Jesse Keating

Drs. Nietupski & Liu

TRS 351: Silk Road Religions

May 2, 2016
 When conceptualizing the ongoing movement of the transmission of goods and ideas

through the rapidly evolving force of globalization, it is easy to overlook its predecessor, or its

beginnings, scholars would say. The Silk Road, a network of trade routes that spanned from

North Africa all the way to Northeast Asia, developed by the Chinese during the Han dynasty,

and later expanding West, served as the medium for cultural transmissions between cultures that

had otherwise little to no contact. Aesthetic ideals from art, philosophical and theological

perspectives about existence and governance of morality were all key elements of transmission

between cultures that came along with the goods being traded. One theology that was an actor of

intersubjectivity and interdependency of perspective between strangers was Manichaeism.

In a Chinese context, Manichaeism came into a grand collision between the forces of

Taoist, Buddhist and ethnocentric beliefs under the rule of Emperor Wuzong of the Tang

Dynasty. Through this collision came the unique survival strategy of adaptation to oppression by

the Manichaeans of China, and later the suppression and annihilation of the Manichaean identity.

Intersubjectivity through the vast network of the Silk Road created the ethnocentrism that

ultimately destroyed the Manichaeans of China during the Tang Dynasty. It is important to first

discuss what is Manichaeism, its historical background, the migration and intersubjectivity of

its followers in China, and the devastating effects of Taoist and ethnocentric perspective in

contrast to Manichaean and Buddhist visibility.

Before Manichaeism ever reached Central Asia and China through the Silk Road, it was

incepted and developed in stark contrast to religious ritual and legal practices of Elchasaite

Baptist beliefs in Parthian Babylonia in 3rd century CE. (Tardieu pgs 1 &19) Mani, the son of

Patteg, a descendent of the Haskaniya family, and Mays (mother), a descendant of the royal

Kamasaragan family, was born in 216 AD. (Tardieu pgs 1-2) Mani is noted as the founder,
prophet and prominent transmitter of Manichaeistic theology. Manis childhood and early

adulthood experience within the theology belief system and legalism of the Mughtasila Elchasai

Baptist. To understand the society in which Mani was influenced by and later tred against, one

must understand the guiding principles of the Mughtasila and Elchasai Baptist in a chronological

order, and later in the culmination of Manis reality. (Tardieu 4)

While Mays was pregnant with Mani, it has been found that Patteg had membership in

the Ibn al-Nadim al-mughtasila, also known as the Mughtasila community. The Mughtasila were

a group that consisted in ritual purifications, both corporeal and dietary. (Tardieu pg 5) Their

most notable ritual practice is the code of dietary observance. This dietary observance was

broken down into categories defined and confined by social criteria. As stated in Tardieus book

Manichaeism,

In addition to prohibiting the consumption of fermented beverages and meat . . .

Jewish bread ( that is, the locally made bread of the poor) was permitted, but the Greek

bread (the bread of foreigners and the rich) was forbidden. Vegetables from the gardens

of the community, regarded as being essentially male, were allowed; the same vegetables

coming from outside the community, and so considered to be essentially female were

disallowed. Every male vegetable had to be baptized - washed and ritually blessed -

before being eaten.

This perspective of baptized ritual practice is a key player in how Mani constructs his beliefs and

moral ethics in regard to other individuals, especially outsiders and the marginalized in the

society he lived in. He also constructs the dietary code of Manichaeism from the Mughtasila

community.
 Through the intersubjectivity of Judaism and Mughtasila, came the inception and practice

of Elchasai. Said to have existed, Elchasai, a jew by birth and upbringing, rejected the bloody

passover ritual of cutting the throat of an animal, and tributing the roasted carcass on an alter.

(Klijn 279) He stood in stark opposition to the sacrificial and deadly fire of Judaism and took

to the Palestinian baptist practice of life-giving water. (Tardieu 7) This principle of water

being life-giving entailed the pardoning of all sins and relinquishing a curative effect on the

human body. It would be sanctioned as a practice to cure those of bad health and dictate dietary

restrictions.

Once again, food was being defined and demonized based off of where it came from,

being people of a demonized social class, ethnic identity, or religious identity. As Elchasaicism

was more refined to the Judeo-christian belief system in 2nd century CE, the baptist ideals of

purification and absolution of sins became more prominent. Manis vision of an angel at 12

proclaiming him a prophet, and then his opposing views of the Mughtasila Elchasai Baptist

practice of baptizing foods, the treatment of outside groups of peoples, the rejection of ritual

beliefs of salvation; developed the tenets of his belief system. Mani proclaimed that Jesus said

nothing of the sort in regards to Mughtasila customs and Elchasai Baptist belief.

Manichaeism is a dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between good, a spiritual

world of light, and evil, a material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which took

place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the

world of light whence it came. Mani asserted that the religions around him were incomplete;

referencing Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and teachings of Jesus. Accordingly, as it spread, it

adapted new deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. In Manis

demise, a power political struggle ensued between himself and Karder, a Zoroastrian prelate to
the king Bahram. (Lieu) Mani later died after being chained, abused and starved to death after

being accused of plotting against the king and betraying Zoroastrianism. Manichaeism expanded

as far west as Rome, but had little traction after the persecution under Diocletian. Even in Persia,

Manichaeism suffered persecution and eradication under Bahram II. The movement east through

Central Asia and China, through the Silk Road became pivotal for Manichaeism to survive. (See

figure 1)

The Uyghur occupied major trading posts along the Silk Road, oasis cities that

were multi ethnic and multilingual societies. (Kudara 185) This meant that they came in direct

contact with a multitude of people, eventually amalgamating different people into their Turkic

identity. Manichean monasticism saw its major historical turning point when the Khaghan of the

Uyghur Turks, were converted in 762 CE. (Leiu 82) This conversion took place when the

Uyghur came in contact with Sogdian merchants from Iran. (Kudara 184) As conversion was

based on political and economic concerns regarding trade with the Sogdians, it was driven by the

rulers. Furthermore, as the Khaghan political power depended on his ability to provide

economically for his subjects. The Sogdians and the Uyghurs benefited from this alliance;

Sogdians allowed the Uyghurs to trade in the Western Regions and exchange silk from China for

other goods. For the Sogdians it provided their Chinese trading communities with Uyghur

protection. From the findings of a Tang geographical text in Dunhuang, scholars have asserted

that Sogdians proved to be key in the theological exchange of Buddhism, Nestorianism, and

Manichaeism. (Xinjiang 148)

The Sogdians in association with the Uyghurs, have been discovered by scholars to be

key players in the translation of Buddhist, Nestorianism and Manicheism texts to Chinese. Found
within Dunhuang Mogao caves were documents that detailed the interaction between the three

religions,

. . found an interesting Chan text about Sichuan Buddhism in the Tang

period. In this text, the monks mention their Indian ancient masters defeated two

heterodox masters names are called mo-man-ni is Mani, and mi-shi-he is

Messiah, Jesus Christ. This topic directly connected with the spread of

Manichaeism . . to south-western China and their conflicts with Buddhism. .

(Xinjiang 151)

What had happened was the growing force of intersubjectivity between theological ideals and

perspectives of Buddhism, Manichaeism and Nestorianism. Focusing more in regard to the

relationship between Buddhism and Manichaeism, scholars have found syncretic and asyncretic

developments. The term burxan meaning heavenly Buddha, according to scholars was used

partially used as a title place holder for Uyighur Manichaean. (Kudara 187) Manichaeism, being

adaptable in nature, were found in this specific context to call upon Mani as Mani Burxan. This

was a clear cut assertion by the Manichaean people that Mani is to be the future Buddha. (Scott

148) Buddhists responded to this adaptation with apprehension and questioned the manipulative

nature of Manichaeism,

These religions are all falsely called religion of Buddha, to mislead stupid

people; consequently in their five elements there are poisonous vapours. At present the

Manichaeans still deceive (people) . . . in general they do not use meat or wine . . . It is

far removed from the practice of confession and from invocation to Buddha; but in reality

they follow an obscene debauchery. (Scott 150)

Manichean centers started to even mask themselves and announce that they too are of the

Buddhist tradition. A visual representation of this can be seen on the Visual references page,

(See figure 3). Shrine of Mani as Buddha in Quanzhou, China.

Another interesting example of intersubjectivity between the two religions was their

respective views on dualism. From a Mahayanist perspective, the Manichaean dualistic view and

discrimination was wrong. (Scott 152) Manichaeans were portraying Nirvana as something that

was was completely different form the negative and tainted universe and samsara. Buddhists

asserted that you are making Nirvana a primary focus, something that one can fully grasp.

Mahayana Buddhism breaks down the entrapment of the dualistic thinking that Manichaeism is

predicated on. More intersubjectivity ensues when the diaspora and persecution of the

Manichean Uyghurs takes place during the Tang Dynasty.

Later on, the Uyghur Khaganate ended up collapsing due to famine and uprising of the

Kirghiz, another Turkic people in 842 CE (Leiu 128). As a result, the majority of tribes under

Uyghur control migrated to what is now northwestern China, modern Xinjiang Uyghur

Autonomous region. (See figure 2) Uyghurs living within Xinjiang during the Tang Dynasty

experienced a great vulnerability like never before, in reaction to the dominant Taoist

perspective. Chinese before and during the Tang Dynasty had a growing panic based off of

mythologies that dealt with cannibalism. For instance, . . .allegation that a retinue of non-Han

attendants of one son of a local leader detained at the capital as a hostage was going around

abducting and cooking little children-. . . those who had seen cauldrons full of babies stewing

away. . (Barrett 175-176) It has been found by scholars that this was directly in response to

religious sacrifices practiced by non-Chinese and Chinese in the capital. Centuries later, the same

rhetoric and fear of human sacrifice practice ensued, pointing to Buddhism as an offender. Citing

the tale of a king who was instructed by his priest of sacrificed one hundred maidens, one
hundred children, some elephants and other animals, Buddhism became a religion widely

misunderstood. Emperors Xuanzong and Wenzong held sanctions against the Buddhist tradition

for the eventual construction of a Tao society and Terrace of the Immortals by Wuzong.

Continuing off of the Han Chinese perspective towards no non-Chinese, one must discuss

the other factor for discern toward Manichaeism. After the fall of Karabalghasum, the capital of

the Uygur Turks to the Kirghiz people in 840 CE, many pushed forward and carried on to

establish temples in Chang-an and Lo-yang. (Lieu 129) Many Chinese saw this as a symbol of

foreign arrogance and a reminder of the Uyghurs decimated military. Also, scholars believed

that the Chinese saw Manichaean temples as being funded through foreign money lenders, and

utilized as warehouses for goods and currency. What subsequently happened was the burning of

Manichaean temples, symbols, images and scriptures. (Lieu 130) This heightened sense of

ethnocentrism was ultimately driven off of public fears of human sacrificial mythologies and

perceived foreign arrogance.

Buddhism was seen during the time period of Emperor Wuzong of Tang (840-847 CE) as

something that imposed harm in certain regions of China. Wuzong on the other hand felt that

Buddhism was a parasite to Chinas economy because the monasteries did not pay taxes. (Barrett

178) He wanted to ensure that the Tao was the state religion; this set an uncomfortable and

menacing circumstance for Manichaeism. Manichaens were extremely vulnerable after the

collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate; many monasteries were closed and Han Chinese were

forbidden from converting to Manichaeism. What was interesting about this targeting of the

Manichaean faith was the forced assimilation of its followers to Buddhism. During the Hui-

chang, a massacre of foreign religions, ordered by Emperor Wuzong of Tang, forced

Manichaean monks to assimilate into the Buddhist tradition, which in some sense happened
already. Emperor Wuzong of Tang judged Manichaeism based off of the anti foreign

perspective of Buddhism by the Chinese. The massacre of the Manichaean and Buddhist monks

were in direct response to the monks body being an icon of Buddha. (Reinders 67) Killing the

body that resembles an icon, may take form in actual killing or may involve erasure of the

symbolism of the inscribed on the body. (Reinders 67) Manichaeans were deemed as an enemy

to the Tang Dynasty based off of the intersubjectivity and evolution from Mahayana Chinese

Buddhism.

It is important to also keep in mind how Emperor Wuzongs manipulation of Taoist

principles played a factor in the massacre of the Manichaeans, who were criminalized based off

of the Buddhist identity and visibility. Taoism, founded by Laozi, had no central orthodox Taoist

view of the way. Taoism promised immortality, a notion that increasingly captured the

attention of Emperor Wuzong of Tang as he grew older and mentally inept. This came in stark

contrast to Buddhist teachings of attaining nirvana, which skeptic Chinese saw as death.

Emperor Wuzong of Tang became obsessed with this principle of immortality, that he heavily

dabbled in alchemy. (Barrett 183) Also, as time went by, the emperor became more less sain in

his judgments. One of his edicts banned the use of single-wheeled wheelbarrows, since they

break up "the middle of the road," an important concept of Taoism. Many more laws were passed

to once again to disenfranchise the Buddhist population, with Manichaeism in the crossfire.

Emperor Wuzong of Tang later died from heavily prescribing into the Taoist elixirs that

promised immortality. He was a fervent Taoist believer, who through his acting upon his true

nature of self, became completely obsessed and lost grips on reality and order. Scholars assert

that his reign was a pivotal momentum shift in how Buddhism was perceived later on,

Manichaeisms lack of stain power in China, and the Tang Dynastys falter. (Barrett 184)
 In conclusion, one can see how Manichaeism came to be, the forces and

influences that cultivated its leader, Mani. Next, the development and intersubjectivity between

the Uighur Manichaean people, the Sogdian and Buddhist a like, created a tremendous ripple and

added understanding of assimilation of customs and identities. Through this assimilation of the

Buddhist identity over time, the interchangeable nature of identity became a detriment to the

Manichaeans because of the added fear of violent sacrificial practices and perceived non

Chinese arrogance, characterized as ethnocentrism by Han Chinese. Along with that, the

destruction of the
 References

Barrett Timothy H. The Madness of Emperor Wuzong. In: Cahiers d'Extreme-Asie, vol. 14,

2004.

In Memoriam Isabelle Robinet (1932-2000). Pensee taoi ste, Alchimie et cosmologie. pp.

173-186; doi : 10.3406/asie.2004.1206

Klijn, A.f.j., and G.j. Reinink. "Elchasai and Mani." Vigiliae Christianae 28.1 (1975): 277-89.

Web.

Kudara, Kogi. "The Buddhist Culture of the Old Uighur Peoples." Pacific World: Journal of the

Institute of Buddhist Studies (2002): 183-95. Google Scholar. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.
Lieu, Samuel N. C. Manichaeism in Central Asia and China. Leiden: Brill, 1998. Print.

Reinders, Eric. "Recycling Icons and Bodies in Chinese Anti-Buddhist Persecutions." RES:

Anthropology and Aesthetics No. 48.Permanent/Impermanent (2005): 61-68. JSTOR. Web.

4 Apr. 2016.

Scott, David. "Buddhist Responses to Manichaeism: Mahyna Reaffirmation of the "Middle

Path"?" History of Religions 35.2 (1995): 148-62. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 30 Apr. 2016.

Seib, Philip M. "China's Faith Diplomacy." Religion and Public Diplomacy. N.p.: Palegrave

Macmillan US, 2013. 78+. Print.

Tardieu, Michel. Manichaeism. Urbana, IL: U of Illinois, 2008. Print.

Xinjiang, Rong. "New Light on Sogdian Colonies Along the Silk Road Recent Archaeological

Finds in Northern China." Lecture at the BBAW. BBAW. Apr.-May 2016. Speech.

Visual References Page

Figure 1: Spread of Manichaeism

Figure 2: Xinjiang Autonomous Region (Uyghur)

Figure 3: Figure 3: Shrine of Mani as Buddha in Quanzhou, China.