your performance now that I understand its historical context.

Ill drive you to school as long as youre not late again.

4. Correlative conjunctions

The adjectives either and neither allow speakers to refer to two separate things or
situations at the same time. Either is used in positive phrases about a choice, while neither
is used in negative phrases.

Once these words are paired as

Neither nor

Eitheror

They become correlative conjunctions that connect two grammatically equal options. Other
correlative conjunctions include: not onlybut also, bothand, as well as just asso. So,
if a noun follows either, another noun must follow or.

Neither Beth nor Colin got good grades this year.

Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the subordinating
conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.

When Im in Europe this summer Ill visit either France or Italy.

 These phrases can be grammatically tricky, especially when it comes to verb and
pronoun agreement. The verb or pronoun must agree with the second subject or
antecedent, instead of the first or a combination.

Neither Rebecca nor the Johnson twins handed in their homework on time.

*Note here that their homework represents the Johnson twins. If we reversed the
order of the subjects, the antecedent would need to change.

Neither the Johnson twins nor Rebecca handed in her homework on time.

Most commonly confused words

Homonyms are words with similar meaning or pronunciation. There are three different
kinds: homophones (words that share the same pronunciation but different meanings
they may or may not be spelled the same), homographs (words that share the same
spelling but not always the same pronunciation), and heteronyms (these words share the
same spelling but not the same pronunciation). Here is a break down of the most common
homonyms from all three categories.

Accept Accept is a verb that I will accept your terms.

Vs means to receive. Except
Except is a preposition meaning I will go skiing except if its
to exclude. stormy.
Affect Affect is a verb to indicate The critics didnt affect her good
Vs influence. Effect is a noun mood.
Effect meaning, synonymous
with result. The drug has side effects.
Allusion An allusion is an indirect The author made an allusion to
Vs reference. An illusion is a Jane Austen.
Illusion deception or false
impression. She has the illusion of being
wealthy.
Elicit Elicit is a verb meaning to I want to elicit positive behavior
Vs evoke. Illicit is an in my students.
Illicit adjective synonymous
with illegal. She was involved in illicit
activities.
Hear Here is the location of a I moved here last year.
Vs place or thing. Hear is a
Here verb to do with sound I cant hear you very well, please
perception. speak louder.
By The verb buy means to
Vs purchase. By is a
Buy preposition meaning
Vs near, through, or on
Bye behalf of. Bye is a
shortened for of goodbye.
Whole Whole is either an
Vs adjective or noun to
Hole mean complete or
undamaged. Hole is a
emptied space.
Brake A brake is used to stop a
Vs vehicle. Break is a verb
Break meaning to shatter
something.
One One is a single unit, while
Vs won is the past tense of
Won the verb to win.
Are Are is a present tense
V form of the verb to
Our be. Our is a plural
possessive pronoun.
Whether Weather is the
Vs atmospheric conditions.
Weather Whether is used to
present two alternatives.
Aloud The verb to allow is the
Vs act of making something
Allowed possible. Aloud to the act
of using the voice.
Right Write is to form letters of
Vs words on a surface. Right
Write means correct.
Principal Principle is a noun
Vs meaning a fundamental
Principle idea. Principal is an
adjective for main or
most important.
Dessert A dessert if something
Vs sweet to eat, while a
Desert desert is an arid region.
There, their, theyre
Can you buy some bread?
My house is by Lake Michigan.
See you later, bye!
I have the whole day free.
I fell into a hole, I think it was dug
out by an animal.
My bike brake doesnt work.
If the glass falls it will break.
I have one car.
We won the soccer game!
How are you doing?
Our house is in the country.
We cant swim due to the weather
outside.
Whether or not I fall ill, I will go
to the show.
She read the book aloud.
I was allowed to ride the
rollercoaster.
Please write your name below.
Thats the right answer.
The principal argument for
seatbelts is safety.
Stick to your principles!
I want a dessert with chocolate!
There was no water in the desert.
 This is an easily grammar mistake to make when being careless. Luckily its also easy to
learn and use.

There Their Theyre

Is word represents an
abstract or physical place. It
is used to show that
something exists. A good
rule of thumb: if you can
replace there with the word
here, its correct.
There is tea on the table.
This is a possessive This is the contraction of
adjective. Its used to they are. Its often used
show possession of before a verb ending in
something. Their can be ING. If the phrase works
replaced by the word with They are, then there is
our and still make sense. the correct word.
Their house is nice Theyre coming to dinner.

There isnt any snow Their cat is getting old Theyre still in school.
outside.
Their car has a flat tire. Theyre singing in a choir.
There are many kinds of
birds.

Its vs its

Its and its are not the same thing. While its is the possessive form of a the pronoun it, its
(with an apostrophe) is a contraction of it is. If youre unsure which one to use, try the
phrase with it is, if it still makes sense use its- the contraction and not the possessive
pronoun.

The company and its mission are admirable.

Whos mission? The companys mission.

I went to the Louvre today. The Mona Lisa is among its most famous paintings.
Whos painting? The Louvres painting.

Its ten oclock.

It is ten oclock

When its cold out I always bring gloves with me.

When it is cold out

Yours vs yours
 Yours is a second person possessive pronoun. It is used to replace your + noun

I found a wallet, is it yours?

(your + wallet)

Yours is a better plan.

(your + plan)

I love this bike, but I want yours.

(your + bike)

*The form yours is incorrect and should never be used.

Punctuation

1. Commas after introductory prepositional phrases

An introductory prepositional phrase defines the direction, time, location, or spatial

relationship of the main clause. It is dependent on the main clause and cannot stand alone
as a phrase. There must be a comma after the introductory prepositional phrase if it
contains five or more words.

After the big family dinner, we wanted to sleep.

(introductory prepositional clause), (main clause)

In the sprawling city park, there is always someone having a picnic.

However, if the introductory prepositional phrase contains four or fewer words, a

comma is not necessary:

While on duty the officer fell asleep.

There may be cases where a comma isnt necessary but adds clarity to the phrase. In the
phrase below, readers may think night owls is a single concept if the comma is excluded.

In the night owls attack mice.

In the night, owls attack mice.

2. Punctuating infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase starts with the infinitive form of a verb and is connected to a main
clause.

To get a better view of the match, Sarah changed seats.

(introductory infinitive phrase), (main clause)

There are three possible grammatical patterns an infinitive phrase sentence may take.
First off is an introductory infinitive phrase that is followed by the main clause. This
requires a comma after the introductory phrase.

To earn more money, John applied for a second job.

To learn Spanish, Euan moved to Argentina.

Secondly, an infinitive phrase may interrupt the main clause. In this case a commas are
required to offset the infinitive phrase.

That idea, to be perfectly honest, will not work well.

This park, to let you know, is a little scary at night.

The third pattern is when the infinitive phrase comes after the main clause. There is no
need for punctuation between the two sentence parts.

I completely forgot you wanted to see that new movie.

The cat is happy to see you.

3. Punctuating participle phrases

A participle phrase begins with either a present or past tense participle. They always
function as adjectives and add description to the phrase.

Jasmine stared out at the ocean, crashing its waves against the cliffs, and wished
it were warm enough to swim.

The birds song lasted all morning, echoing in the valley, as Stephanie took
pictures for the ornithology society.

Present tense participles end in ing:

 Chewing, dancing, laughing

While regular past tense participles end in ed:

Chewed, danced, laughed

singing sang *It must be noted that irregular past tense participles will not
becoming became follow a common form.
breaking broken

4. Punctuating introductory phrases that start with a subordinating conjunction

When an introductory phrase begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as: even, as
soon, as, if, provided that, once etc), there is a comma after the introductory
phrase. However, there is not a comma after the subordinating conjunction.

Common subordinating conjunctions:

as soon as because whenever

as long as Just as wherever

after once now that

although if unless
provided even until

An introductory phrase beginning with a subordinating conjunction is dependent on the

main clause. Whether the dependent clause is before or after the main clause, the
subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of the dependent clause.

Even if its cold , + , we are going on a hike.

Although Ive seen it before, Ill see that movie with you tomorrow night.

As soon as it stops raining, you need to take out the garbage.

5. Punctuation after conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs 1) links two independent clauses in the same sentence, 2) link ideas
in two or more sentences, and 3) show connections between ideas within a single
independent clause.

Common conjunctive adjectives include:

nevertheless similarly however also

nonetheless finally therefore indeed When a conjunctive adverb is used to

link two independent clauses, it is
consequently likewise moreover then preceded by a semicolon and followed by
a comma.
furthermore hence otherwise thus

Youre my brother; nonetheless, I feel like youre taking advantage of me.

Tuition increases have prompted many American students to look for educational
opportunities outside of the Unites States; furthermore, many European countries
provide free higher education to non-European citizens.

Sea turtles are an endangered species; however, many people still illegally kill them
as their eggs on beaches around the world.

If a conjunctive adverb is used anywhere else in a phrase, it is off set by commas.

Malina had no alibi for the murder. Nevertheless, she maintained her
innocence throughout the trial.

Finally, the ship was cleared to set sail.

I went to the store. Meanwhile, Catherine made us lunch.

6. Punctuation after interjections

An interjection conveys an emotion or feeling, and they are rarely seen in academic and
formal writing. The interjection usually appears at the beginning of a sentence or clause
with little connection to the rest of the phrase. They are most often followed by an
exclamation point or comma.

The interjection is followed by an exclamation point when it conveys very strong

emotions like delight or surprise.
 Ouch! Claire just bit me.

Whoa! I cant believe you did that.

Yay! This is such exciting news.

In most other cases, the interjection is offset by commas. This includes when an
interjection is found in the middle of a sentence.

Well, lets see what we can do.

Here, Ill help you with those boxes.

Ill need more time to finish this project, well, I think Ill need extra time.

7. Punctuation of coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect items, phrases, or clauses. They are used to give equal
weight to each phrase. Coordinating conjunctions are easily remembered with a simple
acronym:

FANBOYS

For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So

When a coordinating conjunction separates two main clauses or verbs, a comma

precedes it.

The pasta looked delicious, but the family ordered lobster.

It was raining outside, yet I went for a run.

I was very excited, and fairly nervous.

They ran as fast as they could, and jumped as high as possible.

Finally, when it is used to separate two items there is no punctuation.

I ordered potatoes and French fries.

There are hats and gloves inside.

You may eat this with a spoon or a fork.

8. Sentence composed of two independent clauses

When two independent clauses are not connected with a conjunction or another
transitional expression, a semicolon is used to separate them. The semicolon works as a
light period between the phrases; nonetheless, keeping the two independent clauses in the
same sentence.

The party appeared to be a huge success; all the cake had been eaten quickly.

The children refused to go to bed; they didnt want to miss the fireworks.

9. Non-restrictive clauses

A non-restrictive clause provides non-essential to the meaning of a sentence, and is offset

by commas. It usually adds interesting information to the sentence, and it can be removed
easily as well.

My sister, who is a lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.

The information here concerning where the sister lives is non-essential. The sentence
makes just as much sense without it.

My sister will help me move tomorrow.

The information offset by commas must be non-essential to understanding the phrase;

if its essential information, do not use commas. For example, if the sisters profession
actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of just adding something of interest, it
becomes essential information.
 My sister who is a lawyer will help me move tomorrow.
(Instead of the sister who is, say, a teacher).

10. Question tags

Question tags are placed at the end of statement in a way that transforms it into a
question. They are often added to cajole the other person into agreeing with the statement,
and are used almost exclusively during informal interactions. Question tags are always
separated from the main clause by a comma.

Its beautiful outside, isnt it?

Im so proud of Sophia, arent you?

Lets have some tea, shall we?

Youve met him before, havent you?

It isnt very good, is it?

Thats very interesting, yeah?

11. Punctuating contrasting subject in a phrase

When a phrase contains a part that contrasts the subject, this part is offset by
commas. Look for words like not, unlike, and never to signal a contrast to the subject.

A green light, not red light, means go when driving.

Today, unlike yesterday, is very cloudy.

Erin, unlike Kira, is very studious.

12. Punctuating dates

When and where commas are used for dates depends on the information
provided. When a phrase contains only the month and year, no punctuation is needed.
 I visited Vietnam in May 2011.

Signe graduated from high school in June 2007.

When the day of the month is also included, there must be a comma between the before
the year.

The ceremony took place May 17, 2001.

I arrived in France August 26, 2015.

Furthermore, if the day of the week is included, there is a comma after it.

The grocery store will be closed Wednesday, July 13, 2016.

13. Appositives

An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that is set next to another noun or pronoun and is
used to describe or identify it.

The girl in the toy store commercial is my daughter

(noun) + (appositive)

The tree with blue flowers needs to be removed from my garden.

(noun) + (appositive)

The appositive is offset by commas when the information is non-essential to

understanding the phrase. If its essential information, do not use commas. For example,
take the two sentences below:

My sister the lawyer will help me move tomorrow.

My sister, the lawyer, will help me move tomorrow.

For example, if the sisters profession actually tells us which sister is helping, instead of
just adding something of interest, it becomes essential information.

14. Commas and quotation marks

There must always be a comma before a direct quotation is inserted in a text.

She said, Ill never go back!

 Hes a great man, Humphrey shouted.

If there is an interruption in the quote, its offset by commas. Following American

grammar rules, the comma preceding the interruption is placed inside the quotation
marks. However, this may vary depending on the country.

How dare you, she screamed, speak to me in such a manner!

If the quote is not from someone specific, but instead refers to a general statement do
not include a comma.

I dont like it when people yell shut up at me. I find it rude.

In this example, the speaker is not directly quoting someone, and is instead making a
general statement. Furthermore, it isnt an entrance to a dialogue.

15. Punctuating et cetera

Et cetera, usually abbreviated as etc. Its used for two reasons: the first is when the
omitted material is obvious, and the second is when this material is unnecessary.

When used at the end of a sentence, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a period.

I have all the necessary items to make a cake, like flour, sugar, etc.

Youll find tissues in the bathroom, living room, kitchen, etc.

If the et cetera appears in the middle of a phrase it is followed by a period and a comma.

I ate so much chocolate, fudge, cake, etc., that I gave myself a stomach ache.

16. Punctuating interrupting phrases

Interrupters a small word group that convey tone, emotion, or emphasis in a

sentence. They are offset with commas, and without commas the sentence flow will be
awkward. Reading sentences allowed often helps determine if there is an interrupter or
not.

Common interrupters include:

 Generally speaking To say the least unfortunately
In fact happily indeed
As they say sadly (name of a person)

I am, needless to say, happy to see you.

Brooke, sadly, has been placed in a psychiatric hospital.

In my experience, generally speaking, there isnt a long line.

17. Name included in direct speech

There must be a comma before or after a name when its included iat the beginning or end of a
sentence from direct speech.

Jane, have you found the keys yet?

Ill let you know later, Tom.

George, youre the best!

18. Punctuating coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives

Coordinate adjectives are two or more parallel adjectives used to modify a

noun. Commas are used to separate these kinds of adjectives. Commas are required after
coordinate adjectives. There are ways to test whether or not the sentence contains
coordinate adjectives.

Firstly, sentences with coordinate adjectives still make sense if you replace the commas
with the word and. If there are just two coordinate adjectives, separate them with the
work and.

The girl was sweaty and gross.

This example shows that this phrase is, in fact, a series of coordinate adjectives:

The boy was covered in gross, stinky, sticky mud.

The boy was covered in gross and stinky and sticky mud.

Secondly, if you can switch the order of the adjectives without compromising the
meaning of the sentence, they are coordinate adjectives.

I was looking at the tall, funny building.

I was looking at the funny, tall building.

On the other hand, adding the word and or changing the adjective order of
noncoordinate adjectives ruins the meaning of the sentence. No commas are needed
between this kind of adjective.

The red sports car zoomed past them. [correct]

Notice that if you change the order or add the word and, the sentence no longer makes
sense.

The red and sports car zoomed past them. [incorrect]

The sports red car zoomed past them. [incorrect]

19. Punctuating addresses

When putting and address in a sentence, each element is separated by a comma. The
standard American address breaks down into these parts:

1023 Patterson Avenue

Eugene, Oregon 97405

In a sentence this address will contain a comma after the street number and street name,
after the city, as well as after the state. If the sentence continues, there must also be a
comma after the zip code.

Ricky lives at 1023 Patterson Avenue, Eugene, Oregon 97405.

Ricky moved to 1023 Patterson Avenue, Eugene, Oregon 97405, about a year ago.

20. Punctuating salutations

There are two ways to punctuate salutations at the start of a letter, depending on how
formal it is. The general rule is to place a comma after the name; however, a semicolon may
be used in formal writings instead.

Dear Ms. Johnson,

or Dear Ms. Johnson:

Commas are also inserted between a persons name and post-nominal letters (academic
degrees, certifications, affiliations, etc.). Keep in mind, theres no comma between the
abbreviations for junior or senior.

Mr. Bradford, MD,

Mr. Lidon Jr.,

21. Closing letters

A letter closes with a complimentary closing followed by a comma (and usually a signature on the next
line). The complimentary closing may be rather informal or very formal.
 Sincerely,

Rebecca Chatsworth

Best Regards,

Kiralyn Peterson

Respectfully,

Richard Hoggart

Sincerely yours,

Abigail Midelfort

22. Punctuating correlative conjunctions

either or
neither or Correlative conjunctions connect two parallel items in
both and a sentence. Pay careful attention to the fact that both
whether or parts of the sentence actually carry equal weight. Here
not only but also are some common correlative conjunctions:

Either I leave or she does.

Neither Michael or I own a car.

The cat is both gentle and wild.

23. Two part subjects and punctuation

When the subject of a sentence is actually composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
(e.g. Kate and Mike), there is no comma to separate the two. This is true whether the nouns
are separated by the word and, or the word or.

Kate and Mike love their new house.

Mom or her friend will come pick you up later.

 The dog and the cat play together all the time.

24. Parenthesis

Depending on the sentence surrounding the parentheses, there may either be one
comma after the closing parentheses or none required. If the sentence, once the
parenthesis is taken out, doesnt need a comma, you should not add one. However, if there
is a comma needed, it should be placed at the end of the parenthesis.

They were counting (very loudly I might add) how many eggs were left.

They were counting eggs (very loudly I might add), but didnt have enough
for breakfast.

25. Punctuating a nominal groups series

Nominal groups are word groups that provide information about people, places, and
concepts. Nominal groups, also called noun phrases, shouldnt be split up by a comma
because they will loose their meaning. You will need commas when there is a series of
noun phrases in one sentence.

Example of a nominal phrase:

a bank account

my mothers maiden name

a yellow house

I want a blue shirt, a portable vacuum, and a pretty dress to dance in for
Christmas.

In the sentence above, there are three nominal groups in a series.

26. Punctuating a series of verbs

When the phrase includes only two verbs, separate them by the word and, with out any
punctuation. Commas are required after each verb in the series, once the series in three or
more. If theres already a comma after each verb, use semicolons to separate each verb in
the series.

Two verbs in a series:

I ran and swam yesterday.

He drove over and parked the car.

Three or more in a series:

You will empty the trash, clean the bathroom, and call your grandmother
this afternoon.

The children played at the park, ate lunch, and walked back home.

A case with semicolons:

She ran in the morning, without any shoes on; stepped on some glass,
which surprised no one; and spent the afternoon getting stitches.

27. Word of comparison

Commas shouldnt be used in a comparison. Writers often place a comma after a

conjunction in comparison phrases; however, this is incorrect.

This soda is bigger than your water bottle.

This bag weights more than my suitcase.

28. Cases where commas will never be used

There are two places you will never, without exception, see commas. They should never
separate the subject and the verb of a sentence, as well as be the start of a sentence. While
commas are rarely mistakenly placed at the start of a sentence, we often see commas
cropping up between the subject and the verb. This mistake frequently occurs when the
subject clause is long or already has a verb in it.

The way to check if youre on the right road is to use GPS.

With the above sentence, you may be tempted to add a comma after path; however, this
is incorrect. The verb of the sentence is to be and the subject is the way to check if youre
on the right road

There should never be a comma after a conjunction that is followed by a phrase.

I cant say if the weather will be clear tomorrow.

I always wash my hands if I see someone near me cough.