Transport Across the Cell Membrane

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"The difference between the internal and external chemical Notes

composition of a cell represents a degree of order, that
can be maintained only by a barrier to free movement
into and out of the cell.

And since cells must also assimilate matter from their

external environment, to grow and reproduce, they must
be able to selectively allow certain molecules and ions
across this barrier, often against concentration gradients,
while restricting and excluding others."

A. Plasma Membrane
- The plasma membrane surrounds the cell and
functions as an interface between the living interior of
the cell and the nonliving exterior.

- All cells have one.

- It regulates the movement of molecules into and out of

the cell.

Membrane Structure
- The membranes of a cell are phospholipid bilayers
that contain numerous proteins embedded within them.
Some of the proteins extend all the way through the
membrane; others do not.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane

Phospholipids
- Most of the lipids in a membrane are phospholipids.

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Transport Across the Cell Membrane

- Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a

phosphate group. The phosphate group is polar
(hydrophilic), enabling it to interact with water. The
fatty acid tails are nonpolar (hydrophobic) and do not
interact with water.

Phospholipid Bilayers
- Phospholipids spontaneously form a bilayer in a
watery environment. They arrange themselves so that
the polar heads are oriented toward the water and the
fatty acid tails are oriented toward the inside of the
bilayer (see the diagram below).

- In general, nonpolar molecules do not interact with

polar molecules. This can be seen when oil (nonpolar)
is mixed with water (polar). Polar molecules interact
with other polar molecules and ions. For example table
salt (ionic) dissolves in water (polar).

- The bilayer arrangement shown below enables the

nonpolar fatty acid tails to remain together, avoiding
the water. The polar phosphate groups are oriented
toward the water.

Flexibility
- The fatty acid tails are flexible, causing the lipid
bilayer to be fluid. This makes the cells flexible. At
body temperature, membranes are a liquid similar to
cooking oil in consistency.

Cholesterol

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Transport Across the Cell Membrane

- In animals, cholesterol is a major membrane lipid. It

may be equal in amount to phospholipids.

- It is similar to phospholipids in that it one end is

hydrophilic, the other end is hydrophobic.

- Cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to

most biological molecules.
Source:
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20100/Bio%2010
0%20Lectures/Membranes/membrane.htm

Fluid Mosaic Model

- a model of the plasma membrane
- based on the changing location and pattern of
protein molecules in a fluid phospholipids
bilayer
- composed of a mosaic of lipid, protein and
carbohydrate biomolecules.

Parts
Glycolipids (gl) - are carbohydrate-attached lipids. Their
role is to provide energy and also serve as
markers for cellular recognition.
- also to attach cells to form tissues
Glycoproteins - a group of extracellular protein-
(gp) carbohydrate compounds, e.g.,
- mucins (mucous), protective coating
holding in moisture, and preventing
proteolysis (digestion by proteases), e.g, in
the stomach
- are important for immune cell recognition
- antibodies (immunoglobins, not
actually part of the cell membrane)
- major histocompatibility complex (or
MHC)
- bind tissues
Cell Biology - also include hormones such3as, Transport Across the Cell Membrane
- Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Luteinizing hormone
- Thyroid stimulating hormone
Transport Across the Cell Membrane

MHC)
- bind tissues
- also include hormones such as,
- Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Luteinizing hormone
- Thyroid stimulating hormone
Lipoproteins - a combination of fat (cholesterol) and
(lp) protein that transports lipids, such as
cholesterol,in the blood.
- HDL (high density lipoprotein), the good
cholesterols
- LDL (ow density lipoprotein), the bad
cholesterols
Carrier Protein - an integral protein that acts as a
(cp) gateway for water, Na+ and the like
o e.g., aquaporins, Na+ / K+
pump, glucose carrier
- Carrier Protein - an integral
membrane proteins that bind to a
"substrate" and transport it across the
membrane
- aka Carrier Molecule
Channel - an integral membrane protein that acts as
Protein (cp) “pore”

B. Membrane Transport Processes

1. Diffusion
- the migration of molecules or ions as a result of
their own random movements, from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration

2. Osmosis
- is the movement of water through a semi-
permeable membrane (analogy a colander or
sieve)
- is “water potential”
- movement of water (at constant temp. and The movement of water
pressure) is from the solution with lower follows the concentration
concentration of solutes to the solution of gradient from high
higher concentration of solutes (or from the concentration of water to
more pure water to less pure water) low concentration of water.

Hi conc. of water —water Low conc. of water Abbreviation:

Low conc. of solute —water Hi conc. of solute In chemistry concentration is
99% water 90% water indicated by use of square
1% solute 10% solute brackets [ ].

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Transport Across the Cell Membrane

Bulk flow
• Movement of water and
solutes together due to a
pressure gradient.
• ≠ Bulk transport

source: http://wilkes-fs1.wilkes.edu/~terzaghi/BIO-226/lectures/13.html

- the more dissolved particles in solution, the

greater the tendency of water to move into it
and the higher the osmotic pressure

Source: http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_06/lect_06.htm

NB. When doing such questions on the Gov’t, check to see

which solutes are actually permeable to the membrane—it
makes a difference

3. Tonicity
- Tonicity refers to the relative concentration of solute
on either side of a membrane

Hypertonic Hypotonic Isotonic

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Transport Across the Cell Membrane
Osmotic Effects
i. Hypertonic Medium
- such a medium is much richer in solutes than the
cell (hypotonic cell)
- as such osmotic flow is outward from the cell
- the cell shrinks as it loses water
- plasmolysis (“fluid breaks”)
e.g., sea water (very salty water)
ii. Hypotonic Medium
- such a medium is poorer in solutes than the cell
(hypertonic cell)
- as such osmotic flow forces water into the cell
- the cell swells as it gains water
- cytolysis (“cell breaks”)
e.g., fresh water
[mnemonic: think hypodermic needle - injects water
into]
iii. Isotonic Medium
- such a medium is in equilibrium with the cell
- neither gaining nor losing water
- the cell is iso-osmotic to the medium
- has the same osmolarity as the cell
- e.g., blood (salty water)
The above diagram shows the movement of water
into or out of the cell.
The example below is a red blood cell (RBC)
Cell Biology 6 Transport Across the Cell Membrane
Hyperosmotic or Hypertonic
Extracellular Fluid ["hyper" =
above, excessive]
- has HIGHER osmolarity than
cell; higher osmotic pressure
- solute concentration outside
cell > solute conc. inside cell
- solution has less H2O & thus
has greater tendency to GAIN
it
- cell loses water; shrinks or
crenate; water moves into
solution
Hypo-osmotic or Hypotonic
Extracellular Fluid ['hypo" =
beneath]
- has LOWER osmolarity than
cell; lower osmotic pressure
- solute concentration outside cell
< solute conc. inside cell
- solution has more water & thus
has greater tendency to LOSE it
- cell gains water, may cause
lysis; water enters the cell
Osmotic concentration =
concentration of all solutes
Osmotic pressure = force required
to stop osmosis
- Solution with higher osmotic
concentration is
hyperosmotic
- Solution with lower osmotic
concentration is hypoosmotic
- Solutions with equal osmotic
concentrations are isosmotic
- Cells shrink when
hypoosmotic to environment
- Cells swell when
hyperosmotic to environment
- Cells without walls want to be
isosmotic with environment
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Source: http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_06/4_11.GIF

RBC in Isotonic RBC in RBC in

Solution Hypertonic Hypotonic
Solution Solution
“crenation” “hemolysis”

Some more vocab (just to confuse you some more)

- A Mole of a substance may be defined as the molecular

weight of that substance expressed in grams.
o The molecular weight (m wt) of glucose is 180 so
180g of glucose = 1mole. The m wt of NaCl is about
58 so 58g of NaCl = 1mole. If 58g of NaCl are
placed into a beaker and water added to a volume of
1l then the result will be a 1 molar solution. Which
may be shown as 1mol/l or 1mol l-1 or 1M.

o Moles are used as a mass unit by biologists (and

Chemists) in preference to grams because a mole of
any substance contains the same number of particles
as a mole of any other substance.
o This greatly simplifies calculations that deal with
chemical reactions (including biologically relevant
reactions such as buffering) and osmotic effects.
o The number of particles, atoms or molecules in a
mole of any substance is given by Avagadro's
number which is about 602204500000000000000000

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Transport Across the Cell Membrane

or 6 x 1023

- Osmolarity is a measure of the osmotic pressure exerted by a

solution across a perfect semi-permeable membrane (one
which allows free passage of water and completely prevents
movement of solute) compared to pure water.
o Osmolarity is dependent on the number of particles
in solution but independent of the nature of the
particles.
o For example, 1 mole of glucose dissolved in 1 litre of
water has an osmolarity of 1 osmole (osm) /l. If 1
mole of another sugar, such as sucrose were added to
the same litre of water, the osmolarity would be 2
osm/l.
o It doesn't matter that the solution contains 1 mole of
glucose and 1 mole of sucrose.
o If 1 mole of NaCl were dissolved in 1 litre of water it
would produce a 1 mol/l NaCl solution with an
osmolarity 2 osm/l because NaCl dissociates into
Na+ and Cl- (two particles) in solution. This is true
of all compounds that dissociate in solution. Na2SO4,
which dissociates into Na+, Na+ and SO42-, to give 3
particles per molecule produces 3 osm/l for every
mole dissolved in 1 litre.

o If two solutions contain the same number of particles

they may be said to be iso-osmotic (isosmotic) with
respect to each other.
o If one solution has a greater osmolarity than another
solution it is hyperosmotic with respect to the weaker
solution. If one solution has a lower osmolarity than
another solution then it is hypo-osmotic
(hyposmotic) with respect to the stronger solution.
Iso, hyper and hypo osmolarity should always be
stated with respect to another solution. For example,
a 1 mol/l NaCl solution is hyperosmotic with respect
to 1 mol/l glucose solution.

- Because there are more Na+ and Cl-

particles relative to glucose particles

- Tonicity is nearly the same as osmolarity.

o For substance that cannot cross cell membranes,
tonicity is practically identical to osmolarity.
o Tonicity is a measure of the osmotic pressure that a
substance can exert across a cell membrane,
compared to blood plasma. Plasma has an osmolarity
of about 0.3 osm/l, therefore a 0.15 mol/l NaCl
solution may be said to be isotonic with plasma
(Assuming that neither Na+ nor Cl- can cross cell
membranes, which is nearly true).
 If a substance can cross a plasma
membrane, then it cannot exert an osmotic
pressure across that membrane. The solute
will equilibrate across the membrane instead

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of forcing water to move. Urea behaves like

this, so a 0.3 mol/l urea solution may be said
to be iso-osmotic with plasma but it is not
isotonic.
Source : Pete Smith
(http://www.liv.ac.uk/~petesmif/teaching/1bds_mb/notes/common/os
The lipid bilayer is permeable to
mo.htm)
small, uncharged (nonpolar),
molecules like oxygen (O2),
carbon dioxide (CO2 (these
4. Membranes are Differentially Permeable diffuse freely in and out of the
cell), and ), other lipids.
- The plasma membrane is differentially or
selectively permeable because some particles can
Lipid bilayers are not permeable
pass through, others cannot. to charged particles and really big
particles:
o It can control the extent to which certain - Water (polar)
substances pass through. - ions such as
- K+, Na+, Ca2+ (called
cations because when
- Nonpolar molecules pass through cell membranes subjected to an electric
more readily than polar molecules because the field they migrate toward
center of the lipid bilayer (the fatty acid tails) is the cathode [the
nonpolar and does not readily interact with polar negatively-charged
molecules. electrode])
- Cl-, HCO3- (called anions
because they migrate
The following substances can pass through the cell toward the anode [the
membrane: positively-charged
- Nonpolar molecules (example: lipids) electrode])
- small hydrophilic molecules
- Small polar molecules such as water like glucose
o Via porins, specialized protein channels - macromolecules like proteins
and RNA
Porins are proteins which cross the cellular membrane and
act as a pore through which molecules can diffuse. Note though that the plasma
membrane (cf fluid mosaic
- Unlike other membrane transport proteins, porins are model) is permeable to water and
large enough to allow passive diffusion - i.e. they act other small polar molecules
as channels. because of porin channels,
openings in the phospholipids
- Porins are composed of beta sheets (2° proteins) bilayer.
these form a cylindrical tube, called a beta barrel.
- The amino acid composition of the porin beta
sheets is unique in that polar and nonpolar
residues alternate along them.
- This means the nonpolar residues face outwards so
as to interact with the nonpolar lipid membrane,
whilst the polar residues face inwards into the
centre of the beta barrel to interact with the
aqueous channel.
- And water can pass through

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The following substances cannot pass through a cell

membrane without help:
- Ions and charged molecules (example: salts
dissolved in water) – via porins/channels/carrier
proteins Carrier proteins – bind to a
- Large polar molecules (example: glucose) substrate to assist it thru the
- Macromolecules – via endo/exocytosis lipid bilayer
Source: - facilitated and active
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20100/Bio%2010 transport
0%20Lectures/Membranes/membrane.htm
Channel proteins – are “pores”
5. Facilitated Transport/Diffusion through which a particle simply
glides thru
- facilitated diffusion
- the transport of molecules across a cellular
membrane thru specific protein channels / carrier
molecule (facilitating pathway) from a region of
high conc. to a region of low conc.

- process is driven by conc. differences and does Water and lipids are the two major
not require energy types of solvent in the body. The
lipid cell membrane separates the
intracellular fluid from the
- chief difference from “free” diffusion is that the
extracellular fluid. Substances
membrane is impermeable to the molecule except which are water soluble typically do
for passage thru the carrier channels, not cross lipid membranes easily
- e.g., the cell membrane, composed of the unless specific transport
phospholipids is impermeable to the passage of mechanisms are present. It might be
expected that water would likewise
water… not cross cell membranes easily.
Indeed, in artificial lipid bilayers,
water does not cross easily and this
6. “Active Transport” - Against the Gradient is consistent with our expectation…
- the other half of Facilitated Transport but paradoxically, water crosses
nearly all the membranes in the
body with ease!
- the pumping of molecules or ions across a cellular
membrane thru a carrier protein How? Via aquaporins
- from a region of lower conc. to one of higher
conc. These aquaporin proteins form
complexes that span the membrane
- therefore against the “current” or concentration and water moves through these
gradient, (cf. glucose uptake and insulin) channels passively in response to
- such a process requires energy osmotic gradients. These channel
- = Active transport proteins are present in highest
concentrations in tissues where rapid
transmembrane water movement is
important (e.g., in renal tubules).

Source:
http://wilkesfs1.wilkes.edu/~terzaghi/BIO226/l
ectures/13.html

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source: http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/

C. Bulk (Vesicular) Transport

- also a form of active (ATP using) transport

1. Endocytosis
- material is engulfed by the plasma membrane and
deposited in the cytoplasm in pockets that are

source: http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/
“pinched off” as vesicles toward the interior of the
cell
- the vesicle is then digested by the cell

- two variations on this theme:

i. Pinocytosis
- Greek “drink cell”s
- cell takes in dissolved material

ii. Phagocytosis
- Greek “eat cell”
- cell takes in solids

- basically large particulate matter is tightly enclosed

by the membrane bound arm of cytoplasm, and
most extracellular fluid is excluded, e.g., amoebae
eating a paramecium

2. Exocytosis
- like endocytosis only the vesicle is not digested,
but transported to and fused with, another part of
the plasma membrane

Cell Biology 11 Transport Across the Cell Membrane