(Victor E Saouma) Machanics and Design of Reinforc PDF

Draft DRAFT
Lecture Notes in:
Mechanics and Design of

REINFORCED CONCRETE
CVEN4555

c VICTOR E. SAOUMA,
Fall 2002
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
December 26, 2002

Draft
02
Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Draft
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.1.1 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.1.1.1 Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.1.1.4 Mix Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1.2 Design Philosophy, USD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2 FLEXURE 21
2.1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
E 2-1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1 Basic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
E 2-2 Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
E 2-3 Working Stress Design Method; Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
E 2-4 Working Stress Design Method; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Balanced Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.3.3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2.3.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2.4 Practical Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.4.1 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.4.2 Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2.4.3 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2.5 USD Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
E 2-5 Ultimate Strength; Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
E 2-6 Ultimate Strength; Design I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
E 2-7 Ultimate Strength; Design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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E 2-8 Exact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
. . . . . . 217
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.6.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.6.2 Design, (balanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
E 2-9 T Beam; Moment Capacity I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
E 2-10 T Beam; Moment Capacity II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
E 2-11 T Beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.7.1 Tests for fs and fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2.7.2 Moment Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
E 2-12 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
E 2-13 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
2.9 Bond & Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
2.9.1 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3 SHEAR 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 ACI Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
E 3-1 Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
E 3-2 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
3.7 Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
3.8 Deep Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
4 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 41
4.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2.1 Detailed Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2.2 ACI Approximate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Eective Span Design Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.1 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
E 4-1 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5 ONE WAY SLABS 51

5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 One Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

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6 SERVICEABILITY
03
61
6.1 Control of Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
E 6-1 Crack Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.1 Short Term Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.2 Long Term Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
E 6-2 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS 71

7.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
E 7-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8 COLUMNS 81
9 COLUMNS 91
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
E 9-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
E 9-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
E 9-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
9.2.6 Biaxial Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
E 9-4 Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
9.3 Long Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
9.3.1 Euler Elastic Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
9.3.2 Eective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
9.3.3 Moment Magnication Factor; ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
E 9-5 Long R/C Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
E 9-6 Design of Slender Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
10 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 101

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.2 Prestressing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.1.3 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.1.4 Tendon Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

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10.1.5 Equivalent Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
. . . . . . 104
10.1.6 Load Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
E 10-1 Prestressed Concrete I Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
10.3.1 Cross-Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
10.3.2 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
10.3.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
10.3.4 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

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List of Figures
1.1 Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2 MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.3 Concrete Stress Strain Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.4 Modulus of Rupture Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.5 Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.6 Biaxial Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.7 Time Dependent Strains in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.1 Strain Diagram Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2 Transformed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.7 Bar Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
2.8 T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.9 T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.10 T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.11 Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.12 Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.13 Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2.14 Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2.15 Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.16 Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.17 Bending of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
2.18 Moment-Curvature Relation for a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
2.19 Bond and Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
2.20 Actual Bond Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.21 Splitting Along Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.22 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.23 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.24 Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2.25 Bar cuto requirements of the ACI code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.26 Standard cuto or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uni-
formly distributed load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2.27 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.1 Principal Stresses in Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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3.2 Types of Shear Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES
. . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Mohrs Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6 Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.8 Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9 Corbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.10 Shear Friction Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
3.11 Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
4.1 Continuous R/C Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.2 Load Positioning on Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 ACI Approximate Moment Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 Design Negative Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5 Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam . . . . . . . . 45
4.6 Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.7 Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.8 Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9 Block Diagram for R/C Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.2 One vs Two way slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Load Distribution in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Load Transfer in R/C Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.1 Crack Width Equation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6.2 Uncracked Transformed and Cracked Transformed X Sections . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.3 Time Dependent Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.4 Time Dependent Strain Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.5 Short and long Term Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.1 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . 72

7.2 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces73
7.3 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments 73
7.4 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . 75
7.5 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . 75
7.6 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force76
7.7 Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.8 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . 79
7.9 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . 710
7.10 Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . 712
7.11 Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . 713
7.12 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . 714
7.13 Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
7.14 Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
9.1 Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

9.2 Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Draft
LIST OF FIGURES
9.3 Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

03
. 92
9.4 Sources of Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.5 Load Moment Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.6 Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.7 Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.8 Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
9.9 Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding
plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
9.10 Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
9.11 Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns . 916
9.12 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
9.13 Column Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
9.14 Critical lengths of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
9.15 Eective length Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
9.16 Standard Alignment Chart (ACI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
9.17 Minimum Column Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
9.18 P-M Magnication Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
10.1 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

10.2 Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.3 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.4 Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)105
10.5 Determination of Equivalent Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.6 Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typi-
cal Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.7 Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.8 Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
10.9 Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012

Draft
04 LIST OF FIGURES

Draft
List of Tables
1.1 ASTM Sieve Designations Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates . . . . . 13
1.2 ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Recommended Average Total Air Content as % of Dierent Nominal Maximum
Sizes of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Dierent
Slumps and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength . . . . . . 17
1.9 Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Dif-
ferent Fineness Moduli of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.10 Creep Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1.11 Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.12 Strength Reduction Factors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.1 Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
2.2 Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1 Building Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1 Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . 718

7.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . 719
Draft
02 LIST OF TABLES

Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Material
1.1.1 Concrete
This section is adapted from Concrete by Mindess and Young, Prentice Hall, 1981
1.1.1.1 Mix Design

1.1.1.1.1 Constituents
1 Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed
stone).
2 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in
a kiln and then pulverized. When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called
hydration.
3 Ideal mixture is one in which:
1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the

particles of aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
Strictly speaking, a water/cement ratio of about 0.25 is needed to complete this reaction,
but then the concrete will have a very low workability.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining
1/4 being the cement paste.
4 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being
coarse aggregates.
5 Portland Cement has the following ASTM designation
I Normal
II Moderate sulfate resistant, moderate heat of hydration
III High early strength (but releases too much heat)

Draft
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Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation
IV Low heat Portland cement, minimizes thermal cracking but must control initial temper-
ature
V Sulfate resistant (marine environment)
6 Aggregate usually occupy 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete. They are granular material
derived, for the most part, from natural rock, crushed stone, natural gravels and sands.
7 ASTM C33 (Standard Specications for Concrete Aggregates) governs the types of rock which
can produce aggregates.
8 The shape can be rounded, irregular, angular, aky, or elongated.
9 The surface texture can be glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed.
10 The particle size distribution or grading of aggregates is very important as it determines
the amount of paste for a workable concrete, Fig. 1.1. Since cement is the most expensive
component, proper gradation is of paramount importance.
11The grading of an aggregate supply is determined by a sieve analysis. A representative
sample of the aggregate is passed through a stack of sieves aranged in order of decreasing size
opening of the sieve.
12 We divide aggregates in two categories
Coarse aggregate fraction is that retained on the No. 4 sieve, Table 1.1.
Fine aggregate fraction is that passing the No. 4 sieve.
13 ASTM C33 sets grading limits for coarse and ne aggregates, Table 1.2 and 1.3 respectively.
14If a concrete does not comply with these limits, than there will be a need for more paste,
and there will be the possibility of aggregate segregation.
15Since aggregates contain some porosity, water can be absorbed. Also water can be retained
on the surface of the particle as a lm or moisture. Hence, it is necessary to quantify the
moisture content of the aggregates in order to make adjustments to the water. Because dry
aggregates will remove water from the paste, then the w/c is eectively reduced. On the other
hand moist aggregates may eectively increase the w/c ratio.

Draft
1.1 Material 13
ASTM Size
Design. mm in.
Coarse Aggregate
3 in. 75 3
21/2 in. 63 2.5
2 in. 50 2
11/2 in. 37.5 1.5
1 in. 25 1
3/4 in. 19 0.75
1/2 in. 12.5 0.50
3/8 in. 9.5 0.375
Fine Aggregate
No. 4 4.75 0.187
No. 8 2.36 0.0937
No. 16 1.18 0.0469
No. 30 0.60 (600 m) 0.0234
No. 50 300 m 0.0124
No. 100 150 m 0.0059
Table 1.1: ASTM Sieve Designations Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size % Passing Each Sieve

(Nominal Maximum Size)
11/2 in. 1 in. 3/4 in. 1/2 in.
11/2 in. 95-100 100 - -
1 in. - 95-100 100 -
3/4 in. 35-70 - 90-100 100
1/2 in. - 25-60 - 90-100
3/8 in. 10-30 - 20-55 40-70
No. 4 0-5 0-10 0-10 0-15
No. 8 - 0-5 0-5 0-5
Table 1.2: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size % Passing

3/4 in. 100
No. 4 95-100
No. 8 80-100
No. 16 50-85
No. 30 25-60
No. 50 10-30
No. 100 2-10
Table 1.3: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates

Draft
14
16 Moisture states are dened as

INTRODUCTION
Oven-dry (OD): all moisture is removed from the aggregate.
Air-dry (AD): all moisture is removed from the surface, but internal pores are partially full.
Saturated-surface-dry (SSD): All pores are lled with water, but no lm of water on the
surface.
Wet: All pores are completely lled with a lm of water on the surface.
17 Based on the above, we can determine
Absorption capacity (AC): is the maximum amount of water the aggregate can absorb
WSSD WOD
AC = 100% (1.1)
WOD
most normal -weight aggregates (ne and coarse) have an absorption capacity in the range
of 1% to 2%.
Surface Moisture (SM): is the water in excess of the SSD state
WW et WSSD
SM = 100% (1.2)
WSSD
18 The neness modulus is a parameter which describe the grading curve and it can be used
to check the uniformity of the grading. It is usually computed for ne aggregates on the basis
of
cumulative percent retained on standard sieves
F.M. = (1.3)
100
where the standard sieves used are No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, and No. 4, and
3/8 in, 3/4 in, 11/2 in and larger.
19 The neness modulus for ne aggregate should lie between 2.3 and 3.1 A small number
indicates a ne grading, whereas a large number indicates a coarse material.
20 Table 1.4 illustrates the determination of the neness modulus.
21 Fineness modulus of ne aggregate is required for mix proportioning since sand gradation
has the largest eect on workability. A ne sand (low neness modulus) has much higher paste
requirements for good workability.
22 The neness modulus of coarse aggregate is not used for mix design purposes.
23 no-nes concrete has little cohesiveness in the fresh state and can not be compacted to a
void-free condition. Hence, it will have a low strength, high permeability. Its only advantage is
low density, and high thermal insulation which can be used if structural requirements are not
high.

Draft
1.1 Material
Sieve Weight Amount Cumulative Cumulative

15
Size Retained Retained Amount Amount

(g) (wt. %) Retained (%) Passing (%)
No. 4 9 2 2 98
No. 8 46 9 11 89
No. 16 97 19 30 70
No. 30 99 20 50 50
No. 50 120 24 74 26
No. 100 91 18 92 8

Sample Weight 500 g. = 259
Fineness modulus=259/100=2.59
Table 1.4: Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate
1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations
24 There are two fundamental aspects to mix design to keep in mind:
1. Water/Cement ratio: where the strength is inversely proportional to the water to cement
ratio, approximately expressed as:
A
fc = (1.4)
B 1.5w/c
For fc in psi, A is usually taken as 14,000 and B depends on the type of cement, but may
be taken to be about 4. It should be noted that w/c controls not only the strength, but
also the porosity and hence the durability.
2. Aggregate Grading: In order to minimize the amount of cement paste, we must maximize
the volume of aggregates. This can be achieved through proper packing of the granular
material. The ideal grading curve (with minimum voids) is closely approximated by
the Fuller curve q
d
Pt = (1.5)
D
where Pt is the fraction of total solids ner than size d, and D is the maximum particle
size, q is generally taken as 1/2, hence the parabolic grading.
1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure
25Before starting the mix design process, the following material properties should be deter-
mined:
1. Sieve analysis of both ne and coarse aggregates
2. Unit weight of the coarse aggregate
3. Bulk specic gravities

Draft
16
4. absorption capacities of the aggregates

INTRODUCTION
1. Slump1 must be selected for the particular job to account for the anticipated method
of handling and placing concrete, Table 1.5 As a general rule, adopt the lowest possible
Type of Construction Max Min

Foundation walls and footings 3 1
Plain footings, caissons 3 1
Beams and reinforced walls 4 1
Building columns 4 1
Pavement and slabs 3 1
Mass concrete 3 1
Table 1.5: Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction
slump.
2. Maximum aggregate size: in general the largest possible size should be adopted.
However, it should be noted that:
(a) For reinforced concrete, the maximum size may not exceed one-fth of the mini-
mum dimensions between the forms, or three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
between bars, or between steel and forms.
(b) For slabs on grade, the maximum size may not exceed one-third the slab depth.
In general maximum aggregate size is 3/4 in or 1 in.
3. Water and Air content Air content will aect workability (some time it is better to
increase air content rather than increasing w/c which will decrease strength). Air content
can be increased through the addition of admixtures. Table 1.6 tabulates recommended
values of air content (obtained through such admixtures) for dierent conditions (for
instance under severe freezing/thawing air content should be high).
Recommended water requirements are given by Table 1.7.
Sizes of Aggregates
Exposure 3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 11/2 in.
Mild 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0
Moderate 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.4
Extreme 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.05 5.5
Table 1.6: Recommended Average Total Air Content as % of Dierent Nominal Maximum Sizes
of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure
1
The slump test (ASTM C143) is a measure of the shear resistance of concrete to owing under its own weight.
It is a good indicator of the concrete workability. A hollow mold in the form of a frustum of a cone is lled
with concrete in three layers of equal volume. Each layer is rodded 25 times. The mold is then lifted vertically,
and the slump is measured by determining the dierence between the height of the mold and the height of the
concrete over the original center of the base of the specimen.

Draft
1.1 Material
Slump Sizes of Aggregates

17
in. 3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 11/2 in.
Non-Air-Entrained Concrete
1-2 350 335 315 300 275
3-4 385 365 340 325 300
6-7 410 385 360 340 315
Air-Entrained Concrete
1-2 305 295 280 270 250
3-4 340 325 305 295 275
6-7 365 345 325 310 290
Table 1.7: Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Dierent Slumps
and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates
4. Water/cement ratio: this is governed by both strength and durability. Table 1.8
provides some guidance in terms of strength.
28 days w/c Ratio by Weight

fc Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
6,000 0.41 -
5,000 0.48 0.40
4,000 0.57 0.48
3,000 0.68 0.59
2,000 0.82 0.74
Table 1.8: Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength
For durability, if there is a severe exposure (freeze/thaw, exposure to sea-water, sulfates),

then there are severe restrictions on the W/C ratio (usually to be kept just under 0.5)
5. Cement Content: Once the water content and the w/c ratio are determined, the amount
of cement per unit volume of concrete is determined simply by dividing the estimated
water requirement by the w/c ratio.
6. Coarse Aggregate Content: Volume of coarse aggregate required per cubic yard of
concrete depends on its maximum size and the neness modulus of the ne aggregate,
Table 1.9. The oven dry (OD) volume of coarse aggregate in ft3 required per cubic yard
is simply equal to the value from Table 1.9 multiplied by 27. This volume can then be
converted to an OD weight by multiplying it by the dry-rodded2 weight per cubic foot of
coarse aggregate.
7. The ne aggregate content can be estimated by subtracting the volume of cement,

water, air and coarse aggregate from the total volume. The weight of the ne aggregate
can then be obtained by multiplying this volume by the density of the ne aggregate.
2
Dry Rodded Volume (DRV) is the normal volume of space a material occupies.

Draft
18
Agg. Size Sand Fineness Moduli

INTRODUCTION
in 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

3/8 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
1/2 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
3/4 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
1 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
11/2 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70
Table 1.9: Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Dierent
Fineness Moduli of Sand
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregates: is necessary. If aggregates are air

dry, they will absorb some water (thus eectively lowering the w/c), or if aggregates are
too wet they will release water (increasing the w/c and the workability but reducing the
strength).
1.1.1.1.4 Mix Design Example
Concrete is required for an exterior column to be located above ground in an area where
substantial freezing and thawing may occur. The concrete is required to have an average 28-
day compressive strength of 5,000 psi. For the conditions of placement, the slump should be
between 1 and 2 in, the maximum aggregate size should not exceed 3/4 in. and the properties
of the materials are as follows:
Cement: Type I specic gravity = 3.15
Coarse Aggregates: Bulk specic gravity (SSD) = 2.70; absorption capacity= 1.0%; Total
moisture content = 2.5%; Dry-rodded unit weight = 100 lb/ft3
Fine Aggregates: Bulk specic gravity (SSD) = 2.65; absorption capacity = 1.3 %; Total
moisture content=5.5%; neness modulus = 2.70
The sieve analyses of both the coarse and ne aggregates fall within the specied limits. With
this information, the mix design can proceed:
1. Choice of slump is consistent with Table 1.5.
2. Maximum aggregate size (3/4 in) is governed by reinforcing details.
3. Estimation of mixing water: Because water will be exposed to freeze and thaw, it must
be air-entrained. From Table 1.6 the air content recommended for extreme exposure is
6.0%, and from Table 1.7 the water requirement is 280 lb/yd3
4. From Table 1.8, the water to cement ratio estimate is 0.4
5. Cement content, based on steps 4 and 5 is 280/0.4=700 lb/yd3
6. Coarse aggregate content, interpolating from Table 1.9 for the neness modulus of
the ne aggregate of 2.70, the volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of
concrete is 0.63. Therefore, the coarse aggregate will occupy 0.63 27 = 17.01 ft3 /yd3 .

Draft
1.1 Material 19
The OD weight of the coarse aggregate is 17.01 ft3 /yd3 , 100 lbs/ft3 =1,701 lb. The SSD
weight is 1,701 1.01=1,718 lb.
7. Fine aggregate content Knowing the weights and specic gravities of the water, cement,
and coarse aggregate, and knowing the air volume, we can calculate the volume per yd3
occupied by the dierent ingredients.
Water 280/62.4 = 4.49 ft3
Cement 700/(3.15)(62.4) = 3.56 ft3
Coarse Aggregate (SSD) 1,718/(2.70)(62.4) = 1.62 ft3
Air (0.06)(27) = 1.62 ft3
19.87 ft3
Hence, the ne aggregate must occupy a volume of 27.0 19.87 = 7.13 ft3 . The required
SSD weight of the ne aggregate is 7.13 ft3 (2.65)(62.4)lb/ft3 =1,179 lbs lb.
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregate. Since the aggregate will be neither SSD or
OD in the eld, it is necessary to adjust the aggregate weights for the amount of water
contained in the aggregate. Only surface water need be considered; absorbed water does
not become part of the mix water. For the given moisture contents, the adjusted aggre-
gate weights become:
Coarse aggregate (wet)=1,718(1.025-0.01) = 1,744 lb/yd3 of dry coarse

Fine aggregate (wet)=1,179(1.055-0.013) = 1,229 lb/yd3 of dry ne
Surface moisture contributed by the coarse aggregate is 2.5-1.0 = 1.5%; by the ne ag-
gregate: 5.5-1.3 = 4.2%; Hence we need to decrease water to
280-1,718(0.015)-1,179(0.042) = 205 lb/yd3 .
Thus, the estimated batch weight per yd3 are
Water 205 lb
Cement 700 lb
Wet coarse aggregate 1,744 lb
Wet ne aggregate 1,229 lb
3,878 lb/yd3
3,878
27 143.6 lb/ft3
1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties
26 Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given
by

E = 57, 000 fc (1.6)
or

E = 33 1.5 fc (1.7)
where both fc and E are in psi and is in lbs/ft3 .

Draft
110
27
INTRODUCTION
Normal weight and lightweight concrete have equal to 150 and 90-120 lb/ft3 respectively.
28 Poissons ratio = 0.15.
29Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
30 Stress-strain curve depends on
1. Properties of aggregates
2. Properties of cement
3. Water/cement ratio
4. Strength
5. Age of concrete
6. Rate of loading, as rate, strength
31 Non-linear part of stress-strain curve is caused by micro-cracking around the aggregates, Fig.
1.2
f
c
Non-Linear
~ 0.5 cf
Linear
Figure 1.2: MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression
32 Irrespective of fc , maximum strain under compression is 0.003, Fig. 1.3

33 Full strength of concrete is achieved in about 28 days
t
fct = f (1.8)
4.0 + .85t c,28
or
t (days) 1 2 4 7 10 15

%fc,28 20 35 54 70 80 90
34 Concrete always gain strength in time, but a decreasing rate

Draft
1.1 Material

111
f
c
f / 2
c
u = 0.003
Figure 1.3: Concrete Stress Strain Curve
35 The tensile strength of concrete ft is very dicult to measure experimentally. Accepted
values
ft 0.07 0.11fc (1.9-a)

3 5 fc (1.9-b)
36 Rather than the tensile strength, it is common to measure the modulus of rupture fr , Fig.
1.4
11
00
00
11 11
00
00
11 00
11
00
11
Figure 1.4: Modulus of Rupture Test
Figure 1.5: Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test

fr 7.5 fc (1.10)

Draft
112
ft
INTRODUCTION
fc
1
ft
2
1 1
fc
~ 20% increase in strength

2
Figure 1.6: Biaxial Strength of Concrete

37 Using split cylinder (or brazilian test), Fig. 1.5 ft 68 fc . For this test, a nearly uniform
tensile stress
2P
= (1.11)
dt
where P is the applied compressive load at failure, d and t are diameter and thickness of the
specimen respectively.
38 In most cases, concrete is subjected to uniaxial stresses, but it is possible to have biaxial
(shells, shear walls) or triaxial (beam/column connections) states of stress.
39 Biaxial strength curve is shown in Fig. 1.6
40 Concrete has also some time-dependent properties
Shrinkage: when exposed to air (dry), water tends to evaporate from the concrete surface,
shrinkage. It depends on the w/c and relative humidity. sh 0.0002 0.0007. Shrinkage
can cause cracking if the structure is restrained, and may cause large secondary stresses.
If a simply supported beam is fully restrained against longitudinal deformation, then
sh = Esh (1.12-a)
3, 000
= 57, 000 3, 000(0.0002) = 624 psi > (1.12-b)
10

ft
if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur3 .
Creep: can be viewed as the squeezing out of water due to long term stresses (analogous to
consolidation in clay), Fig. 1.7.
3
For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement,
can reduce the shrinkage by 75%.

Draft
1.1 Material

113
Elastic recovery
creep
Creep recovery
Residual
no load constant load no load
Figure 1.7: Time Dependent Strains in Concrete
Creep coecient, Table 1.10

ct
Cu = 23 (1.13-a)
ci
t0.6
Ct = Cu (1.13-b)
10 + t0.6
fc 3,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

Cu 3.1 2.9 2.4 2.0
Table 1.10: Creep Coecients
41 Coecient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
1.1.2 Reinforcing Steel
42 Steel is used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 1.11.

43Bars have a deformation on their surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually
have a yield stress of 60 ksi.
44 Maximum allowable fy is 80 ksi.
45 Stirrups, used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear, usually have a yield stress of only 40
ksi
46Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from
re), and becomes brittle at 30 deg. F
47 Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.

Draft
114
Bar Designation Diameter Area Perimeter

INTRODUCTION
Weight
(in.) ( in2 ) in lb/ft
No. 2 2/8=0.250 0.05 0.79 0.167
No. 3 3/8=0.375 0.11 1.18 0.376
No. 4 4/8=0.500 0.20 1.57 0.668
No. 5 5/8=0.625 0.31 1.96 1.043
No. 6 6/8=0.750 0.44 2.36 1.5202
No. 7 7/8=0.875 0.60 2.75 2.044
No. 8 8/8=1.000 0.79 3.14 2.670
No. 9 9/8=1.128 1.00 3.54 3.400
No. 10 10/8=1.270 1.27 3.99 4.303
No. 11 11/8=1.410 1.56 4.43 5.313
No. 14 14/8 =1.693 2.25 5.32 7.650
No. 18 18/8 =2.257 4.00 7.09 13.60
Table 1.11: Properties of Reinforcing Bars
48 Welded wire fabric is often used to reinforce slabs and shells. It has both longitudinal and
transverse cold-drawn steel. They are designated by AAW B B, such as 66W 1.41.4
where spacing of the wire is 6 inch, and a cross section of 0.014 in2 .
1.2 Design Philosophy, USD
49ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the
Ultimate Strength Method).
Rn i Qi (1.14)
where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural
element, Table 1.12 (ACI 9.3.2)
Type of Member
Axial Tension 0.9
Flexure 0.9
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement 0.75
Axial Compression, other 0.70
Shear and Torsion 0.85
Bearing on concrete 0.70
Table 1.12: Strength Reduction Factors,
Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).

Draft
1.3 Analysis vs Design
Ru = Rd = Rn is the design strength.

115
i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.

i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
i is the type of load
Mn Mu (1.15-a)
Vn Vu (1.15-b)
Pn Pu (1.15-c)
50 Note that the subscript d and u are equivalent.

51 The various factored load combinations which must be considered (ACI: 9.2) are
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil. We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
52 Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The
most important ones being

1. Deections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
1.3 Analysis vs Design
53 In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:

Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be
applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and
h) as well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the
beam (b and h) are xed by the architect.
54 We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.

Draft
116
1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions

INTRODUCTION
55 In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations
will be used:
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the
reinforcement = Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the
one obtained from the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension
in steel and compression of the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain
u = .003 in compression irrespective of fc .
56 Basic assumptions used:

Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note
that those two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under
normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
Neglect tensile strength in all cases.
1.5 ACI Code

Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provi-
sions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for ad-
equate strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength
reduction factors specied in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum
eects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied
according to Section 8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used.
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc ( psi) for values
of Wc between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as
57, 000 fc .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000
psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in
such combinations as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L (1.16)
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design,
the following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest
required strength U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (1.17)

Draft
1.5 ACI Code 117
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more
severe condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W (1.18)
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its
cross sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal
strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied
by a strength reduction factor .
9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows:
9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of
reinforcement fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, except, for deep exural members with overall depth to
clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear
distribution of strain shall be considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression ber shall be assumed
equal to 0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specied yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement
used shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy ,
stress in reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in exural calculations of reinforced
concrete, except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain
may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in
prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satised by an equivalent rect-
angular concrete stress distribution dened by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equiva-
lent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel
to the neutral axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the ber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from ber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured
in a direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc up to and including
4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for
each 1000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement
reaches the strain corresponding to its specied yield strength fy just as concrete in compression
reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For exural members, and for members subject to combined exure and compres-
sive axial load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc Ag )
or (Pb ), the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would
produce balanced strain conditions for the section under exure without axial load. For mem-
bers with compression reinforcement, the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement
need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement
may be used to increase the strength of exural members.

Draft
118 INTRODUCTION
10.5.1 - At any section of a exural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and
10.5.3, where positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be
less than that given by
200
min = (1.19)
fy

Draft
Chapter 2
FLEXURE
1 This is probably the longest chapter in the notes, we shall cover in great details exural
design/analysis of R/C beams starting with uncracked section to failure conditions.
1. Uncracked elastic (uneconomical)
2. cracked elastic (service stage)
3. Ultimate (failure)
2.1 Uncracked Section

c
h d
As
s
Figure 2.1: Strain Diagram Uncracked Section
2 Assuming perfect bond between steel and concrete, we have s = c , Fig. 2.1
fs fc Es
s = c = fs = fc fs = nfc (2.1)
Es Ec Ec
Es
where n is the modular ratio n = Ec
3 Tensile force in steel Ts = As fs = As nfc

4 Replace steel by an equivalent area of concrete, Fig. 2.2.
Draft
22
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
FLEXURE
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 (n-1)A S
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
2 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 2
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
Figure 2.2: Transformed Section
5 Homogeneous section & under bending

Mc
fc = fs = nfc (2.2)
I
6
+
Make sure that max < ft
Example 2-1: Uncracked Section
Given fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; M = 45 ft-k = 540,000 in-lb; As = 2.35
in2
+ , f , and f
Determine fmax max s
yt
25" 23"
2 yb
As = 2.35 in
10"
Solution:
29, 000
n = = 8 (n 1)As = (8 1)(2.35) = 16.45 in2 (2.3-a)
57 4, 000
(10)(25)( 25
2 ) + (16.45)(2)
yb = (2.3-b)
(25)(10) + 16.45
yb = 11.8 in (2.3-c)
y t = 25 11.8 = 13.2 in (2.3-d)
(10)(25)3
I = + (25)(10)(13.2 12.5)2 + (16.45)(23 13.2)2 (2.3-e)
12
= 14, 722 in2 (2.3-f)
Mc (540, 000) lb.in(13.2)in
fcc = = = 484 psi (2.3-g)
I (14, 722) in4

Draft
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic
Mc (540, 000) lb.in(25 13.2) in

23
fct = = 4
= 433 psi < 475 psi (2.3-h)
I (14, 722) in
Mc (540, 000)(23 13.2) in
fs = n = (8) = 2, 876 psi (2.3-i)
I (14, 722)
7 This is important not only as an acceptable alternative ACI design method, but also for the
later evaluation of crack width under service loads.
2.2.1 Basic Relations
8If fct > fr , fcc < .5fc and fs < fy we will assume that the crack goes all the way to the
N.A and we will use the transformed section, Fig. 2.3
fc
11111111111111111
00000000000000000 111111111
000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 C kd/3
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 kd
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111 d
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111 (1-k/3)d=jd
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 (n-1)A S
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 11111111111111111
00000000000000000 T
2 00000000000000000
11111111111111111 2 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
b
Figure 2.3: Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section
9 To locate N.A, tension force = compressive

force (by def.
NA) (Note, for
linear stress distri-
bution and with Fx = 0; = by bydA = 0, thus b ydA = 0 and ydA = yA = 0, by
denition, gives the location of the neutral axis)

Es
10 Note, N.A. location depends only on geometry & n
Ec
11 Tensile and compressive forces are equal to C = bkd 2 fc & T = As fs and neutral axis is
determined by equating the moment of the tension area to the moment of the compression
area

kd
b(kd) = nAs (d kd) 2nd degree equation (2.4-a)
2
M
M = T jd = As fs jd fs = (2.4-b)
As jd
bkd bd2
M = Cjd = fc jd = kjfc fc = 1 bdM2 kj (2.4-c)
2 2 2
where j = (1 k/3).

Draft
24
2.2.2 Working Stress Method

FLEXURE
12 Referred to as Alternate Design Method (ACI Code Appendix A); Based on Working
Stress Design method.
13 Places a limit on stresses and uses service loads (ACI A.3).
fcc .45fc
fst 20 ksi for grade 40 or 50 steel (2.5)
fst 24 ksi for grade 60 steel
14 Location of neutral axis depends on whether we are analysing or designing a section.

Review: We seek to locate the N.A by taking the rst moments:

= Abds
k = 2n + (n)2 n (2.6)

b(kd) (kd)
2 = nAs (d kd)
Design: Objective is to have fc & fs preset & determine As , Fig. 2.4, and we thus seek the
optimal value of k in such a way that concrete and steel reach their respective limits
simultaneously.
c fc
C kd/3
kd
d
(1-k/3)d=jd
T
s fs
Figure 2.4: Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method

c
= kd

s dkd f c Es
= k
fc Ec f s 1k n
c = Es k= (2.7)
Ec
n =

n+r
s = fs
Es
Ec
fs

r = fc
15 Balanced design in terms of : What is the value of such that steel and concrete will both
reach their maximum allowable stress values simultaneously

C = bkd 2 fc

fc
T = As fs 2 bkd = b fs bd n
b = 2r(n+r) (2.8)
C = T
k = n
n+r
= Abds
16 Governing equations

Draft
Review Start by determining ,

25
If < b steel reaches max. allowable value before concrete, and
M = As fs jd (2.9)
If > b concrete reaches max. allowable value before steel and

bkd
M = fc jd (2.10)
2
or
1
M = fc jkbd2 = Rbd2 (2.11)
2
where

k = 2n + (n)2 n
Design We dene
def 1
R = fc kj (2.12)
2
n
where k = n+r , solve for bd2 from
M
bd2 = (2.13)
R
assume b and solve for d. Finally we can determine As from
As = b bd (2.14)
17 Summary
Review Design

b, d, As M
M? b, d, As ?
= Abds k = n+r n
j = 1 k3
k = 2n + (n)2 n r = ffsc
r = ffsc R = 12 fc kj
n n
b = 2r(n+r) b = 2r(n+r)
< b M = As fs jd bd2 = M R
> b M = 12 fc bkd2 j As = b bd or As = M
fs jd
Example 2-2: Cracked Elastic Section

Draft
26
Same problem as example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
FLEXURE
however, M is doubled to M = 90 k.ft (instead of 45). Determine concrete and steel stresses
Solution:
Based on previous example, fct would be 866 psi fr and the solution is thus no longer
valid.
The neutral axis is obtained from
As 2.35
= = = 0.0102 (2.15-a)
bd (10)(23)
n = (0.010)(8) = 0.08174 (2.15-b)

k = 2n + (n)2 n (2.15-c)

= 2(0.08174) + (0.08174)2 (0.08174) = 0.33 (2.15-d)
kd = (.33)(23) = 7.6 in (2.15-e)

0.33
jd = 1 (23) = 20.47 in (2.15-f)
3
M
fs = (2.15-g)
As jd
(90)(1, 000)(12)
= = 22, 400 psi (2.15-h)
(2.35)(20.47)
2M
fc = (2.15-i)
bjkd2
(2)(90)(12, 000)
= = 1, 390 psi (2.15-j)
(10) (20.47) (7.6)

jd kd
2
(10)(7.6)3 7.6
I = + (10)(7.6) + 8(2.35)(23 7.6)2 = 5, 922 in4 (2.15-k)
12 2
Uncracked Cracked Cracked/uncracked

M k.ft 45 90 2
N.A in 13.2 7.6
fcc psi 485 1,390 (< .5fc ) 2.9
I in4 14,710 5,910 .4 ( I1 )
fs psi 2,880 22,400 ( 7 )
in 1 4 4
Example 2-3: Working Stress Design Method; Analysis
Same problem as example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2 .
Determine Moment capacity.
Solution:

Draft
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic 27
As 2.35
= = = .0102 (2.16-a)
bd (10)(23)
fs = 24 ksi (2.16-b)
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi (2.16-c)

k = 2n + (n)2 n = 2(.0102)8 + (.0102)2 (8)(.0102) = .331 (2.16-d)
k
j = 1 = .889 (2.16-e)
3
N.A. @ (.331)(23) = 7.61 in (2.16-f)
n 8
b = = = .014 > Steel reaches elastic (2.16-g)
limit
2r(n + r) (2)(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
M = As fs jd = (2.35)(24)(.889)(23) = 1, 154 k.in = 96 k.ft (2.16-h)
Note, had we used the alternate equation for moment (wrong) we would have overestimated
the design moment:
1
M = = fc bkd2 j (2.17-a)
2
1
= (1.8)(10)(0.33)(0.89)(23)2 = 1, 397 k.in > 1, 154 k.in (2.17-b)
2
If we dene c = fc /1, 800 and s = fs /24, 000, then as the load increases both c and s
increase, but at dierent rates, one of them s reaches 1 before the other.
s c
1
Load
Example 2-4: Working Stress Design Method; Design
Design a beam to carry LL = 1.9 k/ft, DL = 1.0 k/ft with fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60, 000 psi,
L = 32 ft.
Solution:
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi (2.18-a)

Draft
28
fs = 24, 000 psi

FLEXURE
(2.18-b)
Es 29, 000
n = = =8 (2.18-c)
Ec 57 4, 000
fs 24
r = = = 13.33 (2.18-d)
fc 1.8
n 8
k = = = .375 (2.18-e)
n+r 8 + 13.33
d .375
j = 1 =1 = .875 (2.18-f)
3 3
n 8
b = = = .01405 (2.18-g)
2r(n + r) 2(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
1 1
R = fc kj = (1, 800)(.375)(.875) = 295 psi (2.18-h)
2 2
Estimate beam weight at .5 k/ft, thus
(32)2
M = [(1.9) + (1.0 + .5)] = 435 k.ft (2.19-a)
8
M 435 k.ft in2 (12, 000) lb.in
bd2 = = = 17, 700 in3 (2.19-b)
R (295) lbs ft k
Take b = 18 in & d = 31.4 in h = 36 in
(18)(36)
Check beam weight 145 (.15) in 2
ft2
k = .675 k/ft
2 3
in ft
As = (.01405)(18)(31.4) = 7.94 in2 use 8# 9 bars in 2 layers As = 8.00 in2
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

2.3.1 Whitney Stress Block

fc
c a/2 = c
a= 1c
c c
C= fcb
c C= fab
c
h d
As
fs fs
Actual
b
Figure 2.5: Cracked Section, Limit State
Figure

Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method 29
18 At failure we have, linear cross strain distribution (ACI 10.2.2) (except for deep beams),
non-linear stress strain curve for the concrete, thus a non-linear stress distribution.
19 Two options:
1. Analytical expression of exact integration
2. Replace exact stress diagram with a simpler and equivalent one, (ACI 10.2.6)
Second approach adopted by most codes.

20 For the equivalent stress distribution, all we need to know is C & its location, thus and .
We adopt a rectangular stress, with depth a = 1 c, and stress equal to fc (ACI 10.2.7.1)
C = fc bc = fc ab (2.20-a)

fav
= (2.20-b)
fc
a = 1 c (2.20-c)
Thus

= (2.21)
1
But the location of the resultant forces must be the same, hence
1 = 2 (2.22)
21 From Experiments
fc ( psi) <4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

.72 .68 .64 .60 .56
.425 .400 .375 .350 .325
1 = 2 .85 .80 .75 .70 .65
= /1 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.86
22 Thus we have, (ACI-318 10.2.7.3):
1 = .85 if fc 4, 000

(2.23)
= .85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000
1
if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000
23 Failure can occur by either
yielding of steel: s = y ; Progressive
crushing of concrete: c = .003; Sudden; (ACI 10.3.2).

Draft
210
u=0.003 0.85 fc
FLEXURE
a= 1c
C=0.85fc ab
c
h d
d
As
s T
Figure 2.6: Whitney Stress Block
2.3.2 Balanced Design

Tension Failure:
fs = fy
As fs = .85fc ab = .85fc b1 c c=
fy
.85fc 1 d (2.24)
As
= bd
Compression Failure:
c = .003 (2.25-a)
fs
s = (2.25-b)
Es
c .003
= c= fs
.003
d (2.25-c)
d .003 + s Es
+.003
Balanced Design:
24Balanced design occurs if we have simultaneous yielding of the steel and crushing of the
concrete. Hence, we simply equate the previous two equations
fy .003
bf 2d .003

.85fc 1 d = fs
+.003
d .85fc 1 = fs
+.003
d b = .851 ffyc 87,000+f
87,000
Es Es y (2.26)
= b Es = 29, 000 ksi (ACI 8.4.3)
25 To ensure failure by yielding,
< .75b (2.27)
26 ACI strength requirements
U = 1.4D + 1.7L (ACI 9.2.1)

U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (ACI 9.2.2)
(2.28)
Md = M u = Mn (ACI 9.1.1)
= .90 (ACI 9.3.2.2)

Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
27 Also we need to specify a minimum reinforcement ratio

211
200
min (ACI 10.5.1) (2.29)
fy
to account for temperature & shrinkage

28Note, that need not be as high as 0.75b . If steel is relatively expensive, or deection is of
concern, can use lower .
29 As a rule of thumb, if < 0.5b , there is no need to check for deection.
2.3.3 Review
30 Given, b, d, As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M .
act = Abds
(2.30)
b = (.85)1 ffyc 87+f
87
y
act < b : Failure by yielding and
s y A f
a = .85f Fx = 0
cb (2.31)
Md = As fy (d 2 ) M = 0
a
act > b is not allowed by code, in this case we have an extra unknown fs .
31 We now have one more unknown fs , and we will need an additional equation (from strain
diagram).
As f s
c = .85f Fx = 0
c b1
c .003 (2.32)
d = .003+s From strain diagram
1 c
Md = As fs (d 2 ) M = 0
We can solve by iteration, or substitution and solution of a quadratic equation.
2.3.4 Design
32 We consider two cases:

I b d and As , unknown; Md known; Since design failure is triggered by fs = fy

As f y fy
Fx = 0 a = 0.85f b a = 0.85f fy
c c Md = fy 1 .59 bd 2
(2.33-a)
= Abds Md = As fy d a2 fc

R
where is specied by the designer; or

fy
R = fy 1 .59 (2.34)
fc
Draft
212
which does not depend on unknown quantities. Then solve for bd2 :
FLEXURE
Md
bd2 = (2.35)
R
Solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their
ratio).
As = bd
II b & d known & Md known there is no assurance that we can have a design with b
If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
Iterative approach
(a) Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
(b) Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
(c) Assume initially that fs = fy
(d) Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0)
M
As = d (2.36)
fs d a2
(e) Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0)

As fs
a= (2.37)
.85fc b
(f) Check assumption of fs by either comparing with b , or from the strain diagram
s .003 dc
= fs = Es .003 < fy (2.38)
dc c c
a
where c = 1 .
(g) Iterate until convergence is reached.
2.4 Practical Design Considerations

2.4.1 Minimum Depth
33 ACI 9.5.2.1 stipulates that the minimum thickness of beams should be

Simply One end Both ends Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Solid One
way slab L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
Beams or
ribbed One way slab L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
where L is in inches, and members are not supporting partitions.
34 Smaller values can be taken if deections are computed.

Draft
2.4 Practical Design Considerations
2.4.2 Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover

213
35 Beam sizes should be dimensioned as

1
1. Use whole inches for overall dimensions, except for slabs use 2 inch increment.
2. Ideally, the overall depth to width ratio should be between 1.5 to 2.0 (most economical).
3. For T beams, ange thickness should be about 20% of overall depth.
36 Reinforcing bars
1. Minimum spacing between bars, and minimum covers are needed to
(a) Prevent Honeycombing of concrete (air pockets)
(b) Concrete (usually up to 3/4 in MSA) must pass through the reinforcement
(c) Protect reinforcement against corrosion and re
2. Use at least 2 bars for exural reinforcement
3. Use bars #11 or smaller for beams.
4. Use no more than two bar sizes and no more than 2 standard sizes apart (i.e #7 and #9
acceptable; #7 and #8 or #7 and #10 not).
5. Use no more than 5 or 6 bars in one layer.
6. Place longest bars in the layer nearest to face of beam.
7. Clear distance between parallel bars not less that db (to avoid splitting cracks) nor 1 in.
(to allow concrete to pass through).
8. Clear distance between longitudinal bars in columns not less that 1.5db or 1.5 in.
9. Minimum cover of 1.5 in.
10. Summaries in Fig. 2.7 and Table 2.1, 2.2.
2.4.3 Design Aids
37 Basic equations developed in this section can be easily graphed.

Review Given b d and known steel ratio and material strength, Mn can be readily obtained
from Mn = Rbd2
Design in this case
1. Set Md = Rbd2
2. From tabulated values, select max and min often 0.5b is a good economical choice.
3. Select R from tabulated values of R in terms of fy , fc and . Solve for bd2 .
4. Select b and d to meet requirements. Usually depth is about 2 to 3 times the width.
5. Using tabulated values select the size and number of bars giving preference to larger
bar sizes to reduce placement cost (careful about crack width!).
6. Check from tables that the selected beam width will provide room for the bars chosen
with adequate cover and spacing.

Draft
214 FLEXURE
Bar Nominal Number of Bars

Size Diam. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
#3 0.375 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10
#4 0.500 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
#5 0.625 0.31 0.62 0.93 1.24 1.55 1.86 2.17 2.48 2.79 3.10
#6 0.750 0.44 0.88 1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.08 3.52 3.96 4.40
#7 0.875 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00
#8 1.000 0.79 1.58 2.37 3.16 3.95 4.74 5.53 6.32 7.11 7.90
#9 1.128 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
#10 1.270 1.27 2.54 3.81 5.08 6.35 7.62 8.89 10.16 11.43 12.70
#11 1.410 1.56 3.12 4.68 6.24 7.80 9.36 10.92 12.48 14.04 15.60
#14 1.693 2.25 4.50 6.75 9.00 11.25 13.50 15.75 18.00 20.25 22.50
#18 2.257 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 40.00
Table 2.1: Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 )
Bar Number of bars in single layer of reinf.

Size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
#4 6.8 8.3 9.8 11.3 12.8 14.3 15.8
#5 6.9 8.5 10.2 11.8 13.4 15.1 16.7
#6 7.0 8.8 10.5 12.3 14.0 15.8 17.5
#7 7.2 9.1 11.0 12.8 14.7 16.6 18.5
#8 7.3 9.3 11.3 13.3 15.3 17.3 19.3
#9 7.6 9.9 12.1 14.4 16.6 18.9 21.2
#10 7.8 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0 20.5 23.0
#11 8.1 10.9 13.7 16.6 19.4 22.2 25.0
#14 8.9 12.3 15.7 19.1 22.5 25.9 29.3
#18 10.6 15.1 19.6 24.1 28.6 33.2 37.7
Table 2.2: Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code

Draft
2.5 USD Examples 215
Figure 2.7: Bar Spacing
2.5 USD Examples
Example 2-5: Ultimate Strength; Review
Determine the ultimate moment capacity of example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy =
60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
yt
25" 23"
2
yb
As = 2.35 in
10"
Solution:
As 2.35
act = = = .0102 (2.39-a)
bd (10)(23)
f 87 4 87
b = .851 c = (.85)(.85) = .0285 > act (2.39-b)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
As fy (2.35)(60)
a = = = 4.15 in (2.39-c)
.85fc b (.85)(4)(10)

a 4.15
Mn = As fy d = (2.35)(60) 23 = 2, 950 k.in (2.39-d)
2 2
Md = Mn = 0.9(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in (2.39-e)
Note:

Draft
216
1. From equilibrium, Fx = 0 c =
As f y
= (2.35)(60)
= 4.87 in
FLEXURE
.851 bfc (.85)(.85)(4)(10)
2. Comparing with previous analysis
uncracked cracked ultimate

c 13.2 7.61 4.87
245
M 45 90 1.7 = 144
3. Alternative solution:
fy
Mn = act fy bd2 (1 .59act ) (2.40-a)
fc
fy
= As fy d(1 59act ) (2.40-b)
fc
60
= (2.35)(60)(23)[1 (.59) (.0102)] = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft (2.40-c)
4
Md = Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in (2.40-d)
Example 2-6: Ultimate Strength; Design I
Design a R/C beam with L = 15 ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; fc = 3,000 psi; fy =
40 ksi; Neglect beam owns weight; Select = 0.75b
Solution:
wu = 1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft Factored load (2.41-a)

wu L 2 (5.92)(15) 2
Md = = = 166.5 k.ft(12) in/ft = 1, 998 k.in (2.41-b)
8 8
f 87
= 0.75b = (0.75)(0.85)1 c (2.41-c)
fy 87 + fy
3 87
= (0.75)(.85)2 = .0278 (2.41-d)
40 87+ 40
fy
R = fy 1 .59 (2.41-e)
f
c
40
= (.0278)(40) 1 (0.59)(.0278) = 0.869 psi (2.41-f)
3
Md 1, 998
bd2 = = = 2, 555 in3 (2.41-g)
R (0.9)(0.869)
Take b = 10 in, d = 16 in As = (.0278)(10)(16) = 4.45 in2 use 3 # 11

Draft
2.5 USD Examples 217
Example 2-7: Ultimate Strength; Design II
Design a R/C beam for b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in; fc = 3 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; Md = 1, 600 k.in
Solution:
d 20
Assume a = 5 = 5 = 4 in
Md (1, 600)
As = a = = 2.47 in2 (2.42)
fy (d 2 ) (.9)(40)(20 42 )
check assumption,
As fy (2.47)(40)
a=
= = 3.38 in (2.43)
(.85)fc b (.85)(3)(11.5)
Thus take a = 3.3 in.
(1, 600)
As = = 2.42 in2 (2.44-a)
(.9)(40)(20 3.32 )
(2.42)(40)
a = = 3.3 in (2.44-b)
(.85)(3)(11.5)
2.42
act = = .011 (2.44-c)
(11.5)(20)
3 87
b = (.85)(.85) = .037 (2.44-d)
40 87 + 40
max = .75b = .0278 > act (2.44-e)
Example 2-8: Exact Analysis
As an Engineer questioning the validity of the ACI equation for the ultimate exural capacity
of R/C beams, you determined experimentally the following stress strain curve for concrete:
fc
2 max
=
2 (2.45)

1 + max
where fc corresponds to max .
1. Determine the exact balanced steel ratio for a R/C beam with b = 10, d = 23, fc =
4, 000 psi, fy = 60 ksi, max = 0.003.
(a) Determine the equation for the exact stress distribution on the section.
(b) Determine the total compressive force C, and its location, in terms of the location
of the neutral axis c.

Draft
218
(c) Apply equilibrium

FLEXURE
2. Using the ACI equations, determine the:
(a) Ultimate moment capacity.

(b) Balanced steel ratio.
3. For the two approaches, compare:
(a) Balanced steel area.

(b) Location of the neutral axis.
(c) Centroid of resultant compressive force.
(d) Ultimate moment capacity.
Solution:
1. Stress-Strain:
2 4,000
.003 2.667 106
= 2 = (2.46)
1 + .003 1 + 1.11 105 2
2. Assume crushing at failure, hence strain distribution will be given by

0.003
= y (2.47)
c
3. Combine those two equation:

8, 000 yc
= 2 (2.48)
1 + yc
4. The total compressive force is given by

c c
8, 000 yc
c
8, 000 c y
F = dF = b dy = b y 2 dy = b 2 dy (2.49)
0 0 01 + c c 01 + 1
c
c

c
b 1 y 2 bc 2 y 2
= 8, 000 2 ln 1 + = 8, 000 ln 1 + (2.50)
c2 1 c c 2 c 0
c 0
= 4, 000bc ln(2) = 2, 773bc (2.51)
5. Equilibrium requires that T = C
2, 773bc = As fy (2.52)
From the strain diagram:
.003 y + .003 (.003)d

= c= (2.53)
c d y + .003
(.003)(23)
c = 60 = 13.6 in (2.54)
29,000 + .003

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
6. Combining Eq. 2.52 with Eq. 2.54

219
(2, 773)(10)(13.6)
As = = 6.28 in2 (2.55)
60, 000
7. To determine the moment, we must rst determine the centroid of the compressive force
measured from the neutral axis
2
c 8, 000 yc
ydA b ydy b c
0 1 + (y/c)
2 8, 000b y2
y = = = dy = dy (2.56)
A 2, 773bc 2, 773bc 2, 773bc2 0 1 + 1 2 y 2
c
c

2.885 c y2 2.885 y 1 dy
= 2 dy = 1 2 1 2 2 (2.57)
c2 01 + 1 y2 (13.61)2 01 + 1 y2
c
c
c c c
1 1
= .01557 yc2 c2 tan1 y (2.58)
1 c2
c2 0
!
= .01557 c c tan (1) = (.01557)(13.61)3 (1 tan1 (1)) = 8.43 in (2.59)
3 3 1
8. Next we solve for the moment
M = As fy (d c + y) = (6.28)(60)(23 13.61 8.43) = 6, 713 k.in (2.60)
9. Using the ACI Code
fc 87 4 87
b = .851 = (.85)2 = .0285 (2.61)
fy 87 + 60 60 147
As = b bd = (.0285)(10)(23) = 6.55 in2 (2.62)
As fy (6.55)(60)
a =
= = 11.57 in (2.63)
.85f cb (.85)(4)(10)

a 11.57
M = As fy d = (6.55)(60) 23 = 6, 765 k.in (2.64)
2 2
a 11.57
c = = = 13.61 (2.65)
1 .85
10. We summarize
Exact ACI
As 6.28 6.55
c 13.6 13.6
y 5.18 5.78
M 6,713 6,765

Draft
220
be
FLEXURE
hf 11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
bw
Figure 2.8: T Beams
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
38Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 2.8 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI
8.10.2):
1. 1
2 (b bw ) 8hf
2. b < 4bw for isolated T beams only
bw
3. hf > 2
L
4. b < 4
39 Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the anges (c < hf ) rectangular section of width b, Fig. 2.9.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) T beam.
h
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
f
h d
As
Figure 2.9: T Beam as Rectangular Section
40 For T beams, we have a large concrete area, start by assuming that failure will occur by steel
yielding, Fig. 2.10.
41 The approach consists in decomposing As into 2 components Fig. 2.11.

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
b
221
u =0.003 0.85 fc
11111111111111111
00000000000000000 a=1 c
hf 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 c C=0.85f a
c
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
hd 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
d
As
s T=As yf
bw
Figure 2.10: T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram
1. Asf resists compression force in (b bw )hf
2. (As Asf ) resists compression force in bw c
2.6.1 Review
42 Given, b, d, hf , As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M , Fig. 2.11.

b
111111
000000
000000
111111 111111
000000 111111
000000
hf 000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 c
000000
111111
000000
111111
= + 000000
111111
000000
111111
bw A sf A s A sf
As (bb w)h f bwc
Figure 2.11: Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams
43 The moment is obtained from
Flanges:
.85fc (bbw )hf
Asf = fy F = 0
h
(2.66)
Mn1 = Asf fy (d 2f ) M = 0
Web:
(As Asf )fy
a = F = 0 (2.67-a)
.85fc bw
a
Mn2 = (As Asf )fy (d ) M = 0 (2.67-b)
2
Total moment:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2 (2.68)

Draft
222
2.6.2 Design, (balanced)

FLEXURE
44 Let us derive an expression for b and use it for design

c u
= Strain Compatibility (2.69-a)
d u + y
As fy = .85fc 1 cbw + .85fc (b bw )hf F = 0 (2.69-b)

Asf fy
thus,
b
As fy = .85fc 1 cbw + Asf fy

def As fc u
w = w = .85 1 +f (2.70)
def
bw d
Asf
fy u + y
f = bw d
Hence,
wb = b + f (2.71)
w,max = .75(b + f ) (2.72)
Example 2-9: T Beam; Moment Capacity I
For the following beam: As = 8 # 11 ( 12.48 in2 ); fc =3,000 psi; fy = 50,000 psi. Determine
Mn
30"
u=0.003 0.85 fc
11111111111111111
00000000000000000 a= 1c
7" 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 C=0.85fc ab
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
c
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
36"
d
s T=Asfy
14"
Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections

(a) bw = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in

(b) hf b2u 7 14
2
2. Assume Rectangular section
As fy (12.48)(50)
a=
= = 8.16 in > hf (2.73)
.85fc b (0.85)(3)(30)

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
3. For a T section
223
.85fc hf (b bw )
Asf = (2.74-a)
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(30 14)
= = 5.71 in2 (2.74-b)
50
Asf 5.71
f = = = .0113 (2.74-c)
bwd (14)(36)
Asw = As Asf = 12.48 5.71 = 6.77 in2 (2.74-d)
Asw 12.48
w = = = .025 (2.74-e)
bw d (14)(36)
f 87
b = .851 c (2.74-f)
fy 87 + fy
3 87
= (.85)(.85) = .0275 (2.74-g)
50 87 + 50
4. Maximum permissible ratio
max = .75(b + f ) (2.75-a)

= .75(.0275 + .0113) = .029 > w (2.75-b)
5. The design moment is then obtained from

7
Mn1 = (5.71)(50) 36 = 9, 280 k.in (2.76-a)
2
(As Asf )fy
a = (2.76-b)
.85fc bw
(6.77)(50)
= = 9.48 in (2.76-c)
(.85)(3)(14)
9.48
Mn2 = (6.77)(50)(36 ) = 10, 580 k.in (2.76-d)
2
Md = (.9)(9, 280 + 10, 580) = 17, 890 k.in 17, 900 k.in (2.76-e)
Example 2-10: T Beam; Moment Capacity II
Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume ange dimensions to satisfy
ACI requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.

Draft
224
28"
FLEXURE
u=0.003 0.85 fc
6"
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 a= 1c
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 c
C=0.85fc ab
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
26" 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
d
s T=Asfy
10"
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam

7.59
= = .0104 (2.77-a)
(28)(26)

3 87
b = (.85)(.85) = .0214 > fs = fy (2.77-b)
60 87 + 60
(As Asf )fy
a = (2.77-c)
.85fc bw
(7.59)(60)
= = 6.37 in > 6 in T beam (2.77-d)
(.85)(3)(28)
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
Asf = = 4.59 in2 (2.77-e)
60
Asw = 7.59 4.59 = 3.00 in2 (2.77-f)
7.59
w = = .0292 (2.77-g)
(26)(10)
4.59
f = = .0177 (2.77-h)
(26)(10)
max = .75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 Ductile failure (2.77-i)
Mn1 = (4.59)(60)(26 3) = 6, 330 k.in (2.77-j)
As Asf = 7.59 4.59 = 3. in 2
(2.77-k)
(3)(60)
a = = 7.07 in (2.77-l)
(.85)(3)(10)
7.07
Mn2 = (3.00)(60)(26 ) = 4, 050 k.in (2.77-m)
2
Md = (.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in (2.77-n)
Example 2-11: T Beam; Design
given L = 24 ft; fy = 60 ksi; fc = 3 ksi; Md = 6, 400 k.in; Design a R/C T beam.

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) 225
3"
20"
11"
47"
Solution:
1. Determine eective ange width:

1
bw ) 8hf
2 (b

16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
b = 47 in (2.78-a)
L 24
4 = 4 12 = 72 in

Center Line spacing = 47 in
2. Assume a = 3 in
Md 6, 400
As = a = = 6.40 in2 (2.79-a)
fy (d 2 ) (0.9)(60)(20 32 )
As fy (6.4)(60)
a =
= = 3.20 in > hf (2.79-b)
(.85)fc b (.85)(3)(47)
3. Thus a T beam analysis is required.
.85fc (b bw )hf (.85)(3)(47 11)(3)

Asf = = = 4.58 in2 (2.80-a)
fy 60
hf 3
Md1 = Asf fy (d ) = (.90)(4.58)(60)(20 ) = 4, 570 k.in (2.80-b)
2 2
Md2 = Md Md1 = 6, 400 4, 570 = 1, 830 k.in (2.80-c)
(2.80-d)
d 20
4. Now, this is similar to the design of a rectangular section. Assume a = 5 = 5 = 4. in
1, 830
As Asf = = 1.88 in2 (2.81)
(.90)(60) 20 42
5. check
(1.88)(60)
a = = 4.02 in 4.00 (2.82-a)
(.85)(3)(11)
As = 4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in2 (2.82-b)
6.46
w = = .0294 (2.82-c)
(11)(20)

Draft
226
4.58
FLEXURE
f = = .0208 (2.82-d)
(11)(20)

3 87
b = (.85)(.85) = .0214 (2.82-e)
60 87 + 60

max = (.0214 + .0208) = .042 > w (2.82-f)
6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.
2.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
45 Negative steel reinforcement is needed to

1. Increase internal moment resistance capacity (not very ecient)
2. Support stirrups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deections)
46 Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig.
2.12.
u=0.003 0.85 fc 0.85 fc
As fs As fs
As d s a= 1c a= 1c
c
h d dd
= +
d
As s Asfs (As As )f s
Asfs
Figure 2.12: Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams
47 If max = .75b we can disregard compression steel

48 As for T beams, we decompose the tension steel into two components
1. As to resist the force in the top steel (assuming both yield)
2. As As to resist compression in the concrete.

and we dene
As
= (2.83)
bd

Draft
2.7.1 Tests for fs and fs

227
49 Dierent possibilities: Fig. 2.13
Yes Not Allowed by ACI

As yield? No
Yes As yield? No Yes As yield? No
I II III IV
f = fy f = fy f < fy f < fy
s s s s
f = f y f < f f = f f < f y
s s y s y s
Figure 2.13: Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Test 1 fs = fy ?
Assuming s = y , and fs
= fy , we have from the strain diagram, Fig. 2.14
u =0.003
d s
As
h d
s = y
As
Figure 2.14: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
u
c = d (2.84-a)
u + y
d
s = u (u + y ) (2.84-b)
d
fs = Es s (2.84-c)
From equilibrium:
bdfy = bdfs + .85fc 1 bc (2.85)
Combining:
fs f u
b = 1 = + .85 c 1 (2.86)
fy fy u + y

Victor Saouma Mechanics andbDesign of Reinforced Concrete
Draft
228
thus
FLEXURE
fs
b = 1 = + b (2.87)
fy
f
max = 0.75b + s (2.88)
fy
Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other failure is ipso facto by yielding.
We also note the similarity with max of T Beams (where 0.75 premultiplied both terms).
Test 2 fs = fy is fs = fy ?
We set s = y , and from the strain diagram
u =0.003
d s = y
As
h d
s > y
As
Figure 2.15: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
u
c= d (2.89)
u y
from equilibrium
bdfy = bdfy + .85fc 1 cb (2.90)
combining
fc d 87
min 2 = + .851 (2.91)
fy d 87 fy
which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel
at failure. Thus, if < min then fs < fy . Note that some times min can be larger than
.
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs = fy (not allowed by ACI)?

From strain diagram:
u
c = d (2.92-a)
u y
dc
s = y (2.92-b)
c d

Draft
From equilibrium
229
bdfs = bdfy + .85fc 1 bc (2.93-a)
combining

c d fc c
= 3 = + .851 (2.94)
dc fy d
Summary of the tests are shown in Fig. 2.16
Test 2 Test 1 Test 3

min

II I III IV
f < fy f = f y f=fy f <fy f < f y f = f y

s s s s s s
Figure 2.16: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding
2.7.2 Moment Equations

Case I fs = fy and fs = fy , usually occur if we have small bottom and top reinforcement
ratios.
As fy = As fy + .85fc ab (2.95-a)

(As As )fy
a = (2.95-b)
.85fc b

a
MnI = .85fc ab d + As fy (d d ) (2.96)
2
Case II We have fs = fy and fs < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most
common case)
c d
s = u (2.97-a)
c
fs
= E s s (2.97-b)
As fy = As fs + .85fc b1 c (2.97-c)
solve for c and fs by iteration.

Alternatively, those equations can be combined yielding
(0.85fc b)a2 + (0.003Es As As fy )a (0.003Es As 1 d ) = 0 (2.98)

Draft
230
Using a = 1 c
FLEXURE

a
MnII = .85fc ab d + As fs (d d ) (2.99)
2
Case III fs < fy and fs = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
dc
s = u (2.100-a)
c
fs = E s s (2.100-b)
As fs = As fy + .85fc ab (2.100-c)
a = 1 c (2.100-d)
solve for a

a
MnIII = .85fc ab d + As fy (d d ) (2.101)
2
Case IV (not allowed by ACI) fs < fy and fs < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement
ratios, rare)
c d
s = u (2.102-a)
c
dc
s = u (2.102-b)
c
As fs = As fs + .85fc ab (2.102-c)
a = 1 c (2.102-d)
solve for a

a
MnIV = .85fc ab d + As fs (d d ) (2.103)
2
50 Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs < fy when
fs = fy . We nevertheless use As in order to ensure ductility, stiness and support for the
stirrups.
Example 2-12: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review
Given, fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, As = 3 (1.56) = 4.68 in2 , As = 4 (1.56) = 6.24 in2 ,
determine the moment carrying capacity of the following beam.

Draft
As = 3 # 11 u =0.003 0.85 f
c 0.85 f
c
231
As fs As fy
3" s a= c a=1 c
c 1
27.3" dd
= +
d
s As sf (As A
s s)f
As yf
16"
As = 4 # 11
Solution:
1. Determine :
fc 87 4 87
b = (.85)1 = (.85)(.85) = .0285 (2.104-a)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
6.24
= = .0143 (2.104-b)
(16)(27.3)
4.68
= = .0107 (2.104-c)
(16)(27.3)
2. Check for min
fc d u
min = + .85 1 (2.105-a)
fy d u y
4 3 .003
= .0107 + (.85) (.85) = .0278 > (2.105-b)
60 27.3 .003 29,000
60
Hence
< min < b
(2.106)
.0143 < .0278 < .0285
and thus fs = fy and fs < fy and we have case II
3. We have two equations: strain compatibility (nonlinear equation) and summation of forces
(linear equation), and two unknowns c and fs
c d c3
fs = Es u = (29, 000)(.003) (2.107-a)
c c
c3
= 87 (2.107-b)
c
As fy = As fs + .85fc b1 c

(2.107-c)
(6.24)(60) = (4.68)fs + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c (2.107-d)
374.4 = 4.68fs + 46.24c (2.107-e)
fs = 9.9c + 80.2 (2.107-f)
Note that if we were to plott those two equations,

Draft
232 FLEXURE
50
25
2 3 4 5 6
-25
-50
-75
-100
We note that fs increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs decreases with c from
equilibrium. If c increases, force in concrete increases too and force in steel decreases.
Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
4. Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c 26.42 = 0 (2.108)
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs = (.003)(29, 000) 4.803
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
5. Substituting into the moment equation

a
Mn = .85fc ab d + As fs (d d ) (2.109-a)
2
4.078
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3 + (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 3) (2.109-b)
2
= 9, 313 k.in (2.109-c)
Md = 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft (2.109-d)
6. Check
fs
max = .75b + (2.110-a)
fy
32.6
= (.75)(.0285) + (.0107) =
.027 (2.110-b)
60

Example 2-13: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design
Given Md = 505 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, b = 12 in, h = 24.5 in, d = 21 in, and
d= 2.5 in, determine the reinforcement As and possibly As .
Solution:
1
In this problem, unfortunately an iterative method diverges if we were to start with a = d5 .

Draft
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations
1. Check if singly or doubly reinforced section:

233
Md = (505)(12) = 6, 060 k.in (2.111-a)

f 87 4 87
b = .851 c = (.85)(.85) = .0285 (2.111-b)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
max = .75b = (.75)(.0285) = .0213 (2.111-c)
Amax
s = (.0213)(12)(21) = 5.37 in 2
(2.111-d)
As fy (5.37)(60)
a =
= = 7.89 in (2.111-e)
.85fc b (.85)(4)(12)

a 7.89
Mmax = (0.9)As fy d = (.9)(5.37)(60) 21 (2.111-f)
2 2
= 4, 943 k.in < 6, 060 k.in (2.111-g)
Thus compression steel is required.
2. Assuming that fs = fy
Md2 = 6, 060 4, 943 = 1, 117 k.in (2.112-a)

Md2 1, 117
As =
= = 1.12 in2 (2.112-b)
fy (d d ) (0.9)(60)(21 2.5)
As = 1.12 in2 (2.112-c)
As = 5.37 + 1.12 = 6.49 in2 (2.112-d)
3. Check that fs = fy

1.12
= = .00444 (2.113-a)
(12)(21)
6.49
= = .0257 (2.113-b)
(12)(21)
f d u
min = + .851 c (2.113-c)
fy d u y
4 2.5 87
= .00444 + (.85)(.85) = .0229 < (.0257) (2.113-d)
60 21.0 87 60
Note that if it turned out that fs < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on As (such
as As = A2s , as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility)
and four unknowns (As , As , fs and c).
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations
51 In ordinary reinforced concrete design, we need not be concerned by the moment curva-
ture relation of a exural member. Yet this relation is important to properly understand (in
subsequent chapters)

Draft
234
1. Redistribution of moments (reducing negative moments, increasing positive ones).

FLEXURE
2. Short and long term deections with the shifting of the neutral axis under service load.
3. Ductility in seismic design, i.e. the ability of a section to exhibit enough exibility during
seismic excitation, and thus absorbs enough energy.
52 Fig.2.17 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius
O fy

y
STEEL
y
f
c
A C
M c d y M
a b
CONCRETE
B D
el
Figure 2.17: Bending of a Beam
by end couples M , thus the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that plane
cross-sections normal to the length of the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent.
Therefore, considering the cross-sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, the similar sectors
Oab and bcd give
y
= (2.114)

where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis), the radius of curvature.
53 Furthermore, we dene the curvature as
c
= = (2.115)
y c
54 Next we seek to derive the moment curvature for a beam. This will clearly depend on the
location of the neutral axis, and we identify the following key stages, Fig. ??:
Uncracked Elastic is the rst stage

fr Iut
Mcr = (2.116-a)
c2
r fr
cr = = (2.116-b)
c2 E c c2
Cracked Elastic: when the section cracks, the stiness is immediately reduced and the cur-
vature increases (the moment does not change). We will then have a linear response up

Draft
2.9 Bond & Development Length
111111111
000000000
< el
235
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 d h c cr
000000000
111111111 1
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
c2
000000000
111111111
= fr
cr
EI
= M n
ct
el EI
111111
000000
000000
111111 c = kd
ut Failure
el
000000
111111 1
000000
111111 d
cS = dkd jd
M el Proportional
Limit of Concrete
11111111
00000000
< T=A S E M cr Cracking
y S S
< < f =f
el u 1 c
111111
000000
111111
000000 c inel
111111
000000 1
d
Z
= cs
T=A S E < A fy
S
S S
Figure 2.18: Moment-Curvature Relation for a Beam
to the limit of elasticity of the concrete where, Eq. 2.4-c

bd2
Mel = kjfc (2.117-a)
2
fc,el
el = (2.117-b)
Ec
el
1el = (2.117-c)
c1
we should check that fs = M
As jd fy .
Cracked Section, Inelastic Material: For this case
1. Select top face concrete strain el u
2. Assume the neutral axis depth to be at a distance c1 below top bers.
3. From the strain diagram and similarity of triangles, determine s = cs .
4. Determine the tensile steel stress fs = Es s fy , and T + As fs .
5. Check equilibrium of forces (C = T ), this requires computing C (area under the
nonlinear stress curve). If equilibrium is not satied, adjust location of neutral axis
upward or downward until equilibrium is reached. The internal lever arm z is then
determined.
6. Solve for
i
Minel = Ci zi (2.118-a)
i
iinel = i1 (2.118-b)
c1
7. Plot the results.
55Considering the equilibrium of forces acting on an innitesimal portion of a rebar, Fig. 2.19,
and dening U as the force per unit length, we have

Draft
236
M M +M
FLEXURE
111
000
000
111
111
000
111
000 111
000
C C + dC
T 111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
T+dT
jd 000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
V V+dV
T T+dT
dx
dx
Figure 2.19: Bond and Development Length
dT
U dx = dT U = (2.119)
dx
56 The tensile force is a function of the moment
M = T jd (2.120-a)
dM
dT = (2.120-b)
jd
57 But the shear is related to the moment

dM
V = (2.121)
dx
Combing those equations together, we obtain
V
U= (2.122)
jd
58 We dene u as the bond stress, and is equal to

U
u= (2.123)
0
where 0 is the sum of all the bars perimeters.
59 If plain bar weak adhesion slip need end anchorage no bond u = 0 dT = 0
steel stress is constant over entire length T = Mjd
max
total steel elongation >than if bond
present large deection and large crack width.
60 Actual stress distribution along steel bar is quite complex, Fig. 2.20.
61 If bond stress is too large splitting along reinforcement, Fig. 2.21.

62 Failure will initiate at points of high shear large dM
dx .
63It frequently starts at diagonal cracks dowel action increases the tendancy of splitting
shear and bond failures are often interrelated.
64Basedon tests with one single bar, ultimate average bond force/inch of length of bar is
Un 35 fc .

Draft
2.9 Bond & Development Length 237
u stresses on concrete
M M
u stresses on rebar
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Steel tension slope =dT

dx
Bond stress u
Figure 2.20: Actual Bond Distribution
Figure 2.21: Splitting Along Reinforcement

Draft
238 FLEXURE
65 If we have several bars in one layer spaced 6 in or less, then the ultimate bond capacity is
80% of the single bar case.

66 In terms of bond stress, Fig. 2.22
35 fc
un = (2.124)
0
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Ts = 0 Ld Ts= A yf
b
Figure 2.22: Development Length
67 Putting it dierently, the minimum length necessary to develop through bond a force As fy
is, Fig. ??.
A f
Ld = Ubny 0.028Ab fy
Un = un 0 ld = (2.125)

35 fc fc
un = 0
U
A sf y
L
d
Figure 2.23: Development Length
68 For small bar spacing, we have to decrease the bond stress

1 0.028Ab fy 0.035Ab fy
ld = = (2.126)
0.8 fc fc
69 If actual development length l is smaller than ld , then we must provide anchorage in order
to avoid a bond failure.
70 Note:
1. un is independent of diameter

Draft
2. For a given fs
239

T = Ab fs
d2 fs d2b
= fs 4 b ld = (2.127)
Ab f s
4Un
ld = Un
ld increases with the square of db small bar diameters require shorter development
length.
71Top bars, with more than 12 inch of concrete below them, will have a reduced bond stress
(due to rise of water during vibration). This reduction in bond results in an increase of ld by
40%
72 ACI 12.2.2 may be obtained from above but rather than use we increase ld by 15% for
safety.
ldb = .04 b
A fy
#11 or smaller; and deformed wire
fc
.085
fy
= #14
fc (2.128)
=
fy
.125 #18
fc
> 12 in. in all cases
Consult ACI 12.5 code for hooks geometry, and corrections to this basic equation.
73 Check ACI code for modications related to top reinforcement, lightweight aggregate, high
strength reinforcement, excess reinforcement, and spiral connement.
ld = d dd ldb (2.129)
74 If not enough development length can be provided provide hooks, Fig. 2.24 at
1. 90 degrees: bar must extend by 12db
2. 180 degrees: see code.
where
lhb = 1200 db
fc (2.130)
ldh = d lhb
and d is given in the ACI code.
2.9.1 Moment Capacity Diagram
75 Ideally, the steel should be everywhere as nearly fully stressed as possible. Since the steel
force is proportional to the moment, then the steel area is nearly proportional to the moment
diagram.
76 Requirements include, Fig. 2.25:

Draft
240 FLEXURE
db
As in part (b)
Critical
section 12db
ldh
(a)
db
Critical
section 4db or 2 1/2 4db Nos. 3 through 8
in. min.
5db Nos. 9, 10, 11
ldh 6db Nos. 14 and 18
(b)
Figure 2.24: Hooks
1. At least A3s in simple beams and As

4 for continuous beams should be extended at least 6
in. into support.
2. If negative bars are cut, they must extend at least ld beyond face of support.
3. Negative bars must extend d or 12db beyond theoretical cuto point dened by moment
diagram.
4. At least one third of top reinforcement at support must extend at least ld beyond the-
ln
oretical cuto point of other bars, and d, 12db or 16 beyond the inection point of the
negative moment diagram.
77 Determination of cuto points can be rather tedious, for nearly equal spans uniformly loaded,
in which no more than about one half the tensile steel is to be cut o or bent, locations shown
in Fig. 2.26 are satisfactory (note that left support is assumed simply supported).
78 Fig. 2.27 is an illustration of the moment capacity diagram for a beam.

Draft
Theoretical
positive
moment
Face of support
Inflection point
for (+As) Moment Capacity
of bars O
of span
Theoretical
negative
Inflection point
moment for (-As)
L
Moment capacity
C
of bars M
Greatest of d, 12 d , ln/16 b
d or 12 db for at least 1/3 of (-AS)
ld
Bars M ld Bars N
Bars L ld Bars O
ld d or 12 db
6" for at least
1/4 of (+AS)
(1/3 for simple spans)
Figure 2.25: Bar cuto requirements of the ACI code

Draft
242 FLEXURE
L1 L1 L2 L2
4 3 3 3
0" 0" L2
L1 L2
6"
8
6" 6" 8
8
L1 L2
L1 L1 L2 L2
4 3 3 3
0" 0" L2
6" L1 L1 L2
7 4 6" 6" 4
4
L1 L2
Figure 2.26: Standard cuto or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uni-
formly distributed load

Draft
A B C
5 bars
2 bars 4 bars AA
A B C
BB
Ld
Ld Mcap of 5 bars
CC
Mcap of 4 bars
Md=Mn
Ld
Mcap of 2 bars
d or 12
Figure 2.27: Moment Capacity Diagram

Draft
244 FLEXURE

Draft
Chapter 3
SHEAR
3.1 Introduction
1 Beams are subjected to both exural and shear stresses. Resulting principal stresses (or stress
trajectory) are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Tension trajectories
Compression trajectories
90
45
1 2

45 2 1
Figure 3.1: Principal Stresses in Beam
2 Due to exure, vertical exural cracks develop from the bottom bers.
3 As a result of the tensile principal stresses, two types of shear cracks may develop, Fig. 3.2:
Large V Small V Large V
Small M Large M Small M
Web Shear Cracks Flexural Shear Cracks Flexural Cracks

Flexural Cracks
Figure 3.2: Types of Shear Cracks
Web shear cracks: Large V, small M. They initiate in the web & spread up & down at 45o .
Draft
32
Flexural shear cracks: Large V, large M. They initiate as an extension of a pre-existing

SHEAR
exural crack, initially vertical, then curve.
4 Shear failure is sudden = 0.85

5 Some of the important parameters controlling shear failure:
M
1. Shear span ratio Vd
2. Steel ratio = Abds

3. ft = 4 fc note that fr = 7.5 fc
6 We shall rst examine the shear strength of uncracked sections, then the one of cracked
sections (with shear reinforcement).
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
7 Question: What is the maximum shear force which can be applied before a exural crack
develop into a exural shear crack?
1. Apply M exural crack
2. Apply V exural shear crack
8 Note that all shear resistance is provided by the concrete. As with exural reinforcement,
steel is ineective as long as the section is uncracked.
C vc vn
fc
jd +
Flexure Shear
T

Shear
Figure 3.3: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
9 Solution strategy:
1. Determine the exural compressive stress fc in terms of M
2. Determine shear stress v in terms of V

Draft
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
3. Compute the principal stresses

33
4. Equate principal tensile stress to the tensile strength
10 Using a semi-analytical approach
1. Assume that fc is directly proportional to steel stress

fc = fns f = Mn Mn Mn
c nAs jd fc = = F1 (3.1)
= bd A s
njbd 2 nbd2
Mn = As fs jd fs = AMs jdn
2. Shear stress
Vn
vn = F2 (3.2)
bd
3. From Mohrs circle, the tensile principal stress is

vn
f1

fc
R
vn
Figure 3.4: Mohrs Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
" 2
fc fc
f1 = + + vn2 (3.3)
2 2
4. Set f1 equal to the tensile strength

Vn Vn
f1 = ft f1 = ft (3.4-a)
bd bd
Vn ft Vn
= (3.4-b)
bd f1 bd
ft
= f1 bd
(3.4-c)
Vn
Combining Eq. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3

Draft
34 SHEAR
Vn ft
= 2 1/2 (3.5)
bd
F E
F1 Ec Mn 1 c Mn 2
+ + F2
2 E Vn d 2 Es Vn d
s C 2
C1 C1

5. set ft = 4 fc
Vn 1
= " 2 (3.6)
bd fc
fc Mn C1 fc Mn
C1 Vn d + Vn d + C2

Mn fc
6. Let the variables be n
V
&
bd fc Vn d
7. This is how far we can go analytically. To determine the exact factors associated with
this equation, one has to undertake a series of tests.
8. From 440 tests, Fig. 3.5 it is found that
Vn
bd fc
3.5
2.0
1.9
Vn d
M f
n c
Figure 3.5: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
Vn Vn d
= 1.9 + 2, 500 3.5 (3.7)
bd fc Mn fc
Vn
or if we set vc = bd , then
Vn d
vc = 1.9 fc + 2, 500 3.5 fc (ACI 11.3.2.1) (3.8)
Mn
Vn d
9. Note that vc is in terms of M or inverse of shear span ( M
V )

Draft
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections
10. This equation is usually found acceptable for predicting the exure shear cracking load
35
for shear span/depth ratio VMnnd of 2.5 to 6 & is found to be very conservative for lower
values
11. Increasing has a benecial eort as a larger amount of steel results in narrower & smaller
exural tension cracks before formation of diagonal cracks larger area of uncracked
concrete can resist the shear.
Vu Mu
12. Use of Vu & Mu instead of Vn = & Mn =
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections

11If the shear stress exceeds 1.9 fc + 2, 500 VMndd , then the exural crack will extend into a
exural shear crack, Fig. 3.6. and if
s
C
Vc
A v fv z
Va
T=As fs
Vd
Figure 3.6: Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack
1. No shear reinforcements failure
2. Stirrups are present stirrups will carry part of shear force
12 If the section is cracked, Fig. 3.7
Vext = Vc + n Av fv + Vd + Vay (3.9)

Vint
where
Vc Shear resisted by uncracked section
p
n # of stirrup traversing the crack n = s
Av Area of shear reinforcement
fv Shear reinforcement stress
Vd Dowel force in steel
Va Aggregate interlock
13 We must determine the internal (resisting) shear forces at failure where fv = fy

Draft
36
V int
SHEAR
V cz
t
in
Vd
V
V ay
Vs
Vext
Yield of stirups
Inclined cracking
Flexural cracking
Failure
Figure 3.7: Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section
1. Due to yielding large separation between 2 sides of cracks Va 0
2. Neglect Vd
3. Vext = Vn = Vc +nAv fy

unknown
4. We will assume that at failure the shear force provided
by concrete is equal to the one

which caused the diagonal crack to form va = 1.9 fc + 2, 500 Md . Thus, Vc = va bw d
Vn d
5. Finally, if we assume p = d (implying a crack at 45 )
d
Vn = Vc + Av fy (ACI 11.1.1) (3.10)
s
Vs
3.4 ACI Code Requirements

+
14 The ACI code requirements ( 11) are summarized by Fig. 3.8:
1. Design for Vu (factored shear) rather than Vn = Vu
(ACI 11.1.1), plot Vu diagram.
2. Determine Vc (nominal shear carried by the concrete) where

Vc = 2 fc bw d (ACI 11.3.1.1)
or
Vc = [1.9 fc + 2, 500w VMuud ]bw d 3.5 fc bw d (ACI 11.3.2.1) (3.11)
where
Vu d
Mu < 1
3. If Vu <0.5 Vc no shear reinforcement is needed (ACI 11.5.5.1)

Draft
3.4 ACI Code Requirements
4. If 0.5Vc < Vu Vc use minimum shear reinforcement; select Av (usually #3 bars) and
37
determine
Av f y
s = 50b w
(ACI 11.5.5.3)
d (3.12)
s < 2 (ACI 11.5.4.1)
s < 24 in (ACI 11.5.4.1)
5. If Vu > Vc provide stirrup such that
Vu Av fy d
= Vn = Vc + Vs = Vc + (ACI 11.17) (3.13)
s
or
Av fy d Av fy
s = = (3.14)
Vc u vc )b
Vu (v

6. If Vu Vc > 4 fc bw d, then s < d
4 and s < 12 in, (ACI 11.5.4.3).
7. Upper limit:
Vu Vc < 8 fc bw d (ACI 11.5.6.8) (3.15)
8. fy 60 ksi, (ACI 11.5.2)
9. Critical section is at d from support (reduces design shear force), (ACI 11.1.3.1)
d
V
b wd
Vu

10 f c
f c
6 f c Steel
8
f c
4
2 f c
f c Concrete
not allowable s max=d/4 or 12" s max=d/2 or 24"

min. stirups
no stirups
A vfy d Avfy
s= Vu = (v uv c) b
50b w
Vc

A v fy
distance from support

s =
Figure 3.8: Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear

Draft
38
3.5 Examples
SHEAR
Example 3-1: Shear Design
b = 12 in.; d=22 in.; wu = 8.8 k/ft; L= 20 ft.; As = 3# 11; fc = 4 ksi; fy = 40 ksi;
Design vertical stirrup
Solution:
1. At support: Vu = 8.8 (20)

2 = 88 k and vu =
88
(12)(22) = .333 ksi
2. At d from support Vu = 88 22
12 (8.8) = 71.9 k and vu = 71.9
(12)(22) = .272 ksi

3. vc = 2 fc = 2 4, 000 = 126 psi; vc = (0.85)(126) = 107.1 psi
vc
4. 2 = 53.6 psi

5. 4 fc = 2(126) = 252 psi;

6. vu vc = 272 126 = 146 psi < 4 fc
psi d
333
Vu
272
107.1
v c
53.6
v c
2
x
19"
min. reinforcement no reinforcement
38.6"
7. vu vc = 0 333
(10)(12) x = 107.1 x = 38.6 in = 3.2 ft from mid-span
vc
8. vu 2 =0 333
(10)(12) x = 53.6 x = 19.3 in = 1.6 ft
9. Selecting #3 bars, Av = 2(.11) = .22 in2

Av f y (.22)(40,000)
smax = 50bw = (50)(12) = 14.66 in
d 22
smax = 11 in (3.16)
2 = 2 = 11 in

Draft
3.6 Shear Friction
10. at support
39
Av fy d Av fy
s = = (3.17-a)
Vc u vc )b
Vu (v

(.85)(.22)(40, 000)
= (3.17-b)
(272 107.1)(12)
= 3.78 in (3.17-c)
(3.17-d)
3.6 Shear Friction
15 Previous design procedure was applicable to diagonal tension cracks (where tension was
induced by shear), for those cases where we do have large pure shear, Fig. 3.9, use shear
friction concept.
#7 Vu
N uc
An=
fy
weld
Nuc
A n part of A v f
close sriru
(usually #3)
Avf
assumed crack
+ shear plane
remainder of A v f
assumed crack
Vu
Figure 3.9: Corbel
16 The crack for which shear-friction reinforcement is required may not have been caused by
shear. However once the crack has occurred a shear transfer mechanism must be provided for,
Fig. 3.10. The shear friction theory is based on the assumption that a crack will occur and
then reinforcement across it will resist relative displacement along the crack.
17 If we assume separation to be sucient steel will yield
Vn = Avf fy (3.18)
18 If the shear reinforcement is inclined with respect to the crack, Fig. 3.11
19Component of tensile force in reinforcement gives rise to compression force at interface C
c vertical force due to friction;

Vn = T cos f + C Vn = T (cos f sin f )
Vn = Avf fy (cos f + sin (3.19-a)
f
C = T sin f T = Avf fy
Draft
310 SHEAR
Vn Vn
Vn
crack
crack separation
A vf f y
due to slip
Vn Vn
Sheartransfer
reinforcement A fy
vf
Avf f y Avf f y
2 2
Figure 3.10: Shear Friction Mechanism
Tsin f
Tcos f
assumed crack
applied shear=Vn
A vf fy
C
C=Tsin f
f
T
Figure 3.11: Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement

Draft
3.6 Shear Friction 311
20 Note: Vu = Vn and = 0.85

21 The preceding equation can be rewritten as
Vu
Avf = (3.20)
fy
Vu
Avf = ACI 11.27 (3.21)
fy (cos f + sin f )
22 ACI-11.7.4.3 species as such that

concrete cast monolithically = 1.4
concrete against hardened concrete = 1.0
concrete against steel = 0.7
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and = .75 for lightweight concrete. and
,
0.2fc Ac
Vn < (3.22)
800Ac
and Ac ( in2 ) is the area of concrete resisting shear.
Example 3-2: Shear Friction
Design reinforcement needed at the bearing region of a precast beam 14 wide & 28 deep
supported on a 4 bearing pad. Vu = 105k, horizontal force due to restraint, shrinkage, creep
is 0.3 Vu
possible crack
A vf
20
3#6
15
N uc
2#6 15
Vu N uc
4"
24" Vuc
Solution:
1. Assume all the shear Vu will be acting parallel to crack (small angle 20 )
2. Assume all Vu is parallel to crack required Avf = Vu

fy = 105
(0.85)(60)(1.4) = 1.47 in2
(0.3)(105)
3. As = N 2
fy = (0.85)(60) = 0.62 in for horizontal force
ac
As = Avf + An = 1.47 + 0.62 in2 = 2.09 in2 use 5# 6 (As = 2.20 in2 )
4. Note: ACI 11-9-3-4 Nuc > 0.2 Vu for Corbels;

Draft
312
3.7 Brackets and Corbels

SHEAR
To be Edited
23 Nu might be due to shrinkage, prestressing
24 Design based on truss analogy

25 A.C.I. provisions (Chapter 11)
a
1. For d < 12 , use shear friction theory
a
2. For d > 1, use ordinary beam theory
3. For 1
2 a
d 1
-
Nuc Nu 3
Vn = [6.5 5.1 ](1 0.5 ) 1 + [64 + 160 ( ) ] fc bw d (3.23)
Vu d Vu

where = A??s ; and 0.13 ffyc ; N
Vu not to be taken < 0.20 in calculating vu ; Nu = (+ve)
u
compression, and (-ve) tension; Ah < As also Ah 0.50As distributed uniformly; thru
fc
3 d adjacent to As ; = bd .04 fy .
2 As
3.8 Deep Beams

Draft
Chapter 4
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4.1 Continuity
1 R/C bldgs constructions commonly have oor slabs, beams, girders and columns continuously
placed to form a monolithic system
Figure 4.1: Continuous R/C Structures
2
+ve
In a continuous system, load must be placed in such a way to maximize desired eect (Mmax
ve V
Mmax max , Fig. 4.2
Max +ve M @
AB_CD_EF
A B C D E F G
Max -ve M @ B
Min -ve @ B
Max -ve @ C
Min -ve @ C
Max -ve @ D
Min -ve @ D
Figure 4.2: Load Positioning on Continuous Beams
3 Given the moment diagram for various load cases, a designer should draw the moment
enveloppe and design for the maximum negative and positive moments (eventhough they may
not be caused by the same load case).
Draft
42
4.2 Methods of Analysis

CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4 Two approaches:
1. Detailed analysis
(a) Moment distribution

(b) Computer analysis (such as RISA, SAP, etc...)
2. Approximate (but conservative) based on ACI 8.3.3 moment coecients
4.2.1 Detailed Analysis
5 Refer to CVEN3525/3535/4525
4.2.2 ACI Approximate Method
6 This method, Fig. 4.3 can be used if:
1. 2 or more spans
2. Spans are approximately equals, and the larger of adjacent ones not greater than the
shorter by more than 20%
3. Loads are uniformably distributed
4. LL < 3DL
5. Prismatic members
Positive Moment
End Spans
1 2
Continuous end unrestrained 11 wu Ln
1 2
Continuous end integral with support 14 wu Ln
1 2
Interior spans 16 wu Ln
Negative Moment
Negative moment at exterior face of rst of rst interior support
1 2
Two spans 9 wu Ln
1 2
> Two spans 10 wu Ln
1 2
Negative moment at other faces of interior support 11 wu Ln
...................................... ......
Shear
Shear in end member at face of rst interior support 1.15 wu2Ln
wu Ln
Shear at face of all other supports 2
where wu is the factored load, and Ln is the clear span.

7 These moment coecients take into account some inelastic action (stress redistribution).
8 They are conservative compared to an exact analysis.

Draft
4.2 Methods of Analysis 43
Figure 4.3: ACI Approximate Moment Coecients

Draft
44 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
C
L column
C
L column
VaL CL span
2 VaL
111
000 VaL
000
111
000
111 3
6
V
000
111
000
111
000
111 C
VaL VaL
L beam 2 VaL 3
aL 6
2
Column width aL
L
2
Moment curve based on prismatic member
aL
1111111111111111111111111 VaL
0000000000000000000000000 2
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
6
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Adjusted Moment Curve
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
C
L beam
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111 C
L beam
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Figure 4.4: Design Negative Moment
4.3 Eective Span Design Moment
9 Negative moments should be the one at the face of the columns, Fig. 4.4.
10 We recall that the change in moment is equal to the area under shear diagram.
V aL
M = Mcl (4.1)
2
but V and M vary in some unknown way between center line of column and edge, thus we can
reduce M by V b/3 where b is the width of the column. Thus
Vb
Mdve Mmax
ve
(4.2)
3
11 This can substantially reduce high M ve .
4.4 Moment Redistribution

4.4.1 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section
12 Let us consider a uniformly loaded rigidly connected beam, Fig. 4.5

13 The beam has an elastic plastic moment curvature relation, Fig. 4.6

Draft
4.4 Moment Redistribution
WL
2
45
W 24
1
0
0
1 11
00
00
11 2
+
2
0
1 00
11 WL WL
12 12
Figure 4.5: Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam

M
Mp X
Curvature
y u
Figure 4.6: Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section
14 |M ve | > |M +ve | as w , M ve Mp rst
wL2 12Mp
= Mp w =
12 L2
15 Thus we will have a plastic hinge at the support however this is not synonymous with collapse.
16Collapse or failure occurs when we have a mechanism or 3 adjacent hinges (plastic or other-
wise). This can be easily determined from statics, Fig. 4.7
w
16 M
p
2
L
M p
12 M p
2
L
M M
p p
Figure 4.7: Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam
wu L2
2Mp = 8
16Mp
wu = L2
17 Thus capacity was increased 33% after rst plastic hinge occurred.
18This is accompanied by large rotation of the plastic hinges at the supports, and when com-
pared with the linear elastic solution M ve and M +ve
19 The section must be designed to accomodate this rotation.

Draft
46
4.4.2 Concrete
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
20Concrete is brittle hence by itself no appreciable plastic deformation can occur, however in
R/C, Fig. 4.8
ce .003
fc fc
kd c
dkd dc
y u
Asf y Asf y
s= y s> y
.003
M u
Steel yielding
c
M y
M cr
First crack
cr y u Strain caused by
moment redistribution y
Unit rotation
u
y
Figure 4.8: Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections
21 If certain rotation capacity exists (i.e., if is low) M is controlled by yielding of the steel
while the concrete strain is still low compared to 0.003 reserve rotation capacity u y is
then available for a redistribution of moment to occur before 0.003
22M ve moment at support of continuous exural members calculated by elastic theory can
be decreased by no more than

M = 20(1 )% ACI 8.4.1 (4.3)
b

where b = 0.851 ffyc ( 87+f
87
y
) provided that
1. Moments are exactly determined (i.e., not ACI coecients)
2. or < 0.5b
23 M +ve must be increased accordingly.

24 This capacity to redistribute moments (reduce M ve and increase M +ve ) is a characterisitc
of ductile members.
25 Earthquake resistant structures must have a certain ductility to absorb the lateral oscillating
load large amount of reinforcement at the joints.

Draft
4.5 Buildings
Example 4-1: Moment Redistribution

47
Determine the moment redistribution for the following singly reinforced beam with = 0.5b
2 2
WL WL
24 20
+ +
2 2
2 2
WL WL 0.9 WL 0.9 W L
12 12 12 12
Solution:
From above, amout of redistribution

M = 20(1 b )%
= 20(1 0.5) = 10%
2
M ve = 0.9 wL
12
2 wL2
M +ve = 1.2 wL
24 = 20
4.5 Buildings
26 Building types, Table 4.1
Structural System Number of Stories

Frame Up to 15
Shear Wall-Frame up to 40
Single framed tube up to 40
Tube in Tube up to 80
Table 4.1: Building Structural Systems
27 We analyse separately for vertical and horizontal loads.
Vertical loads: DL and LL. This is typically done for a oor, through a grid analysis. No
need to model the entire structure. We can use
ACI Approximate equations

Exact (Moment distribution, computer)
Lateral laod: WL, EL. This requires the analysis of a 2D or 3D frame. Two approaches:
Approximate method: Portal method, or cantilever method.

Exact Moment distribution, computer.
28 Recommended analysis/design procedures

Draft
48 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
1. Use ACI approximate equations for the design of the slab. Then, there is no need to worry
about optimal placement of load to maximize positive or negative moments, or moment
redistribution.
2. Once the slab is designed, use exact method for beams, girders. Reduce negative moments.
3. Tabulate maximum +ve and -ve moments for each beam.
4. Determine the column loads, tabulate.
5. Can use approximate or exact method of analysis for frames. Tabulate results.
6. Add maximum positive and negative moments due to vertical and lateral loads.
7. Design accordingly.
29 A block diagram for the various steps is shown in Fig. 4.9
E-W SLAB N-S BEAM E-W GIRDER N-S GIRDER

L b L b L L
h h h b
hf
DL w0 LL w0 PW PW WL w0 PW w0 WL
wu wu wu wu
M V M V
M V R M V R
L Span
hf Slab thickness N
h Beam/girder depth
M Flexure
V
R
Shear
Reation
Col
PW Partition wall W E
WL Wind load
W0
Wa
Self weight
Total factored load
Fou
Col Column
Fou Foundation S
R/C Bldg Design
Figure 4.9: Block Diagram for R/C Building Design

Draft
Chapter 5
ONE WAY SLABS
5.1 Types of Slabs
1 Types of slabs, Fig. 5.1
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
oneway slab twoway slab Grid slab
Flat slab
oneway slab Flat plate slab
Figure 5.1: Types of Slabs
2 Two types of slabs, Fig. 5.2

1. One way slab: long span/short span > 2. Load is transmitted along the short span.
2. Two Way slab: Long span/short span <2. Load is transmitted along two orthogonal
directions.
L
3 If s > 2 than most of the load ( 95%) is carried in the short directions, Fig. 5.3
4 Load transfer in one way slabs is accomplished hierarchically through an interaction of slab,
beam, girder, column and foundations, Fig. 5.4
Draft
52 ONE WAY SLABS
11111
00000 11111
00000
00000
11111 Beam 1 00000
11111
00000
11111 11111
00000
00000
11111 11111
00000
1111
0000 1111
0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000 1111
0000
1111
0000
B B
Beam 2
Beam 1
Beam 2
Beam 1
10" Strip 10" Strip

B B
S S
L
1111
0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
11111
00000
00000
11111 11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111 Beam 1 11111
00000
00000
11111 11111
00000
Figure 5.2: One vs Two way slabs
B B
111
000
000
111
P A
A 101010 1
0
0
1
0
1
A
000
111
B111
000
Figure 5.3: Load Distribution in Slabs

Draft
5.1 Types of Slabs 53
Figure 5.4: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings

Draft
54
Simply One end Both ends

ONE WAY SLABS
Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Solid One
way slab L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
Beams or
ribbed One way slab L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
Table 5.1: Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths
5.2 One Way Slabs
5 Preliminary considerations for one way slabs:

1. Load on slabs ksf.
2. Design an imaginary 12 in strip.
3. The area of reinforcement is As /ft of width or

As 12 in
= Ab (5.1)
ft bar spacing in inches
where Ab is the area of one bar. or

12Ab
Bar spacing in inches = (5.2)
As
4. Slab thickness t is usually assumed, and we design reinforcement. ACI 9.5.2.1 recom-
mended minimum thickness of beams/slabs are given by Table 5.1. where L is in inches,
and members are not supporting partitions. If a slab is so dimensioned
(a) Deection need not be checked
(b) Usually, neither exure, nor shear controls
a
5. In reinforcement design, a good initial guess for d is 0.15.
6. Slab thickness are rounded to the neares 1/4 inch for slabs less than 6 inch, and 1/2 for
thicker ones.
7. ACI Sect. 7.7.1 gives minimum cover for corrosion control
(a) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground, No. 11 or smaller 3/4
inch.
(b) Concrete exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
i. No. 5 bars and smaller, 1.5 inch.
ii. No. 6 and larger, 2. inch.
8. Transverse reinforcement (shrinkage, temperature) must be provided

As
0.002 Grade 40 and 50 bars
= ACI 7.12.2.1 (5.3)
bh
0.0018 Grade 60 and welded wire fabric

Draft
5.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab

9. Shear does not usually control & no minimum reinforcement is needed (vc = 2 fc )
55
10. Principal reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 3 times the slab thickness nor
18 in (ACI 7.6.5).
11. Usually No. 4 and larger bars are used for exural reinforcement, as No. 3 may be
bent out of position by workers walking on it. This is more critical for top than bottom
reinforcement.
12. Sometimes, No.3 is used for bottom, and No. 4 for top.
13. Shrinkage/temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 5 times the slab
thickness nor 18 in (ACI 7.12.2.2).

Design an 8 span oor slab. Each span is 15 ft long, fc = 3, 750 psi, fy = 60 ksi, wl =100 psf,
oor cover is 0.5 psf, mechanical equipment 4 psf, and ceiling 2 psf. Interior supporting beams
have a width of 14 inch, and exterior ones 16 inches. First span is measured from exterior of
exterior beam to center of rst interior beam.
Thickness: of the oor is based on ACI recommendation:

16 14
le = (15)(12) = 165 in (5.4-a)
2 2
14
li = (15)(12) 2 = 166 in (5.4-b)
2
l 165
hemin = = = 6.88 in (5.4-c)
24 24
l 166
himin = = = 5.93 in (5.4-d)
28 28
We round h up to h = 7.25 in. Assuming 3/4 in. cover and No. 4 bars

0.5
d = 7.25 0.75 + = 6.25 in (5.5)
2
Factored Loads Slab

7.25
wd = (150) = 90.6 psf of oor surface (5.6)
12
Total dead load 90.6 + 0.5 + 4 + 2 = 97.1 psf
Factored load
wu = 1.4(97.1) + 1.7(100) = 306 psf (5.7)
The load per foot of strip is 306 lbs/ft
Since wl < 3wd we can use the ACI 8.3.3 coecients to compute the moments.
Net spans
1. First interior span ln = (15)(12) 16

2 14
2 = 165 in = 13.75 ft

Draft
56
2. Second interior span ln = (15)(12) 14 = 166 in = 13.83 ft

ONE WAY SLABS
3. Average span ln = 12 (165 + 166) 12

1
= 13.79 ft
Flexural Design
ai = 0.15d = 0.15(6.25) = 0.9375 in (5.8-a)

Mu 12Mu 0.222
As = = = Mu (5.8-b)
fy (d a2 ) 0.9(60)(6.25 a2 ) 6.25 a2
As fy 60
a =
= As = 1.569As (5.8-c)
0.85fc b (0.85)(3.75)(12)
Amin
s = 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t (5.8-d)
For maximum spacing, ACI species 3h = 3(7.25) = 21.75 in but no more than 18 in,
smax = 18 in.
Support Midspan Support Midspan Support Midspan

ln , ft 13.75 13.75 13.79 13.83 13.83 13.83
wu ln2 57.85 57.85 58.19 58.53 58.53
M Coe. 1/24 1/14 1/10 1/11 1/16 1/11 1/16

Mu ft-kip/ft 2.41 4.13 5.82 5.82 5.29 3.66 5.32 3.66
a 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937
As 0.092 0.159 0.223 0.141 0.204
a 0.145 0.249 0.351 0.221 0.320
As 0.087 0.150 0.213 0.132 0.194
a 0.136 0.235 0.334 0.207 0.304

As 0.087 0.150 0.212 0.132 0.194

Amin
s 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157
Reinf. #4@15 #4 @15 #4@12 #4@15 #4@12
Aprov
s 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.16 0.20
Shear Since we have unequal spans we must check at
1. Exterior face of the rst interior support
ln (1.15)(306)(157)
Vu = 1.15wu = = 2, 302 lb/ft of width (5.9)
2 2
2. Typical interior span
ln (1.0)(306)(166)
Vu = 1.0wu = = 2, 117 lb/ft of width (5.10)
2 2
The shear resistance is

Vc = (0.85)2 f cbw d = (0.85)(2) 3, 750(12)(6.25) = 7, 808 lb/ft (5.11)
hence the slab is adequate for shear.

Draft
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the span

57
of the slab
As = 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t (5.12)
and maximum spacing is 18 in. Therefore, we can provide # 4 bars at 15 in. as shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement. They should be placed on top of the lower layer of steel.
Note that in this problem a 6.5 in. thickness was acceptablee for the six interior spans, but a
7.25 in. thickness was required for the end spans.
If the entire oor were made of 6. in. thick slab instead of 7.25 in. about 45 cubic yards of
concrete could have been saved (for a total oor width of about 90 ft) per or or 180 kips of
dead load per oor. This would represent a considerable saving in say a 20 story building.
In this case, it would be advisable to use 6., and check for delfections in the end spans.

Draft
58 ONE WAY SLABS

Draft
Chapter 6
SERVICEABILITY
1 So far we have focused on the ultimate structural behaviour (failure), Vu & Mu , i.e the strength
of a member.
2 It is important to also control the behaviour of structural elements under service load (unfac-
tored)
1. Cracking
2. Deection
6.1 Control of Cracking
3 As y , y larger crack width is associated with large fy . This is why the ACI code
places a limitation on max fy = 80ksi. (ACI 9.4)

4 The concern is not the # of crack (we can not control it) but rather the crack width.
5 Crack width should be minimized because:
1. Appearance
2. Corrosion of steel
3. Redistributions of internal stresses
4. Eect on deection
6 The controlling parameters are:
1. Surface of the reinforcing bar
(a) Round & smooth few wide cracks (bad)

(b) Irregular & deformed many small cracks (better)
2. Steel stress
3. Concrete cover
Draft
62
4. Distribution of steel over the tensile zone of concrete

SERVICEABILITY
7 Based on purely experimental research, the following emperical relation was determined, Fig.
6.1:

w = .076fs 3 dc A Gergely & Lutz Eq. (6.1)
where
w width in 1/1,000 in
fs Steel service stress ksi (if not computed can be assumed as 0.6 fy )
dc Thickness of concrete cover measured from tension face to center of bar
closest to this face, in.
h2
h1
A Area of concrete surrounding one bar = Total eective tensile area in2
# of bars
Neutral Axis
h
111
000 h1 2
000
111
000
111 Steel Centroid
2y
y 000
111
000
111
d
c
w
Figure 6.1: Crack Width Equation Parameters
8 ACI
1. Expresses the crack width indirectly by z where
w
z= = fs 3 dc A (ACI 10.6.4) (6.2)
.076
and assumes = h2
h1 = 1.2 w = .091z
Interior beams z 175 (w = .016 in)
Note that to reduce z (benecial) we must
Exterior beams z 145 (w = .013 in)
reduce A or increase the number of bars.
2. Only deformed bars can be used
3. Bars should be well distributed in tension zone
4. fy < 80 ksi
5. In lieu of an accurate evaluation, fs = 0.6fy .
9 Maximum acceptable crack width (ACI Committee 224).

Draft
6.2 Deections
Exposure wmax (in.)

63
dry air, or protective membrane .016

humidity, moist air, soil .012
deicing chemicals .007
seawater, salt .006
water retaining structures .004
Example 6-1: Crack Width
fc = 3,000 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; As = 4 # 8; LL = 2.44 k/ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; L = 15 ft.;

Determine z and crack width
7.85"
22.5"
20"
12.15"
14.65"
00000000000
11111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
2.5" 00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
11.5"
Solution:

1. w = .076fs 3 dc A

2. Ec = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi
29103
3. n = 3,120 = 9.29
b(kd)2
4. Taking rst moment (Eq. 2.6) 2 nAs (d kd) = 0 k = .393 j = 1 k
3 =
.869 kd = 7.85 in
2 (1.27+2.44)(15) (12) 2
5. M = wL8 and fs = As jd fs = 8(3.14)(.869)(20) = 22.9 ksi
M
Note that ACI allows 0.6fy = (0.6)(40) = 24 ksi conservative

22.57.85 14.65
6. = 207.85 = 12.15 = 1.206 (note ACI stipulates 1.2)
(2.5)(2)(11.5)
7. A = 4 = 14.38 in2
1
8. w = (.076)(1.206)(22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) 1,000 = .00696 in .

9. or z = fs3 dc A = (22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) = 75.64
6.2 Deections
10 ACI Code Sect. 9.5

11 Every structural design must satisfy requirements of strength, stiness & stability

Draft
64
12
SERVICEABILITY
With the increased usuage of: a) high strength material (resulting in smaller cross section)
& b) use of rened design methods, we can no longer rely on the factor of safety to take care
of deection, we but must detemine it
13 Deection should be controlled because of:
1. Visually unacceptable
2. Possible ponding of water
3. Cracking in partition walls
4. Functional diculties (windows, doors, etc )
5. Machine misalignment
6. Vibration
14 Deection are computed for service loads only

15 Both long term & short term deection should be considered.
16 As a rule of thumb, deections seldom control if < 0.5b
6.2.1 Short Term Deection

f (w,L) 5wL4
17 In general = EI , i.e., uniform load over simply supported beam in 384EI
18f (w, l) and E are known, but how do we determine I? (uncracked transformed or cracked),
Fig. 6.2
c ut c e1 c e2 c cr
cr
B B B B B
1 2
Figure 6.2: Uncracked Transformed and Cracked Transformed X Sections
19 It would be too complicated to have I = I(M )

20 ACI recommends to use a weighted average expression for I Ie

Mcr 3 Mcr 3
Ie = Ig + 1 Icr (ACI 9.5.2.3) (6.3)
Ma Ma

Draft
6.2 Deections
where
65
Ie Ig
Mcr = fr ygb
I

fr = 7.5 fc
and Ma is the maximum (service) moment at stage in which deection is computed
21 For continuous beams average
Ie = 0.70Im + 0.15(Ie1 + Ie2 )
22 For beams with one end continuous Ie = 0.85Im + 15(Icon ) where Im , Ie are the moment of
inertia at the middle and the end respectively.
23 Note that Ig may be substituted for Iut
24Deection evaluation is a nonlinear problem, as w M Mcr
Ma Ie and for a continu-
ous beam ,
5 wL4 w
=
384 EI I
6.2.2 Long Term Deection
inst.
t
Figure 6.3: Time Dependent Deection
25 Creep coecient:
f
Cc = i
Ec
Ect = = i (1+Cc ) = 1+Cc
Creep tends to reduce the elastic modulus of concrete, Fig. 6.4

26 From Strain diagram:
1. Steel strain remains unchanged
2. As concrete undergoes creep, the N.A. moves down larger area of concrete is under
compression but since C = T stress in concrete is slightly reduced

Draft
66 SERVICEABILITY
fci
b i t
fct
Cracked
elastic i
neutral axis kd
t
d
As A s fs
Figure 6.4: Time Dependent Strain Distribution
3. But since C is now lower and we still satisfy Mext = Mint both stresses in steel & concrete
must increase with time
27 According to ACI section 9.5.2.5:
1. Additional long term deection t
t = i (6.4)
where

= 1+50

As
= bd
and
Time (months) 3 6 12 60
1.0 1.2 1.4 2.0
Thus compressive reinforcement can substantially reduce long term deections
total = initial (1 + ) (6.5)
A B C
LL short
DL sustained
1111
0000 1111
0000
1111
0000 0000
1111
Figure 6.5: Short and long Term Deections

Draft
6.2 Deections
28 Short and long term deections, Fig. 6.5

67
A i,sust
B i,sust + t,sust
C sust + i,short
Note that we are usually interested in the live load deection (C-B), thus
i, short = i, sust + short i, sust (6.6)

Ie (DL+LL) Ie (DL)
29 ACI max. deections (ACI 9.5.2.6)
L
Flat roof not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged i,sh < 180
L
Floors not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged i,sh < 360
L
Roofs or oors supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged t,sust + i,sh < 480
L
Floors not supporting nonstructural elements not likely to be damaged t,sus + i,sh < 240
Example 6-2: Deections
b = 11.5 in.; h = 22.5 in,; d = 20 in.; As = 4 # 8; fc = 3,000 psi; fy = 40 ksi; DL = 1.27
k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; L = 15 ft.
1. Determine the short term deection
2. Find the creep portion of the sustained load deection & immediate live load deections
Solution:
1. i, short = i,short + sust i, sust

2.44 1.27 1.27
2. Moment of inertias:

3
3
Ie = Mcr
Ma Ig + 1 Mcr
Ma Ict
bh3 (11.5)(22.5)3
Ig = 12 = 12 = 10, 916 in4
3. To nd Ict , need to locate N.A @ service

Draft
68 SERVICEABILITY
11.5"
7.85"
20"
12.15"
b(kd)2
nAs (d kd) = 0 k = .393 kd = 7.85 in
2
(11.5)(7.85)3 2
Ict = + (11.5)(7.85) 7.85 + (9.29) (3.14)(12.152 ) = 6, 130 in4
12 2
n As
fr = 7.5 3, 000 = 410.8 psi
fI
Mcr = rybg
(410.8)(10,916)
= 11.25 = 33.2 k.ft = 399 k.in
4. Ma for sustained load

(1.27)(15)2 (12)
Masust = = 428.6 k.in = 35.72 k.ft
8
5. Ma for sustained and short load
(1.27 + 2.44)(15)2 (12)
Masust+short = = 1, 252 k.in = 104 k.ft
8
6. Moment of inertias
1 33.2 32
33.2 3
Ie, sust + short = (10, 916) + 1 104.3 (6, 130) = 6, 209 in4
104.3
33.2 3 1 33.2 3 2
Ie, sust = 35.7 (10, 916) + 1 35.7 (6, 130) = 9, 993 in4
7. Deections
E = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi
5 wL4
= 384 EI
5 (1.27+2.44)[(15)(12)]4
i, short + sust = 384 (3,120)(6,209) = .218 in
4
5 (1.27)[(15)(12)]
i, sust = 384 (3,120)(9,993) = .046 in
i = .218 .046 = .172 in
8. creep = i, sust
2.
= = 2. creep = (2)(.046) = .092 in
1+0

Draft
Chapter 7
APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1 Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justi-
ed by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of
an ultimate failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
2 Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.

3 We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
4 Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.
5 In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
7.1 Vertical Loads
6 The girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to
resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders.
7 Basic assumptions
1. Girders at each oor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.
2. Inection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns
above and below the oor.
Draft
72
8
APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls
equal to 0.8 the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the
inection point is at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending
on the nature of the connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for
the approximate location of the hinge).
9 End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 7.1
w
rgt
lft M
M
rgt
V
lft
V
0.1L 0.1L
0.8L
L
111
000
000
0000
1111
111 0000
1111
1
0 11
00
0
1 00
11
0
1 00
11
0
1 00
11
0
1 00
11
Figure 7.1: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
1 1
M + = wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2 (7.1)
8 8
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 7.1
w w
M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2 (7.2)
2 2
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 7.2
wL wL
V lf t = V rgt = (7.3)
2 2
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmit-
ted by the column above it. Fig. 7.2
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi1 Vilf t (7.4)

Draft
7.1 Vertical Loads 73
above
P
rgt lft
V i1 Vi
below
P
Figure 7.2: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft lft rgt
M rgt
Mi1 Mi M
i1
i
rgt lft rgt

Vlft Vi1 V
i
V
i
i1
Mbelow
col
Li1 Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 7.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments

Draft
74 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 7.3
rgt
M top = Mabove
bot
Mi1 + Milf t M bot = top (7.5)
Column Shear Points of inection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns
on the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 7.3
M top
V = h
(7.6)
2
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears
above and below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.
7.2 Horizontal Loads
10 We must dierentiate between low and high rise buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the
deected shape is characterized by shear deformations.
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal di-
mension, the deected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation.
7.2.1 Portal Method
11Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the
approximate analysis of this type of structure is based on
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.
2. Location of inection points.
12 The portal method is based on the following assumptions
1. Inection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second oor.

(b) Mid-height of oor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any oor level will be dis-
tributed among these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as
much horizontal shear as each interior columns of the frame.
13 Forces are obtained from

Draft
7.2 Horizontal Loads 75
H/2 H H H/2
Figure 7.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the
columns at each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 7.4

ext F lateral
V = V int = 2V ext (7.7)
2No. of bays
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half
the height of the corresponding column, Fig. 7.4
h
M top = V M bot = M top (7.8)
2
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 7.5
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft rgt lft rgt
M i1 M i1 Mi Mi
rgt rgt
lft
Vi1 V Vlft Vi
i1 i
below
M col
Li1/2 Li1/2 Li /2 Li /2
h/2
h/2
Figure 7.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment

Draft
Milf t = Mcol
above
Mcol
below rgt
+ Mi1 Mirgt = Milf t (7.9)
Girder Shears Since there is an inection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear
is obtained by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 7.5
2M
V lf t = V rgt = V lf t (7.10)
L
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the
column above, Fig. ??
above
P
rgt lft
V i1 Vi
below
P
Figure 7.6: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t (7.11)
Example 7-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
Vertical Loads

Draft
0.25 k/ft
77
15 k
5 12 6 0.5 k/ft13 7 14 8
14
30 k
9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16
11
00 11
00 11
00 11
00
20 30 24
Figure 7.7: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building
1. Top Girder Moments

lf t
M12 = 0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2 = 4.5 k.ft
cnt
M12 = 0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2 = 8.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M12 = M12 = 4.5 k.ft
lf t
M13 = 0.045w13 L213 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2 = 10.1 k.ft
cnt
M13 = 0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2 = 18.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M13 = M13 = 10.1 k.ft
lf t
M14 = 0.045w14 L214 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2 = 6.5 k.ft
cnt
M14 = 0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2 = 11.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M14 = M14 = 6.5 k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t = 0.045w9 L29 = (0.045)(0.5)(20)2 = 9.0 k.ft
M9cnt = 0.08w9 L29 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2 = 16.0 k.ft
M9rgt = M9lf t = 9.0 k.ft
lf t
M10 = 0.045w10 L210 = (0.045)(0.5)(30)2 = 20.3 k.ft
cnt
M10 = 0.08w10 L210 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2 = 36.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M10 = M11 = 20.3 k.ft
lf t
M11 = 0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.5)(24)2 = 13.0 k.ft
cnt
M11 = 0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2 = 23.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M11 = M12 = 13.0 k.ft
3. Top Column Moments
M5top = lf t
+M12 = 4.5 k.ft
M5bot = M5top = 4.5 k.ft
M6top = rgt
M12 lf t
+ M13 = (4.5) + (10.1) = 5.6 k.ft
top
M6bot = M6 = 5.6 k.ft
M7top = rgt
M13 lf t
+ M14 = (10.1) + (6.5) = 3.6 k.ft
M8top = rgt
M14 = (6.5) = 6.5 k.ft

Draft
78
4. Bottom Column Moments

M1top = +M5bot + M9lf t = 4.5 9.0 = 4.5 k.ft

M2top = +M6bot M9rgt + M10 lf t
= 5.6 (9.0) + (20.3) = 5.6 k.ft
top
M2bot = M2 = 5.6 k.ft
M3top = rgt
+M7bot M10 + M11lf t
= 3.6 (20.3) + (13.0) = 3.6 k.ft
top
M3bot = M3 = 3.6 k.ft
M4top = rgt
+M8bot M11 = 6.5 (13.0) = 6.5 k.ft
5. Top Girder Shear

lf t (0.25)(20)
V12 = w122L12 = 2 = 2.5 k
rgt lf t
V12 = V12 = 2.5 k
lf t (0.25)(30)
V13 = w132L13 = 2 = 3.75 k
rgt lf t
V13 = V13 = 3.75 k
lf t (0.25)(24)
V14 = w142L14 = 2 = 3.0 k
rgt lf t
V14 = V14 = 3.0 k
6. Bottom Girder Shear
V9lf t = w92L9 = (0.5)(20)
2 = 5.00 k
V9rgt = V9lf t = 5.00 k
lf t
V10 = w102L10 = (0.5)(30)
2 = 7.50 k
rgt lf t
V10 = V10 = 7.50 k
lf t
V11 = w112L11 = (0.5)(24)
2 = 6.00 k
rgt lf t
V11 = V11 = 6.00 k
7. Column Shears
M5top 4.5
V5 = H5 = 14 = 0.64 k
2 2
M6top 5.6
V6 = H6 = 14 = 0.80 k
2 2
M7top 3.6
V7 = H7 = 14 = 0.52 k
2 2
M8top 6.5
V8 = H8 = 14 = 0.93 k
2 2
M1top 4.5
V1 = H1 = 16 = 0.56 k
2 2
M2top 5.6
V2 = H2 = 16 = 0.70 k
2 2
M3top 3.6
V3 = H3 = 16 = 0.46 k
2 2
M4top 6.5
V4 = H4 = 16 = 0.81 k
2 2
8. Top Column Axial Forces

lf t
P5 = V12 = 2.50 k
rgt lf t
P6 = V12 + V13 = (2.50) + 3.75 = 6.25 k
rgt lf t
P7 = V13 + V14 = (3.75) + 3.00 = 6.75 k
rgt
Victor Saouma P8 = V14 Mechanics and Design of=Reinforced
3.00 k Concrete
Draft
0.25K/ft
5 12 6 13 7 14 8
0.50K/ft 14
9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16
20 30 24
+8.0k +18.0k +11.5k

-4.5k -4.5k
-10.1k -10.1k -6.5
k
-6.5k
+16.0k +23.0k
+32.0k
-9.0k -9.0k
k k-13.0 k
-13.0k
-20.2 -20.2
-4.5k -5.6k +3.6k +6.5k
+4.5k +5.6k -3.6k -6.5k

-4.5k -5.6k +3.6k +6.5k
+4.5k +5.6k -3.6k -6.5k
Figure 7.8: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads

Draft
+2.5K +3.75K +3.0K
-2.5K -3.75K
K
-3.0K
+5.0 K +7.5 +6.0 K
-5.0K -6.0K
-7.5K
-0.64K -0.80K +0.51K +0.93K
-0.56K -0.70K +0.45K +0.81K
Figure 7.9: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads

Draft
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces

711
P1 = P5 + V9lf t = 2.50 + 5.0 = 7.5 k

rgt
P2 = P6 V10 + V9lf t = 6.25 (5.00) + 7.50 = 18.75 k
rgt lf t
P3 = P7 V11 + V10 = 6.75 (7.50) + 6.0 = 20.25 k
rgt
P4 = P8 V11 = 3.00 (6.00) = 9.00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method
1. Column Shears
15
V5 = (2)(3) = 2.5 k
V6 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) = 5k
V7 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) = 5k
V8 = V5 = 2.5 k
15+30
V1 = (2)(3) = 7.5 k
V2 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5) = 15 k
V3 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5) = 15 k
V4 = V1 = 7.5 k
2. Top Column Moments
(2.5)(14)
M5top = V12H5 = 2 = 17.5 k.ft
(5)(14)
M6top = V62H6 = 2 = 35.0 k.ft
V up H (5)(14)
M7top = 7 2 7 = 2 = 35.0 k.ft
V up H (2.5)(14)
M8top = 8 2 8 = 2 = 17.5 k.ft
3. Bottom Column Moments
V dwn H (7.5)(16)
M1top = 1 2 1 = 2 = 60 k.ft
M1bot = M1top = 60 k.ft
V dwn H (15)(16)
M2top = 2 2 2 = 2 = 120 k.ft
V dwn H (15)(16)
M3top = 3 2 3 = 2 = 120 k.ft
V dwn H (7.5)(16)
M4top = 4 2 4 = 2 = 60 k.ft
4. Top Girder Moments
lf t
M12 = M5top = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M12 = M12 = 17.5 k.ft
lf t rgt
M13 = M12 + M6top = 17.5 + 35 = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M13 = M13 = 17.5 k.ft
lf t rgt
M14 = M13 + M7top = 17.5 + 35 = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M14 = M14 = 17.5 k.ft

Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
1
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
8 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
9 Lft Cnt Rgt Lft Cnr Rgt Lft Cnt Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
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10 AAAAAAAA
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12 4.5 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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16 SHEAR
17 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
19 Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt
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24 AXIAL FORCE
26 Col
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9.00
Figure 7.10: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format

Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
Draft
Victor Saouma
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
9 AAAAAAAA
Lft Cnt Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft Cnr Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Cnt Rgt AAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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10 AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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=0.08*D4*D3*D3 =+D10 AAAAAAAAAAAA
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Figure 7.11: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

713
Draft
714
5. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t = M1top M5bot = 60 (17.5) = 77.5 k.ft

M9rgt = M9lf t = 77.5 k.ft
lf t
M10 = M9rgt + M2top M6bot = 77.5 + 120 (35) = 77.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M10 = M10 = 77.5 k.ft
lf t
M11 = M10 + M3top M7bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
rgt
= 77.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M11 = M11 = 77.5 k.ft
15K 14
5 12 6 13 7 8
14
30K 9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16
20 30 24
+17.5K +35K +35K +17.5K
-17.5K -35K -35K -17.5K

+60K +120K +120K +60K
-60K -120K -120K -60K
+17.5K +17.5K +17.5K

-17.5K -17.5K -17.5K
K K K
+77.5 +77.5 +77.5
-77.5K -77.5K -77.5K
Figure 7.12: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads

Draft
6. Top Girder Shear

715
2M lf t
lf t
V12 = L1212
= (2)(17.5)
20 = 1.75 k
rgt lf t
V12 = +V12 = 1.75 k
2M lf t
lf t
V13 = L1313
= (2)(17.5)
30 = 1.17 k
rgt lf t
V13 = +V13 = 1.17 k
2M lf t
lf t
V14 = L14
14
= (2)(17.5)
24 = 1.46 k
rgt lf t
V14 = +V14 = 1.46 k
7. Bottom Girder Shear

2M lf t
V9lf t = L12
9
= (2)(77.5)
20 = 7.75 k
V9rgt = +V9lf t = 7.75 k
2M lf t
lf t
V10 = L1010
= (2)(77.5)
30 = 5.17 k
rgt lf t
V10 = +V10 = 5.17 k
2M lf t
lf t
V11 = L1111
= (2)(77.5)
24 = 6.46 k
rgt lf t
V11 = +V11 = 6.46 k
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

lf t
P5 = V12 = (1.75) k
rgt lf t
P6 = +V12 V13 = 1.75 (1.17) = 0.58 k
rgt lf t
P7 = +V13 V14 = 1.17 (1.46) = 0.29 k
rgt
P8 = V14 = 1.46 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)
P1 = P5 + V9lf t = 1.75 (7.75) = 9.5 k

rgt
P2 = P6 + V10 + V9lf t = 0.58 7.75 (5.17) = 3.16 k
rgt lf t
P3 = P7 + V11 + V10 = 0.29 5.17 (6.46) = 1.58 k
rgt
P4 = P8 + V11 = 1.46 6.46 = 7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load,
we now seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 7.2.

Draft
Portal Method PORTAL.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
1 PORTAL METHOD
2 # of Bays 3 L1 L2 L3
3 20 30 24
4 MOMENTS
5 # of Storeys 2 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
6 Force Shear Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
7 H Lat. Tot Ext Int AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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-7.92
Figure 7.13: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format

Draft
Portal Method
A
A
A
B
A
A
C
A
A
D
A
A
E
A
A
F
A
A
G
A
A
H
A
A
I
PORTAL.XLS
A
A
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717
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Victor E. Saouma
S
1 PORTAL METHOD A
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Figure 7.14: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Draft
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design

Values
Moment 4.50 60.00 64.50
1 Axial 7.50 9.50 17.00
Shear 0.56 7.50 8.06
Moment 5.60 120.00 125.60
2 Axial 18.75 15.83 34.58
Shear 0.70 15.00 15.70
Moment 3.60 120.00 123.60
3 Axial 20.25 14.25 34.50
Shear 0.45 15.00 15.45
Moment 6.50 60.00 66.50
4 Axial 9.00 7.92 16.92
Shear 0.81 7.50 8.31
Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
5 Axial 2.50 1.75 4.25
Shear 0.64 2.50 3.14
Moment 5.60 35.00 40.60
6 Axial 6.25 2.92 9.17
Shear 0.80 5.00 5.80
Moment 3.60 35.00 38.60
7 Axial 6.75 2.63 9.38
Shear 0.51 5.00 5.51
Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
8 Axial 3.00 1.46 4.46
Shear 0.93 2.50 3.43
Table 7.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design

Values
-ve Moment 9.00 77.50 86.50
9 +ve Moment 16.00 0.00 16.00
Shear 5.00 7.75 12.75
-ve Moment 20.20 77.50 97.70
10 +ve Moment 36.00 0.00 36.00
Shear 7.50 5.17 12.67
-ve Moment 13.0 77.50 90.50
11 +ve Moment 23.00 0.00 23.00
Shear 6.00 6.46 12.46
-ve Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
12 +ve Moment 8.00 0.00 8.00
Shear 2.50 1.75 4.25
-ve Moment 10.10 17.50 27.60
13 +ve Moment 18.00 0.00 18.00
Shear 3.75 1.17 4.92
-ve Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
14 +ve Moment 11.50 0.00 11.50
Shear 3.00 1.46 4.46
Table 7.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft

Draft
Chapter 8
COLUMNS
Draft
Chapter 9
COLUMNS
9.1 Introduction
1 Columns resist a combination of axial P and exural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically
applied load).
9.1.1 Types of Columns

Types of columns, Fig. 9.1
Tied column Composite colum
tie steel
main longitudinal steel reinforcement
Pipe column
Spiral column
Figure 9.1: Types of columns
2 Lateral reinforcement, Fig. 9.2

P
Spiral
X Tied X
Figure 9.2: Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement
1. Restrains longitudinal steel from outward buckling
2. Restrains Poissons expansion of concrete
3. Acts as shear reinforcement for horizontal (wind & earthquake) load
4. Provide ductility
Draft
92
very important to resist earthquake load.

COLUMNS
9.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars
3 Bar arrangements, Fig. 9.3
4 bars 6 bars 8 bars
Corner column
10 bars
12 bars
Wall column
16 bars
14 bars
Figure 9.3: Possible Bar arrangements
9.2 Short Columns

9.2.1 Concentric Loading
4 No moment applied,
Elastic Behaviour
P = fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )
Ultimate Strength
Pd = Pn
Pn = .85fc Ac + fy As
note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data

2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety
9.2.2 Eccentric Columns
5 Sources of exure, Fig. 9.4
1. Unsymmetric moments M L
= M R
2. Uncertainty of loads (must assume a minimum eccentricity)

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
P
n
93
e P L R
M M
ML MR
L R
e= M M
P
n
Figure 9.4: Sources of Bending
3. Unsymmetrical reinforcement
6 Types of Failure, Fig. 9.5

1. Large eccentricity of load failure by yielding of steel
2. Small eccentricity of load failure by crushing of concrete
3. Balanced condition
Pn c
cu
cu
P
0
8 Compression
failure range
e = 0; a = h; c =
Radial lines show

Mn
c
constant e=
e small Pn cu

y
Balanced Failure
Load path for
givin e Tension failure
eb range
c e c
e large cu
> y
Mn su
c ~ h; e=
8
M
0
Figure 9.5: Load Moment Interaction Diagram
As
7 Assumptions As = As ; = As
bd =
bd ; fs = fy
9.2.2.1 Balanced Condition
M
8 There is one specic eccentricity eb = P such that failure will be triggered by simultaneous
1. Steel yielding
2. Concrete crushing

Draft
94
9 From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 9.6
COLUMNS
d
d
h/2
A A
s s
b
s cs s
A sf y Pn
A sf s
c
c
A sf s
0.85fc
Asf s
Asf y
a
e
e
Figure 9.6: Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
c = .003 (9.1-a)
fy
y = (9.1-b)
Es
u .003
c = d= fy
d (9.1-c)
u + y + .003
Es
Furthermore,
s c
= (9.2-a)
c d c
c d
s = c (9.2-b)
c
thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. s = y ) for c = .003 and d = 2 in if c > 6 in
10 Equilibrium (neglecting ceter steel for now):
Pn
Pn = .85fc ab + As fy As fs a = .85fc b
.003
fs = fy a = 1 cb Pn,b = .851 fc bd fy (9.3)
c = .003
d
+ .003
As = As b fy
+.003
Es
Es

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
or
95
87, 000
Pnb = .851 fc bd (9.4)
fy + 87, 000
11 To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this
must be equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 9.6.
a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2 (9.5)
M

ext
Mint
12 Note: Internal moments due to As fy and As fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.
9.2.2.2 Tension Failure

Case I, e is known and e > eb
In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by fy in As we must
have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = As fy
Pn
Fy = 0 Pn = .85fc ab a = (9.6-a)
.85fc b
a
M = 0 Pn e = Pn (d ) + As fy (d d ) (9.6-b)
2
Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations

(a) Assume a (a < h2 )
(b) From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
(c) Fy = 0 solve for Pn
(d) M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement, solve for Pn
(e) If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from Fy = 0
2. Combine them into a quadratic equation in Pn
"

2

e e d e
Pn = .85fc bd ( 1) + 1 + 2 1 + (9.7)
d d d d
where
As As
= bd = bd
fy
= .85fc

Draft
96
Case II c is known and c < cb ; Pn is unknown

COLUMNS
In this case, we only have two unknown, Pn and fs .
a = 1 c (9.8-a)
def
fs = fy (9.8-b)
c d
fs = u E s fy (9.8-c)
c
C = 0.85fc ab (9.8-d)
Pn = C+ As fs
As fy (9.8-e)

ha h h
Mn = C + As fs d + As fs d (9.8-f)
2 2 2
Mn
e = (9.8-g)
Pn
Note this approach is favoured when determining the interaction diagram.
9.2.2.3 Compression Failure

Case I e is known and e < eb ; Pn , a and fs are unknown
Compression failure occurs if e < eb u = .003, assume fs = fy , and fs < fy
From geometry
u
c = fs
d
+ u
Es
dc
fs = E s u
c
d a1
= E s u a (9.9-a)
1
Pn = .85fc ab + As fy As fs (9.9-b)
a
Pn e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d ) (9.9-c)
2
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration.
1. Assume a (a h)
2. Solve for M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
3. From strain compatibility solve for fs
4. Check that Fy = 0 & solve for a
5. If ai+1
= ai go to step 2
Case II: c is known and c > cb ; fs , fs , and Pn are unknown

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
In this case
97
a = 1 c (9.10-a)
dc
fs = c Es fy (9.10-b)
c
c d
fs = c Es fy (9.10-c)
c

C = 0.85fc ab (9.10-d)
Pn = C + As fs + As fs (9.10-e)

ha h h
Mn = C + As fs d + As fs d (9.10-f)
2 2 2
9.2.3 ACI Provisions

1. Governing equations
min = 1% ACI 10.9.1
max = 8%
A
s = 0.45( Agc 1) ffyc ACI 10.5 (9.11)
= 0.7 for tied columns
= 0.75 for spiral columns
where
s minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
2. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
3. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals (ACI10.9.2)
4. increases linearly to 0.9 as Pn decreases from 0.10fc Ag or P0 , whichever is smaller,
to zero (ACI 9.3.2).
5. Maximum strength is 0.8P0 for tied columns ( = 0.7) and 0.85P0 for spirally reinforced
columns ( = 0.75).
9.2.4 Interaction Diagrams
13 Each column is characterized by its own interaction diagram, Fig. 9.7
9.2.5 Design Charts
14 To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term
Pn Mn e As +As
of non dimensionalized parameters = bhf vs bh2 f = h for various t where t = bh and
c c
fy
= .85fc
Example 9-1: R/C Column, c known

Draft
98 COLUMNS
Tied: Pn(max) = 0.80 P0

P
Spir. reinf: P n(max) = 0.85 P0
Compression
control region
P0
A 1
P n(max) e e
ilur
ced fa
P nM n (M n Pn ) B alan
Pn(max)
e=0; a=h; c= infty
P d M d Tension
n
mi
(M Pnb ) control region
e
nb
eb
0.10f c A g
0 e~h; e = infty M n Mn M
Figure 9.7: Column Interaction Diagram
A 12 by 20 in. column is reinforced with four No. 4 bars of area 1.0 in2 each, at each
corner. fc = 3.5 ksi, fy = 50 ksi, d = 2.5 in. Determne: 1) Pb and Mb ; 2) The load and moment
for c = 5 in; 3) load and moment for c = 18 in.
Solution:
Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere
substitution into previously derived equation.
d = h d = 20 2.5 = 17.5 in (9.12-a)
.003 .003
cb = fy
d = 50 17.5 = 11.1 in (9.12-b)
E + .003 29,000 + .003
s
a = 1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in (9.12-c)

def
fs = fy = 50 ksi (9.12-d)
cd 11.1 2.5
fs = Es c = (29, 000)( (0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy fs = 50(9.12-e)
ksi
c 11.1
C = 0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k (9.12-f)
Pnb = C + As fs As fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(50) = 337 k (9.12-g)
a
Mnb = Pnb e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d ) (9.12-h)
2
9.44
= 337 17.5 + (2.0)(50)(17.5 2.5) = 5, 807 k.in = 484 k.ft (9.12-i)
2
5, 807
eb = = 17.23 in (9.12-j)
337
Tension failure, c = 5 in
def
fs = fy = 50 ksi (9.13-a)

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
c d
99
fs = c E s fy (9.13-b)
c
5.0 2.5
= (0.003)(29, 000) = 43.5 ksi (9.13-c)
5.0
a = 1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in (9.13-d)
C = 0.85fc ab (9.13-e)
= (0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k (9.13-f)
Pn = C+ As fs As fy (9.13-g)
= 152 + (2.0)(43.5) (2.0)(50) = 139 k (9.13-h)

ha h h
Mn = C + As fs d + As fs d about section centroid (9.13-i)
2 2 2

20 4.25 20 20
= (152) + (2.0)(43.5) 2.5 + (2.0)(50) 17.5 (9.13-j)
2 2 2
= 2, 598 k.in = 217 k.ft (9.13-k)
2, 598
e = = 18.69 in (9.13-l)
139
Compression failure, c = 18 in
a = 1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in (9.14-a)
dc
fs = c Es fy (9.14-b)
c
17.5 18.0
= (0.003)(29, 000) = 2.42 ksi As is under compression (9.14-c)
18.0
c d
fs = c Es fy (9.14-d)
c
18.0 2.5
= (0.003)(29, 000) = 75 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi (9.14-e)
18.0
C = 0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k (9.14-f)
Pn = C + As fs As fs (9.14-g)
= 546 + (2.0)(50) (2.42)(2) = 650 k (9.14-h)

ha h h
Mn = C + As fs d + As fs d about section centroid (9.14-i)
2 2 2

20 15.3 20 20
= (546) + (2.0)(50) 2.5 + (2.0)(2.42) 17.5 (9.14-j)
2 2 2
= 2, 000 k.in = 167 k.ft (9.14-k)
2, 000
e = = 3.07 in (9.14-l)
650
Example 9-2: R/C Column, e known

Draft
910
For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb ; Pn and Mn for e = 0.1h and e = h.

COLUMNS
fc = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"
20"
3" 3"
24"
c
y
.003
Cc
Balanced Condition:
fy 40
y = = = .001379 (9.15-a)
Es 29, 000
u .003
cb = d= .003 = 14.4 in (9.15-b)
u + y .003 + .001379
a = 1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in (9.15-c)
Cc = .85fc ab
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k (9.15-d)
c h/2 14.4 12
sc = u = .003 = .0005 (9.15-e)
c 14.4
fsc = (29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars (9.15-f)
Cs = (.0005)(29, 000)(2)(1.56) = 46.8 k (9.15-g)
Pnb = 624 + 46.8 = 670.8 k (9.15-h)
Note that the compression steel is yielding because d > 2 and c > 6 (as previously
proven)
Taking moment about centroid of section
Mnb = Pnb e (9.16-a)

h a h h
= .85fc ab
+ As fy d + As fy d (9.16-b)
2 2 2 2

12.2
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12 + 4(1.56)(9)(40)
2
+4(1.56)(40 .85 3)(12 3) (9.16-c)
= 3, 671 + 2, 246 + 2, 246 (9.16-d)
= 8, 164 k.in; 680 k.ft (9.16-e)
8, 164
eb = = 12.2 in (9.16-f)
670.8
Draft
9.2 Short Columns 911
e= .1 h e = (.1)(24) = 2.4 in < eb failure by compression. Pn , a and fs are unknown.

Available equations: 1) F = 0; 2) M = 0; and 3) strain diagram; Solve by iterations.
12"
20"
3" 3"
hcd
24"
c=23.5"
y

s sc y
.003
e=2.4"
9"
Pn
e=11.4" h/2=12"
.85fc
A sf s
A scf sc Cc A sf y
a=20" a/2
1. Assume a = 20 in
a 20
c= = = 23.5 in (9.17)
1 .85
2. For center steel (from geometry)
sc .003
= (9.18-a)
c h2 c
c h2
sc = .003 (9.18-b)
c
fsc = Es sc (9.18-c)
c h
2
= Es .003 (9.18-d)
c
23.5 12
= 29, 000 .003 = 42.5 ksi > fy fsc = fy (9.18-e)
23.5

Draft
912
3. Take moment about centroid of tensile steel bar

COLUMNS
a h
Pn e = 0.85fc ab(d ) + As fy (h 2d ) + Asc fy ( d ) (9.19-a)
2 2
20
Pn (9 + 2.4) = (.85)(3)(20)(20)(21 ) + 4(1.56)(40)(24 6) + 2(1.56)(40)(9)
(9.19-b)
2
= 11, 220 + 4, 493 + 259.7 (9.19-c)
Pn = 1, 476 k (9.19-d)
4. Get s in tension bar (from strain diagram)

s .003
= (9.20-a)
h d 23.5 c
.003
s = (24 3 23.5) (9.20-b)
23.5
= .000319 (9.20-c)
fs = Es = (29, 000)(0.000319) = 9.25 ksi (9.20-d)
5. Take F = 0 to check assumption of a
Pn = 0.85fc ab + As fy + Asc fsc + As fy (9.21-a)

1, 476 k = (.85)(3)(a)(20) + (4)(1.56)(40) + (2)(1.56)(40) + (4)(1.56)(9.25)
(9.21-b)
1, 476 = 51a + 432.1 (9.21-c)

a = 20.4 in (9.21-d)
Pn = 1, 476 k (9.21-e)
Mn = (1, 476)(2.4) = 3, 542 k.in = 295 k.ft (9.21-f)
e=h 1. In this case e = 24 in > eb failure by tension. Pn and a are unknown. We have
two equations: 1) F = 0, and 2) M = 0.
2. Assume a = 7.9 in c = a
1 = 7.9
.85 = 9.3 in
3. Steel stress at centroid
c 12 c
= (9.22-a)
.003 sc
12 9.3
sc = .003 = .00087 (9.22-b)
9.3
fsc = (29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi (9.22-c)
4. Iterate
F = 0 Pn = (.85)fc ab + Asc fsc (9.23-a)

= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) 2(1.56)(25.3) (9.23-b)
= 403 79 = 324 k (9.23-c)
a
M = 0 Pn (e + h/2 d ) = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )

2
d d
Asc fsc ( ) (9.23-d)
2
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
7.9
913
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21 ) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 3)

2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9) (9.23-e)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 710 = 10, 653 k.in (9.23-f)

Pn = 323 k (9.23-g)
5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft (9.24)
Example 9-3: R/C Column, Using Design Charts
Design the reinforcement for a column with h = 20 in, b = 12 in, d = 2.5 in, fc = 4, 000 psi,
fy = 60, 000 psi, to support PDL = 56 k, PLL = 72 k, MDL = 88 k.ft, MLL = 75 k.ft,
Solution:
1. Ultimate loads
201
Pu = (1.4)(56) + (1.7)(72) = 201 k Pn = = 287 k (9.25-a)
0.7
251
Mu = (1.4)(88) + (1.7)(75) = 251 k.ft Mn = = 358 k.ft (9.25-b)
0.7
2. Chart parameters
e (358)(12)
= = 0.75 (9.26-a)
h (287)(20)
h 2d 20 (2)(2.5)
= = 0.75 interpolate between A3 and A(9.26-b)
4
h 20
Pn 287
= = = 0.3 (9.26-c)
bhfc (12)(20)(4)
e
= (0.3)(0.75) = 0.225 (9.26-d)
h
3. Interpolating between A.3 and A.4 t = 0.4
4. Reinforcement

t = At
bh (0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc ) 1 2
fy At = = (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4) = 5.45 in(9.27-a)
= .85fc fy (60)
use 4 # 9 & 2 # 8, At = 5.57 in2

Draft
914
9.2.6 Biaxial Bending

COLUMNS
15 Often columns are subjected to biaxial moments (such as corner columns)

16 An exact approach entails the trial and eror determination of an inclined neutral axis, this
is an exact method but too cumbersome to use in practice.
17 Hence, we seek an approximate solution, the most widely used method is the load contour
method or Bresler-Parme method.

18 The failure surface of a biaxialy loaded column is shown in Fig. 9.8, and the general nondi-
Pn
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111 M0y
M0x 0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111 Mny
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
Mnx
Figure 9.8: Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column
mensional equation for the moment contour at a constant Pn may be expressed as

Mnx 1 Mny 1
+ = 1.0
M0x M0y
where
Mnx = Pn ey
Mny = Pn ex
M0x = Mnx capacity at axial load Pn when Mny (or ex ) is zero
M0y = Mny capacity at axial load Pn when Mnx (or ey ) is zero
and 1 and 2 are exponent which depend on geometry and strength.
19 Bresler suggested that we set 1 = 2 = . For practical purposes, a value of = 1.5 for
rectangular columns, and between 1.5 and 2.0 for square sections has proven acceptable.
20 An improvement of Bresler equation was devised by Parme. The main assumption is that at
any load Pn , Fig. 9.9
Mny M0y
=
Mnx M0x
or
Mnx = M0x ; Mny = M0y

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
M ny /M0y
915
M ny M 1.0
0x C
M 0y C
B
B
M 0y
M 0y
M0x
A M o
nx
M0x
45 A
1.0
Mnx /M0x
Figure 9.9: Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding

plots
21 Thus, is the portion of the uniaxial moment strength permitted to act simultaneously on
the column section. It depends on the cross section, strength, and layout.
22 The usual range is between 0.55 and 0.70, with a recommended value of 0.65 for design.
23 Hence, once is selected, we can substitute in Breslers equation

M0x M0y
M 0x
+ M0y = 1.0
= 12
log = log 0.5
= log 0.5
log
thus,
log 0.5/log log 0.5/log
Mnx Mny
+ = 1.0 (9.28)
M0x M0y
24 Eect of is shown in Fig. 9.10.

25 Gouwens proposed to replace the above curves, by a bilinear model, Fig. 9.11
Review of a section

Mny Mnx 1 Mny Mnx
+ = 1 If (9.29)
M0y M0x M0y M0x

Mnx Mny 1 Mny Mnx
+ = 1 If (9.30)
M0x M0y M0y M0x
Design of a column

M0y 1 Mny M0y
Mny + Mnx = M0y If (9.31-a)
M0x Mnx M0x

M0x 1 Mny M0y
Mnx + Mny = M0x If (9.31-b)
M0y Mnx M0x

Draft
916 COLUMNS
Biaxial Bending Interaction Diagram

1.0 0.90
0.
0.8 85
0.7 0
5
0.7
0
0.8 0.6
5
0.6
0
0.
be 55
ta
0.6 =0
.5
0
Nny/M0y
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Mnx/M0x
Figure 9.10: Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of
Pn
111111
000000
000000
111111 C
000000
111111
000000
111111
M ny /M 0y + M nx /M 0x (1 / ) =1
000000
111111
000000
111111
1.0

000000
111111
000000
111111
1
B
(M nx /M 0x ) +(M ny /M 0y) =1
000000
111111
000000
111111
M0y
M0x 000000
111111
0y
000000
111111
M ny /M
000000
111111
000000
111111
M nx /M 0x + M ny /M 0y (1 / ) =1
000000
111111
000000
111111

000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Mny 1
000000
111111
o
45
A
Mnx M nx /M 0x 1.0
Figure 9.11: Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
26 Note, circular or square columns with symmetric reinforcement should always be considered
917
rst for biaxially loaded columns.
Example 9-4: Biaxially Loaded Column
Determine the adequacy of a 16 in. square tied column with 8 # 9 bars. d = 2.5 in, and
there are 3 bars on each side. The section is to carry factored loads of Pu = 144 k, Mux = 120 k.ft
and Muy = 54 k.ft, fc = 3 ksi and fy = 40 ksi. P0 = 952 k, M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft (we have a
symmetrical reinforcement).
Solution:
Mux (120)(12)
ey = Pu = 144 = 10.0 in
Muy (54)(12)
ex = Pu = 144 = 4.5 in
The interaction diagram for e = 10 in, e = 4.5 in and e = 0 will give Pn equal to 254, 486, and
952 kips respectively.
The required load Pn = 144
0.7 = 205 k, the corresponding moments are M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft
from the interaction diagram. Using = 0.65
120
Required Mnx 0.7
M0x = 207 = 0.828
54
Required Mny 0.7
M0y = 207 = 0.373
We shall use both solutions
Bresler-Parme which is exact solution

log(0.5) log 0.5
log = log 0.65 = 1.609

log 0.5/log
log 0.5/log
Mnx Mny
M0x + M0y =
1.609
(0.828) + (0.373)1.609 = 0.943
Mnx Mny
Note that we could have rst solved for M0x , and then determined M0y from Fig. 9.10.
Mny
This would have given M0y 0.45 which is greater than the actual value, hence the design
is safe.
Gouwens which is an approximate solution

Mny 1
Mnx
M0x + M0y 1
10.65
0.828 + 0.337 0.65 = 0.828 + 0.1815 = 1.0095
which indicates a slight overstress.
We note that the approximate method is on the conservative side.

Draft
918
9.3 Long Columns

COLUMNS
9.3.1 Euler Elastic Buckling
27Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744. An initially straight mem-
ber is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until buckling occur.
28 For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig.
9.12. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection
P P
x
x and y are
principal axes
x
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 9.12: Euler Column
is present.
29At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
Mz = P y (9.32)
Note that the value of yis irrelevant.

30 Recalling that
d2 y Mz
2
= (9.33)
dx EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation
d2 y P
2
=0 (9.34)
dx EI
P
31 Letting k 2 = EI , the solution to this second-order linear dierential equation is
y = A sin kx B cos kx (9.35)
32 The two constants are determined by applying the essential boundary conditions
1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0 (9.36)

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
This last equation can e satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deection; 2) kL = 0, that is
919
no applied load; or 3)
kL = n (9.37)
P
2
Thus buckling will occur if EI = n L or
n2 2 EI
P =
L2
33The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
2 EI
Pcr = (9.38)
L2
The corresponding critical stress is

2E
cr = 2 (9.39)
L
r
where I = Ar.
34 Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
9.3.2 Eective Length

kL kL
35 Large r column buckling, small r column crushing, Fig. 9.13.
Pfail
f
Pn
1
tan E t
fp Pcr
Crushing Buckling
1
tan E
(kl/r) lim (kl/r)
Figure 9.13: Column Failures
36 Recall from strength of material slenderness ratio

Le
=
r

I
where Le is the eective length and is equal to Le = kL and r the radius of gyration (r = A ).
37 Le is the distance between two adjacent (ctitious or actual) inection points, Fig. 9.13

Draft
920 COLUMNS
P cr P cr Pcr
i.p.
l/4 i.p.
i.p.
<kl<l
kl=l kl= l l l
2
2
l
i.p.
l/4
i.p.
i.p.
P cr Pcr P cr
k=1 k=1/2 1/2<k<1
P Pcr P
cr cr
i.p.
l l<kl<
l i.p.
l 8
kl=21
kl=1
Pcr
Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l<kl<
8
i.p.
k=2 k=1
Figure 9.14: Critical lengths of columns

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
38 k is known for some simple highly idealized cases, but for most cases k depends on A + B
921
(relative stinesses of columns to connected beams), Fig. 9.15
( EI
L )of columns
= EI
(9.40)
( L )of oor members
and k is then determined from the chart shown in Fig. 9.16.
P ( EI
( P P
2
( EI
( ln
1
ln
A A
A A A A
( EI
(
2
ln
( EI
(
1
ln
MA MA
MA
MB
MB MB
B B
B B B B
Single curvature Double curvature
Braced Unbraced
Figure 9.15: Eective length Factors
9.3.3 Moment Magnication Factor; ACI Provisions
39 The critical stress in a column is given by

P 2E
= 2
A cr kL
r
40 Code recommends some minimum eccentricity to account for imperfectly placed load, Fig.
9.17
41 For an eccentrically placed load
1
Mmax = M0 (9.41)
1 1P
P

cr
Moment magnication factor
42 The moment magnication factor reects the amount by which the beam moment M0 is
magnied by the presence of an axial load, Fig. 9.18

43The previous equation assumes the presence of hinges at each end (Euler column). In the
most general case we will have
Cm
Mmax = M0 (9.42-a)
1 PPcr
Draft
922 COLUMNS
Sidesway Inhibited Sidesway Uninhibited
Ga K Gb Ga K Gb
1.0
50. 50. 20.
10. 10. 100. 10. 100.
50. 50.
5. 5.
30. 5. 30.
3. 0.9 3. 20. 20.
4.
2. 2.
10. 3. 10.
0.8 9. 9.
8. 8.
1. 1. 7. 7.
6. 6.
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7 5. 5.
0.6 0.6 4. 2. 4.
0.7
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 3. 3.
0.3 0.3 2. 2.
0.6 1.5
0.2 0.2
1. 1.
0.1 0.1
0. 0.5 0. 0 1. 0
Figure 9.16: Standard Alignment Chart (ACI)
P e
Figure 9.17: Minimum Column Eccentricity

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
P
923
P 0
P 0(max)
M P
P cr C
M B
Pu
Pu e Pu

Pn
P
in
em
M
0
M M c = M 2
0
kl/r M M M 0 M Mc M
0 n 2
Figure 9.18: P-M Magnication Interaction Diagram
M1
Cm = .6 + .4 .4 (9.42-b)
M2
where
M1 is numerically smaller than M2 (not algebracially)
M1
M2 >0 if single curvature
M1
M2 <0 if double curvature
Cm < 1 if members are braced against sidesway
Cm =1 if members are not braced against sidesway
44 ACI Code
Lu unsupported length ACI 10.11.1
k 1.0 braced columns ACI 10.11.2
k 1.0 unbraced columns ACI 10.11.2
r = .3h rectangular x section ACI 10.11.3
r = .25d circular cross section
r < 34 12 M2
kLu M1
braced, neglect slenderness ACI 10.11.4
kLu
r < 22 unbraced, neglect slenderness
45 From conventional elastic analysis get Pn &Mn
Mc = M2 (9.43)
Cm
= 1.0 (9.44)
1 P
Pn
cr
2 EI
Pcr = 10.11.5 (9.45)
(kLu )2
M1
Cm = .6 + .4 (9.46)
M2
Ec Ig
5 + Es Is
EI = (9.47)
1 + d
Ec Ig
2.5
or EI = (9.48)
1 + d
MD 1.4PDL
d = = (9.49)
MD + ML 1.4PDL + 1.7PLL
d is the ratio of maximum design load moment to maximum design total load moment (always

Draft
924
+ve) as EI dead load has a detrimental eect (creep)

COLUMNS
Example 9-5: Long R/C Column
A 15 ft long, 14 circular column is connected to 40 ft long 14 by 22 beams. The column

is on the last oor, below it the column is circular and has a 16 diameter. No sidesway.
Given, Pn = 500 k, 14 22 has = .015, fc = 5, 000 psi, fy = 40, 000 psi
Solution:
22
Lu = 15 ft = 13.17 ft (9.50-a)
12
r = .25d = (.25)(14 in) = 3.5 in (9.50-b)

Ec = 57, 000 fc = 57, 000 5, 000 = 4, 030 ksi (9.50-c)
d4 (14)4
Ig = = = 1, 886 in4 (9.50-d)
64 64
Ec Ig
EIcol = 2.5 1
1+d EIcol = (4, 030)(1, 886) = 3, 040, 000 k in2 (9.51-a)
d = 0 2.5

EI 3, 040, 000
= = 16, 890 k.in (9.52-a)
L c (15)(12)
Ig (14)(22)3 1
Ibeam = Icr = = 6, 210 in4 (9.52-b)
2 12 2
EI (4, 030)(6, 210)
= = 52, 140 k.in (9.52-c)
L beam (12)(40)
(EI/L)col (16, 890)
A = = = .162 (9.52-d)
(EI/L)beam 2(52, 140)
(16)4
bottom column I = 64 = 3, 217 in4
(4, 030)(3, 217)

EI = = 5, 186, 000 (9.53-a)
2.5
EI 5, 186, 000
= = 28, 800 k.in (9.53-b)
L col (15)(12)
16, 890 + 28, 800
B = = .438 (9.53-c)
2(52, 140)
From ACI commentary A = .162, B = .438, k .62 and
kLu (.65)(13.16)(12)
= = 29.3 (9.54-a)
r 3.5
M1
34 12 = 34 12 = 22 assuming M1 = M2 (9.54-b)
M2
kL
> 22 consider column instability (9.54-c)
r
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
2 EI 2 (3, 040, 000)

925
Pcr = = = 2, 848 k (9.54-d)

(kl) 2
[(.65)(13.16)(12)]2
M1
CM = .6 + .4 =1 (9.54-e)
M2
1 1
= = = 1.3 (9.54-f)
1 Pcr
Pu
1 (.75)(2,848)
500
Example 9-6: Design of Slender Column
Given: frame not braced, design AB as square column. PD = 46 k, MD = 92 k.ft, PL = 94 k,

ML = 230 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi
L 3
Lu =18 l =43.3in
111
000
000
111 111
000
000
111
000
111 000
111
Solution:
Pu = 1.4 46 + 1.7 94 = 224 k (9.55-a)

Mu = 1.4 92 + 1.7 230 = 520 k.ft (9.55-b)
MDL (1.4)92
d = = = .24 (9.55-c)
MDL + MLL 520
Assume a 22 22 inch column and t = .03
2.5
8.5
22"
22"

Draft
926
224
COLUMNS
If = = 19, 500 in4 (9.56-a)

12
Is = (2)(.015)(22)2 (8.5)2 = 1, 050 in4 (9.56-b)

Ec = 57, 000 4, 000 = 3.6 106 psi (9.56-c)
Es = 29 10 ksi 6
(9.56-d)
Ec Ig
5 + Es Is
EI =
1 + d
(3.6106 )(19,500)
+ (29 106 )(1, 050)
= 5
= 3.59 1010 (9.56-e)
1 + .24
EIc 3.59 1010
= = 1.66 108 (9.56-f)
L 12 18
EIb
= (3.6 106 )(43.3) = 1.56 108 (9.56-g)
L
2(1.66 108 )
AtA&B = = 2.13 from ACI commentary k = 1.65 (9.56-h)
1.56 108
kL
if r = 22 neglect slenderness
r = (.3)(22) = 6.6 in (9.57-a)

kL (1.65)(18)(12)
= = 54 > 22 (9.57-b)
r 6.6
2 EI 2 (3.59 1010 )
Pcr = = = 279 106 lbs (9.57-c)
(kL)2 [(1.65)(18)(12)]2
Pu = 2.24 105 lb (9.57-d)
Cm = 1.0(unbraced) (9.57-e)
1 1
Moment Magnication = = (2.24105 )
(9.57-f)
1 P
Pu
1
cr (.7)(2.79106 )
= 1.13 (9.57-g)
Moment for which the column is to be designed (1.13) (520) = 587 k.ft and Pu = 224

Draft
Chapter 10
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
10.1 Introduction
1 Beams with longer spans are architecturally more appealing than those with short ones.
However, for a reinforced concrete beam to span long distances, it would have to have to be
relatively deep (and at some point the self weight may become too large relative to the live
load), or higher grade steel and concrete must be used.
2 However, if we were to use a steel with fy much higher than 60 ksi in reinforced concrete
(R/C), then to take full advantage of this higher yield stress while maintaining full bond between
concrete and steel, will result in unacceptably wide crack widths. Large crack widths will in
turn result in corrosion of the rebars and poor protection against re.
3 One way to control the concrete cracking and reduce the tensile stresses in a beam is to
prestress the beam by applying an initial state of stress which is opposite to the one which will
be induced by the load.
4 For a simply supported beam, we would then seek to apply an initial tensile stress at the
top and compressive stress at the bottom. In prestressed concrete (P/C) this can be achieved
through prestressing of a tendon placed below the elastic neutral axis.
5 Main advantages of P/C: Economy, deection & crack control, durability, fatigue strength,
longer spans.
6 There two type of Prestressed Concrete beams:
Pretensioning: Steel is rst stressed, concrete is then poured around the stressed bars. When
enough concrete strength has been reached the steel restraints are released, Fig. 10.1.
Postensioning: Concrete is rst poured, then when enough strength has been reached a steel
cable is passed thru a hollow core inside and stressed, Fig. 10.2.
10.1.1 Materials
7 P/C beams usually have higher compressive strength than R/C. Prestressed beams can have
fc as high as 8,000 psi.
8 The importance of high yield stress for the steel is illustrated by the following simple example.
Draft
102 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Vertical Harping
bulkhead Harping
hold-up hold-down
point point
Anchorage Jacks
Precast Concrete Continuous Casting bed

Prestressing
bed slab element tendon
Jacks Tendon
Jacks
anchorage
Casting bed Tendon

Support Hold-down
force force
Figure 10.1: Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
Anchorage Anchorage Jack

Intermediate Beam
diaphragms Jack
Tendon in conduct
Anchorage
Slab Jack
Wrapped tendon
Figure 10.2: Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)

Draft
10.1 Introduction
If we consider the following:

103
1. An unstressed steel cable of length Ls

2. A concrete beam of length Lc
3. Prestress the beam with the cable, resulting in a stressed length of concrete and steel
equal to Ls = Lc .
4. Due to shrinkage and creep, there will be a change in length
Lc = (sh + cr )Lc (10.1)
we want to make sure that this amout of deformation is substantially smaller than the
stretch of the steel (for prestressing to be eective).
5. Assuming ordinary steel: fs = 30 ksi, Es = 29, 000 ksi, s = 30
29,000 = 1.03 103 in/ in
6. The total steel elongation is s Ls = 1.03 103 Ls

7. The creep and shrinkage strains are about cr + sh .9 103
8. The residual stress which is left in the steel after creep and shrinkage took place is thus
(1.03 .90) 103 (29 103 ) = 4 ksi (10.2)
304
Thus the total loss is 30 = 87% which is unacceptably too high.
9. Alternatively if initial stress was 150 ksi after losses we would be left with 124 ksi or a
17% loss.
10. Note that the actual loss is (.90 103 )(29 103 ) = 26 ksi in each case
9 Having shown that losses would be too high for low strength steel, we will use
Strands usually composed of 7 wires. Grade 250 or 270 ksi, Fig. 10.3.
11111
00000000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111
00000
11111000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000111111
11111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000111111
11111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
Figure 10.3: 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon
Tendon have diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1 3/8 of an inch. Grade 145 or 160 ksi.
Wires come in bundles of 8 to 52.
Note that yield stress is not well dened for steel used in prestressed concrete, usually we take
1% strain as eective yield.
10 Steel relaxation is the reduction in stress at constant strain (as opposed to creep which
is reduction of strain at constant stress) occurs. Relaxation occurs indenitely and produces
signicant prestress loss. If we denote by fp the nal stress after t hours, fpi the initial stress,
and fpy the yield stress, then

fp log t fpi
=1 .55 (10.3)
fpi 10 fpy

Draft
104
10.1.2 Prestressing Forces

11 Prestress force varies with time, so we must recognize 3 stages:
1. Pj Jacking force. But then due to
(a) friction and anchorage slip in post-tension

(b) elastic shortening in pretension
is reduced to:
2. Pi Initial prestress force; But then due to time dependent losses caused by
(a) relaxation of steel

(b) shrinkage of concrete
(c) creep of concrete
is reduced to:
3. Pe Eective force
10.1.3 Assumptions
12 The following assumptions are made;
1. Materials are both in the elastic range
2. section is uncracked
3. sign convention: +ve tension, ve compression
4. Subscript 1 refers to the top and 2 to the bottom

I I
5. I, S1 = c1 , S2 = c2 , (section modulus)
6. e + ve if downward from concrete neutral axis
10.1.4 Tendon Conguration
13 Through proper arrangement of the tendon (eccentricity at both support and midspan)
various internal exural stress distribution can be obtained, Fig. 10.4.
10.1.5 Equivalent Load
14An equivalent load for prestressing can be usually determined from the tendon conguration
and the prestressing force, Fig. 10.5.
10.1.6 Load Deformation
15 The load-deformation curve for a prestressed concrete beam is illustrated in Fig. 10.6.

Figure 10.4: Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
105

W
Moment from prestressing
Figure 10.5: Determination of Equivalent Loads

000
111
000
111
h 000
111
000
111
None
111
000
None
fy
Q fc 2f c
000
111 fc
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
P h/2 000
111
000
111 + 1111
0000
1111
0000 = 000
111
000
111
P 000
111 0000
1111 111
000
P cos
P cos
P cos
fc fc =f t
P cos
Equivalent load on concrete from tendon
P
2Q
M
2f c 2f c
P sin
Pe
0
000 1111111
111 0000000
1111111 000
111
P sin
P sin
P sin
000
111 0000000 000
111
2P sin
2P sin
000 +1111111
111
000
111 0000000 =
0000000
1111111 000
111
000
111
P 2h/3 111
000 0000000
1111111 111
000
P
2f c 2f =2f 0
t c
P sin
M P sin
P sin
P P sin
0 2f c 2f c
000 1111111
111 0000000
1111111 000
111
P cos
000
111 0000000 000
111
P cos
Pe
000
111 0000000
1111111 000
111
2Q 000 +1111111
111
000
111 0000000 =
1111111
0000000 000
111
000
111
P cos
P cos
000
111 0000000
1111111 000
111
2f c 2f =2f 0
t c fc
fc Midspan
P P 00
11 000
111
00
11 000
111
000
111
h/2 00 +
11
00
11
0 = 111
000
000
111
P
P
P
00
11
P
P
P
h/3 Ends fc
fc
0 f fc
000
111
000
111 0000
1111
0000
1111
c 000
111
000
111
Q 000
111
000
111 0000
1111
+ 1111
0000 000
111
000
111 0000
1111 000
111
= 000
111
Member
111
000 1111
0000 000
111
2f c

ft =f c fc
P P Midspan
fc fc
e
h/2 000
111
000
111 000
111
000
111
000
111 + 0 = 111
000
P
111
000 000
111
P
(d)
(g)
(c)
(e)
h/3 000
111 000
111
P

(b)
(f)
(a)
e
fc Ends fc
10.1 Introduction
Victor Saouma
Draft
Draft
106
Load
Ru
ptu
re
Steel yielding
Service load limit
including Overload
tolerable overload Tn
Service
load
First cracking load range
f cr
Decompression or higher
cgs (f=0)
Balanced
Full dead load
Deformation
o D L (deflection of camber)

pi = Initial prestress camber
pe pe = Effective prestress camber
O = Selfweight deflection
D= Dead load deflection
pi
L= Live load deflection
Figure 10.6: Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical
Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
10.2 Flexural Stresses
16 We now identify the following 4 stages:

I
Initial Stage when the beam is being prestressed (recalling that r2 = Ac )
1. The prestressing force, Pi only

Pi Pi ec1 Pi
ec1
f1 = + = 1 (10.4)
Ac I Ac r2
Pi Pi ec2 Pi
ec2
f2 = = 1+ 2 (10.5)
Ac I Ac r
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment
the beam cambers due to prestressing)
Pi
ec1 M0
f1 = 1 2 (10.6)
Ac r S1
Pi
ec2 M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.7)
Ac r S2
Service Load when the prestressing force was reduced from Pi to Pe beacause of the losses,
and the actual service (not factored) load is apllied
3. Pe and M0

Figure 10.7: Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
107

The internal stress distribution at each one of those four stages is illustrated by Fig. 10.7.
Pi Pi e c 1 Pi e c1
(1 )
Ac Ic Ac r2
00
11 0000
1111
0000
1111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
(10.10)
(10.11)
c1 00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
00
11
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111
00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
e c2 00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111
00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
(10.8)
(10.9)
11
00 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
11111
00000 111111111
000000000
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL
Pi Pi e c 2 Pi e c2
Stage 1 (1+ )
Ac Ic Ac r2
M0
M0
S1
S2
S1
S2
Pi e c1 Mo Pi e c1 Mo

1+ 2 +
(1 ) (1 )
Ac r2 S1 Ac r2 S1
ec1
ec2
000000000
111111111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111
r2
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978)

r
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
1
000000000
111111111 000
111

1+ 2 +
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111

000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
r2
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
Ac
Ac
Pe
Pe
111111111
000000000 111
000 111111
000000
Pi e c2 Mo Pi e c2 Mo
1
f1 =
(1+ ) + (1+ )+
Stage 2 Ac r2 S2 Ac r2 S2

Ac
Ac
Pe
Pe
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL
f2
f1 =
= Pe
(1
e c1
)
Mo

Md + Ml Pe
(1
e c1
)
Mt
Ac r2 S S Ac r2 S1
000000
111111
1 0000000000
1111111111
1
0000000000
1111111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 00000
11111
f2
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
111111
000000 1111111111
0000000000 00000
11111
11111
00000
Victor Saouma
Pe e c2 Mo Md + Ml Pe e c2 Mt
Draft
(1+ )+ + (1+ )+
Ac r2 S2 S2 Ac r2 S2
Stage 4
Draft
108
17
Those (service) exural stresses must be below those specied by the ACI code (where the
subscripts c, t, i and s refer to compression, tension, initial and service respectively):
fci permitted concrete compression stress at initial stage .60f
ci
fti permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage < 3 fci
fcs permitted concrete compressive stress at service stage .45f
c
fts permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage 6 fc or 12 fc

Note that fts can reach 12 fc only if appropriate deection analysis is done, because section
would be cracked.
18 Based on the above, we identify two types of prestressing:
Full prestressing (pioneered by Freysinet), no tensile stresses, no crack, but there are some
problems with excessive camber when unloaded.
Partial prestressing (pioneered by Leonhardt, Abeles, Thurliman), cracks are allowed to

occur (just as in R/C), and they are easier to control in P/C than in R/C.
19 The ACI code imposes the following limits on the steel stresses in terms of fpu which is the
ultimate strength of the cable: Pj < .80fpu As and Pi < .70fpu As . No limits are specied for
Pe .
Example 10-1: Prestressed Concrete I Beam
Adapted from (Nilson 1978)

The following I Beam has fc = 4, 000 psi, L = 40 ft, DL+LL =0.55 k/ft, concrete density
= 150 lb/ft3 and multiple 7 wire strands with constant eccentricity e = 5.19 in. Pi = 169 k,
and the total losses due to creep, shinkage, relaxation are 15%.
12"
4"
5"
2"
7" 6"
4"
24"
7" 6"
2"
5"
4"
The section properties for this beam are Ic = 12, 000 in4 , Ac = 176 in2 , S1 = S2 = 1, 000 in3 ,
r2= AI = 68.2 in2 .
Determine exural stresses at midspan and at support at initial and nal conditions.
Solution:
1. Prestressing force, Pi only

Pi
ec1
f1 = 1 2 (10.12-a)
Ac r

Draft
169, 000

(5.19)(12)

109
= 1 = 83 psi (10.12-b)
176 68.2
Pi
ec2
f2 = 1+ 2 (10.12-c)
Ac r

169, 000 (5.19)(12)
= 1+ = 1, 837 psi (10.12-d)
176 68.21
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the
beam cambers due to prestressing)
(176) in2
w0 = (.150) k/ ft3 = .183 k/ft (10.13-a)
(144) in2 / ft2
(.183)(40)2
M0 = = 36.6 k.ft (10.13-b)
8
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0 M0 (36.6)(12, 000)
f1,2 = = = 439 psi (10.14)
S1,2 1, 000
Pi
ec1 M0
f1 = 1 2 (10.15-a)
Ac r S1
= 83 439 = 522 psi (10.15-b)

fti = 3 fc = +190 (10.15-c)
Pi
ec2 M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.15-d)
Ac r S2
= 1, 837 + 439 = 1, 398 psi (10.15-e)

fci = .6fc = 2, 400 (10.15-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 15% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 0.15)169 =
144 k
Pe
ec1 M0
f1 = 1 2 (10.16-a)
Ac r S1

144, 000 (5.19)(12)
= 1 439 (10.16-b)
176 68.2
= 71 439 = 510 psi (10.16-c)
Pe
ec2 M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.16-d)
Ac r S2

144, 000 (5.19)(12)
= 1+ + 439 (10.16-e)
176 68.2
= 1, 561 + 439 = 1, 122 psi (10.16-f)
note that 71 and 1, 561 are respectively equal to (0.85)(83) and (0.85)(1, 837)
respectively.

Draft
1010

(0.55)(40)2
MDL + MLL = = 110 k.ft (10.17)
8
and corresponding stresses
(110)(12, 000)
f1,2 = = 1, 320 psi (10.18)
1, 000
Thus,
Pe
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL
f1 = 1 2 (10.19-a)
Ac r S1
= 510 1, 320 = 1, 830 psi (10.19-b)

fcs = .45fc = 2, 700 (10.19-c)
Pe
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.19-d)
Ac r S2
= 1, 122 + 1, 320 = +198 psi (10.19-e)

fts = 6 fc = +380 (10.19-f)
5. The stress distribution at each one of the four stages is shown below.
-1830
-510
-522
-83
4 3 2 1
-1122
-1398
-1837
+198
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)
20 The historical Walnut Lane Bridge (rst major prestressed concrete bridge in the USA) is
made of three spans, two side ones with lengths of 74 ft and a middle one of length 160 feet.
Thirteen prestressed cocnrete beams are placed side by side to make up a total width of 44
fet of roadway and two 9.25 feet of sidewalk. In between the beams, and cast with them, are
transverse stieners which connect the beams laterally, Fig. 10.8

Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 1011
80 ft
CENTER
LINE
ELEVATION OF BEAM HALF
9.25 44 ROAD 9.25
SIDEWALK
BEAM CROSS SECTIONS TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS
CROSS - SECTION OF BRIDGE
52"
10"
3" TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGM
7" 10"
3-3" 7" 6-7"
6 1/2" SLOTS FOR CABLES

3 1/2"
7"
30"
CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.8: Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View

Draft
1012
10.3.1 Cross-Section Properties

21 The beam cross section is shown in Fig. 10.9 and is simplied
52"
8.9"
22.5" 7" 22.5"
6-7"
61.2" = 79"
8.9"
SIMPLIFIED CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.9: Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section
Ac = 2(8.9)(52) + (7)(61.2) = 1, 354 in2 (10.20-a)

(52)(8.9)3 79 8.9 2 (7)(61.2)3
I = 2 + (52)(8.9) + (10.20-b)
12 2 2 12
= = 1, 277 103 in4 (10.20-c)
h 79
c 1 = c2 = = = 39.5 in (10.20-d)
2 2
I 1, 277 103
S1 = S2 = = = 32, 329 in3 (10.20-e)
c 39.5
I 1, 277 103
r2 = = = 943. in2 (10.20-f)
A 1, 354
10.3.2 Prestressing
22 Each beam is prestressed by two middle parabolic cables, and two outer horizontal ones
along the anges. All four have approximately the same eccentricity at midspan of 2.65 ft. or
31.8 inch.
23 Each prestressing cable is made up 64 wires each with a diameter of 0.27 inches. Thus the
total area of prestressing steel is given by:
0.276 in 2
Awire = (d/2)2 = 3.14( ) = 0.0598 in2 (10.21-a)
2
Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
Acable = 64(0.0598) in2 = 3.83 in2

1013
(10.21-b)
2 2
Atotal = 4(3.83) in = 15.32 in (10.21-c)
24 Whereas the ultimate tensile strength of the steel used is 247 ksi, the cables have been
stressed only to 131 ksi, thus the initial prestressing force Pi is equal to
Pi = (131) ksi(15.32) in2 = 2, 000 k (10.22)
25 The losses are reported ot be 13%, thus the eective force is

Pe = (1 0.13)(2, 000) k = 1, 740 k (10.23)
10.3.3 Loads
26 The self weight of the beam is q0 = 1.72 k/ft.

27 The concrete (density=.15 k/ ft3 ) road has a thickness of 0.45 feet. Thus for a 44 foot width,
the total load over one single beam is
1
qr,tot = (44) ft(0.45) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.23 k/ft (10.24)
13
28 Similarly for the sidewalks which are 9.25 feet wide and 0.6 feet thick:
1
qs,tot = (2)(9.25) ft(0.60) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.13 k/ft (10.25)
13
We note that the weight can be evenly spread over the 13 beams beacause of the lateral
diaphragms.
29 The total dead load is
qDL = 0.23 + 0.13 = 0.36 k/ft (10.26)
30 The live load is created by the trac, and is estimated to be 94 psf, thus over a width of
62.5 feet this gives a uniform live load of
1
wLL = (0.094) k/f t2 (62.5) ft = 0.45 k/ft (10.27)
13
31 Finally, the combined dead and live load per beam is
wDL+LL = 0.36 + 0.45 = 0.81 k/ft (10.28)
10.3.4 Flexural Stresses

1. Prestressing force, Pi only
Pi
ec1
f1 = 1 2 (10.29-a)
Ac r

(2 10 )
6 (31.8)(39.5)
= 1 = 490. psi (10.29-b)
1, 354 943.
Pi
ec2
f2 = 1+ 2 (10.29-c)
Ac r

(2 106 ) (31.8)(39.5)
= 1+ = 3, 445. psi (10.29-d)
1, 354 943.
Draft
1014 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the
beam cambers due to prestressing)
(1.72)(160)2
M0 = = 5, 504 k.ft (10.30)
8
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0 M0 (5, 50.4)(12, 000)
f1,2 = = = 2, 043 psi (10.31)
S1,2 943.
Pi
ec1 M0
f1 = 1 2 (10.32-a)
Ac r S1
= 490 2, 043 = 1, 553 psi (10.32-b)

fti = 3 fc = +190 (10.32-c)
Pi
ec2 M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.32-d)
Ac r S2
= 3, 445 + 2, 043 = 1, 402. psi (10.32-e)

fci = .6fc = 2, 400 (10.32-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 13% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (10.13)(2106 ) =
1.74 106 lbs
Pe
ec1 M0
f1 = 1 2 (10.33-a)
Ac r S1

1.74 106 (31.8)(39.5)
= 1 2, 043. = 1, 616 psi (10.33-b)
1, 354 943.
Pe
ec2 M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.33-c)
Ac r S2

1.74 106 (31.8)(39.5)
= 1+ + 2, 043. = 954. psi (10.33-d)
1, 354 943.
(0.81)(160)2
MDL + MLL = = 2, 592 k.ft (10.34)
8
and corresponding stresses
(2, 592)(12, 000)
f1,2 = = 962. psi (10.35)
32, 329
Thus,
Pe
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL
f1 = 1 2 (10.36-a)
Ac r S1
= 1, 616 962. = 2, 578. psi (10.36-b)

fcs = .45fc = 2, 700 (10.36-c)
Pe
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.36-d)
Ac r S2
= 954 + 962. = +8. psi (10.36-e)

fts = 6 fc = +380 (10.36-f)

Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 1015

Draft
Bibliography
Billington, D. and Mark, R.: 1983, Structural studies, Technical report, Department of Civil
Engineering, Princeton University.
Nilson, A.: 1978, Design of Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley and Sons.

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Draft DRAFT

Lecture Notes in:

Mechanics and Design of

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

December 26, 2002

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

E 2-8 Exact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 ONE WAY SLABS 51

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

7 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS 71

10 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 101

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

10.1.5 Equivalent Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

1.1 Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1 Strain Diagram Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.1 Principal Stresses in Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.2 Types of Shear Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Continuous R/C Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.1 Crack Width Equation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7.1 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . 72

9.1 Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

9.3 Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

4.1 Building Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.1 Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . 718

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

1.1.1.1 Mix Design

1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the

II Moderate sulfate resistant, moderate heat of hydration

III High early strength (but releases too much heat)

Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation

V Sulfate resistant (marine environment)

Fine aggregate fraction is that passing the No. 4 sieve.

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Sieve Size % Passing Each Sieve

Sieve Size % Passing

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

16 Moisture states are dened as

Oven-dry (OD): all moisture is removed from the aggregate.

17 Based on the above, we can determine

Surface Moisture (SM): is the water in excess of the SSD state

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Sieve Weight Amount Cumulative Cumulative

Size Retained Retained Amount Amount

Table 1.4: Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate

1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations

24 There are two fundamental aspects to mix design to keep in mind:

1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure

1. Sieve analysis of both ne and coarse aggregates

2. Unit weight of the coarse aggregate

3. Bulk specic gravities

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

4. absorption capacities of the aggregates

Type of Construction Max Min

Table 1.5: Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction

In general maximum aggregate size is 3/4 in or 1 in.