IELTS Reading Recent

Actual Tests
Tuyn tp cc bi c song ng

Index
1. Lm th no xc nh k ni di
2. WILLIAM GILBERT v cc pht minh v t tnh
3. t nng nm 2003 (Dch bi Nguyn Linh Hng)
4. Nhng nh t nhin hc nghip d (dch bi Loan Nguyen)
5. Khng long l g?
6. Hc bng v d
7. Mt thi k bng h mi
8. Thun tay tri trong mt th gii tay phi
9. Quyn sch tri cy
10. Hiu ng Mozart
11. m nhc: ngn ng ca tt c chng ta
12. Tre - loi cy thn k (dch bi Thanh Thu)
13. Talc Powder (Bt tan)
14. Rong bin New Zealand (dch bi Trang Huyn)
15. Optimism and Health (S lc quan v sc khe) (dch bi Toandavi)
16. Thi k trao i Columbus (dch bi Bich Khoa)

 2

17. Anxiety (S lo u) (Dch bi Loan Nguyen)
18. Phong cch giao tip v xung t (Dch bi Nguyn Hoi Nam)

Introduction
im ni bt khin IELTS Recent Actual Test Reading l mt trong nhng must-have
book cho tt c cc bn luyn thi IELTS l sch tp hp cc thi IELTS tht t IDP v
Hi ng Anh ti Vit Nam t nm 2007 ti nm 2011.

c bit, mt s thi trong b ny cng c ra li trong cc k thi IELTS nm 2014

ti Vit Nam. Cun sch ny ph hp vi cc bn n luyn cc dng cu hi IELTS
Reading k cng v sp sa tham gia k thi tht t 1 ti 2 thng ti lm quen v c xt
vi thi tht.

Qua cc bi dch song ng ny, cc bn c th ghi ch v hc thm nhng t academic

cng nh cc cc cu trc hay cho phn IELTS Writing.

Lm th no xc nh k ni di

However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things.
Mc d hu ht chng ta c th gh tm vic la di nhng n n mt cch t nhin cho mi loi
sinh vt.

Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young.
Chim lm iu ny bng cch gi v chn thng dn dt nhng con th sn mi ang i ra khi
lm t ca mnh.

Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend
to be something they are not and so escape their enemies.
Cc con gh hay la bng cch ngy trang, chng t trang im mnh bng nhng di to b v cc
mnh vn khc, chng gi v lm ci g khng phi l mnh thot khi k th.

Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and
reproduce.
Thin nhin ban tng hu h cho nhng k la gt thnh cng bng cch cho php chng tn ti lu
giao phi v sinh sn.

So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings- who, according to psychologist Gerald
Johnson of the University of South California, or lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth
every 5 minutes- often deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get
something they cant get by other means.

V vy, theo nh tm l hc Gerald Johnson thuc i hc Nam California cho bit, chng ta khng c g
ngc nhin khi bit rng con ngi c th ni di khong 200 ln mi ngy hay khong ni mt iu
khng ng c mi 5 pht m h thng la di v cng nhng l do nh bo v da ca mnh hoc
c c mt ci g m h khng th c c bng cc phng tin khc.

But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie
and get away with it.
Nhng bit cch pht hin c vic ni di c th ch l mt k nng sng cn quan trng nh bit
cch ni di v trn trnh n.

A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business

associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse.
Mt ngi c th nhn ra s gi di mt cch nhanh chng s khng b la o bi mt ngi lin kt
kinh doanh v o c hoc b la di bi mt ngi phi ngu khn ngoan.

Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in their own tangled webs- if you
know where to look.
May mn thay, thin nhin cung cp nhiu hn cc u mi pht hin nhng k la di trong mng
li ln xn ca ring mnh - nu bn bit c ni xem xt.

By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can
recognise the tell-tale signs of lying.
Bng cch quan st cht ch cc biu hin trn khun mt, ngn ng c th v ging iu, thc t bt
c ai cng c th nhn ra du hiu ca vic ni di.

Researchers are even programming computers like those used on Lie Detector - to get at the truth by
analysing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear.
Cc nh nghin cu thm ch cn lp trnh my tnh - tc dng phn mm pht hin ni di - c
c s tht bng cch phn tch cc tn hiu vt l tng t c sn i vi mt thng v tai.

With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, says Paul Ekman, professor
of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying
the secret art of deception.
Paul Ekman, gio s tm l hc ti i hc California, San Francisco, tri qua 15 nm nghin cu
v ngh thut b mt ca vic la o trong sut 15 nm qua qua bit, "Nu c o to ph hp,
nhiu ngi c th hc cch pht hin ra nhng iu di tr mt cch tin cy".

In order to know what kind of Lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other peoples
emotional states.
bit loi ni di no hiu qu nht, nhng k ni di thnh cng cn phi nh gi chnh xc tnh
trng cm xc ca ngi khc.

Ackmans research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too.
Nghin cu ca Ackman cho thy tr thng minh cm xc ny cng l iu cn thit cho cc my d
ni di tt.

The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between the truth and what
they actually say and do.
Trng thi cm xc cn ch l cng thng, xung t m hu ht nhng k ni di u cm thy gia
s tht v nhng g h thc s ni v lm.

Even high-tech lie detectors dont detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of
emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying.
Ngay c cc my d ni di bng cng ngh cao cng khng pht hin ra nhng li di tr; chng ch
n thun l pht hin ra cc tn hiu cm xc vt cht, c th hoc khng tng ng vi nhng g m
ngi c kim tra ang ni.

Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase
when people are nervous as they usually are when lying.
Chng hn, my o nhp tim vt o lng mc h hp, nhp tim v dn da, thng c xu hng
gia tng khi ngi ta lo lng - nhng th chng ta hay lm khi ni di.

Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conducts electricity.
Nhng ngi cng thng thng ra m hi, v mui cha trong m hi s dn in.

Thats why sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness - about getting caught, perhaps
-which makes, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth.
l l do ti sao s nhy vt t ngt v dn da c th o lng c s lo lng - v c l c th
pht hin c - iu ny gi rng ai nn thn trng vi s tht.

On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television. Studio are too hot- which is one
reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court.

Mt khc, iu ny cng c th b nh hng do nh sng trong TV. Phng thu hnh ca truyn hnh
qu nng - l mt trong nhng l do khin cc bi kim tra v nhp tim khng th chp nhn ti ta
n.

Good lie detectors dont rely on a single thing says Ekma, "but interpret clusters of verbal and
non-verbal clues that suggest someone might be lying".
Ekma ni, "Nhng my d ni di tt khng da vo mt iu duy nht, nhng gii thch cc nhm
mo t bng li ni v cc chng c khng li c th ngh ai ang ni di".

The clues are written all over the face.

Manh mi ny nm ngay trn mt.

Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that processes
emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul.
Bi v c trn khun mt trc tip kt ni vi cc vng no x l vng cm xc, sc mt ny c th l
ca s cho tm hn.

Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain
than insincere ones.
Cc nghin cu thn kinh thm ch cn gi rng nhng cm xc chnh xc i theo nhng ng
khc nhau thng qua b no hn l nhng th gi di khc.

If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately,
only the mobile side of the mouth is raised.
V d nu mt bnh nhn b lit do t qu mt bn mt c yu cu mm ci mt cch c th ch
c mt bn di ng ca ming c nng ln.

But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile.
Nhng nu k 1 chuyn ci vi cng mt ngi th bnh nhn s ci y v t pht.

Very few people - most notably, actors and politicians - are able to consciously control all of their
facial expressions.
Rt t ngi - nht l cc din vin v chnh tr gia - c th kim sot mt cch c thc tt c cc
biu hin trn khun mt ca h.

Lies can often be caught when the liars true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception.

K la di thng c th b pht hin khi nhng cm xc chn tht ca nhng ngi ni di sau mt
thi gian ngn b r r qua lp mt n la di.

"We dont think before we feel", Ekman says.

"Chng ta thng khng suy ngh trc khi chng ta cm thy", Ekman ni.

Expressions tend to show up on the face before were even conscious of experiencing an emotion".
"Biu hin thng xut hin trn khun mt trc khi chng ta thm ch c thc tri nghim v mt
cm xc no ".

One of the most difficult facial expressions to fake - or conceal, if its genuinely felt - is sadness.
Mt trong nhng biu hin khun mt kh khn nht gi mo hay che giu, nu n thc s cm
nhn c - l ni bun.

When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner corners of the eyebrows are
pulled up.
Khi ai thc s bun, trn s nhn li v ni au v nhng gc bn trong ca lng my b ko ln.

Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily.
t hn 15% s ngi Ekman th nghim c th to ra c ng lng my mt cch t gic.

By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will but
almost everybody.
Ngc li, vic h thp lng my lin quan n mt ci cau my gin d c th c nhn rng theo
mun nhng hu ht mi ngi th khng lm c.

If someone claims they are sad and the inner corners of their eyebrows dont go up, Ekmam says,
the sadness is probably false".
"Nu ai tuyn b h bun v nhng gc cnh bn trong lng my khng ging ln, Ekmam ni,
th ni bun c l l sai".

The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit.
Mt khc, n ci l mt trong nhng biu hin khun mt d dng nht gi mo.

It takes just two muscles -the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the
corners of the lips- to produce a grin.

N ch cn hai c - cc c quan ln zygomaticus m rng t xng m n cc gc ca mi - to

ra mt n ci.

But theres a catch.

Nhng chng ta c th pht hin c.

A genuine smile affects not only the corners of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle
around the eye that produces the distinctive crows feet associated with people who laugh a lot.
N ci chn tht khng ch nh hng n cc gc ca mi m cn l mt v orbicularis, c quanh
mt to ra nhng "bn chn qu" c bit lin quan n nhng ngi ci rt nhiu.

A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the corners of the lips go up, the eyes crinkle, but the inner
corners of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is
difficult to fake.
Mt n ci gi mo c th b lt mt n nu cc gc ca mi ging ln, mt nhn nheo, nhng cc
gc bn trong ca lng my khng b h xung, mt chuyn ng c kim sot bi c orbicularis
oculi th rt kh gi mo.

The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why the smile looks so strained and stiff.
S vng mt ca lng my h xung l mt trong nhng l do ti sao n ci trng cng thng v
cng.

Trch ngun:
http://ieltsonlinetests.com/367/20/99/view-answers/ielts-recent-actual-test-with-answers/reading/practi
ce-test-2

William Gilbert v cc pht minh v t tnh

The 16th and 17th centuries saw two great pioneers of modern science: Galileo and Gilbert.
Th k 16 v 17 chng kin hai nh tin phong v khoa hc hin i l Galileo v Gilbert.

The impact of their findings is eminent.

Nhng pht minh ca h c nh hng rt ln lao.

Gilbert was the first modern scientist, also the accredited father of the science of electricity and
magnetism, an Englishman of learning and a physician at the court of Elizabeth.
Gilbert l nh khoa hc hin i u tin, cng l cha v khoa hc in v t tnh c cng nhn,
l mt hc gi ngi Anh v l mt bc s ti ta Elizabeth.

Prior to him, all that was known of electricity and magnetism was what the ancients knew, nothing
more than that the lodestone possessed magnetic properties and that amber and jet, when rubbed,
would attract bits of paper or other substances of small specific gravity.
Trc , tt c nhng g m ngi xa bit v in v t trng ch n thun l cc nam chm
s hu t tnh v h phch hay nhng ht en, khi c c xt th chng s ht c nhng mnh
giy hoc cc cht khc c trng lc nh nht nh.

However, he is less well known than he deserves.

Tuy nhin, ng t ni ting hn nhng g ng xng ng c hng.

 10

Gilberts birth pre-dated Galileo.

Gilbert sinh ra trc Galileo.

Born in an eminent local family in Colchester County in the UK, on May 24, 1544, he went to
grammar school, and then studied medicine at St Johns College, Cambridge, graduating in 1573.
c sinh ra trong mt gia nh a phng ni ting ti Colchester County Anh Quc, vo ngy 24
thng 5 nm 1544, ng c i hc trng trung hc, v sau hc ngnh dc ti trng St John's
College, Cambridge v tt nghip vo nm 1573.

Later he travelled in the continent and eventually settled down in London.

Sau ng i du lch khp ni Chu u v cui cng nh c London.

He was a very successful and eminent doctor.

ng l mt bc s rt thnh cng v li lc.

All this culminated in his election to the president of the Royal Science Society.
Tt c nhng iu ny ln ti cc im trong cuc bu c ca ng cho v tr Ch tch Hi Khoa hc
Hong gia.

He was also appointed personal physician to the Queen (Elizabeth I), and later knighted by the Queen.
ng cng c b nhim lm bc s ring cho N hong (Elizabeth I), v sau c phong hip s
bi N hong.

He faithfully served her until her death.

ng trung thnh phc v N hong sut i.

However, he didnt outlive the Queen for long and died on November 30, 1603, only a few months
after his appointment as personal physician to King James.
Tuy nhin, ng khng sng lu hn N hong v qua i ngy 30 thng 11 nm 1603, ch vi
thng sau khi c b nhim lm bc s ring cho vua James.

Gilbert was first interested in chemistry but later changed his focus due to the large portion of
mysticism of alchemy involved (such as the transmutation of metal).
Gilbert lc u quan tm n ha hc nhng sau thay i s tp trung ca mnh do b thu ht
qu ln bi s thn b ca thut gi kim lin quan (v d nh chuyn i kim loi).

 11

He gradually developed his interest in physics after the great minds of the ancient, particularly about
the knowledge the ancient Greeks had about lodestones, strange minerals with the power to attract
iron.
ng dn dn pht trin mi quan tm ca mnh trong lnh v vt l tip ni nhng b c v i ca
nhng ngi c i, c bit l v kin thc ca ngi Hy Lp c i v nam chm, loi khong
cht k l vi sc mnh c th ht c st.

In the meantime, Britain became a major seafaring nation in 1588 when the Spanish Armada was
defeated, opening the way to British settlement of America.
Trong thi gian , Anh Quc tr thnh mt quc gia i bin ln vo nm 1588 khi Hm i Ty
Ban Nha b nh bi, m ng cho vic nh c ca Anh ti M.

British ships depended on the magnetic compass, yet no one understood why it worked.
Cc tu ca Anh ph thuc vo la bn t, nhng khng ai hiu n hot ng c nh th no.

Did the Pole Star attract it, as Columbus once speculated; or was there a magnetic mountain at the
pole, as described in Odyssey, which ships would never approach, because the sailors thought its pull
would yank out all their iron nails and fittings? For nearly 20 years, William Gilbert conducted
ingenious experiments to understand magnetism.
Sao Cc c th ht n khng, nh Columbus tng suy on; hay c mt ngn ni t cc, nh
c m t trong tc phm Odyssey, tu s khng bao gi tip cn c, bi v thy th ngh rng lc
ko ca n s ko phng tt c cc inh st v c ca h ra? Trong gn 20 nm, William Gilbert
tin hnh cc th nghim t m tm hiu v t tnh.

His works include On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth.
Tc phm ca ng bao gm Trn cc nam chm, Nhng c th t tnh, v T trng v i ca Tri
t.

Gilberts discovery was so important to modern physics.

Khm ph ca Gilbert rt quan trng i vi vt l hin i.

He investigated the nature of magnetism and electricity.

ng kim tra bn cht ca t tnh v in.

He even coined the word electric.

ng thm ch cn t ra 1 t mi l "in".

 12

Though the early beliefs of magnetism were also largely entangled with superstitions such as that
rubbing garlic on lodestone can neutralise its magnetism, one example being that sailors even believed
the smell of garlic would even interfere with the action of compass, which is why helmsmen were
forbidden to eat it near a ships compass.
Mc d nhng nim tin ban u v t tnh cng b vng vu bi nhng m tn d oan nh vic c
xt ti trn nam chm c th v hiu ha t tnh ca n, mt v d m cc thy th thm ch tin
rng mi ti thm ch c th can thip vo hot ng ca la bn, l l do ti sao nhng ngi li
tu b cm n khi gn la bn ca tu.

Gilbert also found that metals can be magnetised by rubbing materials such as fur, plastic or the like
on them.
Gilbert cng nhn thy rng kim loi c th b t ho bng cch c xt cc vt liu nh lng th, cht
do hoc nhng th tng t ln chng.

He named the ends of a magnet north pole and south pole.

ng t tn cho u ca mt nam chm l "Cc Bc" v "Cc Nam".

The magnetic poles can attract or repel, depending on polarity.

Cc cc t ny c th thu ht hoc y ty thuc vo cc.

In addition, however, ordinary iron is always attracted to a magnet.

Tuy nhin, st thng thng lun b ht bi nam chm.

Though he started to study the relationship between magnetism and electricity, sadly he didnt
complete it.
Mc d ng mi bt u nghin cu mi quan h gia t tnh v in nhng tht ng bun ng
khng hon thnh n.

His research of static electricity using amber and jet only demonstrated that objects with electrical
charges can work like magnets attracting small pieces of paper and stuff.
Nghin cu v in tnh s dng h phch v mu en hunh ch cho thy cc vt c in tch c th
hot ng nh nam chm dng ht cc mnh giy hay cc vt nh.

It is a French guy named du Fay that discovered that there are actually two electrical charges, positive
and negative.
Chnh mt anh chng ngi Php tn du Fay pht hin ra rng thc s c hai in tch l in tch
m v in tch dng.

 13

He also questioned the traditional astronomical beliefs.

Anh ny cng t cu hi v nim tin thin vn truyn thng.

Though a Copernican, he didnt express in his quintessential beliefs whether the earth is at the centre
of the universe or in orbit around the sun.
Mc d theo hc thuyt ca Copernicus nhng anh ny khng th hin nim tin ca mnh l liu
tri t c phi l trung tm ca v tr hay trn qu o xung quanh mt tri hay khng.

However, he believed that stars are not equidistant from the earth but have their own earth-like planets
orbiting around them.
Tuy nhin, anh tin rng cc ngi sao khng cch u nhau nu so vi tri t nhng c nhng hnh
tinh ging tri t ca chng ta ang quay xung quanh chng.

The earth itself is like a giant magnet, which is also why compasses always point north.
Bn thn tri t ging nh mt nam chm khng l, m cng gii thch v sao la bn lun hng v
pha bc.

They spin on an axis that is aligned with the earths polarity.

Chng xoay trn trn mt trc thng hng vi cc ca tri t.

He even likened the polarity of the magnet to the polarity of the earth and built an entire magnetic
philosophy on this analogy.
Anh thm ch so snh s phn cc ca nam chm vi phn cc ca tri t v xy dng ton b
trit l t trng v s tng t ny.

In his explanation, magnetism is the soul of the earth.

Trong li gii thch ca mnh, ng ni t tnh l linh hn ca tri t.

Thus a perfectly spherical lodestone, when aligned with the earths poles, would wobble all by itself
in 24 hours.
Do mt loi nam chm hnh cu hon ho, khi lin kt vi cc cc ca tri t, s t mnh lc l
trong vng 24 gi.

Further, he also believed that the sun and other stars wobble just like the earth does around a crystal
core, and speculated that the moon might also be a magnet caused to orbit by its magnetic attraction to
the earth.

 14

Hn na, ng cng tin rng mt tri v cc ngi sao khc lc l ging nh tri t xung quanh mt li
tinh th, v suy on rng mt trng cng c th l mt nam chm m qu o ca n c to ra bi
s ht t tnh ca n i vi tri t.

This was perhaps the first proposal that a force might cause a heavenly orbit.
y c l l xut u tin m mt lc c th gy ra mt qu o trn tri.

His research method was revolutionary in that he used experiments rather than pure logic and
reasoning like the ancient Greek philosophers did.
Phng php nghin cu ca ng c xem l mt cuc cch mng v ng s dng cc th nghim
ch khng phi l l lun thun ty ging nh cc trit gia Hy Lp c i lm.

It was a new attitude towards scientific investigation.

l mt thi mi i vi vic nghin cu khoa hc.

Until then, scientific experiments were not in fashion.

Cho n lc , cc th nghim khoa hc cha phi l mt.

It was because of this scientific attitude, together with his contribution to our knowledge of
magnetism, that a unit of magneto motive force, also known as magnetic potential, was named Gilbert
in his honour.
V v thi khoa hc ny cng vi s ng gp ca ng vo kin thc v t tnh ca chng ta, rng
mt n v ca lc t magneto, cn c gi l tim nng t tnh, c t tn l Gilbert tn vinh
ng.

His approach of careful observation and experimentation rather than the authoritative opinion or
deductive philosophy of others had laid the very foundation for modern science.
Cch tip cn ca ng trong vic quan st v th nghim cn thn ch khng phi l quan im c
thm quyn hay trit l suy lun ca ngi khc t nn mng cho nn khoa hc hin i.

Xem thm ti:

http://mini-ielts.com/1027/reading/william-gilbert-and-magnetism

Ch thch:
Hm i Ty Ban Nha l hm i giong bum khi hnh t bn o Iberia n qun o Anh vo
nm 1588 di s ch huy ca Cng tc Medina Sidonia, vi nh lt Elizabeth I ca Anh
ngn chn s dnh lu ca Anh ti H Lan thuc Ty Ban Nha v nhng cuc sn bt tu lng Thi

 15

Bnh Dng v i Ty Dng ca Anh. y l cuc giao tranh ln nht trong Chin tranh Anh-Ty
Ban Nha (15851604).

Vi ngha trng i, i thng Gravelines ca Hi qun Anh c ghi du cho thi k vng son ca
t nc di triu N hong Elizabeth I. Chin tch y l khi im cho th thng phong trn bin
ca nc Anh.

Vi thng li ca H qun Anh, trn Gravelines c coi l mt trong nhng trn hi chin ni bt
nht trong lch s th gii. Thng li ca Elizabeth I trc vua Ty Ban Nha l Felipe II gp phn
em li nim t ho dn tc cho Anh Quc.

Mikoaj Kopernik (ting Anh: Nicolaus Copernicus, ting c: Nikolaus Kopernikus) l mt nh ton
hc, thin vn hc, lut gia, nh tm l hc, hc gi kinh in, nh cai tr, vin chc hnh chnh, nh ngoi
giao, nh kinh t, v ngi lnh. Trong s nhng kh nng ca mnh, ng la chn thin vn hc lm
ngh nghip chnh, s pht trin thuyt nht tm (mt tri trung tm ch khng phi Tri t l trung
tm) ca ng c coi l gi thuyt khoa hc quan trng nht trong lch s. N nh du bc chuyn
sang thin vn hc hin i v t l khoa hc hin i, khuyn khch cc nh thin vn tr, cc nh khoa
hc v cc hc gi c thi hoi nghi vi nhng gio iu tn ti t trc.

--------

 16

t nng nm 2003

It was the summer, scientists now realise, when global warming at last made itself unmistakably felt.
l ma h khi m cc nh khoa hc hin nay nhn ra rng, s nng ln ton cu cui cng t
biu hin r rng.

We knew that summer 2003 was remarkable: Britain experienced its record high temperature and
continental Europe saw forest fires raging out of control, great rivers drying to a trickle and thousands
of heat-related deaths.
Chng ta bit ma h nm 2003 rt ng ch : Nc Anh tri qua nhit cao k lc v lc a chu
u din ra chy rng vt ngoi tm kim sot, cc con sng ln kh kit khin hng nghn ngi
cht v nng.

But just how remarkable is only now becoming clear.

Nhng iu ng ch by gi mi r rng.

The three months of June, July and August were the warmest ever recorded in western and central
Europe, with record national highs in Portugal, Germany and Switzerland as well as in Britain.
Ba thng: Thng 6, thng 7 v thng 8 l nhng thng m nht tng c ghi nhn Ty u v Trung
u, vi mc cao k lc B o Nha, c, Thy S cng nh Anh.

And they were the warmest by a very long way.

V chng l ni m p nht th gii trong mt thi k di.

Over a great rectangular block of the earth stretching from west of Paris to northern Italy, taking in
Switzerland and southern Germany, the average temperature for the summer months was 3,78C

 17

above the long-term norm, said the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia in
Norwich, which is one of the world's leading institutions for the monitoring and analysis of
temperature records.
n v Nghin cu Kh hu (CRU) cho bit, trn mt khi hnh ch nht ln tri di t pha ty
Paris n min bc Italy, Thy S v min nam nc c, nhit trung bnh trong nhng thng
ma h cao hn 3,28 o C so vi tiu chun di hn ca i hc East Anglia Norwich, mt trong
nhng t chc hng u th gii v gim st v phn tch cc bo co nhit .

That excess might not seem a lot until you are aware of the context - but then you realise it is
enormous.
S d tha c th khng c v g nhiu cho n khi bn nhn thc c bi cnh - nhng sau bn
nhn ra n thc s ln.

There is nothing like this in previous data, anywhere.

Khng c d liu no ging nh d liu trc , bt c u.

It is considered so exceptional that Professor Phil Jones, the CRU's director, is prepared to say openly
- in a way few scientists have done before - that the 2003 extreme may be directly attributed, not to
natural climate variability, but to global warming caused by human actions.
Gio s Phil Jones, gim c ca CRU, chun b sn sng ni mt cch ci m - cch m t nh
khoa hc lm trc - iu cc oan nm 2003 c th c quy trc tip v s nng ln ton cu do
Hnh ng ca con ngi ch khng phi do s bin i kh hu thin nhin.

Meteorologists have hitherto contented themselves with the formula that recent high temperatures are
consistent with predictions of climate change.
Cc nh kh tng hc cho n nay vn dm chc rng nhit cao gn y l "ph hp vi d bo"
v thay i kh hu.

For the great block of the map - that stretching between 35-50N and 0-20E - the CRU has reliable
temperature records dating back to 1781. Using as a baseline the average summer temperature
recorded between 1961 and 1990, departures from the temperature norm, or anomalies, over the
area as a whole can easily be plotted.
i vi cc khi ln trn bn - ko di t 35-50N n 0-20E - CRU c cc bn bo co nhit
ng tin cy t nm 1781. S dng nh mt ng c s nhit trung bnh ma h c ghi nhn
gia nm 1961 v 1990, khi im t ch tiu nhit , hoc "bt thng", trn din tch ni chung m
ta c th d dng v c.

 18

As the graph shows, such is the variability of our climate that over the past 200 years, there have been
at least half a dozen anomalies, in terms of excess temperature - the peaks on the graph denoting very
hot years - approaching, or even exceeding, 2C.
Nh biu cho thy, s thay i kh hu ca chng ta trong sut 200 nm qua c t nht su im
d thng, v nhit vt qu - nhng nh cao trn th biu th nhng nm rt nng xp x
hoc thm ch nhiu hn 2 C.

But there has been nothing remotely like 2003, when the anomaly is nearly four degrees.
Nhng khng c my may no ging nm 2003, khi s khc bit n gn 4 .

This is quite remarkable, Professor Jones told The Independent.

Gio s Jones ni vi The Independent: "iu ny kh l ng ch .

Its very unusual in a statistical sense.

" Theo ngha thng k n rt bt bnh thng.

If this series had a normal statistical distribution, you wouldnt get this number.
Nu mt lot hin tng ny c xp loi thng k bnh thng, bn s khng nhn c con s ny.

The return period [how often it could be expected to recur] would be something like one in a thousand
years.
Thi k lp li (s ln c d kin s lp li) s l mt ci g ging nh mt trong mt ngn nm.

If we look at an excess above the average of nearly four degrees, then perhaps nearly three degrees of
that is natural variability, because weve seen that in past summers. But the final degree of it is likely
to be due to global warming, caused by human actions.

Nu chng ta nhn vo mc d tha trn mc trung bnh gn bn , th c l gn ba l s bin i

t nhin nh nhng g chng ta thy trong nhng ma h va qua.
Nhng mc cui cng ca n c th l do s nng ln ton cu, xut pht t hnh ng ca con
ngi.

The summer of 2003 has, in a sense, been one that climate scientists have long been expecting.
Ma h nm 2003, mt kha cnh no , l iu m cc nh kh hu hc mong i t lu.

 19

Until now, the warming has been manifesting itself mainly in winters that have been less cold than in
summers that have been much hotter.
Cho n nay, s nng ln ch yu c th hin vic ma ng t lnh hn v ma h nng hn
nhiu.

Last week, the United Nations predicted that winters were warming so quickly that winter sports
would die out in Europes lower-level ski resorts.
Tun trc, Lin Hp Quc d on ma ng ang m ln nhanh n ni cc mn th thao ma
ng s khng cn tn ti trong cc khu ngh mt trt tuyt gi thp ca chu u.

But sooner or later, the unprecedented hot summer was bound to come, and this year it did.
Nhng sm hay mun, ma h nng bc cha tng c chc chn s n, v nm nay n xy ra.

One of the most dramatic features of the summer was the hot nights, especially in the first half of
August.
Mt trong nhng c im n tng nht ca ma h l nhng m nng, c bit l trong na u
thng Tm.

In Paris, the temperature never dropped below 23C (73,4F) at all between 7 and 14 August, and the
city recorded its warmest-ever night on 11-12 August, when the mercury did not drop below 25,5C
(77,9F).
Paris, nhit khng bao gi gim xung di 23 C (73,4 F) t 7 n 14 thng Tm, v thnh
ph ghi du m m nht t 11-12 thng Tm, khi thu ngn khng gim xung di 25,5 C ( 77,9
F).

Germany recorded its warmest-ever night at Weinbiet in the Rhine Valley with a lowest figure of
27,6C (80,6F) on 13 August, and similar record-breaking nighttime temperatures were recorded in
Switzerland and Italy.
c ghi li m m p nht ti Weinbiet thung lng Rhine vi mc thp nht 27,6 C (80,6 F)
vo ngy 13 thng 8 v nhit ban m tng t nh k lc c ghi nhn Thy S v Italy.

The 15,000 excess deaths in France during August, compared with previous years, have been related
to the high night-time temperatures.
Php 15,000 ngi cht trong thng Tm, so vi nhng nm trc, con s ny lin quan n nhit
cao ban m.

 20

The number gradually increased during the first 12 days of the month, peaking at about 2,000 per day
on the night of 12-13 August, then fell off dramatically after 14 August when the minimum
temperatures fell by about 5C.
S lng tng dn trong 12 ngy u ca thng, t nh im vo khong 2000 ngy m vo m
12-13 thng 8, sau gim mnh sau ngy 14 thng 8 khi nhit ti thiu gim xung khong 5 C.

The elderly were most affected, with a 70 per cent increase in mortality rate in those aged 75-94.
Ngi cao tui b nh hng nhiu nht, vi t l t vong tng 70% nhng ngi t 75-94 tui.

For Britain, the year as a whole is likely to be the warmest ever recorded, but despite the high
temperature record on 10 August, the summer itself - defined as the June, July and August period -
still comes behind 1976 and 1995, when there were longer periods of intense heat.
i vi nc Anh, tng quan c nm gn nh l nm m p nht tng c ghi nhn, mc d k lc
nhit cao vo ngy 10 thng 8, ma h t n - c xc nh l thng 6, thng 7 v thng 8 - vn
xp sau nm 1976 v nm 1995, khi c thi gian nhit d di ko di.

At the moment, the year is on course to be the third hottest ever in the global temperature record,
which goes back to 1856, behind 1998 and 2002, but when all the records for October, November and
December are collated, it might move into second place', Professor Jones said.
Gio s Jones ni "Hin ti, nm nay l nm nng th ba trong k lc nhit ton cu, bt u t
nm 1856, sau nm 1998 v nm 2002, nhng khi i chiu tt c cc bn bo co ca thng mi,
thng mi mt v thng mi hai, n c th chuyn xung ng th hai.

The ten hottest years in the record have all now occurred since 1990.
Mi nm nng nht trong k lc xy ra t nm 1990.

Professor Jones is in no doubt about the astonishing nature of European summer of 2003.
Gio s Jones khng nghi ng g v tnh cht ng ngc nhin ca ma h Chu u nm 2003.

The temperatures recorded were out of all proportion to the previous record," he said.
ng ni: Nhit ghi nhn c nm ngoi tt c cc t l k lc trc ,".

It was the warmest summer in the past 500 years and probably way beyond that. It was enormously
exceptional.
" l ma h nng nht trong 500 nm qua v c l vt xa hn na. N cc k c bit.

 21

" His colleagues at the University of East Anglia's Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research are
now planning a special study of it.
Cc ng nghip ca ng ti Trung tm Nghin cu Thay i Kh hu Tyndall ca i hc East
Anglia hin ang ln k hoch nghin cu c bit v n.

It was a summer that has not been experienced before, either in terms of the temperature extremes
that were reached, or the range and diversity of the impacts of the extreme heat," said the centre's
executive director, Professor Mike Hulme.
Gio s Mike Hulme Gim c iu hnh ca trung tm, cho bit: " l mt ma h cha tng c
trc , v c nhit cc oan t c, v phm vi cng nh s a dng trong tc ng ca nhit
cc oan.

It will certainly have left its mark on a number of countries, as to how they think and plan for climate
change in the future, much as the 2000 floods have revolutionised the way the Government is thinking
about flooding in the UK.
iu ny chc chn li du n v cch ngh v k hoch thay i kh hu trong tng lai ca mt s
quc gia, ging nh l lt nm 2000 cch mng ha cch thc Chnh ph Anh khi suy ngh v l
lt.

The 2003 heatwave will have similar repercussions across Europe.

t nng nm 2003 s c nhng tc ng ngc xy ra tng t khp Chu u ".

Dch bi Nguyn Linh Hng

Source:
http://mini-ielts.com/1028/reading/the-2003-heatwave

 22

Nhng nh t nhin hc nghip d

From the results of an annual Alaskan betting contest to sightings of migratory birds, ecologists are
using a wealth of unusual data to predict the impact of climate change.

Theo kt qu ti mt cuc thi c cc hng nm ca ngi Alaska v quan st cc loi chim di c, cc

nh sinh thi hc s dng rt nhiu d liu khng thng thng d on tc ng ca bin i
kh hu.

Tim Sparks slides a small leather-bound notebook out of an envelope.

Tim Sparks ko mt cun s tay nh ba da ra khi bao th.

The book's yellowing pages contain bee-keeping notes made between 1941 and 1969 by the late
Walter Coates of Kilworth, Leicestershire.

Cc trang ba mu vng ca cun sch gm cc ghi chp v ngh nui ong c thc hin t nm
1941 n nm 1969 bi Walter Coates - Kilworth, Leicestershire.

 23

He adds it to his growing pile of local journals, birdwatchers' lists and gardening diaries.

ng thm n vo ng cc tp ch a phng, cc bng k khai ca ngi quan st chim v nht k

lm vn.

"We're uncovering about one major new record each month," he says, "I still get surprised.

"Chng ti pht hin ra mt ghi chp quan trng mi mi thng," ng ni, "Ti vn cn b bt ng".

Around two centuries before Coates, Robert Marsham, a landowner from Norfolk in the east of
England, began recording the life cycles of plants and animals on his estate - when the first wood
anemones flowered, the dates on which the oaks burst into leaf and the rooks began nesting.

Khong hai th k trc Coates, Robert Marsham, mt ch t n t Norfolk - pha ng nc Anh,

bt u ghi chp li chu k sng ca cc loi ng thc vt ti in trang ca ng vo lc m
nhng bng thu mu n rng u tin n hoa, cy si m chi ny lc v qu bt u lm t.

Successive Marshams continued compiling these notes for 211 years.

Marshams tip ni vic bin son cc ghi ch trong vng 211 nm ny.

Today, such records are being put to uses that their authors could not possibly have expected.

Ngy nay, cc h s nh vy ang c a vo s dng m tc gi ca chng c l khng ng n.

These data sets, and others like them, are proving invaluable to ecologists interested in the timing of
biological events, or phenology.

Nhng b d liu ny, v nhng th tng t khc, c tnh v gi i vi cc nh sinh thi hc quan
tm n thi im ca cc s kin sinh hc, hoc vt hu hc.

 24

By combining the records with climate data, researchers can reveal how, for example, changes in
temperature affect the arrival of spring, allowing ecologists to make improved predictions about the
impact of climate change.

Bng cch kt hp cc b h s vi d liu kh hu, cc nh nghin cu c th khm ph ra bng cch

no, v d nh, s thay i nhit nh hng n s xut hin ca ma xun, to iu kin cho cc
nh sinh thi hc a ra nhng d on hon thin hn v tc ng ca s bin i kh hu.

A small band of researchers is combing through hundreds of years of records taken by thousands of
amateur naturalists.

Mt nhm nh cc nh nghin cu ang sn lng cc b h s c tui i hng trm nm ca hng

ngn nh t nhin hc nghip d.

And more systematic projects have also started up, producing an overwhelming response.

V cc d n c tnh h thng hn c khi ng, mang li mt s hi ng mnh m.

"The amount of interest is almost frightening," says Sparks, a climate researcher at the Centre for
Ecology and Hydrology in Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire.

Sparks, nh nghin cu kh hu thuc Trung tm Sinh thi hc v Thy vn hc Monks Wood,

Cambridgeshire, pht biu : "Mc quan tm qu tht kinh hong".

Sparks first became aware of the army of "closet phenologists, as he describes them, when a retiring
colleague gave him the Marsham records.

Sparks ln u tin nghe n i qun "cc nh vt hu hc trong phng", cch m ng m t, khi mt

ng nghip v hu a cho ng ta cc b h s ca Marsham.

He now spends much of his time following leads from one historical data set to another.

Gi y ng dnh phn ln thi gian ln theo cc ch dn t b d kin lch s ny n b khc.

 25

As news of his quest spreads, people tip him off to other historical records, and more amateur
phenologists come out of their closets.

Khi nhng tin tc v vic tm kim ca ng c lan truyn, mi ngi tit l cho ng nhng b
h s lch s khc, v cng nhiu nh vt hu hc nghip d khc tip bc.

The British devotion to recording and collecting makes his job easier - one man from Kent sent him
30 years' worth of kitchen calendars, on which he had noted the date that his neighbour's magnolia
tree flowered.

S tn tm ca ngi Anh i vi vic ghi chp v thu thp lm cho cng vic ca ng d dng hn -
mt ngi n t Kent gi ng nhng b lch bp 30 tui, ghi nhn ngy m cy mc lan ca
ngi hng xm n hoa.

Other researchers have unearthed data from equally odd sources.

Cc nh nghin cu khc cng khai qut d liu t cc ngun k quc nh vy.

Rafe Sagarin, an ecologist at Stanford University in California, recently studied records of a betting
contest in which participants attempt to guess the exact time at which a specially erected wooden
tripod will fall through the surface of a thawing river.

Rafe Sagarin, mt nh sinh thi hc ti i hc Stanford California, gn y nghin cu h s

ca mt cuc thi c cc, trong ngi tham gia c gng d on thi im chnh xc mt king ba
chn bng g c bit s ri qua b mt ca mt dng sng tan bng.

The competition has taken place annually on the Tenana River in Alaska since 1917, and analysis of
the results showed that the thaw now arrives five days earlier than it did when the contest began.

Cuc thi din ra hng nm trn sng Tenana Alaska t nm 1917, v vic phn tch kt qu cho thy
hin nay s tan bng n sm hn 5 ngy so vi thi im cuc thi bt u.

 26

Overall, such records have helped to show that, compared with 20 years ago, a raft of natural events
now occur earlier across much of the northern hemisphere, from the opening of leaves to the return of
birds from migration and the emergence of butterflies from hibernation.

Nhn chung, cc h s nh vy gip cho thy rng, so vi cch y 20 nm, rt nhiu hin tng t
nhin ngy nay xy ra sm hn phn ln bn cu bc, t vic m l cho ti s tr li ca chim di c
v s xut hin ca bm trong k ng ng.

The data can also hint at how nature will change in the future.

D liu cng gi cch m thin nhin s thay i trong tng lai.

Together with models of climate change, amateurs' records could help guide conservation.

Cng vi cc m hnh bin i kh hu, cc h s nghip d c th gip hng dn bo tn.

Terry Root, an ecologist at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has collected birdwatchers'
counts of wildfowl taken between 1955 and 1996 on seasonal ponds in the American Midwest and
combined them with climate data and models of future warming.

Terry Root, mt nh sinh thi hc n t i hc Michigan Ann Arbor, thu thp lng chim rng
m c bi cc nh quan st chim thc hin t nm 1955 n nm 1996 trn cc ao thay i theo
ma vng Trung Ty nc M v kt hp chng vi d liu v kh hu v m hnh s nng ln
trong tng lai.

Her analysis shows that the increased droughts that the models predict could halve the breeding
populations at the ponds.

Phn tch ca b cho thy s gia tng hn hn m cc m hnh d on c th lm gim mt na qun

th sinh sn trong ao.

"The number of waterfowl in North America will most probably drop significantly with global
warming," she says.

 27

B ni: "S lng chim nc Bc M chc chn s gim ng k do hin tng nng ln ton cu.

But not all professionals are happy to use amateur data.

Nhng khng phi mi chuyn gia u hi lng vi vic s dng d liu nghip d.

"A lot of scientists won't touch them, they say they're too full of problems," says Root.

Root ni: "Rt nhiu nh khoa hc s khng ng n chng, h ni rng c qu nhiu vn ".

Because different observers can have different ideas of what constitutes, for example, an open
snowdrop.

V cc nh quan trc khc nhau c th c nhng quan im khc nhau v iu g hnh thnh, v d,
hoa git tuyt n.

"The biggest concern with ad hoc observations is how carefully and systematically they were taken,"
says Mark Schwartz of the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, who studies the interactions between
plants and climate.

Mark Schwartz n t i hc Wisconsin, Milwaukee, ngi nghin cu s tng tc gia thc vt v

kh hu, ni: "S lo ngi ln nht v cc quan st c bit l h thc hin cn thn v c h thng
nh th no".

"We need to know pretty precisely what a person's been observing - if they just say 'I noted when the
leaves came out', it might not be that useful.

"Chng ta cn bit chnh xc h ang quan st ci g - nu h ch ni " ti ghi ch li khi l mc ",

th n khng hu ch n th".

" Measuring the onset of autumn can be particularly problematic because deciding when leaves
change colour is a more subjective process than noting when they appear.

 28

" nh gi s bt u ma thu c th l vn c bit m h v vic la chn khi no l thay i

mu sc l mt tin trnh ch quan hn l ghi nhn thi im chng xut hin.

Overall, most phenologists are positive about the contribution that amateurs can make.

Nhn chung, hu ht cc nh vt hu hc kh lc quan v nhng ng gp m cc nh nghip d c

th to ra.

"They get at the raw power of science: careful observation of the natural world," says Sagarin.

"H c c nng thc khoa hc nguyn bn : s quan st thn cn thn th gii t nhin", Sagarin
ni.

But the professionals also acknowledge the need for careful quality control.

Nhng cc chuyn gia cng tha nhn cn kim sot cht lng cn trng.

Root, for example, tries to gauge the quality of an amateur archive by interviewing its collector.

Root, ly v d, c gng nh gi cht lng ca mt kho lu tr nghip d bng cch phng vn

ngi thu thp n.

"You always have to worry - things as trivial as vacations can affect measurement.

"Bn lun phi lo ngh - nhng th thng thng nh cc k ngh l c th nh hng n vic o
lng."

I disregard a lot of records because they're not rigorous enough," she says.

Ti khng quan tm nhiu n h s v chng khng nghim ngt", b ni.

Others suggest that the right statistics can iron out some of the problems with amateur data.

 29

Nhng ngi khc cho rng thng k ng cch c th gii quyt c mt s vn vi d liu
nghip d.

Together with colleagues at Wageningen University in the Netherlands, environmental scientist

Arnold van Vliet is developing statistical techniques to account for the uncertainty in amateur
phenological data.

Cng vi cc ng nghip ti i hc Wageningen H Lan, nh khoa hc mi trng Arnold van

Vliet ang pht trin cc k thut thng k gii thch cho s bt nh trong cc d liu khng
chuyn.

With the enthusiasm of amateur phenologists evident from past records, professional researchers are
now trying to create standardised recording schemes for future efforts.

Nh c s nhit tnh ca cc nh vt hu hc nghip d r rng theo cc h s qu kh, cc nh

nghin cu chuyn nghip hin ang c gng to ra cc l trnh ghi chp tiu chun cho n lc trong
tng lai.

They hope that well-designed studies will generate a volume of observations large enough to drown
out the idiosyncrasies of individual recorders.

H hy vng cc nghin cu c thit k tt s to ra mt lng cc quan st gim tnh ch

quan ca ngi ghi chp ring l

The data are cheap to collect, and can provide breadth in space, time and range of species.

Cc d liu r thu thp, v c th cung cp rng ri v mt khng gian, thi gian v phm vi ca
cc loi ".

"It's very difficult to collect data on a large geographical scale without enlisting an army of
observers," says Root.

 30

Rt kh thu thp d liu trn mt quy m a l rng ln m khng cn kim on quan st ", Root
cho bit.

Phenology also helps to drive home messages about climate change.

Vt hu hc cng gip a ra nhng thng ip v s thay i kh hu.

"Because the public understand these records, they accept them," says Sparks.

" Bi v cng chng hiu nhng h s ny, h chp nhn chng. ", Sparks ni.

It can also illustrate potentially unpleasant consequences, he adds, such as the finding that more rat
infestations are reported to local councils in warmer years.

N cng c th lm sng t nhng hu qu khng hay tim n, ng ni thm, chng hn nh vic

nhiu v chut ph hoi hn c bo co ln cc hi ng a phng vo nhng nm nng.

And getting people involved is great for public relations.

V c c mi ngi tham gia s tt cho cc quan h x hi .

"People are thrilled to think that the data they've been collecting as a hobby can be used for something
scientific - it empowers them," says Root.

Root cho bit: "Mi ngi xc ng khi ngh rng d liu m h thu thp cho vui c th c s dng
cho mc ch khoa hc iu ny mang li cho n sc mnh".

Source: http://mini-ielts.com/1029/reading/amateur-naturalists

(Dch bi Loan Nguyen)

 31

Khng long l g?
Although the name dinosaur is derived from the Greek for "terrible lizard", dinosaurs were not, in fact,
lizards at all.
Mc d tn khng long tn bt ngun t ting Hy Lp ngha l "con thn ln khng khip", nhng
khng long thc ra khng phi l thn ln.

Like lizards, dinosaurs are included in the class Reptilia, or reptiles, one of the five main classes of
Vertebrata, animals with backbones.
Ging nh thn ln, khng long c xp trong lp Reptilia, hay loi b st, mt trong nm lp chnh
ca Vertebrata, tc ng vt c xng sng.

However, at the next level of classification, within reptiles, significant differences in the skeletal
anatomy of lizards and dinosaurs have led scientists to place these groups of animals into two
different superorders: Lepidosauria, or lepidosaurs, and Archosauria, or archosaurs.
Tuy nhin, mc phn loi tip theo, trong cc loi b st, s khc bit ng k trong vic gii
phu xng ca thn ln v khng long khin cc nh khoa hc t cc nhm ng vt ny vo hai
lin b khc nhau: Lepidosauria, hay lepidosaurs, v Archosauria, hay archosaur.

Classified as lepidosaurs are lizards and snakes and their prehistoric ancestors.
Phn loi lepidosaurs l cc loi thn ln, rn v t tin tin s ca chng.

Included among the archosaurs, or "ruling reptiles", are prehistoric and modern crocodiles, and the
now extinct thecodonts, pterosaurs and dinosaurs.

 32

Trong s cc loi archosaurs, hay "loi b st thng tr", l nhng con c su thi tin s v hin i,
v cc loi tuyt chng nh thecodont, thn ln bay v khng long.

Palaeontologists believe that both dinosaurs and crocodiles evolved, in the later years of the Triassic
Period (248-208 million years ago), from creatures called pseudosuchian thecodonts.
Cc nh c sinh vt hc tin rng c loi khng long v c su tin ha, trong nhng nm sau ca
giai on Triassic (khong 248-208 triu nm trc), t nhng sinh vt c gi l thecodonts.

Lizards, snakes and different types of thecodont are believed to have evolved earlier in the Triassic
Period from reptiles known as eosuchians.
Chim, rn v cc loi thecodonts khc nhau c cho l pht trin sm hn trong giai on Triassic t
loi b st gi l eosuchians.

The most important skeletal differences between dinosaurs and other archosaurs are in the bones of
the skull, pelvis and limbs.
Nhng khc bit v xng quan trng nht gia khng long v cc archosaur khc nm trong xng
s, xng chu v chi.

Dinosaur skulls are found in a great range of shapes and sizes, reflecting the different eating habits
and lifestyles of a large and varied group of animals that dominated life on Earth for an extraordinary
165 million years.
Cc hp s khng long c tm thy trong nhiu hnh dng v kch c khc nhau, phn nh thi quen
n ung v li sng khc nhau ca mt nhm ng vt ln v a dng thng tr cuc sng trn tri
t trong sut 165 triu nm.

However, unlike the skulls of any other known animals, the skulls of dinosaurs had two long bones
known as vomers.
Tuy nhin, khng ging nh cc s ca bt k ng vt no khc, s ca khng long c hai xng di
c gi l xng l ma.

These bones extended on either side of the head, from the front of the snout to the level of the holes
on the skull known as the antorbital fenestra, situated in front of the dinosaur's orbits or eyesockets.
Nhng xng ny tri di hai bn u, t mt trc ca mm n mc l trn hp s c bit n
nh l a m antorbital, nm pha trc ca mt hoc hp mt ca khng long.

 33

All dinosaurs, whether large or small, quadrupedal or bidepal, fleet-footed or slow-moving, shared a
common body plan.
Tt c cc loi khng long, d ln hay nh, bn chn hoc hai chn, i bng chn hay di chuyn
chm, u c chung mt cch b tr c th.

Identification of this plan makes it possible to differentiate dinosaurs from any other types of animal,
even other archosaurs.
Xc nh cch b tr ny gip phn bit khng long vi bt k loi ng vt no khc, thm ch c cc
archosaur khc.

Most significantly, in dinosaurs, the pelvis and femur had evolved so that the hind limbs were held
vertically beneath the body, rather than sprawling out to the sides like the limbs of a lizard.
iu quan trng nht khng long l xng chu v xng i pht trin chn sau c gi
theo chiu dc bn di c th ch khng phi ko di ra hai bn nh chn ca thn ln.

The femur of a dinosaur had a sharply in-turned neck and a ball-shaped head, which slotted into a
fully open acetabulum or hip socket.
Xng i ca khng long c c u ngng cao v u hnh qu bng, m c to kha thnh mt
ci hay hc h.

A supra-acetabular crest helped prevent dislocation of the femur.

Mt nh cao trn ci s gip ngn nga s xo trn xng i.

The position of the knee joint, aligned below the acetabulum, made it possible for the whole hind limb
to swing backwards and forwards.
V tr ca khp gi, nm thng di ming ci, lm cho c hai chn sau c th li v pha sau hay
tin v pha trc.

This unique combination of features gave dinosaurs what is known as a "fully improved gait".
S kt hp c o ca cc tnh nng ny cho php khng long c c "dng i c ci thin hon
ton".

Evolution of this highly efficient method of walking also developed in mammals, but among reptiles it
occurred only in dinosaurs.
S tin ha ca phng php i b hiu qu cao ny cng c pht trin ng vt c v, nhng
trong s cc loi b st, n ch xy ra khng long.

 34

For the purpose of further classification, dinosaurs are divided into two orders: Saurischia, or
saurischian dinosaurs, and Ornithischia, or ornithischian dinosaurs.
phn loi thm, khng long c chia thnh hai loi l: Saurischia, hay khng long Saurischian, v
Ornithischia, hay khng long ornithischian.

This division is made on the basis of their pelvic anatomy.

S phn chia ny c thc hin trn c s gii phu khung chu.

All dinosaurs had a pelvic girdle with each side comprised of three bones: the pubis, ilium and
ischium.
Tt c cc loi khng long u c mt ci ai chu vi mi bn bao gm ba xng: xng mu, xng
chu v t hng.

However, the orientation of these bones follows one of two patterns.

Tuy nhin, s nh hng ca cc xng theo mt trong hai mu.

In saurischian dinosaurs, also known as lizard-hipped dinosaurs, the pubis points forwards, as is usual
in most types of reptile.

 35

loi khng long saurischian, cn c gi l khng long c hng thn ln, xng mu hng v pha
trc, nh thng thy hu ht cc loi b st.

By contrast, in ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs, the pubis points backwards towards the rear of
the animal, which is also true of birds.
Ngc li, loi khng long ornithischian, hay c hng ging chim, th xng mu hng v pha sau
ca con vt, ging vi loi chim.

Of the two orders of dinosaurs, the Saurischia was the larger and the first to evolve.
Trong hai loi khng long th Saurischia ln hn v l con u tin tin ho.

It is divided into two suborders: Therapoda, or therapods, and Sauropodomorpha, or

sauropodomorphs.
N c chia thnh hai tiu on: Therapoda, hoc therapods, v Sauropodomorpha, hoc
sauropodomorphs.

The therapods, or "beast feet", were bipedal, predatory carnivores.

Cc con therapod, hay "loi chn to qui vt", l loi ng vt n tht i bng hai chn.

 36

They ranged in size from the mighty Tyrannosaurus rex, 12m long, 5,6m tall and weighing an
estimated 6,4 tonnes, to the smallest known dinosaur, Compsognathus, a mere 1,4m long and
estimated 3kg in weight when fully grown.
H c kch thc t loi Tyrannosaurus rex hng mnh, di 12m, cao 5,6m v nng khong 6,4 tn,
cho ti khng long nh nht c bit n, loi Compsognathus, ch di 1,4m v nng khong 3kg khi
pht trin y .

The sauropodomorphs, or "lizard feet forms", included both bipedal and quadrupedal dinosaurs.

 37

Sauropodomorphs, hay "loi c hnh dng chn ca thn ln", bao gm c khng long hai chn v bn
chn.

Some sauropodomorphs were carnivorous or omnivorous but later species were typically herbivorous.
Mt s loi sauropodomorphs l ng vt n tht hoc n tp, nhng cc loi sau ny thng n c.

They included some of the largest and best-known of all dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus, a huge
quadruped with an elephant-like body, a long, thin tail and neck that gave it a total length of 27m, and
a tiny head.
Chng bao gm mt s loi ln nht v ni ting nht ca tt c cc loi khng long, chng hn nh
loi Diplodocus, mt ng vt bn chn khng l c c th nh mt con voi vi ui di, mng v c
vi tng chiu di 27m, v mt ci u nh.

Ornithischian dinosaurs were bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores.

Loi khng long Ornithischian l ng vt n c hai chn hoc bn chn.

They are now usually divided into three suborders: Ornithipoda, Thyreophora and Marginocephalia.
Hin nay chng thng c chia thnh ba dng: Ornithipoda, Thyreophora v Marginocephalia.

 38

The ornithopods, or "bird feet", both large and small, could walk or run on their long hind legs,
balancing their body by holding their tails stiffly off the ground behind them.
Loi chn chim ornithopods, c loi ln v nh, u c th i b hoc chy trn chn sau di ca
chng, chng cn bng c th bng cch gi ui ca mnh gp li khi mt t pha sau chng.

An example is Iguanodon, up to 9m long, 5m tall and weighing 4,5 tonnes.

Mt v d l loi Iguanodon, di ti 9m, di 5m v nng 4,5 tn.

The thyreophorans, or "shield bearers", also known as armoured dinosaurs, were quadrupeds with
rows of protective bony spikes, studs, or plates along their backs and tails.
Loi thyreophorans, hay "k cm mc", cn c gi l khng long bc thp, l nhng con th bn
chn vi hng cy gy, inh tn, hoc mng bo v xng, dc theo lng v ui.

 39

They included Stegosaurus, 9m long and weighing 2 tonnes.

Chng bao gm loi Stegosaurus, di 9m v nng 2 tn.

The marginocephalians, or "margined heads", were bipedal or quadrupedal ornithschians with a deep
bony frill or narrow shelf at the back of the skull.
Loi marginocephalians, hoc "u li lm", l loi ornithschians hai chn hoc bn chn vi nhng
inh tn xng su hoc k hp mt sau ca hp s.

 40

An example is Triceratops, a rhinoceros-like dinosaur, 9m long, weighing 5,4 tonnes and bearing a
prominent neck frill and three large horns.
Mt v d na l loi Triceratops, mt con khng long ging t gic, di 9m, trng lng 5,4 tn v
mang mt chic sng c ni bt v ba sng ln.

Trch ngun:
http://mini-ielts.com/1036/reading/what-is-a-dinosaur

 41

Hc bng v d
Learning Theory is rooted in the work of Ivan Pavlov, the famous scientist who discovered and
documented the principles governing how animals (humans included) learn in the 1900s.
L thuyt hc c bt ngun t tc phm ca Ivan Pavlov, nh khoa hc ni ting, ngi khm
ph v ghi li cc nguyn tc v cch thc ng vt (bao gm c con ngi) hc nh th no vo
nhng nm 1900.

Two basic kinds of learning or conditioning occur, one of which is famously known as the classical
conditioning.
C hai loi c bn ca hc tp hay iu kin xy ra, mt trong s ni ting c bit n l iu
kin c in.

Classical conditioning happens when an animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (signal) with a
stimulus that has intrinsic meaning based on how closely in time the two stimuli are presented.
iu kin c in xy ra khi mt con vt hc cch kt hp mt kch thch trung tnh (tn hiu) vi mt
kch thch c ngha ni ti da trn mc gn nhau v thi gian ca hai loi kch thch trn.

The classic example of classical conditioning is a dog's ability to associate the sound of a bell
(something that originally has no meaning to the dog) with the presentation of food (something that
has a lot of meaning to the dog) a few moments later.
V d c in v iu kin c in ny l kh nng ca ch ch trong vic kt hp ting chung (ci m
ban u khng c ngha i vi con ch) vi phn gii thiu thc n (ci g c ngha rt ln i
vi con ch) sau vi pht.

 42

Dogs are able to learn the association between bell and food, and will salivate immediately after
hearing the bell once this connection has been made.
Ch c th hc c mi lin quan gia chung v thc n, v s chy nc bt ngay sau khi nghe
ting chung mt khi kt ni ny c thc hin.

Years of learning research have led to the creation of a highly precise learning theory that can be used
to understand and predict how and under what circumstances most any animal will learn, including
human beings, and eventually help people figure out how to change their behaviours.
Nhiu nm hc nghin cu dn n vic to ra mt l thuyt hc tp chnh xc cao c th c s
dng hiu v d on cch no v trong nhng hon cnh no m bt k con th no s hc, bao
gm c con ngi, v cui cng gip con ngi tm ra cch thay i hnh vi ca chng.

Role models are a popular notion for guiding child development, but in recent years very interesting
research has been done on learning by examples in other animals.
Cc m hnh vai tr l mt khi nim ph bin cho vic hng dn s pht trin ca tr, nhng trong
nhng nm gn y nghin cu y th v ny c thc hin bng cch hc theo cc v d v cc
ng vt khc.

If the subject of animal learning is taught very much in terms of classical or operant conditioning, it
places too much emphasis on how we allow animals to learn and not enough on how they are
equipped to learn.
Nu ch hc hi ng vt c dy rt nhiu v iu kin c in hoc iu hnh th n nhn mnh
qu nhiu n vic chng ta cho php ng vt hc nh th no v khng chng c trang b
hc.

To teach a course of mine, I have been dipping profitably into a very interesting and accessible
compilation of papers on social learning in mammals, including chimps and human children, edited by
Heyes and Galef (1996).
dy mt kha hc ca ti, ti xem qua mt ti liu th v v c th tip cn c v cc bi bo
v hc tp x hi ng vt c v, bao gm c tinh tinh v con ngi, do Heyes v Galef bin son
(1996).

The research reported in one paper started with a school field trip to Israel to a pine forest where many
pine cones were discovered, stripped to the central core.
Nghin cu ny c bo co trong mt bi bo bt u vi mt chuyn i thc a ti Israel ti mt
khu rng thng ni c nhiu qu thng c pht hin, b tho ri ra khi li trung tm.

 43

So the investigation started with no weighty theoretical intent, but was directed at finding out what
was eating the nutritious pine seeds and how they managed to get them out of the cones.
V vy, cuc iu tra bt u khng c nh g c, nhng c hng n vic tm ra th phm
n cc ht ging dinh dng ny v lm th no chng c th tch c qu thng ra.

The culprit proved to be the versatile and athletic black rat, (Rattus rattus), and the technique was to
bite each cone scale off at its base, in sequence from base to top following the spiral growth pattern of
the cone.
Th phm chng minh l con chut en do dai v kho mnh (tn l Rattus rattus), v k thut
ca n l cn tng ming qu thng gc theo th t t chn n ti u theo hnh xon c ca qu
thng.

Urban black rats were found to lack the skill and were unable to learn it even if housed with
experienced cone strippers.
Nhng con chut chut th c tm thy l khng c k nng ny v khng th hc n ngay c
khi c chung bi cc con c kinh nghim tch qu thng.

However, infants of urban mothers cross-fostered by stripper mothers acquired the skill, whereas
infants of stripper mothers fostered by an urban mother could not.
Tuy nhin, cc con chut s sinh th c nui dng bi cc con chut m kinh nghim c th
t c k nng ny, trong khi cc con s sinh ca con m c kinh nghim trn c nui dng bi
mt con chut m th th li khng th t c k nng tch ht thng.

Clearly the skill had to be learned from the mother.

R rng k nng ny c hc c t ngi m.

Further elegant experiments showed that naive adults could develop the skill if they were provided
with cones from which the first complete spiral of scales had been removed; rather like our new
photocopier which you can work out how to use once someone has shown you how to switch it on.
Nhng th nghim tao nh hn na cho thy nhng con chut trng thnh ngy th c th pht trin
k nng ny nu chng c cung cp cc qu thng m t xon c hon chnh u tin c
loi b; ging nh vic bn c th bit cch s dng my photocopy mi khi ai ch bn lm th no
bt n ln vy.

In the case of rats, the youngsters take cones away from the mother when she is still feeding on them,
allowing them to acquire the complete stripping skill.

 44

Trong trng hp cc con chut, nhng con non ly thng ra khi m chng khi m chng ang cho
chng n v iu ny cho php chng c c k nng tch thng hon chnh.

A good example of adaptive bearing we might conclude, but lets see the economies.
Mt v d in hnh v kh nng mang tnh thch ng m chng ta c th kt lun, nhng hy xem
tnh kinh t.

This was determined by measuring oxygen uptake of a rat stripping a cone in a metabolic chamber to
calculate energetic cost and comparing it with the benefit of the pine seeds measured by calorimeter.
iu ny c xc nh bng cch o s hp thu oxy ca mt con chut khi tho mt qu thng trong
mt bung trao i cht tnh ton chi ph nng lng v so snh n vi li ch ca ht thng c
o bng calorimeter.

The cost proved to be less than 10% of the energetic value of the cone.
Chi ph chng t l t hn 10% gi tr nng lng ca qu thng.

An acceptable profit margin.

Mt khon li nhun c th chp nhn c.

A paper in 1996, Animal Behaviour by Bednekoff and Baida, provides a different view of the
adaptiveness of social learning.
Mt bi bo nm 1996 mang tn Hnh vi ng vt ca Bednekoff v Baida cung cp mt ci nhn
khc v tnh thch ng ca vic hc tp x hi.

 45

It concerns the seed caching behaviour of Clark's Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) and the
Mexican Jay (Aphelocoma ultramarina).
N lin quan n hnh vi lu tr ht ging ca loi chim b ht Clark (Nucifraga columbiana) v loi
gi ci Mexico (bch cu phn trng).

The former is a specialist, caching 30,000 or so seeds in scattered locations that it will recover over
the months of winter; the Mexican Jay will also cache food but is much less dependent upon this than
the Nutcracker.
Loi chim b ht l mt chuyn gia c th giu hn 30,000 ht ging cc a im ri rc m n s
ly li trong nhng thng ma ng; cn loi chim gi ci Mexico cng giu thc n nhng t ph
thuc hn loi chim b ht.

The two species also differ in their social structure: the Nutcracker being rather solitary while the Jay
forages in social groups.
Hai loi ny cng khc nhau trong cu trc x hi ca chng: Chim b ht kh c n trong khi chim
gi ci th tm mi trong cc nhm x hi.

The experiment is to discover not just whether a bird can remember where it hid a seed but also if it
can remember where it saw another bird hide a seed.
Th nghim ny nhm khm ph ra rng khng ch chim c th nh ni n giu ht ging m cn
c th nh ni n nhn thy mt con chim khc giu ht ging.

The design is slightly comical with a cacher bird wandering about a room with lots of holes in the
floor hiding food in some of the holes, while watched by an observer bird perched in a cage.

 46

Thit k ny hi hi hc vi mt con chim giu ht i lang thang quanh phng c rt nhiu l trn
sn nh giu thc n trong mt s l, trong khi c quan st bi mt con chim quan st ang ngi
trong mt ci chung.

Two days later, cachers and observers are tested for their discovery rate against an estimated random
performance.
Hai ngy sau, cc con chim giu ht v cc con chim quan st ny c kim tra v t l khm ph
ca chng so vi kt qu c lng ngu nhin.

In the role of cacher, not only the Nutcracker but also the less specialised Jay performed above
chance; more surprisingly, however, jay observers were as successful as jay cachers whereas
nutcracker observers did no better than chance.
Trong vai tr ca chim giu ht, khng ch loi chim b ht m c chim gi ci t chuyn nghim hn
cng thc hin tt hn so vi xc xut tnh c; tuy nhin ng ngc nhin hn, l cc con chim quan
st gi ci thnh cng ngang bng vi cc con giu ht gi ci trong khi cc con chim b ht quan st
th khng lm vic ny tt hn.

It seems that, whereas the Nutcracker is highly adapted at remembering where it hid its own seeds, the
social living Mexican Jay is more adept at remembering, and so exploiting, the caches of others.
C v nh, trong khi chim b ht rt thch nghi khi nh v ni n giu ht ging ca mnh, th chim
gi ci sng trong x hi li thnh tho vic ghi nh, v do n khm ph tt hn ni giu ca
nhng con khc.

Tm tt bi kho:
While the Nutcracker is more able to cache seeds, the Jay relies less on caching food and is thus less
specialised in this ability, but more social.
Trong khi chim b ht c kh nng giu ht ging th chim gi ci khng da nhiu vo vic giu thc
n ny v do t chuyn mn v kh nng ny hn nhng n c k nng x hi nhiu hn.

To study their behaviour of caching and finding their caches, an experiment was designed and carried
out to test these two birds for their ability to remember where they hid the seeds.
nghin cu hnh vi ca chng v vic giu v tm kim ni giu, mt th nghim c thit k
v thc hin kim tra hai con chim ny v kh nng nh ni chng giu ht ging.

In the experiment, the cacher bird hid seeds in the ground while the other watched.
Trong th nghim, chim giu giu ht ging trong lng t trong khi con chim khc quan st.

 47

As a result, the Nutcracker and the Mexican Jay showed different performance in the role of observer
at finding the seeds - the observing Nutcracker didnt do as well as its counterpart.
Kt qu l chim b ht v chim gi ci cho thy hiu sut khc nhau trong vai tr ca chim quan st
khi tm kim cc ht ging - l chim quan st b ht khng lm tt cng nh i tc ca n l chim
gi ci.

Trch ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1048/reading/learning-by-examples

Thng tin thm:

Thng v trng l ngun quan trng cung cp thc n cho nhiu loi chim n ht c cc loi th nh, nh
chim b ht Clark, loi chim pht tn ht ch lc cho cc loi thng. Mi con chim b ht Clark tch tr
khong 30.000 ti 100.000 ht mi nm trong cc ni ct giu nh, phn tn, thng nm su 2 3 cm
di t hay ct si. Chng s dng cc kho ht ny trong thi k khan him thc n cng nh nui
chim non. Cc ni ct giu ny ca chim b ht thng l thch hp cho s ny mm ca ht cng nh s
sng st ca cy non. Cc kho ct giu ny thng khng th tm li c vo thi gian tuyt tan, iu ny
gp phn vo vic ti sinh rng. Kt qu l thng v trng thng mc thnh cm gm vi cy, bt ngun
t mt kho vi 2-15 ht hoc hn th.

 48

Mt thi k bng h mi

William Curry is a serious, sober climate scientist, not an art critic. But he has spent a lot of time
perusing Emanuel Gottlieb Leutzes famous painting George Washington Crossing the Delaware,
which depicts a boatload of colonial American soldiers making their way to attack English and
Hessian troops the day after Christmas in 1776.
William Curry l mt nh khoa hc v kh hu nghim khc, thng minh, ch khng phi l nh ph
bnh ngh thut. Nhng ng dnh rt nhiu thi gian cho vic nghin cu bc tranh ni ting ca
Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze "George Washington Crossing the Delaware", m t mt lc lng thuyn
ca cc chin binh thuc a M tn cng i qun Anh v Hessian vo ngy sau l Ging sinh nm
1776.

Most people think these other guys in the boat are rowing, but they are actually pushing the ice
away, says Curry, tapping his finger on a reproduction of the painting.
"Hu ht mi ngi ngh nhng g khc trn thuyn ang cho, nhng thc t h ang y tng bng
ra xa ", Curry ni, v nh vo bn sao ca bc tranh.

 49

Sure enough, the lead oarsman is bashing the frozen river with his boot.
Chc chn, ngi cho thuyn dn u ang p mnh vo con sng ng cng vi chic giy ca
mnh.

I grew up in Philadelphia.
Ti ln ln Philadelphia.

The place in this painting is 30 minutes away by car.

a im trong bc tranh ny cch 30 pht i xe hi.

I can tell you, this kind of thing just doesnt happen anymore".
Ti c th ni vi bn, iu ny khng cn xy ra na".

But it may again soon.

Nhng n c th li sm.

And ice-choked scenes, similar to those immortalised by the 16th-century Flemish painter Pieter
Brueghel the Elder, may also return to Europe.
V cc cnh bng bp nght th, tng t nh nhng bc tranh bt t ca ha s ngi o nm 18
tui Pieter Brueghel, Elder, cng c th tr li u Chu.

His works, including the 1565 masterpiece Hunters in the Snow, make the now-temperate European
landscapes look more like Lapland.
Cc tc phm ca ng, bao gm c "K Th sn trongTuyt" nm 1565, lm cho cnh quan Chu u
by gi tr nn n ho ging Lapland hn.

 50

Such frigid settings were commonplace during a period dating roughly from 1300 to 1850 because
much of North America and Europe was in the throes of a little ice age.
Nhng bi cnh lnh gi nh vy l ph bin trong khong thi gian t 1300 n 1850 bi v phn ln
Bc M v Chu u lc ang ri vo tnh trng bng gi ca mt thi k bng h.

And now there is mounting evidence that the chill could return.
V by gi c bng chng cho thy s lnh gi ny c th tr li.

A growing number of scientists believe conditions are ripe for another prolonged cooldown, or small
ice age.
Mt s lng ngy cng tng cc nh khoa hc tin rng iu kin chn mui cho mt thi k h
nhit ko di, hoc thi i bng h nh.

While no one is predicting a brutal ice sheet like the one that covered the Northern Hemisphere with
glaciers about 12,000 years ago, the next cooling trend could drop average temperatures 5 degrees
Fahrenheit over much of the United States and 10 degrees in the Northeast, northern Europe, and
northern Asia.
Mc d khng c ai tin on c mt tm bng ln khng khip nh vng bng bn cu bc
vi sng bng cch y khong 12,000 nm, xu hng lm mt tip theo c th gim nhit trung
bnh 5 Fahrenheit hu ht Hoa K v 10 vng ng Bc, Bc u v Bc .

It could happen in 10 years, says Terrence Joyce, who chairs the Woods Hole Physical
Oceanography Department.
Terrence Joyce, ngi ng u Cc Hi dng hc Vt l Woods Hole, ni: "iu ny c th xy ra
trong 10 nm ti".

Once it does, it can take hundreds of years to reverse.

Mt khi iu xy ra, c th mt hng trm nm o ngc.

And he is alarmed that Americans have yet to take the threat seriously.
V ng cng cnh gic rng ngi M vn cha nhn c mi e da nghim trng ny.

A drop of 5 to 10 degrees entails much more than simply bumping up the thermostat and carrying on.
Ch cn gim t 5 n 10 thi i hi chng ta phi lm vic rt nhiu ch khng ch n gin l
iu chnh li nhit .

 51

Both economically and ecologically, such quick, persistent chilling could have devastating
consequences.
C v mt kinh t ln sinh thi, ci lnh lin tc, nhanh chng nh vy c th li nhng hu qu
nng n.

A 2002 report titled Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises, produced by the National
Academy of Sciences, pegged the cost from agricultural losses alone at $100 billion to $250 billion
while also predicting that damage to ecologies could be vast and incalculable.
Bo co nm 2002 c ta "S thay i kh hu bt ng: Mt s bt ng bt kh khng", do Vin
Hn lm Khoa hc Quc gia sn xut, ch ra tn tht v nng nghip t 100 t USD n 250 t
USD trong khi cng d on rng thit hi i vi sinh thi c th l rt ln v khng th tnh c.

A grim sampler: disappearing forests, increased housing expenses, dwindling fresh water, lower crop
yields, and accelerated species extinctions.
Mt v d ti t hn nh rng bin mt, chi ph nh tng cao, lng nc ngt suy gim, cy trng
gim nng sut, v s cc loi tuyt chng nhanh chng.

The reason for such huge effects is simple.

L do cho nhng hiu ng to ln nh vy rt n gin.

A quick climate change wreaks far more disruption than a slow one.
Mt s thay i kh hu nhanh chng s gy ra s gin on nhiu hn s chm tr.

People, animals, plants, and the economies that depend on them are like rivers; says the report: "For
example, high water in a river will pose few problems until the water runs over the bank, after which
levees can be breached and massive flooding can occur.
Con ngi, ng vt, thc vt, v cc nn kinh t ph thuc vo chng ging nh cc con sng; Theo
bo co cho bit: "V d, nc dng cao trong mt con sng s gy ra mt s vn cho n khi nc
chy qua b, sau c th chy qua cc con v l lt ln c th xy ra.

Many biological processes undergo shifts at particular thresholds of temperature and precipitation.
Nhiu qu trnh sinh hc c th b thay i cc ngng c bit ca nhit v lng ma.

Political changes since the last ice age could make survival far more difficult for the world's poor.
Nhng thay i chnh tr k t thi k bng h cui cng c th lm cho s sng cn tr nn kh khn
hn i vi ngi ngho trn th gii.

 52

During previous cooling periods, whole tribes simply picked up and moved south, but that option
doesn't work in the modern, tense world of closed borders.
Trong nhng khong thi gian bng h trc y, c b lc ch n gin l t tp li v di chuyn v
pha nam, nhng la chn khng hot ng trong th gii cht chi ngy nay vi cc bin gii b
khp kn.

"To the extent that abrupt climate change may cause rapid and extensive changes of fortune for those
who live off the land, the inability to migrate may remove one of the major safety nets for distressed
people, says the report.
Bn bo co cho bit: "Trong trng hp s thay i kh hu t ngt c th gy ra s thay i ln v
ti sn cho nhng ngi sng ngoi vng t, vic khng c kh nng di c c th loi b mt trong
nhng mng li an ton ln cho ngi ngho kh".

But first things first.

Nhng iu u tin g.

Isn't the earth actually warming? Indeed it is, says Joyce.

C phi l tri t thc s m ln khng? Tht vy, Joyce ni.

In his cluttered office, full of soft light from the foggy Cape Cod morning, he explains how such
warming could actually be the surprising culprit of the next mini-ice age.
Trong vn phng ln xn ca ng, y nh sng du t bui sng Cape Cod sng m, ng gii
thch s nng ln ny c th thc s l th phm ng ngc nhin ca thi k bng h nh k tip.

The paradox is a result of the appearance over the past 30 years in the North Atlantic of huge rivers of
fresh water - the equivalent of a 10-foot-thick layer - mixed into the salty sea.
Nghch l ny l kt qu ca s xut hin trong 30 nm qua Bc i Ty Dng ca cc con sng
nc ngt khng l - tng ng vi mt lp dy 10 b - trn ln vo bin mn.

No one is certain where the fresh torrents are coming from, but a prime suspect is melting Arctic ice,
caused by a build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that traps solar energy.
Khng ai chc chn ni m cc dng nc ngt ny n t u, nhng mt nghi phm chnh l bng
tan Bc Cc, c gy ra bi s tch t carbon dioxide trong bu kh quyn m gi nhit nng lng
mt tri.

The freshwater trend is major news in ocean-science circles.

Xu hng nc ngt ny l nhng tin tc quan trng trong gii khoa hc i dng.

 53

Bob Dickson, a British oceanographer who sounded an alarm at a February conference in Honolulu,
has termed the drop in salinity and temperature in the Labrador Sea - a body of water between
northeastern Canada and Greenland that adjoins the Atlantic - "arguably the largest full-depth changes
observed in the modern instrumental oceanographic record.
Bob Dickson, mt nh hi dng hc ngi Anh pht i mt ting bo ng ti mt cuc hp
thng Hai Honolulu, khi ng a ra khi nim v vic gim mn v nhit bin Labrador -
mt vng nc gia ng bc Canada v Greenland nm st vi i Ty Dng - "c th ni nhng
thay i su sc ln nht quan st c nm trong h s hi dng hc hin i ".

The trend could cause a little ice age by subverting the northern penetration of Gulf Stream waters.
Xu hng ny c th gy ra mt thi k bng h nh bng cch lt s xm nhp ca dng nc m
i Ty Dng.

Normally, the Gulf Stream, laden with heat soaked up in the tropics, meanders up the east coasts of
the United States and Canada.
Thng thng, dng nc m ny chu nhit vng nhit i, i un ln b bin pha ng ca
Hoa K v Canada.

As it flows northward, the stream surrenders heat to the air.

Khi n chy v pha bc, dng nc ny s lm nng khng kh.

Because the prevailing North Atlantic winds blow eastward, a lot of the heat wafts to Europe.
Bi v gi i Ty Dng thng hay thi v pha ng nn rt nhiu gi nng to n chu u.

Thats why many scientists believe winter temperatures on the Continent are as much as 36 degrees
Fahrenheit warmer than those in North America at the same latitude.
l l do ti sao nhiu nh khoa hc tin rng nhit ma ng trn lc a ny cao hn 36
Fahrenheit so vi Bc M cng v .

Frigid Boston, for example, lies at almost precisely the same latitude as balmy Rome.
V d Frigid Boston nm gn nh chnh xc v vi Rome c khng kh m du.

And some scientists say the heat also warms Americans and Canadians.
V mt s nh khoa hc cho bit ci nng trn cng lm m ngi M v ngi Canada.

Its a real mistake to think of this solely as a European phenomenon," says Joyce.

 54

Joyce cho bit: " l mt sai lm thc s khi ngh v iu ny ch l mt hin tng chu u", Joyce
ni.

Having given up its heat to the air, the now-cooler water becomes denser and sinks into the North
Atlantic by a mile or more in a process oceanographers call thermohaline circulation.
Sau khi hm nng khng kh, lun nc ngy cng tr nn lnh hn ny tr nn dy t hn v chm
xung Bc i Ty Dng khong hn mt dm trong mt qu trnh m cc nh hi dng hc gi l
vng tun hon nhit.

This massive column of cascading cold is the main engine powering a deep-water current called the
Great Ocean Conveyor that snakes through all the worlds oceans.
Ci lnh tng tng lp lp cc ln ny l nguyn nhn to ra nng lng cho dng nc su gi l
bng ti i dng (Great Ocean Conveyor) chy qua tt c cc i dng ca th gii.

But as the North Atlantic fills with fresh water , it grows less dense, making the waters carried
northward by the Gulf Stream less able to sink.
Tuy nhin, khi Bc i Ty Dng trn ngp nc ngt th n s pht trin chm hn, lm cho dng
nc ny chy v pha bc ca Gulf Stream t b chm.

The new mass of relatively fresh water sits on top of the ocean like a big thermal blanket, threatening
the thermohaline circulation.
Dng nc mi tng i ngt ny nm nm trn nh i dng nh mt tm chn nhit ln e do
vic lu thng nhit .

That in turn could make the Gulf Stream slow or veer southward.
iu ny c th khin Gulf Stream tr nn chm li hoc hng v hng nam.

 55

At some point, the whole system could simply shut down, and do so quickly.
C nhng lc ton b h thng ch n gin c th ng ca, v lm nh vy mt cch nhanh chng.

There is increasing evidence that we are getting closer to a transition point, from which we can jump
to a new state.
C bng chng ngy cng tng rng chng ta ang n gn im chuyn tip, t chng ta c th
nhy n mt trng thi mi.

(trch cun IELTS Reading Actual Test)

Practice more at: http://mini-ielts.com/1049/reading/a-new-ice-age

Thng tin thm:

C l v "vt sng Delaware" ni ting nht l s kin lc qun ca George Washington vt sng
Delaware trn nhng chic thuyn nh trong thi Cch mng M vo ging sinh nm 1776. Cuc vt
sng ny dn n cuc tn cng bt ng v thnh cng khi nh bi lc lng Hessian (lnh nh thu
ngi c) ang ng ti Trenton, New Jersey.

Thermohaline circulation (THC) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven
by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.

 56

Thun tay tri trong mt th gii thun tay phi

The world is designed for right-handed people.

Th gii c thit k cho ngi thun tay phi.

Why does a tenth of the population prefer the left? The probability that two right-handed people would
have a left-handed child is only about 9,5 percent.
Ti sao mt phn mi dn s li thch bn tri? Xc sut m hai ngi thun tay phi c mt a tr tay
tri ch khong 9,5 phn trm.

The chance rises to 19,5 percent if one parent is a lefty and 26 percent if both parents are left-handed.
C hi tng ln 19,5 phn trm nu cha m l mt ngi thun tay tri v 26 phn trm nu c hai cha m
u thun tri tay.

The preference, however, could also stem from an infants imitation of his parents.
Tuy nhin, vic thin v ny cng c th bt ngun t vic bt chc cha m ca tr s sinh.

To test genetic influence, starting in the 1970s British biologist Marian Annett of the University of
Leicester hypothesized that no single gene determines handedness.
kim tra mc nh hng di truyn, bt u t nhng nm 1970, nh sinh vt hc ngi Anh,
Marian Annett ca i hc Leicester, a ra gi thuyt rng khng mt gen no xc nh c tnh
thun tay.

 57

Rather, during fetal development, a certain molecular factor helps to strengthen the brains left
hemisphere, which increases the probability that the right hand will be dominant, because the left side of
the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
Thay vo , trong qu trnh pht trin ca bo thai, mt yu t phn t nht nh gip tng cng bn
cu no tri ca no, lm tng kh nng tay phi chim u th bi v pha bn tri ca no kim sot bn
phi ca c th v ngc li.

Among the minority of people who lack this factor, handedness develops entirely by chance.
Trong s t nhng ngi thiu yu t ny, tnh thun tay pht trin hon ton do tnh c.

Research conducted on twins complicates the theory, however.

Tuy nhin, nghin cu thc hin trn cc cp song sinh lm phc tp thm l thuyt trn.

One in five sets of identical twins involves one right-handed and one left-handed person, despite the fact
that their genetic material is the same.
Mt trong 5 cp song sinh cng trng th c 1 cp l mt ngi thun tay phi v mt ngi thun tri
tay, mc d thc t l vt liu di truyn ca h l nh nhau.
Genes, therefore, are not solely responsible for handedness.
Do , cc gen khng phi ch chu trch nhim v s thun tay ny.

Genetic theory is also undermined by results from Peter Hepper and his team at Queens University in
Belfast, Ireland.
L thuyt di truyn cng b nh hng bi cc kt qu t Peter Hepper v nhm ca ng ti i hc
Queen Belfast, Ireland.

In 2004 the psychologists used ultrasound to show that by the 15th week of pregnancy, fetuses already
have a preference as to which thumb they suck.
Nm 2004, cc nh tm l hc s dng siu m chng mnh rng vo tun th 15 ca thai k, thai
nhi c mt u tin khi dng ngn tay ci m chng mt.

In most cases, the preference continued after birth.

Trong hu ht cc trng hp, s thch ny c tip tc sau khi sinh.

At 15 weeks, though, the brain does not yet have control over the bodys limbs.
Tuy nhin, vo tun th 15, no vn khng kim sot c cc chi ca c th.

Hepper speculates that fetuses tend to prefer whichever side of the body is developing quicker and that
their movements, in turn, influence the brains development.

 58

Hepper phng on rng thai nhi c khuynh hng thch bt k bn no ca c th pht trin nhanh hn
v do cc c ng ca chng nh hng n s pht trin ca no.

Whether this early preference is temporary or holds up throughout development and infancy is unknown.
Cho d s u tin ban u ny l tm thi hay gi vy trong sut qu trnh pht trin v thi th u th
khng bit trc c.

Genetic predetermination is also contradicted by the widespread observation that children do not settle on
either their right or left hand until they are two or three years old.
Xc nh trc v mt di truyn cng b mu thun bi s quan st ph bin rng tr em khng th xc
nh c tay phi hoc tri cho n khi chng c hai hoc ba tui.

But even if these correlations were true, they did not explain what actually causes left-handedness.
Nhng ngay c khi nhng tng quan ny l ng, chng cng khng gii thch iu g thc s gy ra s
thun tay tri.

Furthermore, specialization on either side of the body is common among animals.

Hn na, chuyn mn ha hai bn c th rt ph bin trong s cc ng vt.

Cats will favor one paw over another when fishing toys out from under the couch.
Mo thun mt ngn tay khc khi bt cc chi t bn di i vng.

Horses stomp more frequently with one hoof than the other.
Nga dm chn ln nhiu hn vi mt mng thun ca n.

Certain crabs motion predominantly with the left or right claw.

Mt s loi cua chuyn ng ch yu vi ci cng tri hoc phi.

In evolutionary terms, focusing power and dexterity in one limb is more efficient than having to train two,
four or even eight limbs equally.
Trong tin ha t nhin, vic tp trung sc mnh v s kho lo ca mt chi l hiu qu hn nhiu so vi
vic phi o to hai, bn hoc tm chi ging nhau.

Yet for most animals, the preference for one side or the other is seemingly random.
Tuy nhin, i vi hu ht ng vt, vic a thch cho mt mt tri hay phi ny l dng nh ngu
nhin.

The overwhelming dominance of the right hand is associated only with humans.

 59

S thng tr p o ca tay phi ch lin quan n con ngi.

That fact directs attention toward the brains two hemispheres and perhaps toward language.
Thc t hng s ch n hai bn cu no v c l hng ti ngn ng.

Interest in hemispheres dates back to at least 1836.

S quan tm ca cc bn cu bt u t nht l t nm 1836.

That year, at a medical conference, French physician Marc Dax reported on an unusual commonality
among his patients.
Nm , ti mt cuc hi tho y khoa, bc s ngi Php Marc Dax bo co v mt im chung khng
bnh thng gia cc bnh nhn ca ng.

During his many years as a country doctor, Dax had encountered more than 40 men and women for whom
speech was difficult, the result of some kind of brain damage.
Trong sut nhiu nm lm bc s ngi nc ngoi, Dax gp hn 40 n ng v ph n mc bnh kh
pht m v kt qu l h b tn thng mt phn no.

What was unique was that every individual suffered damage to the left side of the brain.
iu duy nht l mi c nhn trn u b tn thng pha bn tri ca no.

At the conference, Dax elaborated on his theory, stating that each half of the brain was responsible for
certain functions and that the left hemisphere controlled speech.
Ti hi ngh, Dax gii thch l thuyt ca ng, ni rng mi na no u chu trch nhim v mt s
chc nng v rng bn cu no tri kim sot ging ni .

Other experts showed little interest in the Frenchmans ideas.

Cc chuyn gia khc cho thy t quan tm n tng ca chuyn gia ngi Php ny.

Over time, however, scientists found more and more evidence of people experiencing speech difficulties
following injury to the left brain.
Tuy nhin, theo thi gian, cc nh khoa hc ngy cng c nhiu bng chng v nhng ngi gp kh
khn ngn ng u b nhng tn thng no tri.

Patients with damage to the right hemisphere most often displayed disruptions in perception or
concentration.
Bnh nhn b tn thng vng bn cu phi thng c nhng gin on trong nhn thc hoc tp trung.

 60

Major advancements in understanding the brains asymmetry were made in the 1960s as a result of
so-called split-brain surgery, developed to help patients with epilepsy.
Nhng tin b chnh trong vic hiu s bt i xng ca no c thc hin trong nhng nm 1960
vi kt qu vic ra i ngnh phu thut phn chia no c pht trin gip bnh nhn b ng kinh.

During this operation, doctors severed the corpus callosumthe nerve bundle that connects the two
hemispheres.
Trong qu trnh phu thut ny, cc bc s ct t si giy thn kinh callosum - dy thn kinh kt ni hai
bn cu no.

The surgical cut also stopped almost all normal communication between the two hemispheres, which
offered researchers the opportunity to investigate each sides activity.
Vic phu thut ny cng ngn chn hu ht cc giao tip thng thng gia hai bn cu no, cho php
cc nh nghin cu c c hi iu tra hot ng ca mi bn.

In 1949 neurosurgeon Juhn Wada devised the first test to provide access to the brains functional
organization of language.
Nm 1949, bc s phu thut thn kinh Juhn Wada a ra bi kim tra u tin nhm cung cp kh
nng tip cn n vic t chc ngn ng ca no.

By injecting an anesthetic into the right or left carotid artery, Wada temporarily paralyzed one side of a
healthy brain, enabling him to more closely study the other sides capabilities.
Bng cch tim thuc gy m vo ng mch cnh bn phi hoc bn tri, Wada tm thi lm t lit mt
bn ca mt b no khe mnh, cho php anh ta nghin cu k hn cc kh nng ca bn kia.

Based on this approach, Brenda Milner and the late Theodore Rasmussen of the Montreal Neurological
Institute published a major study in 1975 that confirmed the theory that country doctor Dax had
formulated nearly 140 years earlier: in 96 percent of right-handed people, language is processed much
more intensely in the left hemisphere.
Da vo cch tip cn ny, Brenda Milner v Theodore Rasmussen ca Vin Thn kinh Montreal cng
b mt nghin cu ln vo nm 1975 khng nh l thuyt m bc s nng thn Dax hnh thnh gn
140 nm trc l trong 96% ngi thun tay tri, ngn ng c x l mnh hn nhiu bn cu tri.

The correlation is not as clear in lefties, however.

Tuy nhin, nhng ngi thun tay tri th tng quan ny khng r rng.

For two thirds of them, the left hemisphere is still the most active language processor.
Trong 2/3 s ngi thun tay tri, bn cu tri vn l b x l ngn ng nng ng nht.

 61

But for the remaining third, either the right side is dominant or both sides work equally, controlling
different language functions.
Nhng i vi 1/3 cn li, hoc bn phi chim u th hoc c hai bn u hot ng cn bng nhau,
kim sot cc chc nng ngn ng khc nhau.

That last statistic has slowed acceptance of the notion that the predominance of right-handedness is driven
by left-hemisphere dominance in language processing.
Thng k cui cng ny lm chm li s chp nhn ca khi nim rng u th ca tay phi c iu
khin bi s thng tr tri ca bn cu trong qu trnh x l ngn ng.

It is not at all clear why language control should somehow have dragged the control of body movement
with it.
N khng phi l nguyn nhn gii thch v sao vic kim sot ngn ng bng cch no ko s kim
sot ca chuyn ng c th i theo vi n.

Some experts think one reason the left hemisphere reigns over language is because the organs of speech
processingthe larynx and tongueare positioned on the bodys symmetry axis.
Mt s chuyn gia cho rng l do bn cu no tri thng tr cc c quan x l li ni - thanh qun v li
- nm trn trc i xng ca c th.

Because these structures were centered, it may have been unclear, in evolutionary terms, which side of the
brain should control them, and it seems unlikely that shared operation would result in smooth motor
activity.
Bi v cc cu trc ny c tp trung, vic ny c th khng r rng lm, v mt tin ha, pha bn no
ca no nn kim sot chng, v c v khng chc l vic hot ng chia s ny c dn n cc hot ng
trn tru hn hay khng.

Language and handedness could have developed preferentially for very different reasons as well.
Ngn ng v s thun tay cng c th pht trin theo cch ph thuc vo nhau v nhng l do rt khc
nhau.

For example, some researchers, including evolutionary psychologist Michael C Corballis of the University
of Auckland in New Zealand, think that the origin of human speech lies in gestures.
V d, mt s nh nghin cu, bao gm nh tm l hc tin ha Michael C Corballis ca i hc
Auckland New Zealand, cho rng ngun gc ca li ni ca con ngi nm trong c ch.

Gestures predated words and helped language emerge.

 62

C ch c trc t ng v n gip ngn ng xut hin.

If the left hemisphere began to dominate speech, it would have dominated gestures, too, and because the
left brain controls the right side of the body, the right hand developed more strongly.
Nu bn cu tri bt u chim u th trong li ni, n cng s chim u th trong cc c ch v bi v
no tri kim sot phn bn phi ca c th nn tay phi pht trin mnh hn.

Perhaps we will know more soon.

C l chng ta s bit sm hn.

In the meantime, we can revel in what, if any, differences handedness brings to our human talents.
Trong khi , chng ta c th khm ph ra nhng g m s khc bit ca s thun tay c th to ra nhng
ti nng nu c hay khng.

Popular wisdom says right-handed, left-brained people excel at logical, analytical thinking.
Ngi ta thng hay ni rng nhng ngi thun tay tri th vt tri v t duy logic v suy ngh phn
tch.

Lefthanded, right-brained individuals are thought to possess more creative skills and may be better at
combining the functional features emergent in both sides of the brain.
Ngi ta cho rng nhng ngi thun tay tri hay c no phi pht trin s c k nng sng to hn v c
th kt hp cc tnh nng chc nng xut hin c hai pha ca no tt hn.

Yet some neuroscientists see such claims as pure speculation.

Tuy nhin, mt s nh nghin cu thn kinh hc coi nhng tuyn b nh vy l s suy on nng cn.

Fewer scientists are ready to claim that left-handedness means greater creative potential.
Rt t cc nh khoa hc khng nh tay tri c nhiu tim nng sng to ln hn.

Yet lefties are prevalent among artists, composers and the generally acknowledged great political
thinkers.
Tuy nhin, cc ngh s, nh son nhc v nhng nh t tng chnh tr v i c cng nhn rng ri
thng l nhng ngi thun tay tri.

Possibly if these individuals are among the lefties whose language abilities are evenly distributed between
hemispheres, the intense interplay required could lead to unusual mental capabilities.
C th nu nhng c nhn ny nm trong s nhng ngi thun tay tri v c kh nng ngn ng phn b
u gia cc bn cu, th s tng tc mnh m c th dn n nhng kh nng tinh thn khc thng.

 63

Or perhaps some lefties become highly creative simply because they must be more clever to get by in our
right-handed world.
Hoc c l mt s ngi tri tay ny li tr nn sng to ch n gin bi v h phi thng minh hn
sng st trong th gii thun tay phi ca chng ta.

This battle, which begins during the very early stages of childhood, may lay the groundwork for
exceptional achievements.
Trn chin ny, bt u trong giai on rt sm ca thi th u, c th t nn mng cho nhng thnh tu
c bit.

Trch ngun:
http://mini-ielts.com/1035/reading/being-left-handed-in-a-right-handed-world

 64

m nhc: Ngn ng ca tt c chng ta

m nhc l mt hin tng ton cu. Tt c cc dn tc trn tri t u chi nhc. V mi

nn vn ha u hiu m nhc. Mt nghin cu khoa hc chng minh iu ny. Trong
nghin cu , ngi ta m m nhc phng Ty cho mt b tc ngi bit lp. B lc chu
Phi ny cha tng tip xc vi th gii hin i. Tuy nhin, h bit u l nhc vui, u l
nhc bun.

L do ca iu ny vn cha c nghin cu. Nhng m nhc dng nh l mt ngn ng

khng bin gii. V bng cch no chng ta u bit cch hiu n mt cch chnh xc.
Tuy nhin, m nhc khng c li th tin ha. Chng ta c th hiu c n ngay, d sao
cng l v c lin quan n ngn ng ca chng ta. Bi v m nhc v ngn ng thuc v
nhau. Chng c x l nh nhau trong no.

Chng cng c chc nng tng t nhau. C hai u kt hp m iu v m thanh theo cc

quy lut nht nh. Ngay c tr em cng hiu m nhc, chng hc c iu t khi cn
trong bng m. trong , chng nghe giai iu ngn ng ca ngi m. V vy khi ra i,
chng c th hiu c m nhc. C th ni rng m nhc bt chc giai iu ca ngn ng.

Cm xc cng c th hin qua tc c ngn ng v m nhc. V vy nh kin thc

ngn ng, chng ta hiu c nhng cm xc trong m nhc. Ngc li, ngi bit nhc

 65

thng hc ngn ng d dng hn. Nhiu nhc s ghi nh ngn ng nh giai iu. Bng cch
, h c th nh ngn ng tt hn. Mt iu th v l cc bi ht ru trn th gii u c v
rt ging nhau. iu ny chng t tnh quc t ca m nhc. V c l n cng l ngn ng
p nht.

 66

Music is one of the human species' relatively few universal abilities.

m nhc l mt trong nhng kh nng ph bin ton cu tng i him ca loi ngi.

Without formal training, any individual, from Stone Age tribesman to suburban teenager, has the
ability to recognise music and, in some fashion, to make it.
D khng c o to chnh quy nhng bt k c nhn no, t b lc thi i n thiu nin
ngoi thnh, u c kh nng nhn ra m nhc, v theo mt cch no c th to ra n.

Why this should be so is a mystery.

Ti sao iu ny li b n nh vy.

After all, music isn't necessary for getting through the day, and if it aids in reproduction, it does so
only in highly indirect ways.
Xt cho cng, m nhc khng cn thit s dng sut c ngy, v nu n h tr vic ti sn xut th
n ch lm theo nhng cch rt gin tip.

Language, by contrast, is also everywhere - but for reasons that are more obvious.
Ngc li, ngn ng c khp mi ni - nhng vi nhng l do r rng hn.

With language, you and the members of your tribe can organise a migration across Africa, build reed
boats and cross the seas, and communicate at night even when you can't see each other.
Vi ngn ng, bn v cc thnh vin trong b lc ca bn c th t chc mt cuc di c trn khp
Chu Phi, lm cc con thuyn bng lau sy vt bin, v giao tip vi nhau vo ban m ngay c
khi bn khng th nhn thy nhau.

Modern culture, in all its technological extravagance, springs directly from the human talent for
manipulating symbols and syntax.
Vn ho hin i, vi tt c s lng ph v cng ngh ca mnh cng xut pht trc tip t ti nng
ca con ngi s dng cc biu tng v c php.

Scientists have always been intrigued by the connection between music and language.
Cc nh khoa hc lun b hp dn bi s kt ni gia m nhc v ngn ng.

Yet over the years, words and melody have acquired a vastly different status in the lab and the
seminar room.

 67

Tuy nhin qua nhiu nm, cc t ng v giai iu thu ht c nhiu trng thi rt khc nhau trong
phng th nghim v phng hi tho.

While language has long been considered essential to unlocking the mechanisms of human
intelligence, music is generally treated as an evolutionary frippery - mere "auditory cheesecake", as
the Harvard cognitive scientist Steven Pinker puts it.
Trong khi ngn ng t lu c coi l cn thit m kha cc c ch tr thng minh ca con
ngi th m nhc thng ch c xem nh mt th trang tr r tin ca to ho hay ch l "ming
bnh pho mt thnh gic" nh nh khoa hc nhn thc Steven Pinker trng H Harvard ni.

But thanks to a decade-long wave of neuroscience research, that tune is changing.

Nhng nh vo mt ln sng nghin cu v thn kinh hc thn kinh di mt thp k th giai iu
ang thay i.

A flurry of recent publications suggests that language and music may equally be able to tell us who
we are and where we're from - not just emotionally, but biologically.
Mt lot cc n phm gn y cho thy rng ngn ng v m nhc u c th cho chng ta bit chng
ta l ai v chng ta n t u - khng ch v mt tnh cm, m cn v mt sinh hc.

In July, the journal Nature Neuroscience devoted a special issue to the topic.
Vo thng 7, tp ch Nature Neuroscience dnh mt vn c bit cho ch ny.

And in an article in the 6 August issue of the Journal of Neuroscience, David Schwartz, Catherine
Howe, and Dale Purves of Duke University argued that the sounds of music and the sounds of
language are intricately connected.
V trong mt bi vit trn Tp ch Khoa hc thn kinh hc, David Schwartz, Catherine Howe v Dale
Purves ca i hc Duke ni rng m thanh ca m nhc v m thanh ca ngn ng kt ni rt
phc tp.

To grasp the originality of this idea, it's necessary to realise two things about how music has
traditionally been understood.
nm bt c s c o ca tng ny, chng ta cn phi nhn ra hai iu v cch m nhc
c hiu theo cch truyn thng nh th no.

First, musicologists have long emphasised that while each culture stamps a special identity onto its
music, music itself has some universal qualities.

 68

u tin, cc nh nghin cu m nhc t lu nhn mnh rng trong khi mi nn vn ho nh du

c bit vo m nhc th bn thn m nhc cng c mt s phm cht ph qut.

For example, in virtually all cultures, sound is divided into some or all of the 12 intervals that make
up the chromatic scale -that is, the scale represented by the keys on a piano.
V d, trong hu ht cc nn vn ho, m thanh c chia thnh khong 12 qung to nn gam na
cung - l thang o c th hin bng cc phm trn n dng cm.

For centuries, observers have attributed this preference for certain combinations of tones to the
mathematical properties of sound itself.
Trong nhiu th k, cc nh quan st cho rng s a thch ny cho s kt hp cc m thanh nht
nh vi cc tnh cht ton hc ca m thanh.

Some 2,500 years ago, Pythagoras was the first to note a direct relationship between the
harmoniousness of a tone combination and the physical dimensions of the object that produced it.
Cch y khong 2,500 nm, Pythagoras l ngi u tin ghi nhn mi quan h trc tip gia tnh
hi ha ca mt s kt hp giai iu v kch thc vt l ca mt vt th to ra n.

For example, a plucked string will always play an octave lower than a similar string half its size, and a
fifth lower than a similar string two thirds its length.
V d, mt si dy c ko ln s lun chi mt na qung tm thp hn mt si dy tng t c
chiu di mt na kch thc ca n, v thp hn mt phn nm so vi mt s dy tng t c chiu
di hai phn ba chiu di ca n.

This link between simple ratios and harmony has influenced music theory ever since.
S lin kt gia t l n gin v s ha m ny nh hng n l thuyt m nhc k t .

This music-is-math idea is often accompanied by the notion that music, formally speaking at least,
exists apart from the world in which it was created.
tng v m nhc l mn ton thng km theo khi nim rng m nhc, t ni nn ni chnh thc
nh th, tn ti ngoi th gii m n c to ra.

Writing recently in The New York Review of Books, pianist and critic Charles Rosen discussed the
long-standing notion that while painting and sculpture reproduce at least some aspects of the natural
world, and writing describes thoughts and feelings we are all familiar with, music is entirely
abstracted from the world in which we live.

 69

Gn y trn tp ch The New York Review of Books, ngh s piano v nh ph bnh Charles Rosen
tho lun v khi nim lu nay cho rng mc d tranh v v iu khc to ra t nht l mt s kha
cnh ca th gii t nhin v vn bn m t nhng suy ngh v cm xc m chng ta quen thuc th
m nhc hon ton tru tng vi th gii m chng ta ang sng.

Neither idea is right, according to David Schwartz and his colleagues.

Theo kin ca David Schwartz v cc ng nghip th khng c no ng c.

Human musical preferences are fundamentally shaped not by elegant algorithms or ratios but by the
messy sounds of real life, and of speech in particular which in turn is shaped by our evolutionary
heritage.
Nhng s thch m nhc ca con ngi v c bn c hnh thnh khng phi bi cc thut ton hay
t l p m c to ra bi nhng m thanh ln xn ca cuc sng thc v c bit l ngn ng
ni - do c nh hnh bi di sn tin ha ca chng ta.

"The explanation of music, like the explanation of any product of the mind, must be rooted in biology,
not in numbers per se," says Schwartz.
Schwartz ni: "Gii thch v m nhc, ging nh gii thch v bt k sn phm no ca tm tr, phi
bt ngun t sinh hc, ch khng phi bng con s".

Schwartz, Howe, and Purves analysed a vast selection of speech sounds from a variety of languages to
reveal the underlying patterns common to all utterances.
Schwartz, Howe v Purves phn tch mt lot cc m thanh ni t nhiu ngn ng khc nhau
khm ph ra cc khun mu c bn ph bin cho tt c cc li ni.

In order to focus only on the raw sounds, they discarded all theories about speech and meaning, and
sliced sentences into random bites.
ch tp trung vo cc m thanh nguyn thy, h loi b tt c cc l thuyt v li ni v ngha,
v ct cc cu ra mt cch ngu nhin.

Using a database of over 100,000 brief segments of speech, they noted which frequency had the
greatest emphasis in each sound.
S dng c s d liu ca hn 100,000 cc cu ni ngn gn, h ghi nhn xem tn s no c
nhn mnh nhiu nht trong mi m thanh.

The resulting set of frequencies, they discovered, corresponded closely to the chromatic scale.

 70

H pht hin c rng Cc tp kt qu ca cc tn s tng ng cht ch vi gam na cung.

In short, the building blocks of music are to be found in speech.

Tm li, cc khi m nhc c tm thy trong li ni.

Far from being abstract, music presents a strange analogue to the patterns created by the sounds of
speech.
Khng phi tru tng, m nhc mang li mt s tng ng k l vi cc mu c to ra bi cc
m thanh ca li ni.

"Music, like visual arts, is rooted in our experience of the natural world," says Schwartz.
Schwartz ni: "m nhc, nh ngh thut th gic, bt ngun t tri nghim ca chng ta v th gii t
nhin".

"It emulates our sound environment in the way that visual arts emulate the visual environment.
"N m phng mi trng m thanh theo cch m ngh thut th gic m phng mi trng th gic.

" In music we hear the echo of our basic sound-making instrument - the vocal tract.
" Trong m nhc, chng ta nghe thy ting vang ca nhc c c bn ca chng ta - l thanh m.

The explanation for human music is simpler still than Pythagoras's mathematical equations: We like
the sounds that are familiar to us - specifically, we like the sounds that remind us of us.
Gii thch v m nhc ca con ngi vn cn n gin hn phng trnh ton hc ca Pythagoras:
Chng ta thch nhng m thanh quen thuc vi chng ta - c bit, chng ta thch nhng m thanh
nhc gi nh v chng ta.

This brings up some chicken-or-egg evolutionary questions.

iu ny s tr li mt s cu hi tin ho con g v qu trng.

It may be that music imitates speech directly, the researchers say, in which case it would seem that
language evolved first.
Theo cc nh nghin cu, c th m nhc bt chc ting ni mt cch trc tip m trong trng hp
c v ngn ng tin ha trc.

It's also conceivable that music came first and language is in effect an imitation of song - that in
everyday speech we hit the musical notes we especially like.

 71

Cng c th hiu m nhc n u tin v ngn ng c tc dng bt chc li bi ht - ging nh

trong cc li ni hng ngy, chng ta nhn vo nhng nt nhc m chng ta c bit thch.

Alternately, it may be that music imitates the general products of the human sound-making system,
which just happens to be mostly speech.
Thay vo , nhc c th bt chc cc sn phm chung ca h thng to m thanh ca con ngi, m
hu ht ch l li ni.

"We can't know this," says Schwartz.

Schwartz ni: "Chng ta khng th bit iu ny".

What we do know is that they both come from the same system, and it is this that shapes our
preferences.
Nhng g chng ta bit l c hai u n t cng mt h thng, v iu ny to nn s a thch ca
chng ta.

Schwartz's study also casts light on the long-running question of whether animals understand or
appreciate music.
Nghin cu ca Schwartz cng a ra nh sng cho cu hi di tp v vic liu cc con vt c hiu
hay nh gi cao m nhc hay khng.

Despite the apparent abundance of "music" in the natural world - birdsong, whalesong, wolf howls,
synchronised chimpanzee hooting - previous studies have found that many laboratory animals don't
show a great affinity for the human variety of music making.
Mc d s xut hin ca m nhc trong th gii t nhin l ting chim ht, ting c voi, ting h ca
ch si, ting ku ca con tinh tinh th cc nghin cu trc y cho thy rng nhiu ng vt
trong phng th nghim khng cho thy s ham thch ti ra nhiu loi m nhc nh con ngi.

Marc Hauser and Josh McDermott of Harvard argued in the July issue of Nature Neuroscience that
animals don't create or perceive music the way we do.
Marc Hauser v Josh McDermott ca Harvard tranh ci trong s thng 7 ca tp ch Nature
Neuroscience rng ng vt khng to ra hoc cm nhn m nhc theo cch chng ta lm.

The fact that laboratory monkeys can show recognition of human tunes is evidence, they say, of
shared general features of the auditory system, not any specific chimpanzee musical ability.

 72

Thc t l cc con kh trong phng th nghim c th cho thy s nhn bit cc giai iu ca con
ngi lm bng chng v cc tnh nng chung c chia s ca h thng thnh gic ch khng phi
kh nng m nhc c th no ca loi tinh tinh.

As for birds, those most musical beasts, they generally recognise their own tunes - a narrow
repertoire - but don't generate novel melodies like we do.
i vi loi chim, nhng con vt hay ht nht th chng thng nhn ra giai iu ring ca mnh -
mt tit mc ngn - nhng chng khng to ra nhng giai iu mi nh chng ta lm.

There are no avian Mozarts.

Khng c con chim Mozarts no c.

But what's been played to animals, Schwartz notes, is human music.

Nhng Schwartz ghi nhn l nhng g c chi cho ng vt l m nhc ca con ngi.

If animals evolve preferences for sound as we do - based upon the soundscape in which they live -
then their "music" would be fundamentally different from ours.
Nu ng vt pht trin vic u tin cho m thanh nh chng ta - da trn nn m thanh m chng
ang sng - th "m nhc" ca chng s khc vi chng ta.

In the same way our scales derive from human utterances, a cat's idea of a good tune would derive
from yowls and meows.
Tng t nh gam m ca chng ta bt ngun t li ni, tng v mt giai iu hay ca mt con
mo s xut pht t nhng ting ngao ngao v ting meo meo.

To demonstrate that animals don't appreciate sound the way we do, we'd need evidence that they don't
respond to "music" constructed from their own sound environment.
chng minh rng ng vt khng nh gi cao m thanh theo cch chng ta lm, chng ta cn
bng chng rng chng khng phn ng vi "m nhc" c to ra t mi trng m thanh ring ca
chng.

No matter how the connection between language and music is parsed, what is apparent is that our
sense of music, even our love for it, is as deeply rooted in our biology and in our brains as language is.
Cho d kt ni gia ngn ng v m nhc nh th no i na th iu r rng l cm gic m nhc ca
chng ta, thm ch l tnh yu ca chng ta i vi n, u bt ngun su xa t sinh hc v trong no
ca chng ta nh ngn ng.

 73

This is most obvious with babies, says Sandra Trehub at the University of Toronto, who also
published a paper in the Nature Neuroscience special issue.
Sandra Trehub, i hc Toronto, ngi cng cng b mt bi bo trn tp ch Nature Special
Neuroscience cho bit iu ny r rng nht vi tr s sinh, .

For babies, music and speech are on a continuum.

i vi tr s sinh, m nhc v li ni din ra lin tc.

Mothers use musical speech to "regulate infants' emotional states", Trehub says.
Trehub ni: "Cc b m s dng bi ht ru ca mnh "iu ha tnh trng cm xc ca tr s sinh".

Regardless of what language they speak, the voice all mothers use with babies is the same:
"something between speech and song".
Bt k ngn ng no m h ni th ting ni ca tt c cc b m s dng vi tr s sinh l nh nhau
l "ci g gia li ni v bi ht".

This kind of communication "puts the baby in a trancelike state, which may proceed to sleep or
extended periods of rapture".
Loi giao tip ny s "t a b vo trng thi khng ging nhau, c th tin ti gic ng hoc ko
di thi k sung sng".

So if the babies of the world could understand the latest research on language and music, they
probably wouldn't be very surprised.
V vy, nu nhng a tr trn th gii c th hiu c nhng nghin cu mi nht v ngn ng v
m nhc, c l chng s khng ngc nhin lm.

The upshot, says Trehub, is that music may be even more of a necessity than we realise.
Trehub ni kt qu l m nhc c th cn thit hn l chng ta tng.

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1057/reading/music-language-we-all-speak

 74

Quyn sch tri cy (The Fruit Book)

Its not every scientist who writes books for people who cant read.
Khng phi mi nh khoa hc u vit sch cho nhng ngi m ch.

And how many scientists want their books to look as dog-eared as possible? But Patricia Shanley, an
ethnobotanist, wanted to give something back.
V bao nhiu nh khoa hc mun sch ca h c np gp gc nht c th (c xem v quan tm nhiu
nht)? Nhng Patricia Shanley, mt nh dn tc hc, li mun a mt vi th tr li.

 75

After the poorest people of the Amazon allowed her to study their land and its ecology, she turned her
research findings into a picture book that tells the local people how to get a good return on their trees
without succumbing to the lure of a quick buck from a logging company.
Sau khi nhng ngi ngho nht ca Amazon cho php c nghin cu t ai v h sinh thi ca h,
c bin nhng pht hin nghin cu ca mnh thnh mt cun sch hnh nh cho bit ngi dn a
phng lm th no cy ca h thu c li tt nht m khng phi b cm d v s thu ht t cc
cng ty khai thc g dng tin mua chut.

It has proved a big success.

N chng t y l mt thnh cng ln.

The book is called Fruit Trees and Useful Plants in the Lives of Amazonians, but is better known
simply as the fruit book.
Cun sch c tn l "Cy n qu v Cy hu ch trong Cuc sng ca ngi Amazon", nhng c
bit n n gin hn l "Cun sch tri cy".

The second edition was produced at the request of politicians in western Amazonia.
n bn th hai c sn xut theo yu cu ca cc chnh tr gia pha ty Amazonia.

Its blend of hard science and local knowledge on the use and trade of 35 native forest species has been
so well received (and well used) that no less a dignitary than Brazils environment minister, Marina
Silva, has written the foreword.
S a dng v khoa hc v kin thc a phng v vic s dng v bun bn 35 loi ng vt rng
bn a c cng chng n nhn rt tt (v c s dng tt), cng khng km phn quan trng
so vi vic B trng Mi trng Brazil, Marina Silva, vit li m u cho cun sch.

There is nothing else like the Shanley book, says Adalberto Verrisimo, director of the Institute of
People and the Environment of the Amazon.
"N khng c g khc vi cun sch ca Shanley", Adalberto Verrisimo, gim c Vin Nhn hc v
Mi trng Amazon ni.

It gives science back to the poor, to the people who really need it".
"N mang li khoa hc cho ngi ngho, cho nhng ngi thc s cn n".

Shanleys work on the book began a decade ago, with a plea for help from the Rural Workers Union
of Paragominas, a Brazilian town whose prosperity is based on exploitation of timber.

 76

Cng vic ca Shanley v cun sch ny bt u cch y mt thp k, vi li ngh c s gip

ca Lin on Lao ng nng thn Paragominas, mt th trn ca Brazil, ni s thnh vng ca
n da vo vic khai thc g.

The union realised that logging companies would soon be knocking on the doors of the caboclos,
peasant farmers living on the Rio Capim, an Amazon tributary in the Brazilian state of Para.
Lin on nhn ra rng cc cng ty khai thc g s sm g ca nhng ngi caboclos, nng dn sng
cng Rio Capim, mt nhnh sng Amazon bang Para ca Brazil.

Isolated and illiterate, the caboclos would have little concept of the true value of their trees;
communities downstream had already sold off large blocks of forest for a pittance.
B c lp v m ch, nhng ngi Caboclos c rt t khi nim v gi tr thc s ca cy ci; cc cng
ng h lu bn nhng khi rng ln vi mt th lao r mt.

What they wanted to know was how valuable the forests were, recalls Shanley, then a researcher in
the area for the Massachusetts-based Woods Hole Research Centre.
Shanley, nh nghin cu thuc khu vc Trung tm Nghin cu Woods Hole Massachusetts cho bit:
"Nhng g h mun bit l rng c gi tr nh th no".

The Rural Workers Union wanted to know whether harvesting wild fruits would make economic
sense in the Rio Capim.
on cng nhn nng thn mun bit liu thu hoch tri cy hoang d c ngha kinh t vng Rio
Capim hay khng.

There was a lot of interest in trading non-timber forest products (NTFPs), Shanley says.
Shanley ni: "Mi ngi ang quan tm rt nhiu n vic kinh doanh cc sn phm khng phi l g
(LSNG).

 77

At the time, environmental groups and green-minded businesses were promoting the idea.
Vo thi im , cc nhm mi trng v cc doanh nghip c u kinh doanh cy trng ang qung
b tng ny.

This was the view presented in a seminal paper, Valuation of an Amazonian Rainforest, published in
Nature in 1989.
y l quan im c trnh by trong mt bo co, nh gi rng nhit i Amazon, c xut bn
trong tp ch Nature vo nm 1989.

The researchers had calculated that revenues from the sale of fruits could far exceed those from a
one-off sale of trees to loggers.
Cc nh nghin cu tnh rng doanh thu t vic bn tri cy c th vt xa con s bn cy mt ln
cho ngi khai thc g.

The union was keen to discover whether it made more sense conserving the forest for subsistence use
and the possible sale of fruit, game and medicinal plants, than selling trees for timber, says Shanley.
Shanley ni: "Lin on rt quan tm n vic pht hin ra liu n c ngha g khi dng bo tn
rng cho mc ch k sinh nhai v kh nng bn tri cy, th sng v cy thuc hn l bn cy lm
g".

Whether it would work for the caboclos was far from clear.
Cho d n c tt cho ngi dn caboclos hay khng th cn lu mi bit c.

Although Shanley had been invited to work in the Rio Capim, some caboclos were suspicious.
Mc d Shanley c mi lm vic ti Rio Capim, mt s ngi caboclos cng nghi ng c.

When Patricia asked if she could study my forest, says Joao Fernando Moreira Brito, "my
neighbours said she was a foreigner whod come to rob me of my trees.
Joao Fernando Moreira Brito ni, "Khi Patricia hi c c th nghin cu rng ca ti khng," nhng
ngi hng xm ca ti ni rng c y l mt ngi nc ngoi n cp cy ca ti".

In the end, Moreira Brito, or Mangueira as he is known, welcomed Shanley and worked on her study.
Cui cng, Moreira Brito, hay Mangueira nh ng bit, cho n Shanley v lm vic cho
nghin cu ca c y.

His land, an hour's walk from the Rio Capim, is almost entirely covered with primary forest.

 78

t ca ng, cch Rio Capim mt gi i b, gn nh c che ph bi rng nguyn sinh.

A study of this and other tracts of forest selected by the communities enabled Shanley to identify three
trees, found throughout the Amazon, whose fruit was much favoured by the caboclos: bacuri (Platonia
insignis), uxi (Endop- leura uchi) and piquia (Cayocas villosum).
Mt nghin cu v cc khu rng ny v cc khu rng khc c cc cng ng la chn cho php
Shanley xc nh c ba loi cy, c tm thy trong ton b khu rng Amazon, l ba loi tri
cy c a chung nhiu nht: bacuri (Platonia insignis), uxi (Endop-leura uchi) v piquia Cayocas
villosum).

The caboclos used their fruits, extracted oils, and knew what sort of wildlife they attracted.
Ngi dn caboclo dng tri cy ca h chit xut du, v h bit chng s thu ht nhng ng vt
hoang d no.

But, in the face of aggressive tactics from the logging companies, they had no measure of the trees'
financial worth.
Tuy nhin, khi i mt vi cc chin thut tn cng t cc cng ty khai thc g, h khng bit c
gi tr ti chnh ca cc cy ny.

The only way to find out, Shanley decided, was to start from scratch with a scientific study.
Cch duy nht khm ph, Shanley quyt nh, l bt u t u vi mt nghin cu khoa hc.

From a scientific point of view, hardly anything was known about these trees, she says.
"Theo quan im khoa hc, hu nh khng ai bit v nhng cy ny", c ni.

But six years of field research yielded a mass of data on their flowering and fruiting behaviour.
Tuy nhin, su nm nghin cu thc a mang li mt s liu v hnh vi ra hoa, kt qu.

During 1993 and 1994, 30 families weighed everything they used from the forest - game, fruit , fibre ,
medicinal plants - and documented its source.
Trong nm 1993 v 1994, 30 gia nh cn nhc tt c mi th h s dng t rng, tri cy, cht x,
cy thuc - v ghi li ngun gc ca n.

After three logging sales and a major fire in 1997, the researchers were also able to study the
ecosystem's reaction to logging and disturbance.
Sau ba ln khai thc g v mt t chy ln vo nm 1997, cc nh nghin cu cng c th nghin
cu phn ng ca h sinh thi i vi vic khai thc g v s xo trn ny.

 79

They carried out a similar, though less exhaustive, study in 1999, this time with 15 families.
H thc hin mt nghin cu tng t, mc d t trit hn vo nm 1999, ln ny vi 15 gia nh.

The changes were striking.

Nhng thay i trn rt ng ch .

Average annual household consumption of forest fruit had fallen from 89 to 28 kilogrammes between
1993 and 1999.
Mc tiu th trung bnh hng nm ca tri cy rng gim t 89 xung 28 kg gia nm 1993 v
nm 1999.

What we found, says Shanley, was that fruit collection could coexist with a certain amount of
logging, but after the forest fire it dropped dramatically".
"Nhng g chng ti tm thy," Shanley ni, "l vic thu hi tri cy c th cng tn ti vi mt lng
g khai thc, nhng sau v chy rng, n gim ng k ".

Over the same period, fibre use also dropped from around 20 to 4 kilogrammes.
Trong cng thi k, vic s dng cht x cng gim t 20kg xung 4 kg.

The fire and logging also changed the nature of the caboclo diet.
La v khai thc g cng lm thay i bn cht ca ch n ca ngi dn caboclo.

In 1993 most households ate game two or three times a month.

Nm 1993, hu ht cc h gia nh y n th sn c hai hoc ba ln mt thng.

By 1999 some were fortunate if they ate game more than two or three times a year.
n nm 1999 mt s h may mn nu h n th sn nhiu hn hai hoc ba ln mt nm.

The loss of certain species of tree was especially significant.

Vic mt mt s loi cy c bit c ngha.

Shanleys team persuaded local hunters to weigh their catch, noting the trees under which the animals
were caught.
i ca Shanley thuyt phc cc th sn a phng cn nhc vic bt chng, ghi nhn nhng cy m
th b bt.

 80

Over the year, they trapped five species of game averaging 232 kilogrammes under piquia trees.
Trong nm, h by c 5 loi th nng trung bnh 232 kilgam di cy piquia.

Under copaiba, they caught just two species averaging 63 kilogrammes; and under uxi, four species
weighing 38 kilogrammes.
Di cy copaiba, h ch bt c 2 loi trung bnh 63 kg; v di cy uxi, h bt c bn loi c
trng lng 38 kg.

At last, the team was getting a handle on which trees were worth keeping, and which could reasonably
be sold.
Cui cng, nhm nghin cu bit c cy c gi tr gi li, v cy no c th em bn vi gi
c hp l.

This showed that selling piquia trees to loggers for a few dollars made little sense, explains Shanley.
Shanley gii thch: "iu ny cho thy vic bn cy piquia cho ngi bn g vi la khng c
ngha g".

Their local value lies in providing a prized fruit, as well as flowers which attract more game than any
other species.
Gi tr a phng ca h l cung cp mt tri cy c gi tr, cng nh nhng bng hoa thu ht nhiu
th hn bt k loi no khc".

As a result of these studies, Shanley had to tell the Rural Workers Union of Paragominas that the
Nature thesis could not be applied wholesale to their community - harvesting NTFPs would not
always yield more than timber sales.
Theo kt qu ca nhng nghin cu ny, Shanley phi ni vi Hip hi Cng nhn Nng thn
Paragominas rng n Thin nhin khng th c p dng cho cng ng ca h - vic thu hoch
cc sn phm khng phi g khng phi lc no cng mang li nhiu li nhun hn l bn g.

Fruiting patterns of trees such as uxi were unpredictable , for example.

V d, cc mu hoa qu ca cy nh uxi l khng th on trc c.

In 1994, one household collected 3,654 uxi fruits; the following year, none at all.
Nm 1994, mt h gia nh thu c 3,654 qu uxi; Nm sau, khng c g c.

This is not to say that wild fruit trees were unimportant.

y khng phi l ni rng cy n qu l khng quan trng.

 81

On the contrary, argues Shanley, they are critical for subsistence, something that is often ignored in
much of the current research on NTFPs, which tends to focus on their commercial potential .
Ngc li, theo lp lun ca Shanley, chng rt quan trng i vi s tn ti, ci m thng b b qua
trong nhiu nghin cu hin nay v cc sn phm khng phi g rng, c xu hng tp trung vo tim
nng thng mi ca chng.

Geography was another factor preventing the Rio Capim caboclos from establishing a serious trade in
wild fruit: villagers in remote areas could not compete with communities collecting NTFPs close to
urban markets, although they could sell them to passing river boats.
a l l mt yu t khc cn tr ngi dn Cabocon Rio Capim trong vic thnh lp mt khu bun
bn tri cy hoang d: ngi dn vng su vng xa khng th cnh tranh vi cc cng ng thu hi
lm sn ngoi g gn cc ch th mc d h c th bn chng bng thuyn.

But Shanley and her colleagues decided to do more than just report their results to the union.
Nhng Shanley v ng nghip quyt nh lm nhiu hn l ch bo co kt qu ca h cho cng
on.

Together with two of her research colleagues, Shanley wrote the fruit book.
Cng vi hai ng nghip ca mnh, Shanley vit cun sch tri cy.

This, the Bible and a publication on medicinal plants co-authored by Shanley and designed for people
with minimal literacy skills are about the only books you will see along this stretch of the Rio Capim.
Cun sch ny cng vi Kinh Thnh v mt n phm v cy thuc c ng tc gi ca Shanley v
c thit k cho nhng ngi c k nng c vit ti thiu l nhng cun sch m bn ch c th
thy vng dc theo di Rio Capim ny.

The first print ran to only 3,000 copies, but the fruit book has been remarkably influential, and is used
by colleges, peasant unions, industries and the caboclos themselves.
Bn in u tin ch c 3,000 bn, nhng cun sch tri cy c nh hng ng k v c cc trng
i hc, hip hi nng dn, cc ngnh cng nghip v c nhng ngi caboclos s dng.

Its success is largely due to the fact that people with poor literacy skills can understand much of the
information it contains about the non-timber forest products, thanks to its illustrations, anecdotes,
stories and songs.
Thnh cng ca n ch yu l do nhng ngi c k nng c vit km hiu bit c nhiu thng tin
v lm sn ngoi g, nh minh ho, giai thoi, cu chuyn v bi ht.

 82

The book doesnt tell people what to do, says Shanley, but it does provide them with choices".
Shanley cho bit: "Cun sch khng ni cho mi ngi bit phi lm g", Shanley ni, "nhng n
cung cp cho h nhng s la chn".

The caboclos who have used the book now have a much better understanding of which trees to sell to
the loggers, and which to protect.
By gi nhng ngi caboclos s dng cun sch c mt s hiu bit tt hn v cy no bn
cho ngi khai thc g v cy no cn c bo v.

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1050/reading/the-fruit-book

Hiu ng Mozart

Music has been used for centuries to heal the body.

m nhc c s dng trong nhiu th k cha lnh c th.

In the Ebers Papyrus (one of the earliest medical documents, circa 1550 BC), it was recorded that
physicians chanted to heal the sick (Castleman, 1994).
Trong ti liu Ebers Papyrus (mt trong nhng ti liu y hc sm nht, khong nm 1550 TCN), ghi li
rng cc bc s ht cha bnh cho ngi bnh (Castleman, 1994).

In various cultures, we have observed singing as part of healing rituals.

 83

Trong cc nn vn ho khc nhau, chng ta xem vic ca ht nh l mt phn ca phng thc cha
bnh.

In the world of Western medicine, however, using music in medicine lost popularity until the introduction
of the radio.
Tuy nhin, trong th gii y hc phng Ty, vic s dng m nhc trong y hc mt i tnh ph bin
cho ti khi gii thiu i pht thanh.

Researchers then started to notice that listening to music could have significant physical effects.
Cc nh nghin cu sau bt u ch rng nghe nhc c th c nhng nh hng vt l ng k.

Therapists noticed music could help calm anxiety, and researchers saw that listening to music could cause
a drop in blood pressure.
Cc nh tr liu nhn thy m nhc c th gip lm du i s lo lng, v cc nh nghin cu thy rng
nghe nhc c th lm gim huyt p.

In addition to these two areas, music has been used with cancer chemotherapy to reduce nausea, during
surgery to reduce stress hormone production, during childbirth, and in stroke recovery (Castleman, 1994
and Westley, 1998).
Ngoi hai lnh vc ny, m nhc c s dng vi ha tr ung th lm gim bun nn, trong qu
trnh phu thut gim vic sn xut hormone gy cng thng, trong khi sanh, v trong vic hi phc
chng t qu (Castleman, 1994 v Westley, 1998).
It has been shown to decrease pain as well as enhance the effectiveness of the immune system.
N c chng minh l c th gim au cng nh tng cng hiu qu ca h thng min dch.

In Japan, compilations of music are used as medication of sorts.

Nht Bn, cc bn nhc c s dng lm thuc cc loi.

For example, if you want to cure a headache or migraine, the album suggested is Mendelssohns "Spring
Song, Dvorak's Humoresque, or part of George Gershwins "An American in Paris (Campbell, 1998).
V d: nu bn mun cha nhc u hoc au na u, album s l "Spring Song" ca Mendelssohn,
"Humoresque" ca Dvorak, hoc mt phn ca bn nhc "An American in Paris" ca George Gershwin
(Campbell, 1998).

Music is also being used to assist in learning, in a phenomenon called the Mozart Effect.
m nhc cng ang c s dng h tr hc tp, trong mt hin tng gi l Hiu ng Mozart.

 84

Frances H Rauscher, PhD, first demonstrated the correlation between music and learning in an experiment
in 1993.
Nghin cu ca Frances H Rauscher cho thy mi tng quan gia m nhc v hc tp trong mt cuc
th nghim vo nm 1993.

His experiment indicated that a 10-minute dose of Mozart could temporarily boost intelligence.
Cuc th nghim ca ng ch ra rng mt liu thuc nhc Mozart k o di 10 pht c th tm thi lm tng
tr thng minh.

Groups of students were given intelligence tests after listening to silence, relaxation tapes, or Mozarts
"Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major for a short time.
Cc nhm hc sinh c kim tra tr thng minh sau khi nghe cc bng yn tnh v th gin, hoc bng
"Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major" ca Mozart trong mt khong thi gian ngn.

He found that after silence, the average IQ score was 110, and after the relaxation tapes, the score rose a
point.
ng thy rng sau khi c yn tnhm im s IQ trung bnh l 110 v sau khi nghe bng th gin, im
s tng ln 1 im.

After listening to Mozarts music, however, the score jumped to 119 (Westley, 1998).
Tuy nhin, sau khi nghe nhc ca Mozart, im s nhy ln n 119 im (Westley, 1998).

Even students who did not like the music still had an increased score in the IQ test.
Ngay c nhng sinh vin khng thch m nhc vn c im s tng trong bi kim tra IQ.

Rauscher hypothesised that listening to complex , non-repetitive music, like Mozart's, may stimulate
neural pathways that are important in thinking (Castleman, 1994).
Rauscher cho rng "nghe nhc phc tp v khng lp li, ging nh ca Mozart, c th kch thch cc
ng thn kinh quan trng trong suy ngh "(Castleman, 1994).

The same experiment was repeated on rats by Rauscher and Hong Hua Li from Stanford.
Mt th nghim tng t c lp li trn chut bi Rauscher v Hong Hua Li t Stanford.

Rats also demonstrated enhancement in their intelligence performance.

Chut cng chng minh s tng cng trong hot ng tr thng minh ca chng.

These new studies indicate that rats that were exposed to Mozarts showed increased gene expression of
BDNF (a neural growth factor), CREB (a learning and memory compound), and Synapsin I (a synaptic

 85

growth protein) in the brains hippocampus, compared with rats in the control group, which heard only
white noise (example: the whooshing sound of a V radio tuned between stations).
Cc nghin cu mi ny cho thy nhng con chut c tip xc vi nhc Mozart cho thy "s biu
hin gen tng ln ca BDNF (mt yu t tng trng thn kinh), CREB (mt hp cht hc tp v nh), v
Synapsin I (mt protein tng trng thuc k tip hp t bo)" trong vng no ca c nga, so vi chut
trong nhm kim sot, m ch nghe ting n trng (v d nh ting rt ca radio V c iu chnh gia
cc trm).

How exactly does the Mozart Effect work? Researchers are still trying to determine the actual
mechanisms for the formation of these enhanced learning pathways.
Vy hiu ng Mozart hot ng chnh xc l nh th no? Cc nh nghin cu vn ang c gng xc
nh c ch thc s cho vic hnh thnh cc con ng hc tp nng cao ny.

Neuroscientists suspect that music can actually help build and strengthen connections between neurons in
the cerebral cortex in a process similar to what occurs in brain development despite its type.
Cc nh thn kinh hc nghi ng rng m nhc thc s c th gip xy dng v tng cng mi lin h
gia cc t bo thn kinh trong v no trong mt qu trnh tng t nh nhng g xy ra trong s pht
trin ca no bt k n thuc loi no.

When a baby is born, certain connections have already been made - like connections for heartbeat and
breathing.
Khi tr c sinh ra, mt s kt ni c thc hin - nh cc kt ni cho nhp tim v ht th.

As new information is learned and motor skills develop, new neural connections are formed.
Khi thng tin mi c hc v cc k nng vn ng pht trin, cc kt ni thn kinh mi c hnh
thnh.

Neurons that are not used will eventually die while those used repeatedly will form strong connections.
Cc n-ron khng c s dng cui cng s cht, trong khi cc t bo thn kinh c s dng nhiu ln
s to thnh cc lin kt mnh m.

Although a large number of these neural connections require experience, they must also occur within a
certain time frame.
Mc d mt s lng ln cc kt ni thn kinh ny i hi kinh nghim nhng chng cng phi xut hin
trong mt khong thi gian nht nh.

For example, a child born with cataracts cannot develop connections within the visual cortex.
V d, tr sinh ra vi c thy tinh th khng th pht trin cc kt ni bn trong v no th gic.

 86

If the cataracts are removed by surgery right away, the childs vision develops normally.
Nu c thy tinh th c ly ra bng phu thut ngay, th tm nhn ca tr pht trin bnh thng.

However, after the age of 2, if the cataracts are removed, the child will remain blind because those
pathways cannot establish themselves.
Tuy nhin, sau khi 2 tui, nu c thy tinh th b loi b, a tr s b m v nhng con ng ny
khng th t thit lp c.

Music seems to work in the same way.

m nhc dng nh hot ng theo cng mt cch nh vy.

In October of 1997, researchers at the University of Konstanz in Germany found that music actually
rewires neural circuits (Begley, 1996).
Vo thng 10 nm 1997, cc nh nghin cu ti i hc Konstanz c pht hin ra m nhc thc s ni
kt cc mch thn kinh (Begley, 1996).

Although some of these circuits are formed for physical skills needed to play an instrument, just listening
to music strengthens connections used in higher-order thinking.
Mc d mt s cc mch c hnh thnh cho cc k nng vt l cn thit chi mt nhc c, ch cn
nghe nhc s tng cng cc kt ni c s dng trong t duy bc cao.

Listening to music can then be thought of as exercise for the brain, improving concentration and
enhancing intuition.
Vy th nghe nhc c th c coi l "tp th dc" cho b no, tng cng s tp trung v tng cng trc
gic.

If youre a little sceptical about the claims made by supporters of the Mozart Effect, youre not alone.
Nu bn hi hoi nghi v nhng tuyn b ca nhng ngi ng h hiu ng Mozart, bn s khng n
c.

Many people accredit the advanced learning of some children who take music lessons to other personality
traits, such as motivation and persistence, which are required in all types of learning.
Nhiu ngi chng nhn vic hc tp tin tin ca mt s tr em c hc nhc c nhng c im tnh
cch khc, chng hn nh ng lc v kin tr, m cn thit trong tt c cc loi hc tp.

There have also been claims of that influencing the results of some experiments.
Cng c nhng tuyn b v iu nh hng n kt qu ca mt s th nghim.

 87

Furthermore, many people are critical of the role the media had in turning an isolated study into a trend
for parents and music educators.
Hn na, nhiu ngi ang ch trch vai tr ca gii truyn thng trong vic bin mt nghin cu ring l
thnh mt xu hng cho cha m v cc nh gio dc m nhc.

After the Mozart Effect was published to the public, the sales of Mozart CDs stayed on the top of the hit
list for three weeks.
Sau khi Hiu ng Mozart c cng b ra cng chng, doanh s ca cc a CD ca Mozart ng u
danh sch trong ba tun.

In an article by Michael Linton, he wrote that the research that began this phenomenon (the study by
researchers at the University of California, Irvine) showed only a temporary boost in IQ, which was not
significant enough to even last throughout the course of the experiment.
Trong mt bi vit ca Michael Linton, ng vit rng cc nghin cu bt u hin tng ny (nghin
cu ca cc nh nghin cu ti i hc California, Irvine) cho thy ch tng IQ tm thi, iu ny khng
ln c th tn ti trong sut qu trnh th nghim.

Using music to influence intelligence was used in Confucian civilisation and Plato alluded to Pythagorean
music when he described its ideal state in The Republic.
S dng m nhc gy nh hng n tr thng minh c s dng trong vn minh Khng hc v
Plato m ch n m nhc Pythagore khi ng m t tiu bang l tng ca mnh thi The Republic.

In both of these examples, music did not cause any overwhelming changes, and the theory eventually died
out.
Trong c hai v d ny, m nhc khng gy ra bt k thay i p o no, v l thuyt ny cui cng
cht.

Linton also asks, If Mozarts music were able to improve health, why was Mozart himself so frequently
sick? If listening to Mozarts music increases intelligence and encourages spirituality, why arent the
worlds smartest and most spiritual people Mozart specialists? Linton raises an interesting point, if the
Mozart Effect causes such significant changes, why isnt there more documented evidence? The
trendiness of the Mozart Effect may have died out somewhat, but there are still strong supporters (and
opponents) of the claims made in 1993.
Linton cng hi: "Nu nhc ca Mozart c th ci thin sc kho, ti sao bn thn Mozart li m yu?
Nu nghe nhc ca Mozart lm tng tr thng minh v khuyn khch tinh thn, ti sao khng phi l
nhng ngi thng minh nht v cc chuyn gia nghin cu Mozart? "Linton nu ra mt im th v, nu
hiu ng ca Mozart gy ra nhng thay i ng k, ti sao li khng c bng chng? Xu hng ca hiu

 88

ng Mozart c th cht mt phn no , nhng vn c nhng ngi ng h mnh m (v nhng
ngi phn i) v nhng tuyn b ny a ra vo nm 1993.

Since that initial experiment, there has not been a surge of supporting evidence.
K t th nghim ban u , khng c bng chng no c ng h.

However, many parents, after playing classical music while pregnant or when their children are young,
will swear by the Mozart Effect.
Tuy nhin, nhiu bc cha m, sau khi chi nhc c in khi mang thai hoc khi con ca h cn tr, th
l l bi v hiu ng ca Mozart.

A classmate of mine once told me that listening to classical music while studying will help with
memorisation.
Mt bn hc ca ti tng ni vi ti rng nghe nhc c in trong khi hc tp s gip ghi nh tt hn.

If we approach this controversy from a scientific aspect, although there has been some evidence that
music does increase brain activity, actual improvements in learning and memory have not been
adequately demonstrated.
Nu chng ta tip cn vn gy tranh ci ny t kha cnh khoa hc, mc d c mt s bng chng cho
thy m nhc lm tng hot ng ca no, th nhng ci tin thc t trong hc tp v tr nh vn cha
c chng minh y .

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1055/reading/the-mozart-effect

 89

Tre - loi cy thn k

The wonder plant with an uncertain future: more than a billion people rely on bamboo for either their
shelter or income, while many endangered species depend on it for their survival.
Loi cy diu k vi mt tng lai khng chc chn: hn mt t ngi da vo tre kim sng hoc
c tr, trong khi cng c rt nhiu loi ng vt trong danh sch tuyt chng da vo n duy tr s
sng ca mnh.

Despite its apparent abundance, a new report says that species of bamboo may be under serious threat.
Mc d chng ta c th thy s xut hin ca tre na rt nhiu ni, nhng theo mt bo co gn y
cho thy cc loi tre ang c th b e da nghim trng.

Every year, during the rainy season, the mountain gorillas of Central Africa migrate to the foothills
and lower slopes of the Virunga Mountains to graze on bamboo.
Hng nm, trong sut nhng ma ma, nhng con kh t Trung Phi di c n nhng chn ni v
nhng sn dc thp ca dy ni Virunga n tre.

For the 650 or so that remain in the wild, its a vital food source.
Vi khong 650 loi cn tn ti trong thin nhin, tre l mt ngun thc n ti quan trng.

Although there are at almost 150 types of plant, as well as various insects and other invertebrates,
bamboo accounts for up to 90 percent of their diet at this time of year.
Mc d trong t nhin c khong 150 loi cy khc nhau, cng vi rt nhiu loi cn trng a dng v
cc loi ng vt khng xng khc, tre chim ti 90 trong thc n n ung ca loi kh ny vo
thi im ma ma trong nm.

 90

Without it, says Ian Redmond, chairman of the Ape Alliance, their chances of survival would be
reduced significantly.
Nu nh thiu i tre, theo nh Ian Redmond, ch tch hip hi Kh cho bit, c hi sng st ca
nhng con kh s st gim nghim trng.

Gorillas arent the only locals keen on bamboo.

Nhng con kh t khng phi l loi ng vt a phng duy nht da vo tre sng.

For the people who live close to the Virungas, its a valuable and versatile raw material used for
building houses and making household items such as mats and baskets.
i vi nhng ngi dn sng gn Virungas, tre l mt nguyn liu th c gi tr ln v linh hot,
c s dng cho mc ch nh xy nh, lm ra nhng vt dng ni tht nh thm hay gi ng
.

But in the past 100 years or so, resources have come under increasing pressure as populations have
exploded and large areas of bamboo forest have been cleared to make way for farms and commercial
plantations.
Nhng trong 100 nm qua v nhng nm tip theo y, ngun ti nguyn ny phi chu p lc kh
ln t vic bng n dn s th gii v nhng vng rng ln ton tre xa kia gi b dn sch m
ng cho nhng trang tri v nhng khu rng thng mi.

Sadly, this isnt an isolated story.

ng bun l, y khng phi l mt cu chuyn ring ca vng no.

All over the world, the ranges of many bamboo species appear to be shrinking, endangering the
people and animals that depend upon them.
Trn ton th gii hin nay, s a dng v loi ca tre na ang c nguy c thu hp li, gy nguy him
cho nhng ngi dn v loi ng vt da vo n duy tr s sng.

But despite bamboos importance, we know surprisingly little about it.

Tuy tm quan trng ca tre l rt ln, nhng nhng g chng ta bit v n l kh t.

A recent report published by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Inter-national
Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) has revealed just how profound is our ignorance of global
bamboo resources, particularly in relation to conservation..
Mt bo co gn y ca Chng trnh Mi trng Lin hp quc (UNEP) v Mng li My tre an
quc t (INBAR) cho thy chng ta pht l nghim trng n loi tre nh th no, c bit l
trong vic bo v chng.

 91

There are almost 1,600 recognized species of bamboo, but the report concentrated on the 1,200 or so
woody varieties distinguished by the strong stems, or culms, that most people associate with this
versatile plant.
C khong 1600 loi tre c cng nhn, nhng bo co tp trung vo xp x 1200 loi cy g
c phn bit bi nhng thn cy cng chc hay v cy, iu m con ngi thng lin tng khi
nhc n vi loi cy a nng ny.

Of these, only 38 priority species identified for their commercial value have been the subject of any
real scientific research, and this has focused mostly on matters relating to their viability as a
commodity.

Trong s , ch c 38 loi u tin loi c xc nh thng qua gi tr thng mi ca chng

l c tr thnh ti nghin cu khoa hc thc s, v nhng ti ny ch yu tp trung vo vn
lin quan n vic xem tre nh mt mt hng trao i.

This problem isnt confined to bamboo.

Vn ny khng ch gii hn ring loi tre.

Compared to the work carried out on animals, the science of assessing the conservation status of
plants is still in its infancy.
So vi cng vic tng t vi ng vt, nghnh khoa hc nh gi trng thi bo tn thc vt vn cn
rt mi m.

People have only started looking hard at this during the past 10-15 years, and only now are they
getting a handle on how to go about it systematically, says Dr Valerie Kapos, one of the reports
authors and a senior adviser in forest ecology and conservation to the UNEP.

Tin s Valerie Kapos, mt trong nhng tc gi ca bo co v l mt c vn cao cp v sinh thi v

bo tn rng ca UNEP, cho bit: "Con ngi ch bt u nhn nhn v vn mt cch su sc trong
10-15 nm qua, v ch by gi h mi ang thc hin nhng bin php gii quyt n mt cch c
trnh t.

Bamboo is a type of grass.

Tre l loi thuc h c.

It comes in a wide variety of forms, ranging in height from 30 centimeters to more than 40 meters..
N c nhiu dng khc nhau, c chiu cao t 30 cm n hn 40 mt.

It is also the worlds fastest-growing woody plant; some species can grow more than a meter in a day.

 92

Tre cng l loi cy g c tc pht trin nhanh nht th gii ; mt vi loi tre c th cao ln hn 1
mt mi ngy.

Bamboos ecological role extends beyond providing food and habitat for animals.
Tc dng ca tre i vi vai tr h sinh thi cn nhiu hn vic cung cp thc n v mi trng sng
cho ng vt.

Bamboo tends to grow in stands made up of groups of individual plants that grow from root systems
known as rhizomes.
Tre thng c xu hng pht trin theo nhm, cc nhm c to t nhng c th tre c lp pht
trin t nhng h thng r gi l thn r

Its extensive rhizome systems, which tie in the top layers of the soil, are crucial in preventing soil
erosion .
H thng thn r to ln ca tre c kt cht trong nhng lp t trn cng ca si, c xem l rt
quan trng trong vic bo v si mn.

And there is growing evidence that bamboo plays an important part in determining forest structure and
dynamics.
Ngy cng c nhiu bng chng hn cho thy rng tre ng mt vai tr quan trng trong vic xc nh
cu trc v s nng ng ca rng.

Bamboos pattern of mass flowering and mass death leaves behind large areas of dry biomass that
attract wildfire, says Kapos.
Kapos cho bit : Nhng mu hoa tre n hng lot v hng h v s nhng l tre rng li mt
khong rng ln nhng sinh khi kh, c th gy ra nhng v chy rng.

When these burn, they create patches of open ground within the forest far bigger than would be left
by a fallen tree.

Khi nhng vt ny chy, chng to ra nhng vng t trng tri trong rng, to hn rt nhiu ln
nhng khong t trng m nhng cy li.

Patchiness helps to preserve diversity because certain plant species do better during the early stages
of regeneration when there are gaps in the canopy.
Chnh nhng ch chp v ny gip bo tn s a dng bi v mt s loi thc vt s pht trin tt hn
trong giai on u ca qu trnh ti sinh khi c nhng khong trng trong cc tn cy.

However, bamboos most immediate significance lies in its economic value.

Tuy nhin, li ch nhn thy r nht ca tre chnh l gi tr kinh t.

 93

Modern processing techniques mean that it can be used in a variety of ways, for example, as flooring
and laminates.
Nhng k thut ch bin hin i gip cho tre c th c s dng theo nhiu cch khc nhau, v d
nh lm sn g.

One of the fastest growing bamboo products is paper -25 percent of paper produced in India is made
from bamboo fiber, and in Brazil, 100,000 hectares of bamboo are grown for its production.
Mt trong nhng sn phm lm t tre pht trin nhanh nht l giy, 25 phn trm giy c sn xut
n c lm t si tre, v Braxin, 100,000 ha tre c trng sn xut giy.

Of course, bamboos main function has always been in domestic applications, and as a locally traded
commodity its worth about $4,5billion annually.
Tt nhin, chc nng th yu ca tre lun c p dng vo cc sn phm ni a, v vi t cch mt
mt hng thng mi a phng, n thu v 4,5 t mi nm.

Because of its versatility, flexibility and strength (its tensile strength compares to that of some steel),
it has traditionally been used in construction.
Do tnh linh hot, tnh bn do nhng cng rt chc chn ( bn ca tre c th so c vi mt s
loi thp), tre cng c th c s dng trong xy dng.

Today, more than one billion people worldwide live in bamboo houses.
Ngy nay, hn mt t ngi trn ton th gii sng trong nhng cn nh tre.

Bamboo is often the only readily available raw material for people in many developing countries, says
Chris Stapleton, a research associate at the Royal Botanic Gardens.
Chris Stapleton, mt cng s nghin cu ti Vn Bch tho Hong gia ni rng tre l vt liu th
duy nht sn c cho ngi dn nhiu nc ang pht trin.

Bamboo can be harvested from forest areas or grown quickly elsewhere, and then converted simply
without expensive machinery or facilities, he says.
"Tre c th c thu hoch t rng hoc trng nhng ni khc, v sau chuyn i n gin m
khng cn n my mc hay cc thit b t tin", ng ni.

In this way, it contributes substantially to poverty alleviation and wealth creation".

"Bng cch ny, n ng gp ng k vo vic gim ngho v to ra ca ci.

Given bamboos value in economic and ecological terms, the picture painted by the UNEP report is all
the more worrying.
Theo nh nhng gi tr to ln ca tre v mt thng mi v kinh t k trn, th bc tranh v s
thiu quan tm v mc tuyt chng ca tre theo nh bn bo co ca UNEP cng tr nn ng lo
ngi .

 94

But keen horticulturists will spot an apparent contradiction here..

Nhng nhng nh lm vn tm huyt s pht hin ra mt mu thun kh r rng y.

Those whove followed the recent vogue for cultivating exotic species in their gardens will point out
that if it isnt kept in check, bamboo can cause real problems.
Nhng ngi theo ui xu hng thi thng hin nay nh vic nui trng nhng loi sc s ngoi
lai trong khu vn ca h s ch ra rng nu khng c theo di, tre c th gy ra nhng vn thc
s.

In a lot of places, the people who live with bamboo dont perceive it as being endangered in any
way, says Kapos.
Kapos ni : rt nhiu ni, nhng ngi sng vi tre khng nhn thy tre nh ang b e da mt t
no.

In fact, a lot of bamboo species are actually very invasive if theyve been introduced.

Trong thc t, rt nhiu loi tre ang l nhng loi thc vt xm ln nu chng ng c gii
thiu.

So why are so many species endangered? There are two separate issues here, says Ray Townsend,
vice president of the British Bamboo Society and arboretum manager at the Royal Botanic Gardens.

Vy ti sao c rt nhiu loi b nguy him? C hai vn ring bit y, ng Ray Townsend, ph
ch tch Hip hi Tre ca Anh v qun l vn m ti Vn thc vt Hong gia cho bit.

Some plants are threatened because they cant survive in the habitat-they arent strong enough or
there arent enough of them, perhaps.

"Mt s cy b e do bi v chng khng th sng st trong mi trng sng - chng khng mnh
hoc khng c v s lng, c th l nh vy

But bamboo can take care of itself-it is strong enough to survive if left alone.

Nhng tre c th t chm sc bn thn - n mnh sng st nu mt mnh.

 95

What is under threat is its habitat.

Nhng g ang b e da l mi trng sng ca n.

It is the physical disturbance that is the threat to bamboo", says Kapos.

Kapos ni: "Chnh s xo trn v mt vt l l mi e da i vi tre".

When forest goes, it is converted into something else: there isnt anywhere for forest plants such as
bamboo to grow if you create a cattle pasture.

Khi rng mt i v c bin i thnh mt th khc th khng c ni no cho cy rng nh cy tre

pht trin nu bn trng c chn th gia sc.

Around the world, bamboo species are routinely protected as part of foresteco-systems in national
parks and reserves, but there is next to nothing that protects bamboo in the wild for its own sake.

Trn khp th gii, cc loi tre c bo v thng xuyn nh l mt phn ca h thng lm nghip
cc vn quc gia v khu bo tn, nhng hu nh l khng c g bo v tre trong t nhin v li ch
ca ring chng.

However, some small steps are being taken to address this situation.

Tuy nhin, mt s bc nh c thc hin gii quyt tnh trng ny.

The UNEP-INBAR report will help conservationists to establish effective measures aimed at
protecting valuable wild bamboo species.

Bo co UNEP-INBAR s gip cc nh bo tn thc hin cc bin php hu hiu nhm bo v cc

loi tre trc hoang d c gi tr.

 96

Townsend, too, sees the UNEP report as an important step forward in promoting the cause of bamboo
conservation.

Tin s Townsend cng nhn thy bo co ca UNEP nh l mt bc tin quan trng trong
vic thc y ng lc ca cng cuc bo v tre.

Until now, bamboo has been perceived as a second-class plant.

Cho n nay, tre c coi l mt loi thc vt hng nh.

When you talk about places such as the Amazon, everyone always thinks about the hardwoods.

Khi bn ni v nhng ni nh Amazon, mi ngi lun ngh v g cng.

Of course these are significant, but there is a tendency to overlook the plants they are associated with,
which are often bamboo species.

Tt nhin iu ny rt quan trng, nhng y c mt xu hng l con ngi thng b qua nhng g
h thn quen, v thng l nhng loi tre.

In many ways, it is the most important plant known to man.

Trong nhiu cch, n l cy trng quan trng nht c bit n vi con ngi.

I cant think of another plant that is used so much and is so commercially important in so many
countries.

Ti khng th ngh n mt cy trng no khc m va c s dng rt nhiu m va c li ch kinh

t rt quan trng i vi nhiu quc gia nh tre.

He believes that the most important first step is to get scientists into the field.

ng tin rng bc i u quan trng nht l a cc nh khoa hc vo lnh vc ny.

 97

We need to go out there, look at these plants and see how they survive and then use that information
to conserve them for the future".

"Chng ta cn phi i ra ngoi, nhn vo nhng cy ny v xem chng sng nh th no v sau s

dng thng tin bo tn chng cho tng lai.

Ngi dch: Thanh Thu

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1062/reading/a-wonder-plant

Talc Powder (Bt tan)

Peter Rrigg discovers how talc from Luzenacs Trimouns in France find its way into food and
agricultural productsfrom chewing gum to olive oil.

 98

Peter Rrigg pht hin ra rng bt tan t Trimouns ca vng Luzenac Php c trong cc thc phm
v cc sn phm nng nghip t ko cao su n du oliu.

High in the French Pyrenees, some 1,700m above see level, lies Trimouns, a huge deposit of hydrated
magnesium silicate - talc to you and me.
trn cao di ni Pyrenees Php, cao hn khong 1,700 m so vi mc nc bin, nm vng
Trimouns, mt khon lng ln magicium silicat hydrat - tc bt tan c vn chuyn n vi chng
ta.

Talc from Trimouns, and from ten other Luzenac mines across the globe, is used in the manufacture of
a vast array of everyday products extending from paper, paint and plaster to cosmetics, plastics and
car tyres.
Talc ca vng Trimouns, v t 10 m khc ca Luzenac trn ton cu, c s dng trong sn xut
hng lot cc sn phm hng ngy tri di t giy, sn v thch cao n m phm, nha v lp t.

And of course there is always talcs best known end use: talcum powder for babies bottoms.
V d nhin lun c s s dng cui cng ca talc l bt thm cho tr s sinh.

But the true versatility of this remarkable mineral is nowhere better displayed than in its sometimes
surprising use in certain niche markets in the food and agriculture industries.
Nhng tnh linh hot thc s ca khong cht ng ch ny khng th hin tt hn trong vic s
dng i khi ng ngc nhin ca n trong mt s th trng thch hp nht trong ngnh cng nghip
thc phm v nng nghip.

Take, for example, the chewing gum business.

Ly v d trong vic kinh doanh ko cao su.

Every year, Talc de Luzenac Francewhich owns and operates the Trimouns mine and is a member
of the international Luzenac Group (art of Rio Tinto minerals)supplies about 6,000 tones of talc to
chewing gum manufacturers in Europe.
Hng nm, Talc de Luzenac France - cng ty s hu v vn hnh m Trimouns v l mt thnh vin
ca tp on Luzenac quc t (mt cng ty con ca tp on Rio Tinto) - cung cp khong 6,000 tn
talc cho cc nh sn xut ko cao su chu u.

Weve been selling to this sector of the market since the 1960s,says Laurent Fournier, sales
manager in Luzenacs Specialties business unit in Toulouse.
ng Laurent Fournier, qun l bn hng thuc n v kinh doanh chuyn gia ca Luzenac ti
Toulouse ni: "Chng ti bn cho th trng ny t nhng nm 1960.

Admittedly, in terms of our total annual sales of talc, the amount we supply to chewing gum
manufacturers is relatively small, but we see it as a valuable niche market: one where customers place
a premium on securing supplies from a reliable, high quality source.
"Phi tha nhn rng, v doanh thu hng nm ca talc, s lng chng ti cung cp cho cc nh sn
xut ko cao su l tng i nh, nhng chng ti coi n l mt th trng c gi tr ph hp, mt ni
m khch hng coi trng vic bo m c cung cp t mt ngun c cht lng v ng tin cy
cao.

 99

Because of this, long term allegiance to a proven supplier is very much a feature of this sector of the
talc market.
V l do ny, s trung thnh lu di vi mt nh cung cp c chng minh l mt c im ca
lnh vc ny trong th trng talc.

Switching sourcesin the way that you might choose to buy, say, paperclips from Supplier A rather
than from Supplier Bis not a easy option for chewing gum manufacturers,Fournier says.
"Vic chuyn i cc ngun - theo cch m bn c th chn mua, v d, giy t Supplier A ch
khng phi t Supplier B- khng phi l mt la chn d dng cho cc nh sn xut ko cao su",
Fournier ni.

The cost of reformulating is high, so when customers are using a talc grade that works, even if its
expensive, they are understandably reluctant to switch".
"Chi ph ca vic thay i ny li rt cao, v vy khi khch hng s dng loi bt tan tt ngay c khi
n t tin, h cng khng mun chuyn i".

But how is talc actually used in the manufacture of chewing gum? PatrickDelord, an engineer with a
degree in agronomics, who has been with Luzenac for 22 years and is now senior market development
manager, Agriculture and Food, in Europe, explains that chewing gums has four main components.
Nhng lm th no bt tan thc s c s dng trong sn xut ko cao su? PatrickDelord, mt k s
c bng cp v nng hc, tng lm vic vi Luzenac trong 22 nm v by gi l gim c pht
trin th trng cao cp ca Agriculture and Food Chu u, gii thch rng ko cao su c bn thnh
phn chnh.

The most important of them is the gum base,he says.

"iu quan trng nht trong s l gum base", ng ni.

Its the gum base that puts the chew into chewing gum.
"Gum base l loi cao su tng hp c a vo ko cao su.

It binds all the ingredients together, creating a soft, smooth texture.

N kt hp tt c cc thnh phn vi nhau, to ra mt kt cu mm mi.

To this the manufacturer then adds sweeteners, softeners and flavourings.

lm iu ny, nh sn xut sau thm cht lm ngt, cht lm mm v hng liu.

Our talc is used as a filler in the gum base.

Bt tan ca chng ti c s dng lm cht n trong lp nn ca ko cao su.

The amount varies between, say, ten and 35 per cent, depending on the type of gum.
S lng thay i vo khong t 10-35% ty thuc vo loi ko cao su.

Fruit flavoured chewing gum, for example, is slightly acidic and would react with the calcium
carbonate that the manufacturer might otherwise use as a filler.
V d ko cao su c hng v tri cy c tnh chua v c th phn ng vi canxi cacbonat m nh sn
xut c th s dng lm cht b sung.

Talc, on the other hand, makes an ideal filler because its non-reactive chemically.

 100

Mt khc bt tan c th lm mt cht n l tng v n khng phn ng ha hc.

In the factory, talc is also used to dust the gum base pellets and to stop the chewing gum sticking
during the lamination and packing process,Delord adds.
Trong nh my, bt tan cng c s dng lm sch cc vin nn gum base v ngn khng cho
ko cao su dnh vo nhau trong sut qu trnh ch bin v ng gi ", Delord cho bit thm.

The chewing gum business is, however, just one example of talcs use in the food sector.
Tuy nhin vic kinh doanh ko cao su ch l mt v d v vic s dng bt tan trong ngnh thc phm.

For the past 20 years or so, olive oil processors in Spain have been taking advantage of talcs unique
characteristics to help them boost the amount of oil they extract from crushed olives.
Trong vng 20 nm tr li y, cc nh ch bin du liu Ty Ban Nha tn dng cc c tnh c
o ca bt tan gip h tng lng du h chit xut t liu nghin.

According to Patrick Delord, talc is especially useful for treating what he calls difficult olives.
Theo Patrick Delord, bt tan c bit hu ch cho vic iu tr nhng th m ng gi l liu "kh".

After the olives are harvested-preferably early in the morning because their taste is better if they are
gathered in the cool of the day - they are taken to the processing plant.
Sau khi liu c thu hoch - tt hn l vo sng sm v hng v ca chng tt hn nu thu hoch
vo ban ngy - chng c a n nh my ch bin.

There they are crushed and then stirred for 30-45 minutes.
chng b nghin nt v sau khuy trong 30-45 pht.

In the old days, the resulting paste was passed through an olive press but nowadays its more common
to add water and centrifuge the mixture to separate the water and oil from the solid matter.
Ngy xa, keo dn thng c truyn qua my p oliu nhng ngy nay ph bin nht l thm nc
v ly tm hn hp tch nc v du ra khi cht rn.

The oil and water are then allowed to settle so that the olive oil layer can be decanted off and bottled.
Du v nc sau c lm lng xung lp du liu c th c gn i v c ng chai.

Difficult olives are those that are more reluctant than the norm to yield up their full oil content.
Cc loi qu liu "kh tiu" l nhng loi khng tiu chun t c hm lng du y .

This may be attributable to the particular species of olive, or to its water content and the time of year
the olives are collectedat the beginning and the end of the season their water content is often either
too high or too low.
iu ny c th lin quan n mt s loi liu c bit hoc hm lng nc v thi gian liu c
thu hoch - vo u v cui ma, hm lng nc ca chng thng hoc qu cao hoc qu thp.

These olives are easy to recognize because they produce a lot of extra foam during the stirring
process, a consequence of an excess of a fine solid that acts as anatural emulsifier.
Nhng qu liu ny d nhn bit v chng to ra rt nhiu bt trong sut qu trnh khuy, kt qu ca
dng tha cht rn c hot tnh nh cht nh ho t nhin.

 101

The oil in this emulsion is lost when the water is disposed of.
Du trong nh tng ny s b mt khi nc trn c x l.

Not only that, if the waste water is disposed of directly into local fieldsoften the case in many
smaller processing operationsthe emulsified oil may take some time to biodegrade and so be
harmful to the environment.
Khng ch vy, nu nc thi c x l trc tip vo cc rung a phng - thng l trng hp
trong nhiu hot ng ch bin nh hn - du nh ho c th mt mt thi gian phn hy sinh hc
v do c hi cho mi trng.

If you add between a the half and two percent of talc by weight during the stirring process, it absorbs
the natural emulsifier in the olives and so boosts the amount of oil you can extract,says Delord.
"Nu bn thm mt na v 2% trng lng bt tan bng qu trnh khuy, n s hp th cht nh ho
t nhin trong liu v lm tng lng du bn c th chit xut", Delord ni.

In addition, talcs flat, 'platy structure helps increase the size of the oil droplets liberated during
stirring, which again improves the yield.
"Ngoi ra, cu trc phng ca bt tan s gip tng kch thc ca cc git du c gii phng trong
qu trnh khuy, iu ny li gip ci thin nng sut.

However, because talc is chemically inert, it doesnt affect the colour, taste, appearance or
composition of the resulting olive oil.
Tuy nhin, v bt talc c tnh cht ha hc nn n khng nh hng n mu sc, mi v, hnh dng
hay thnh phn ca du oliu.

If the use of talc in olive oil processing and in chewing gum is long established, new applications in
the food and agriculture industries are also constantly being sought by Luzenac.
"Nu vic s dng talc trong ch bin du liu v ko cao su c t lu th cc ng dng mi trong
thc phm v cc ngnh cng nghip nng nghip cng ang c hng Luzenac tm kim thm.

One such promising new market is fruit crop protection, being pioneered in the US.
Mt trong nhng th trng y ha hn mi l ngnh bo v cy n qu, ngnh ang i tin phong
M.

Just like people, fruit can get sunburned.

Ging nh con ngi, tri cy c th b chy nng.

In fact, in very sunny regions up to 45 percent of atypical crop can be affected by heat stress and
sunburn.
Trn thc t, nhng vng rt nng c th ln n 45 phn trm cy trng khng in hnh c th b
nh hng bi nhit v nh nng.

However, in the case of fruit, its not so much the ultra violet rays which harm the crop as the high
surface temperature that the suns rays create.
Tuy nhin, trong trng hp tri cy, tia cc tm khng gy hi nhiu cho cy trng nh nhit b
mt cao m nng to ra.

 102

To combat this, farmers normally use either chemicals or spray a continuous fine canopy of mist
above the fruit trees or bushes.
chng li iu ny, nng dn thng s dng mt trong hai loi ha cht hoc phun sng m ln
Cy n qu hoc cc bi cy.

The trouble is, this uses a lot of waternormally a precious commodity in hot, sunny areasand it is
therefore expensive.
Vn l vic ny s dng rt nhiu nc - m nc thng rt qu trong nhng khu vc nng nng -
v do tn km.

Whats more, the ground can quickly become waterlogged.

Hn na, mt t c th nhanh chng b ngp ng.

So our idea was to coat the fruit with talc to protect it from the sun,says Greg Hunter, a marketing
specialist who has been with Luzenac for ten years.
Greg Hunter, mt chuyn gia tip th lm vic vi Luzenac trong mi nm, cho bit: "V vy,
tng ca chng ti l ph cc tri cy bng bt talc bo v n khi nh nng mt tri.

But to do this, several technical challenges had first to be overcome.

"Nhng lm iu ny, mt s thch thc k thut trc tin phi c khc phc.

Talc is very hydrophobic: it doesnt like water.

Talc l cht k nc tc n khng thch nc.

So in order to have a viable product we needed a wettable powdersomething that would go readily
into suspension so that it could be sprayed onto the fruit.
V vy, c c mt sn phm hu ch, chng ta cn mt loi bt chu m - mt ci g c th d
dng chuyn thnh cht lng n c th phun ln tri cy.

It also had to break the surface tension of the cutin (the natural waxy, waterproof layer on the fruit)
and of course it had to wash off easily when the fruit was harvested.
N cng phi ph v s cng b mt ca cht cutin (lp sp t nhin, lp chng thm trn tri cy) v
d nhin n phi c ra sch mt cch d dng khi tri cy c thu hoch.

No-ones going to want an apple thats covered in talc.

Khng ai mun mt qu to b ph bi bt talc ny.

Initial trials in the state of Washington in 2003 showed that when the product was sprayed onto
Granny Smith apples, it reduced their surface temperature and lowered the incidence of sunburn by up
to 60 per cent.
Cc th nghim ban u bang Washington vo nm 2003 cho thy khi sn phm c phun vo to
Granny Smith, n s lm gim nhit b mt ca chng v lm gim t l chy nng ln n 60
phn trm.

Today the new product, known as Invelop Maximum SPF, is in its second commercial year on the US
market.
Ngy nay, sn phm mi, c gi l Invelop Maximum SPF, ang trong nm thng mi th hai
trn th trng M.

 103

Apple growers are the primary target although Hunter believes grape growers represent another sector
with long term potential.
Ngh trng to ang l mc tiu hng u mc d Hunter tin rng ngh trng nho i din cho mt
ngnh khc c tim nng lu di.

He is also hopeful of extending sales to overseas markets such as Australia, South America and
southern Europe.
ng cng hy vng m rng th trng ngnh ny ra nc ngoi nh c, Nam M v Nam u.

Source: http://mini-ielts.com/1064/reading/talc-powder

Thng tin thm:

Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures, by removing a layer of liquid,
generally one from which a precipitate has settled. The purpose may be either to produce a
clean decant, or to remove undesired liquid from the precipitate (or other layers).

Rong bin New Zealand

Call us not weeds; we are flowers of the sea.

ng gi chng ti l c di, hy gi chng ti l hoa ca bin.

Seaweed is a particularly nutritious food, which absorbs and concentrates traces of a wide variety of
minerals necessary to the body's health.
Rong bin l thc phm c bit b dng, n hp th v tp trung lng nh ca nhiu loi khong cht
cn thit cho c th ngi.

 104

Many elements may occur in seaweed - aluminium, barium, calcium, chlorine, copper, iodine and iron, to
name but a few - traces normally produced by erosion and carried to the seaweed beds by river and sea
currents.
Nhiu nguyn t c th tm thy trong rong bin nh nhm, bari, canxi, clo, ng, iot v st v mt s
nguyn t khc- nhng du vt thng do xi mn gy ra v mang theo rong bin bi cc dng sng v
nc bin.

Seaweeds are also rich in vita-mins: indeed, Eskimos obtain a high proportion of their bodily
requirements of vitamin C from the seaweeds they eat.
Rong bin cng rt giu vitamin: thc vy, ngi Eskimo hp th mt t l cao nhu cu c th v lng
vitamin C t rong bin m h n.

The nutritive value of seaweed has long been recognised.

Gi tr dinh dng ca rong bin t lu c ghi nhn.

For instance, there is a remarkably low incidence of goitre amongst the Japanese, and for that matter, ,
amongst our own Maori people, who have always eaten seaweeds, and this may well be attributed to the
high iodine content of this food.
V d, Nht Bn c mt t l bu c thp ng k, v iu cng din ra vi nhng ngi Maori,
nhng ngi thng xuyn n rong bin, v iu ny c th do hm lng iot cao trong loi thc n ny.

Research into old Maori eating customs shows that jellies were made using seaweeds, fresh fruit and nuts,
fuchsia and tutu berries, cape gooseberries, and many other fruits which either grew here naturally or
were sown from seeds brought by settlers and explorers.
Nghin cu v phong tc n ung ca ngi Maori c cho thy thch m h n c lm t rong bin,
hoa qu ti v cc loi ht, hoa lng n, qu mng, qu anh o t, v nhiu loi tri cy khc, m
nhng loi tri ny pht trin t nhin hoc c gieo trng t ht do ngi nh c v cc nh thm him
mang v.

New Zealand lays claim to approximately 700 species of seaweed, some of which have no representation
outside this country.
New Zealand xc nhn l c khong 700 loi rong bin, mt s trong s khng th tm thy bn ngoi
nc ny.

Of several species grown worldwide, New Zealand also has a particularly large share.
Trong s cc loi rong bin c trng trn ton th gii th New Zealand cng chim mt lng c bit
ln.

For example, it is estimated that New Zealand has some 30 species of Gigartina, a close relative of
carrageen or Irish moss.

 105

V d, ngi ta c tnh rng New Zealand c khong 30 loi Gigartina, mt h hng gn ca carrageen
hoc ru Ailen.

These are often referred to as the New Zealand carrageens.

Chng thng c gi l carrageen New Zealand.

The gel-forming substance called agar which can be extracted from this species gives them great
commercial application in seameal, from which seameal custard is made, and in cough mixture ,
confectionery, cosmetics, the canning, paint and leather industries, the manufacture of duplicating pads,
and in toothpaste.
Cht to gel gi l thch trng c th chit xut t loi ny cho php chng c ng dng thng mi tuyt
vi trong cc sn phm gia v, t c th sn xut sa trng, trong hn hp ho, bnh ko, m phm,
hp, sn v ngnh cng nghip da, sn ming m nhn bn v c trong kem nh rng.

In fact, during World War II, New Zealand Gigartina were sent to Australia to be used in toothpaste.
Thc t, trong sut Th chin th II, Gigartina New Zealand c gi n c c s dng trong
kem nh rng.

Yet although New Zealand has so much of the commercially profitable red sea-weeds, several of which
are a source of agar (Pterocladia, Gelidium, Chondrus, Gigartina), before 1940 relatively little use was
made of them.
Tuy nhin, mc d New Zealand c rt nhiu li nhun thng mi t rong bin , mt vi trong s
l t ngun thch trng (Pterocladia, Gelidium, Chondrus, Gigartina), nhng trc nm 1940 c tng
i t dng c lm bng chng.

New Zealand used to import the Northern Hemisphere Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) from England and
ready-made agar from Japan.
New Zealand tng nhp khu ru thuc bn o Bc Ailen (Chondrus crispus) t Anh Quc v thch
lm sn t Nht Bn.

Although distribution of the Gigartina is confined to certain areas according to species, it is only on the
east coast of the North Island that its occurrence is rare.
Mc d phn b ca Gigartina b gii hn trong mt s khu vc theo tng loi, n ch c b bin pha
ng ca o Bc v s xut hin ca n l rt him.

And even then, the east coast, and the area around Hokiangna, have a considerable supply of the two
species of Pterocladia from which agar is also available.
Mc d th, b bin pha ng v khu vc xung quanh Hokiangna cng c ngun cung ng k ca hai
loi Pterocladia, v nh thch cng c sn.

Happily, New Zealand-made agar is now obtainable in health food shops.

 106

iu may mn l thch ti New Zealand by gi c th tm thy ti cc ca hng hng thc phm cho
sc khe.

Seaweeds are divided into three classes determined by colour - red, brown and green - and each tends to
live in a specific location.
Rong bin c chia thnh ba lp c xc nh bi mu sc - , nu v xanh l cy - v mi loi c xu
hng sng mt a im c th.

However, except for the unmistakable sea lettuce (Ulva), few are totally one colour; and especially when
dry, some species can change colour quite significantly - a brown one may turn quite black, or a red one
appear black, brown, pink or purple.
Tuy nhin, ngoi tr rau dip bin (Ulva) khng th nhm ln, rt t loi rong bin c mt mu hon ton;
c bit l khi kh, mt s loi c th thay i mu sc ng ch rong bin mu nu c th chuyn
sang mu en, hoc rong bin mu xut hin mu en, nu, hng hoc tm.

Identification is nevertheless facilitated by the fact that the factors which determine where a seaweed will
grow are quite precise, and they therefore tend to occur in very well-defined zones.
Vic xc nh c to iu kin thun li bi thc t l cc yu t xc nh ni m rong bin pht trin l
kh chnh xc, v do chng c khuynh hng din ra cc vng rt r rng.

Although there are exceptions, the green seaweeds are mainly shallow-water algae; the browns belong to
medium depths, and the reds are plants of the deeper water.
Mc d c nhng trng hp ngoi l,cc loi rong bin xanh ch yu l to nc nng; rong bin nu
thuc v su trung bnh, v rong bin mu l nhng loi thc vt di su hn.

Flat rock surfaces near mid-level tides are the most usual habitat of sea bombs, Venus necklace and most
brown seaweeds.
Nhng vin c b mt phng gn mc nc trung bnh thng l mi trng sng ph bin nht ca
bom bin, chui ht Venus v hu ht cc loi rong bin mu nu.

This is also the location of the purple laver or Maori karengo, which looks rather like a reddish-purple
lettuce.
y cng l ni sng ca cy laver mu tm hoc karengo ca ngi Maori, trng kh ging vi rau dip
tm.

Deep-water rocks on open coasts, exposed only at very low tide, are usually the site of bull kelp, strap
weeds and similar tough specimens.
Cc tng nc su trn cc b bin m, ch tip xc khi thy triu rt thp, thng l khu vc ca to
b, c di v cc mu vt tng t.

Those species able to resist long periods of exposure to the sun and air are usually found on the upper
shore, while those less able to stand such exposure occur nearer to or below the low-water mark.

 107

Nhng loi c kh nng chu c thi gian tip xc lu di vi nh nng mt tri v khng kh thng
c tm thy b bin trn cao, trong khi nhng loi t chu c s tip xc nh th thng tm thy
gn hn hoc di mc nc thp.

Radiation from the sun, the temperature level, and the length of time immersed all play a part in the
zoning of seaweeds.
S bc x t mt tri, nhit , v thi gian ngm mnh u ng vai tr trong vic phn vng rong bin.

Propagation of seaweeds occurs by spores, or by fertilisation of egg cells.

S sinh si ny n ca rong bin din ra nh bo t, hoc nh s th tinh ca t bo trng.

None have roots in the usual sense; few have leaves, and none have flowers, fruits or seeds.
Thng thng khng c r; t l, v khng c hoa, qu hay ht.

The plants absorb their nourishment through their fronds when they are surrounded by water: the base or
"holdfast" of seaweeds is purely an attaching organ, not an absorbing one.
Thc vt hp th thc n ca chng thng qua l khi chng c bao quanh bi nc: nn tng hay l
"cu trc cht ch" ca rong bin hon ton l mt c quan gn kt, ch khng phi l mt phn hp th.
Some of the large seaweeds maintain buoyancy with air-filled floats; others, such as bull kelp, have large
cells filled with air.

Mt s loi rong bin ln gi s ni bng nhng chic bong bng cha khng kh; nhng loi khc, nh
to b b, c nhng t bo ln cha y khng kh.

Some, which spend a good part of their time exposed to the air, often reduce dehydration either by having
swollen stems that contain water, or they may (like Venus' necklace) have | swollen nodules, or they may
have distinctive shape like a sea bomb.

Mt s loi khc dnh mt phn thi gian ca chng tip xc vi khng kh, thng lm gim s mt
nc bng cch phnh to phn thn c cha nc, hoc chng c th (nh chui ht ca Venus) c nhng
mt nh phnh ln, hoc chng c th c hnh dng c bit ging nh bom bin.

Others, like the sea cactus, are filled with slimy fluid or have coating of mucilage on % the surface.

Nhng loi khc nh cy xng rng bin, cha y cht dch nhy hoc c lp cht nhy trn phn trm
b mt.

 108

In some of the larger kelps, this coating is not only to keep the plant moist but also to protect it from the
violent action of waves.

Trong mt s loi rong (to) b kch thc ln hn, lp nhy ny khng ch cho cy gi m m cn
bo v n khi s mnh lit ca nhng con sng.

Dch bi: Trang Huyn

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1075/reading/new-zealand-seaweed

 109

Optimism and Health (S lc quan v sc khe)

Mindset is all.
T duy l tt c.

How you start the year will set the template for the rest, and two scientifically backed character traits hold
the key: optimism and resilience (if the prospect leaves you feeling pessimistically spineless, the good
news is that you can significantly boost both of these qualities).
Cch bn bt u mt nm s to ra khun mu cho nhng nm cn li, v hai yu t khoa hc then cht
l s lc quan v sc bt (nu hon cnh khin bn cm thy bi quan mt cch tiu cc, tin tt l bn c
th tng cng mt cch ng k hai yu t k trn) .

Faced with 12 months of plummeting economics and rising human distress, staunchly maintaining a rosy
view might seem deludedly Pollyannaish.
i mt vi 12 thng kinh t st gim v s tng qun ca con ngi gia tng, kin nh duy tr mt ci
nhn mu hng c th xem nh l mt ngi lc quan gi di.

But here we encounter the optimism paradox.

Nhng y chng ta cp ti nghch l s lc quan.

As Brice Pitt, an emeritus professor of the psychiatry of old age at Imperial College, London, told me:
Optimists are unrealistic".

 110

Nh Brice Pitt, gio s danh d ca khoa tm thn hc v tui gi trng Imperial College, London, ni
vi ti: "Nhng ngi lc quan l khng thc t".

Depressive people see things as they really are, but that is a disadvantage from an evolutionary point of
view.
Ngi trm cm nhn thy mi th nh cch chng thc s tn ti, nhng l s bt li theo quan im
tin ha.

Optimism is a piece of evolutionary equipment that carried us through millennia of setbacks.

S lc quan l mt phn trang b ca s tin ha, th dn chng ta qua nghn nm ca s kh khn.

Optimists have plenty to be happy about.

Nhng ngi lc quan c rt nhiu iu c hnh phc.

In other words, if you can convince yourself that things will get better, the odds of it happening will
improve - because you keep on playing the game.
Ni cch khc, nu bn c th thuyt phc bn thn mnh rng mi vic s tt hn, nhng iu vn vt
ang xy ra s ci thin - bi v bn tip tc tr chi.

In this light, optimism is a habitual way of explaining your setbacks to yourself, reports Martin
Seligman, the psychology professor and author of Learned Optimism.
Theo quan nim
ny, s lc quan "l mt cch quen thuc gii thch nhng tht bi ca bn cho chnh bn
thn", Martin Seligman, gio s tm l hc v l tc gi ca Hc thuyt lc quan.

The research shows that when times get tough, optimists do better than pessimists - they succeed better at
work, respond better to stress, suffer fewer depressive episodes, and achieve more personal goals.
Nghin cu ch ra rng khi gp kh khn, nhng ngi lc quan lm tt hn nhng ngi bi quan - h
thnh cng trong cng vic, phn ng tt hn vi stress, t b trm cm hn, v t c nhiu mc ch
c nhn hn.

Studies also show that belief can help with the financial pinch.
Cc nghin cu cng ch ra rng nim tin c th gip trong kh khn ti chnh.

Chad Wallens, a social forecaster at the Henley Centre who surveyed middle-class Britons beliefs about
income, has found that the people who feel wealthiest, and those who feel poorest, actually have almost
the same amount of money at their disposal.

 111

Chad Wallens, mt chuyn gia d on x hi ti Trung tm Henley, ngi kho st nim tin ca tng
lp trung lu ngi Anh v thu nhp, pht hin ra rng "nhng ngi cm thy giu c nht v nhng
ngi cm thy ngho nht, thc ra h giu nh nhau.

Their attitudes and behaviour patterns, however, are different from one another.
Tuy nhin, thi v hnh vi ca h khc nhau.

Optimists have something else to be cheerful about - in general, they are more robust.
Nhng ngi lc quan c iu g khc vui v - ni chung, h mnh m hn.

For example, a study of 660 volunteers by the Yale University psychologist Dr Becca Levy found that
thinking positively adds an average of seven years to your life.
Chng hn, mt nghin cu t 660 tnh nguyn vin tin s tm l hc Becca Levy ti i hc Yale cho
thy rng suy ngh tch cc gip bn sng thm khong 7 nm.

Other American research claims to have identified a physical mechanism behind this.
Cc nghin cu khc ca M cho l xc nh c c ch vt l ng sau iu ny.

A Harvard Medical School study of 670 men found that the optimists have significantly better lung
function .
Mt nghin cu ti trng y khoa Harvard ca 670 ngi nam gii cho thy nhng ngi lc quan c
chc nng phi tt hn ng k.

The lead author, Dr Rosalind Wright, believes that attitude somehow strengthens the immune system.
Ngi ng u, tin s Rosalind Wright, tin rng bng cch no thi tng cng h thng min
dch.

Preliminary studies on heart patients suggest that, by changing a persons outlook, you can improve their
mortality risk, she says.
"Cc nghin cu s b v bnh nhn tim cho thy, bng cch thay i quan im ca mt ngi, bn c
th ci thin nguy c t vong ca h," c ni.

Few studies have tried to ascertain the proportion of optimists in the world.
Rt t nghin cu c gng xc nh t l nhng ngi lc quan trn th gii.

 112

But a 1995 nationwide survey conducted by the American magazine Adweek found that about half the
population counted themselves as optimists, with women slightly more apt than men (53 per cent versus
48 per cent) to see the sunny side.
Tuy nhin, mt cuc iu tra ton quc nm 1995 ca t tp ch Adweek cho thy khong mt na dn s
t cho rng h l nhng ngi lc quan, ph n hi tch cc hn n ng (53% so vi 48%).

Of course, there is no guarantee that optimism will insulate you from the crunchs worst effects, but the
best strategy is still to keep smiling and thank your lucky stars.
Tt nhin, khng c g bo m rng s lc quan s bo v bn khi nh hng ca cc tc ng
ti t,
nhng chin lc tt nht vn l tip tc ci v cm n nhng ngi sao may mn ca bn.

Because (as every good sports coach knows) adversity is character-forming - so long as you practise the
skills of resilience.
Bi v (nh mi hun luyn vin th thao gii bit) nghch cnh l s hnh thnh nhn vt - min l bn
thc hnh k nng hi phc.

Research among tycoons and business leaders shows that the path to success is often littered with failure:
a record of sackings, bankruptcies and blistering castigation.
Nghin cu gia cc ng trm v cc nh lnh o kinh doanh cho thy con ng dn n thnh cng
thng b xo trn bi s tht bi: mt k lc v vic sa thi, ph sn v ph bng.

But instead of curling into a foetal ball beneath the coffee table, they resiliently pick themselves up, learn
from their pratfalls and march boldly towards the next opportunity.
Nhng thay v lo lng di bn c ph, h ly li tinh thn, hc hi t nhng sai lm v ng u vi
tnh hung tip theo.

The American Psychological Association defines resilience as the ability to adapt in the face of adversity,
trauma or tragedy.
Hip hi Tm l M nh ngha sc bt l kh nng thch nghi khi i mt vi nghch cnh, chn thng
hoc bi kch.

A resilient person may go through difficulty and uncertainty, but he or she will doggedly bounce back.
Mt ngi kin cng c th tri qua nhng kh khn v khng chc chn, nhng anh hay c ta s kin
nh tr li.

Optimism is one of the central traits required in building resilience, say Yale University investigators in
the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology.

 113

Tnh lc quan l mt trong nhng iu ch yu xy dng ln tnh kin cng, theo nhng nh nghin
cu trng i hc Yale ti nh gi hng nm v Tm L lm sng.

They add that resilient people learn to hold on to their sense of humour and this can help them to keep a
flexible attitude when big changes of plan are warranted.
H cn cho rng nhng ngi kin cng hc cch gi cm gic hi hc ca h v iu ny c th gip
h gi mt thi linh hot khi thay i ln ca k hoch c bo m.

The ability to accept your lot with equanimity also plays an important role, the study adds.
Kh nng chp nhn s phn ca bn vi s bnh tnh cng ng mt vai tr quan trng, nghin cu cho
bit thm.

One of the best ways to acquire resilience is through experiencing a difficult childhood, the sociologist
Steven Stack reports in the Journal of Social Psychology.
Mt trong nhng cch tt nht c c s kin cng l thng qua tri nghim mt thi th u kh
khn, nh x hi hc Steven Stack bo co trong Tp ch Tm l X hi.

For example, short men are less likely to commit suicide than tall guys, he says, because shorties develop
psychological defence skills to handle the bullies and mickey-taking that their lack of stature attracts.
V d, nhng ngi n ng ln thng t t st hn nhng ngi n ng cao ln, bi v nhng ngi
ln pht trin cc k nng phng v tm l trc nhng li ch giu rng h thiu hp dn.

By contrast, those who enjoyed adversity-free youths can get derailed by setbacks later on because
theyve never been inoculated against aggro.
Ngc li, nhng ai tri qua thi nin thiu bnh yn c th b sa ng bi nhng kh khn sau ny v h
cha bao gi c phng ng trc hnh vi th bo.

If you are handicapped by having had a happy childhood, then practising proactive optimism can help you
to become more resilient.
Nu bn b tt nguyn v c mt tui th chong vng, sau thc s lc quan c th gip bn tr nn
kin cng hn.

Studies of resilient people show that they take more risks; 'they court failure and learn not to fear it.
Nghin cu v ngi kin cng cho thy h c nhiu ri ro; "H n nhn tht bi v hc cch khng s
n.

And despite being thick-skinned, resilient types are also more open than average to other people.

 114

V mc d tr nn mt dy, ngi kin cng cng ci m hn mc bnh thng so vi ngi khc.

Bouncing through knock-backs is all part of the process.

Bt li sau nhng tht bi l tt c cc phn ca qu trnh.

Its about optimistic risk-taking - being confident that people will like you.
l v vic nh gi ri ro lc quan tr nn t tin s khin mi ngi thch bn.

Simply smiling and being warm to people can help.

n gin ch cn mm ci v nhit tnh vi mi ngi.

Its an altruistic path to self-interest - and if it achieves nothing else, it will reinforce an age-old adage:
hard times can bring out the best in you.
l con ng v tha cho li ch ring - v nu n khng t c iu g, n s cng c mt cu ngn
ng c: nhng thi im kh khn c th mang li nhng iu tt p nht trong bn.

Dch bi: Ton Davi

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1097/reading/optimism-and-health

 115

Thi k trao i Columbus

Millions of years ago, continental drift carried the Old World and New World apart, splitting North and
South America from Eurasia and Africa.
Hng triu nm trc, s tri dt lc a mang th gii c v th gii mi cch xa ra, tch min Bc
v Nam M t Eurasia v Chu Phi.
That separation lasted so long that it fostered divergent evolution; for instance, the
development of rattlesnakes on one side of the Atlantic and of vipers on the other.
S tch bit ko di n ni n thc y s tin ha khc nhau; chng hn nh s pht trin ca rn
chung bn y b i Ty Dng v rn lc pha bn kia b.

After 1492, human voyagers in part reversed this tendency.

Sau nm 1492, nhng ngi thm him o ngc xu hng ny.

Their artificial re-establishment of connections through the commingling of Old and New World
plants, animals, and bacteria, commonly known as the Columbian Exchange, is one of the more
spectacular and significant ecological events of the past millennium.
S ti kin lp kt ni nhn to thng qua vic xen k cc thc vt, ng vt v vi khun ca Cu th
gii v Tn th gii, thng c gi l thi k trao i Columbus, l mt trong nhng s kin sinh
thi ngon mc v ng k nht trong thin nin k qua.

When Europeans first touched the shores of the Americas, Old World crops such as wheat, barley,
rice, and turnips had not travelled west across the Atlantic, and New World crops such as maize, white
potatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc had not travelled east to Europe.
Khi ngi chu u ln u tin chm vo b chu M, cc cy trng Cu th gii nh la m, la
mch, la go, v c ci ng khng c vn chuyn v pha ty qua i Ty Dng, cng nh cc

 116

cy trng Tn th gii nh ng, khoai ty trng, khoai lang v sn khng c vn chuyn n pha
ng Chu u.

In the Americas, there were no horses, cattle, sheep, or goats, all animals of Old World origin.
chu M, khng c nga, gia sc, cu, d, cng nh tt c cc ng vt c ngun gc t Cu th
gii.

Except for the llama, alpaca, dog, a few fowl, and guinea pig, the New World had no equivalents to
the domesticated animals associated with the Old World, nor did it have the pathogens associated with
the Old Worlds dense populations of humans and such associated creatures as chickens, cattle, black
rats, and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
Ngoi tr loi m llama, lc alpaca, ch, g v chut lang nh, Tn th gii, khng c s
tng ng vi cc loi ng vt thun ha vi Cu th gii, cng nh khng c cc tc nhn gy
bnh n qun th con ngi nh g, gia sc, chut en v mui vn.

Among these germs were those that carried smallpox, measles, chickenpox, influenza, malaria, and
yellow fever.
Trong s nhng vi trng ny, c nhng loi gy nn bnh u ma, si, thy u, cm, st rt v st
vng.

As might be expected, the Europeans who settled on the east coast of the United States cultivated
crops like wheat and apples, which they had brought with them.
C th d on c rng nhng ngi Chu u nh c b bin pha ng ca Hoa K trng cc
loi cy nh la m v to m h mang theo.

European weeds, which the colonists did not cultivate, and, in fact, preferred to uproot, also fared well
in the New World.
C di chu u, khi m nhng ngi thc dn khng trng trt, v thc t th n thng b bng
r, th li pht trin tt Tn th gii.

John Josselyn, an Englishman and amateur naturalist who visited New England twice in the
seventeenth century, left us a list, Of Such Plants as Have Sprung Up since the English Planted and
Kept Cattle in New England, which included couch grass, dandelion, shepherds purse, groundsel,
sow thistle, and chickweed.
John Josselyn, mt nh t nhin hc nghip d ngi Anh, ngi hai ln gh thm New England
vo th k th mi by, li cho chng ta mt danh sch, "Nhng thc vt xut hin k t ngi

 117

Anh trng trt v nui gia sc New England", bao gm c bng, b cng anh, rau t, cy gai v c
chickweed.

One of these, a plantain (Plantago major), was named Englishmans Foot by the Amerindians of
New England and Virginia who believed that it would grow only where the English have trodden,
and was never known before the English came into this country.
Mt trong s thc vt , c cy m (Plantago major), c bit nhiu bi ci tn gi Bc chn
ca ngi Anh, ngi Amerindians New England v Virginia tin rng n s pht trin ch khi m
ngi Anh b tri buc, v cha bao gi c bit trc khi ngi Anh n t nc ny.

Thus, as they intentionally sowed Old World crop seeds, the European settlers were unintentionally
contaminating American fields with weed seeds.
V vy, khi c tnh gieo trng cc loi ht ca cu th gii, nhng ngi nh c Chu u v tnh
lm nhim cc cnh ng ca Hoa K bng ht c di.

More importantly, they were stripping and burning forests, exposing the native minor flora to direct
sunlight, and the hooves and teeth of Old World livestock.
Quan trng hn na, h ph v t rng, cc thc vt bn a c th nhn c nh sng mt
tri v nhng mng vut cng nh rng nhn ca cc gia sc ca Cu th gii.

The native flora could not tolerate the stress.

Loi thc vt bn a khng th chu c p lc.

The imported weeds could, because they had lived with large numbers of grazing animals for
thousands of years.
Cc loi c di nhp khu c th chu c, bi v chng sng vi s lng ln cc ng vt n c
hng ngn nm.

Cattle and horses were brought ashore in the early 1600s and found hospitable climate and terrain in
North America.
Gia sc v nga c a ln b vo u nhng nm 1600 v tm thy s ph hp kh hu v a hnh
Bc M.

Horses arrived in Virginia as early as 1620 and in Massachusetts in 1629.

Nhng con nga n Virginia sm nht l nm 1620 v n Massachusetts vo nm 1629.

 118

Many wandered free with little more evidence of their connection to humanity than collars with a
hook at the bottom to catch on fences as they tried to leap over them to get at crops.
Nhiu ngi lang thang t do vi mt vi bng chng cho thy mi lin h ca h vi loi ngi hn
l nhng chic c o vi mt ci mc pha di bt hng ro khi h c vt qua c c ma
mng.

Fences were not for keeping livestock in, but for keeping livestock out.
Hng ro khng phi nui gi gia sc, nhng gi cho gia sc khng ra ngoi.

Native American resistance to the Europeans was ineffective.

Cuc khng chin ngi da chng li ngi chu u khng c hiu qu.

Indigenous peoples suffered from white brutality, alcoholism, the killing and driving off of game, and
the expropriation of farmland, but all these together are insufficient to explain the degree of their
defeat.
Ngi da phi chu ng s tn c trng trn, chng nghin ru, s git chc, s b i, v s
chim hu t nng nghip, nhng tt c nhng iu ny khng gii thch v s bi trn ca h.

The crucial factor was not people, plants, or animals, but germs.
Yu t quyt nh khng phi l con ngi, thc vt, hay ng vt, m l vi trng.

Smallpox was the worst and the most spectacular of the infectious diseases mowing down the Native
Americans.
Bnh u ma l iu ti t nht v nng n nht ca cc bnh truyn nhim dn n vic ngi da
tuyt chng.

The first recorded pandemic of that disease in British North America detonated among the Algonquin
of Massachusetts in the early 1630s.
Cn i dch u tin c ghi nhn xy ra Anh Bc M, vng Algonquin ca Massachusetts vo
u nhng nm 1630.

William Bradford of Plymouth Plantation wrote that the victims fell down so generally of this
disease as they were in the end not able to help one another, no, not to make a fire nor fetch a little
water to drink, nor any to bury the dead.
William Bradford ca bo tng Plymouth Plantation ghi li rng cc nn nhn ni chung, ng
xung bi cn bnh ny khi cui cng h khng th gip ln nhau, khng bt c la, khng ly
c nc ung, v khng mai tng.

 119

The missionaries and the traders who ventured into the American interior told the same appalling
story about smallpox and the indigenes.
Cc nh truyn gio v nhng thng nhn, nhng ngi mo him vo vng ni a Hoa K
k li cu chuyn kinh hong v bnh u ma v nhng ngi bn x.

In 1738 alone, the epidemic destroyed half the Cherokee; in 1759 nearly half the Catawbas; in the first
years of the next century, two thirds of the Omahas and perhaps half the entire population between the
Missouri River and New Mexico; in 1837-38 nearly every last one of the Mandans and perhaps half
the people of the high plains.
Ch ring nm 1738, dch bnh dit chng mt na tc ngi Cherokee; vo nm 1759, dit chng
gn mt na tc ngi Catawbas; trong nhng nm u ca th k tip theo, dit chng hai phn ba
tc ngi Omahas v gn mt na dn s ton b gia sng Missouri v New Mexico; trong nhng
nm 1837-38 dit chng gn nh nhng ngi cui cng ca tc Mandans v c l mt na c dn
vng ng bng cao nguyn.

The export of Americas native animals has not revolutionised Old World agriculture or ecosystems
as the introduction of European animals to the New World did.
Vic xut khu ng vt bn a ca Hoa K khng xy ra cng cuc cch mng ha nng nghip
v h sinh thi cu th gii nh cc ng vt chu u vo tn th gii.

Americas grey squirrels and muskrats and a few others have established themselves east of the
Atlantic and west of the Pacific, but that has not made much of a difference.
Nhng con sc xm v chut x hng M v mt vi loi vt khc t to thnh h sinh thi khu
vc pha ng ca i Ty Dng v pha ty Thi Bnh Dng, nhng iu khng to nn nhiu
s khc bit.

Some of Americas domesticated animals are raised in the Old World, but turkeys have not displaced
chickens and geese, and guinea pigs have proved useful in laboratories, but have not usurped rabbits
in the butcher shops.
Mt s loi ng vt thun ha Hoa K c nui Cu th gii, nhng g ty cha th thay th g
v ngng v chut lang vn c chng minh l c gi tr hu ch trong phng th nghim, nhng
khng bng cc loi th trong cc ca hng tht.

The New Worlds great contribution to the Old is in crop plants.

ng gp ca Tn th gii cho cu th gii cc cy trng.

 120

Maize, white potatoes, sweet potatoes, various squashes, chiles, and manioc have become essentials in
the diets of hundreds of millions of Europeans, Africans, and Asians.
Ng, khoai ty trng, khoai lang, cc loi rau khc nhau, t v sn tr thnh yu t cn thit trong
ch n ca hng trm triu ngi chu u, chu Phi v chu .

Their influence on Old World peoples, like that of wheat and rice on New World peoples, goes far to
explain the global population explosion of the past three centuries.
nh hng ca n i vi cc dn tc Cu th gii, ging nh la m v la go ca cc dn tc Tn
th gii, gii thch s bng n dn s ton cu trong ba th k qua.

The Columbian Exchange has been an indispensable factor in that demographic explosion.
S trao i Columbus l mt yu t khng th thiu trong s bng n nhn khu hc ny.

All this had nothing to do with superiority or inferiority of biosystems in any absolute sense.
Tt c iu ny khng lin quan g n tnh u vit hoc km ci ca cc h sinh hc theo bt k
ngha tuyt i no.

It has to do with environmental contrasts.

N c lin quan n mi trng.

Amerindians were accustomed to living in one particular kind of environment, Europeans and
Africans in another.
Ngi th dn chu M quen vi vic sng trong mt mi trng c bit, ngi chu u v chu
Phi th khc.

When the Old World peoples came to America, they brought with them all their plants, animals, and
germs, creating a kind of environment to which they were already adapted, and so they increased in
number.
Khi ngi ca Cu th gii n M, h mang theo tt c cc loi thc vt, ng vt v vi trng, to ra
mt mi trng chng thch nghi, v v th chng tng ln theo sng lng.

Amerindians had not adapted to European germs, and so initially their numbers plunged.
Ngi th dn chu M khng thch ng vi vi trng chu u, v do dn s ca h ban u
gim.

 121

That decline has reversed in our time as Amerindian populations have adapted to the Old Worlds
environmental influence, but the demographic triumph of the invaders, which was the most
spectacular feature of the Old Worlds invasion of the New, still stands.
S suy gim ny o ngc trong thi i ca chng ta khi dn s th dn chu M li thch ng
vi nh hng mi trng ca Cu th gii, nhng s thnh cng v mt nhn khu hc ca nhng k
xm lng, l c im ngon mc nht ca cuc xm lc ca Cu th gii vn cn mi.

Dch bi Bch Khoa

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1096/reading/the-columbian-exchange

 122

Anxiety (S lo u)
Anxiety is a common experience that can be a useful motivator or even lifesaver in
situations that are objectively dangerous.
Lo lng l mt tri nghim thng gp c th xem nh mt ng lc hu ch hoc
thm ch l cu tinh trong nhng tnh hung nguy him.

However, when the anxiety is out of proportion to the danger inherent in a given
situation, is persistent and is markedly disabling, an anxiety disorder can be
developed.
Tuy nhin, khi s lo s qu mc so vi mi him nguy gn vi mt tnh hung
nht nh, xy ra lin tc v lm nh tr hot ng sng mt cch ng k, th c
th tin trin thnh chng ri lon lo u.

Anxiety is an emotion that all people experience from time to time, and we do that
for very good reasons.
Lo lng l trng thi tm l m ai cng i lc tri qua, v chng ta c nhng l do
chnh ng cho iu ny.

It has been built into us; we have inherited it from our evolutionary past, because,
in general, anxiety has a survival function.

 123

N m mm v pht trin trong ta; ta k tha n t lch s tin ha, bi ni chung

s lo u c mt chc nng sng cn.

If there is a real danger for a primitive man, then anxiety kicks in in an adaptive
way.
Nu mt ngi nguyn thy gp mt mi nguy him thc s, th s lo u s c
kch hot theo hng thch nghi.

We freeze, we stop doing whatever we were doing, we devote all of your attention
to the danger, and our bodies react with a big release of adrenalin, an increase in
blood flow to the muscles, getting us ready to run as fast as we can or fight as
fiercely as we can.
Ta ng yn, ta ngng mi hot ng, ta tp trung mi s ch n mi e da, v
c th ta phn hi bng cch tit ra lng ln adrenalin, tng lu lng mu n
cc c, khin ta sn sng chy nhanh ht sc c th hoc chin u c lit nht c
th.

So some anxiety is adaptive, not only for primitive man, but in modern society as
well.
V vy, vi loi lo lng mang tnh thch nghi, khng ch ring vi ngi nguyn
thy, m c trong x hi hin i.

It helps us to focus on things when we have deadlines and, if someone is driving

too fast when we cross the road, it helps us to jump out of the way quickly.
N gip ta tp trung vo nhng vic phi hon thnh ng hn, v nu c mt ai li
xe qu nhanh khi ta bng qua ng, n s gip ta nhy ra ngoi mt cch nhanh
chng.

So, there is nothing wrong with anxiety in general, and in fact, we would have
difficulties if we did not experience it to some extent, but of course it can get
problematic if the danger is one that is imagined rather than real, or the danger is
something that is exaggerated.

 124

Vy nn, nhn chung, chng c g sai khi lo lng, v s thc l, chng ta s gp

nhiu kh khn nu cha tng tri nghim s lo u mt chng mc nht nh,
nhng tt nhin s tht l rc ri nu mi nguy him m mt ngi ang hnh dung
vt qu hin thc hay b phng i.

In those cases, particularly if the perceived danger is out of proportion to the real
danger, and it is persistent and disabling, then there is a danger of an anxiety
disorder.
Trong nhng trng hp ny, c bit l khi mi nguy him trong tng tng
vt qu so vi s e da thc t, dai dng v gy tr tr mi hot ng, th s c
nguy c ca bnh ri lon lo u.

About 17 per cent of the population will have an anxiety disorder at some stage in
their life.
Khong 17 phn trm dn s b ri lon lo u mt giai on no trong i.

Anxiety can be caused in a variety of different ways, but any mental disorder is
always difficult to diagnose.
Lo lng c th c gy ra bng nhiu cch khc nhau, nhng mi hi chng ri
lon tm thn u lun lun kh chn on.

Scientists are looking at what role genes play in the development of these disorders
and are also investigating the effects of environmental factors, such as pollution,
physical and psychological stress, and diet.
Cc nh khoa hc ang tm hiu vai tr ca gien trong s pht trin ca nhng ri
lon ny v cng ang nghin cu tc ng ca cc yu t mi trng nh
nhim, tnh trng cng thng v mt th cht v tinh thn, v ch n ung.

Several parts of the brain are key actors in the production of fear and anxiety.
Mt s vng ca no l nhn t then cht trong vic to ra s s hi v lo u.

Using brain imaging technology and neurochemical techniques, scientists have

discovered that the amygdala plays a significant role in most anxiety disorders.

 125

Khi s dng cng ngh chp nh no b v cc k thut thn kinh, cc nh khoa

hc khm ph ra rng amygdala ng vai tr quan trng trong hu ht cc
chng ri lon lo u.

By learning more about how the brain creates fear and anxiety, scientists may be
able to devise better treatments for these disorders.
Bng cch nghin cu thm v cch b no to ra s s hi v lo u, cc nh khoa
hc c th sng ch ra cc phng php iu tr tt hn cho chng ri lon ny.

Anxiety disorders are a very costly problem in terms of society.

Ri lon lo u l mt thc trng hao tin tn ca v mt x hi.

Some published figures show that, in the US, it cost $60 billion in one year in
terms of lost productivity and in terms of excessive medical investigations that
many people with anxiety seek, often thinking they have a physical problem.
Mt vi s liu cng b cho thy, M, tn km khong 60 t la M mt nm
do gim nng sut lao ng v vt mc thanh tra y t do nhiu ngi mc bnh lo
lng, thng b cho rng h c vn sc khe.

Given all of this, it is rather worrying that anxiety also has a rather low
treatment-seeking rate.
Tt c nhng iu ny cho thy tht l ng lo ngi khi bnh lo u c t l yu cu
iu tr kh thp.

Only 10 per cent of people with an anxiety disorder will seek treatment.
Ch c 10 phn trm ngi ri lon lo u tm kim vic iu tr.

That seems to be largely because people do not realise there are effective
treatments available.
iu ny c v ph bin v mi ngi khng nhn ra rng c cc phng php iu
tr hiu qu sn c.

 126

Most people tend to think they have had it for most of their lives, so it is just their
personality and they cannot change their personality, and so they feel rather
hopeless about it.
Hu ht mi ngi thng cho rng h mc gn ht i, ch l do tnh cch ca
mnh v khng th no thay i nhn cch c, nn h cm thy mt ht hi vng.

The first psychotherapy treatment that was shown to be effective was exposure
therapy, which essentially encourages people in a graded way to go into their
feared situations and stay in them as long as they can and build up their confidence
that way.
Phng php tr liu tm l u tin c chng minh c hiu qu l liu php
phi nhim, ch yu khuyn khch mi ngi i mt vi tnh hung gy s hi
theo nh phn sp v chu ng chng cho n khi h xy dng c s t tin.

Often, the therapist will accompany the person to a feared situation to provide
support and guidance.
Thng thng, nh tr liu s i theo bnh nhn trong tnh hung gy s hi v a
ra s h tr v hng dn.

Group cognitive behaviour therapy has also been shown to be effective.

Liu php nhn thc hnh vi cng c cho l c hiu qu.

This is a talking therapy that helps people to understand the link between negative
thoughts and mood and how altering their behaviour can enable them to manage
anxiety and feel in control.
y l liu php tr chuyn nhm gip mi ngi hiu c mi lin h gia cc
suy ngh tiu cc v trng thi cm xc v bng cch no vic iu chnh hnh vi
c th gip h kim sot s lo lng v cm xc.

There are, of course, drugs that can help people with anxiety.
Tt nhin, thuc c th h tr nhng ngi lo u.

 127

Medication will not cure an anxiety disorder, but it can keep it under control while
the person receives psychotherapy.
S dng thuc khng iu tr ri lon lo u, nhng n gip kim sot khi mt
ngi ang trong thi gian tr liu tm l.

The principal medications used for anxiety disorders are antidepressants,

anti-anxiety drugs, and beta-blockers to control some of the physical symptoms.
Thuc ch nh ch yu cho hi chng ri lon lo u l thuc chng trm cm,
thuc gii lo u v thuc chn beta nhm kim sot mt s triu chng thc th.

With proper treatment, many people with anxiety disorders can lead normal,
fulfilling lives.
Nh c phng php iu tr thch hp, nhiu ngi ri lon lo u c th c cuc
sng bnh thng v trn vn.

There is plenty of evidence that exercise can help with anxiety problems.
C rt nhiu bng chng cho thy tp th dc c th gip gii quyt chng lo u.

When stress affects the brain, with its many nerve connections, the rest of the body
feels the impact as well.
Khi s cng thng tc ng ln b no, ni c nhiu lin kt thn kinh, cc vng
khc ca c th cng cm nhn c s tc ng ny.

Exercise and other physical activity produce endorphins, which are chemicals in
the brain that act as natural painkillers.
Rn luyn th lc v cc hot ng th cht khc lm phng thch endorphins, l
cc ha cht trong no hot ng nh thuc gim au t nhin.

In addition to this, getting physically tired can help people fall asleep faster and
have deeper and more relaxing sleep.
Thm vo , c th mt mi s gip mi ngi i vo gic ng nhanh hn, su
hn v thoi mi hn.

 128

As many people suffering from anxiety often have problems with insomnia, just
the ability to get a good nights rest can change peoples whole perspectives.
Nhiu ngi mc chng lo lng thng gp vn kh ng, v ch cn mt gic
ng ngon vo ban m s gip h thay i ton b mi quan im.

Anxiety is a normal, but highly subjective, human emotion.

Lo lng l mt trng thi tm l bnh thng nhng mang tnh c th cao ca con
ngi.

While normal anxiety serves a beneficial and adaptive purpose, anxiety can also
become the cause of tremendous suffering for millions of people.
Mt mt s lo lng bnh thng nhm mc ch c li v mang tnh thch nghi,
mc khc n cng c th l nguyn nhn gy tn tht ng k cho hng triu
ngi.

It is important that people recognise excessive anxiety in themselves as soon as

possible, as treatment can be very successful and living untreated can be a misery.
iu quan trng l mi ngi nhn thc c s lo lng qu mc ca chnh h
cng sm cng tt v vic iu tr c th mang li thnh cng v vic sng m
khng cha tr c th em n nhiu kh s.

Dch bi Loan Nguyn

Ngun: http://mini-ielts.com/1127/reading/anxiety

 129

Phong cch giao tip v xung t

Knowing your communication style and having a mix of styles on your team can provide a positive
force for resolving conflict.
Vic hiu bit phong cch giao tip ca chnh bn v c mt s kt hp ca cc phong cch trong i
ca bn c th cung cp mt sc mnh tch cc gii quyt xung t.

As far back as Hippocrates time (460-370BC), people have tried to understand other people by
characterizing them according to personality type or temperament .
Xt v thi i ca Hippocrates (460-370BC), ngi ta c gng hiu nhng ngi khc bng
cch m t c im ca h da theo kiu tnh cch hoc tnh kh.

Hippocrates believed there were four different body fluids that influenced four basic types of
temperament .
Hippocrates tin rng c bn cht lng c th khc nhau nh hng n bn loi tnh kh c bn.

His work was further developed 500 years later by Galen.

Nghin cu ca ng c pht trin xa hn 500 nm sau bi Galen.

These days there are any number of self-assessment tools that relate to the basic descriptions
developed by Galen, although we no longer believe the source to be the types of body fluid that
dominate our systems.

 130

Ngy nay, c rt nhiu cng c t nh gi c lin quan n cc m t c bn do Galen pht trin,

mc d chng ta khng cn tin rng ngun gc l cc loi cht lng c th chi phi n c th ca
chng ta.

The values in self-assessments that help determine personality style.

Cc gi tr trong t nh gi gip xc nh c kiu nhn cch.

Learning styles, communication styles, conflict-handling styles, or other aspects of individuals is that
they help depersonalize conflict in interpersonal relationships.
Cc phong cch hc tp, phong cch giao tip, phong cch x l xung t, hoc cc kha cnh khc
ca c nhn gip h xa b mu thun trong cc mi quan h gia c nhn vi nhau.

The depersonalization occurs when you realize that others arent trying to be difficult, but they need
different or more information than you do.
S gii th nhn cch xy ra khi bn nhn ra rng nhng ngi khc ang khng c gng gp phi
kh khn, nhng h cn thng tin khc bit hoc nhiu thng tin hn bn.

Theyre not intending to be rude: they are so focused on the task they forget about greeting people.
H khng c th l: h qu tp trung vo nhim v m h qun mt vic cho hi mi ngi.

They would like to work faster but not at the risk of damaging the relationships needed to get the job
done.
H mun lm vic nhanh hn nhng khng lm vo nguy c lm hng cc mi quan h cn thit
hon thnh cng vic.

They understand there is a job to do.

H hiu rng c mt cng vic lm.

But it can only be done right with the appropriate information, which takes time to collect.
Nhng n ch c th c lm ng vi cc thng tin thch hp, nhng th cn c thi gian thu
thp.

When used appropriately, understanding communication styles can help resolve conflict on teams.
Khi c s dng mt cch ph hp, s hiu bit v phong cch giao tip c th gip gii quyt xung
t trong cc i nhm.

Very rarely are conflicts true personality issues.

Rt him khi xy ra mu thun vi nhng vn nhn cch thc s.

Usually they are issues of style, information needs, or focus.

Thng thng chng l cc vn v phong cch, nhu cu thng tin, hoc s tp trung.

 131

Hippocrates and later Galen determined there were four basic temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic,
melancholic and choleric .
Hippocrates v sau l Galen xc nh c bn tnh kh c bn: lc quan, lnh lng, u su v nng
tnh.

These descriptions were developed centuries ago and are still somewhat apt, although you could
update the wording.
Nhng m t ny c pht trin cch y hng th k v vn kh ph hp, mc d bn c th
cp nht cch din t.

In todays world, they translate into the four fairly common communication styles described below:
Trong th gii ngy nay, h gii thch chng thnh bn kiu giao tip kh ph bin c m t di
y:

The sanguine person would be the expressive or spirited style of communication.

Ngi lc quan s l dng biu cm hoc dng sinh ng trong s giao tip.

These people speak in pictures.

Nhng ngi ny ni chuyn bng cc hnh nh.

They invest a lot of emotion and energy in their communication and often speak quickly.
H u t rt nhiu cm xc v nng lng trong giao tip ca h v thng ni chuyn nhanh.

Putting their whole body into it.

H a ton b c th vo .

They are easily sidetracked onto a story that may or may not illustrate the point they are trying to
make.
H c th d dng cht hng trong mt cu chuyn c th hoc c th khng minh ha quan im
m h ang c gng th hin.

Because of their enthusiasm, they are great team motivators .

V s nhit tnh ca h, h l nhng ngi thc y nhm tuyt vi.

They are concerned about people and relationships.

H quan tm n con ngi v cc mi quan h.

Their high levels of energy can come on strong at times and their focus is usually on the bigger
picture, which means they sometimes miss the details or the proper order of things.

 132

Mc nng lng cao ca h c th tin n mnh m vo cc thi im v s tp trung ca h thng

l vo bc tranh ton cnh, iu c ngha l h i khi b l cc chi tit hoc th t ng n ca
nhng s vt.

These people find conflict or differences of opinion invigorating and love to engage in a spirited
discussion.
Nhng ngi ny nhn thy mu thun hoc khc bit v kin tip thm sinh lc v thch tham gia
vo mt cuc tho lun si ni.

They love change and are constantly looking for new and exciting adventures .
H yu thch s thay i v lun tm kim nhng cuc phiu lu mi v th v.

Tile phlegmatic person - cool and persevering - translates into the technical or systematic
communication style.
Tp ngi lnh lng lnh m v kin tr - dch thnh phong cch giao tip c chuyn mn hoc c
phng php.

This style of communication is focused on facts and technical details.

Phong cch giao tip ny tp trung vo cc s kin v chi tit chuyn mn.

Phlegmatic people have an orderly methodical way of approaching tasks, and their focus is very
much on the task, not on the people, emotions, or concerns that the task may evoke.
Nhng ngi lnh lng c mt phng thc k lut trong vic tip cn cc cng vic, v s tp trung
ca h l rt ln trong nhim v, ch khng phi vo con ngi, nhng cm xc, hoc nhng mi
quan tm m cng vic c th gy ra.

The focus is also more on the details necessary to accomplish a task.

S tp trung cn nhiu hn vo cc chi tit cn thit hon thnh mt nhim v.

Sometimes the details overwhelm the big picture and focus needs to be brought back to the context
of the task.
i khi cc chi tit p o bc tranh ton cnh v s tp trung cn phi c a tr li vi bi cnh
ca cng vic.

People with this style think the facts should speak for themselves, and they are not as comfortable
with conflict.
Nhng ngi c phong cch ny ngh rng cc s kin nn ln ting cho chnh chng, v h khng
thoi mi g vi xung t.

They need time to adapt to change and need to understand both the logic of it and the steps involved.

 133

H cn thi gian thch nghi vi thay i v cn phi hiu c hai th l s logic ca n v cc bc

lin quan.

Tile melancholic person who is soft hearted and oriented toward doing things for others translates into
the considerate or sympathetic communication style .
Tile ngi su mun l nhng ngi yu lng v c nh hng - hng ti lm cc cng vic cho
nhng ngi khc dch thnh phong cch giao tip n cn hoc cm thng.

A person with this communication style is focused on people and relationships.

Mt ngi c phong cch giao tip ny tp trung vo con ngi v cc mi quan h.

They are good listeners and do things for other people-sometimes to the detriment of getting things
done for themselves.
H l nhng ngi bit lng nghe v lm cc th cho ngi khc i khi gy ra cc thit hi cho
vic t h gii quyt cc cng vic.

They want to solicit everyones opinion and make sure everyone is comfortable with whatever is
required to get the job done.
H mun thu ht kin ca mi ngi v m bo mi ngi u cm thy thoi mi vi bt c iu
g c yu cu hon thnh cng vic.

At times this focus on others can distract from the task at hand.
i khi s tp trung vo nhng ngi khc c th lm phn tm t nhim v ang din ra.

Because they are so concerned with the needs of others and smoothing over issues, they do not like
conflict.
Bi v h rt quan tm n nhu cu ca ngi khc v lm du cc vn , h khng thch xung t.

They believe that change threatens the status quo and tends to make people feel uneasy, so people
with this communication style, like phlegmatic people need time to consider the changes in order to
adapt to them.
H tin rng s thay i e da tnh trng hin ti v c xu hng lm cho mi ngi cm thy khng
thoi mi, v vy nhng ngi c phong cch giao tip ny, ging nh nhng ngi lnh lng cn thi
gian xem xt nhng thay i thch ng vi chng.

The choleric temperament translates into the bold or direct style of communication.
Tnh kh nng ny chuyn thnh phong cch giao tip to bo hoc trc tip.

People with this style are brief in their communication - the fewer words the better.
Nhng ngi c phong cch ny thng ngn gn trong giao tip ca h - cng t t cng tt hn.

 134

They are big picture thinkers and love to be involved in many things at once.
H l cc nh t tng nhn ton cnh v thch tham gia vo nhiu iu cng mt lc.

They are focused on tasks and outcomes and often forget that the people involved in carrying out the
tasks have needs .
H tp trung vo cc nhim v v cc kt qu v thng qun nhng ngi tham gia vo vic thc
hin cc nhim v cng c nhng nhu cu.

They dont do detail work easily and as a result can often underestimate how much time it takes to
achieve the task.
H khng lm vic chi tit mt cch d dng v nh mt h qu thng c th nh gi thp vic tn
bao nhiu thi gian hon thnh nhim v.

Because they are so direct, they often seem forceful and can be very intimidating to others.
Bi v h lm vic rt trc tip, nn h thng c v nh mnh m v c th rt ng s i vi
ngi khc.

They usually would welcome someone challenging them.

H thng c th s cho n ai th thch h.

But most other styles are afraid to do so.

Nhng hu ht cc phong cch khc u e ngi lm nh vy.

They also thrive on change, the more the better.

H cng pht trin mnh v s thay i, cng nhiu th cng tt.

A well-functioning team should have all of these communication styles for true effectiveness .
Mt i ng vn hnh tt nn c tt c cc phong cch giao tip ny cho s hiu qu tht s.

All teams need to focus on the task, and they need to take care of relationships in order to achieve
those tasks.
Tt c cc i cn tp trung vo nhim v, v h cn phi nui dng cc mi quan h hon thnh
c cc nhim v .

They need the big picture perspective or the context of their work, and they need the details to be
identified and taken care of for success.
H cn tm nhn bao qut ton cnh hoc bi cnh cng vic ca h, v h cn nhng chi tit c
xc nh v c chm cht thnh cng.

We all have aspects of each style within us.

Tt c chng ta u c cc kha cnh ca mi phong cch trong chng ta.

 135

Some of us can easily move from one style to another and adapt our style to the needs of the situation
at hand-whether the focus is on tasks or relationships.
Mt s ngi trong chng ta c th d dng di chuyn t phong cch ny sang phong cch khc v
thch nghi vi phong cch ca chng ta theo nhu cu ca tnh hung cp bch - d s tp trung l
vo cc nhim v hay cc mi quan h.

For others, a dominant style is very evident, and it is more challenging to see the situation from the
perspective of another style.
i vi nhng ngi khc, mt phong cch ch o rt r rng, v n c nhiu thch thc hn c
th nhn thy tnh hung t quan im ca mt phong cch khc.

The work environment can influence communication styles either by the type of work that is required
or by the predominance of one style reflected in that environment .
Mi trng lm vic c th nh hng n phong cch giao tip hoc bi loi cng vic c yu cu
hoc bi s ni bt ca mt phong cch c phn nh trong mi trng .

Some people use one style at work and another at home.

Mt s ngi s dng mt phong cch trong cng vic v mt phong cch khc nh.

The good news about communication styles is that we have the ability to develop flexibility in our
styles.
Tin tt v cc phong cch giao tip l chng ta c kh nng pht trin s linh hot trong phong cch
ca chng ta.

The greater the flexibility we have, the more skilled we usually are at handling possible and actual
conflicts.
S linh hot ca chng ta cng ln, chng ta thng cng c nhiu k nng trong gii quyt cc xung
t c th xy ra v ngay trong thc t.

Usually it has to be relevant to us to do so, either because we think it is important or because there are
incentives in our environment to encourage it.
Thng thng n phi c lin quan n chng ta lm nh th, cng bi v chng ta ngh rng iu
quan trng hoc bi v c nhng u i trong mi trng lm vic m khuyn khch chng ta lm.

The key is that we have to want to become flexible with our communication style.
Mu cht l chng ta phi mun tr nn linh hot vi phong cch giao tip ca chng ta.

As Henry Ford said, Whether you think you can or you cant, youre right!.
Nh Henry Ford ni, "Cho d bn ngh bn c th hay khng, bn u ng!".

 136

Link: http://mini-ielts.com/1094/reading/communicating-styles-and-conflict
(Dch bi Nguyn Hoi Nam)

Cch s dng ti liu ny

1. Tch cc tra cu v ghi chp t mi

Cc t vng c xut hin thng xuyn v c ngha nht nh vi tng ch trong cun
sch ny u rt c kh nng nm trong thi tht trong khong thi gian sp ti v chng thuc
top ch ph bin theo xu hng. Do vy cc bn nn chu kh tra t cch dng ca chng,
thng k i qun vo mt quyn s nh, thnh thong gi ra n tp, c i c li hng ngy
th cng tt.

Mi mt passage Reading nn ghi ch c t nht t 7 n 10 t, nm lng chng ri tm

khong 1, 2 tun sau d sch ra c li, mc ch xem mnh c nh t khng, c hiu bi c
hn v nm thng tin nhiu hn khng, check lun tc c hiu so vi trc th ra sao,
Cch hc ny tng i mt thi gian nhng li kh hiu qu. Cc bn c th th xem.

2. Lm li t nht 2 ln
Hy lm li bi c bn lm sau khong 2 thng m bo ni dung s lc v cc t vng
cn nh cho ch c tht s nm trong u ca bn cha. Nu bn b miss ch no hay lm

 137

sai th hy coi l mt ln n tp li bi hc nh. Cch hc ny nh ra s chc chn v
thm thu kin thc ca bn thi.

3. To mi trng hc tp
Chn thi im bn thoi mi nht hc k nng IELTS Reading nha. c bit ch l phi
trong bu khng kh tnh lng, khng n o hiu sut lm vic ca bn cao nht m ng thi
li khng gy ra s nhm chn v y l k nng rt d mng du m.

Cun sch ny c th coi l mt nhnh tin ha ca b sch IELTS Cambridge 1-11, u l t

hp ca cc thi tht c tng hp qua cc nm. Vi l do trn mnh thy n tht s rt quan
trng v cn thit, c bit cho bn no sp thi IELTS cn mt b nh gi nng lc ca
bn thn.

Cc bi dch song ng trong mc Recent Actual test cc bn xem thm online link sau nh:

https://learnvocabinieltsreading.wordpress.com/category/recent-actual-test/

a s cc bi dch ny do nhm TNV #learnvocabinieltsreading dch nn c th c nhiu li s

sut nn nu cc bn pht hin ch no dch sai vui lng email phn hi nhm kp thi chnh
sa li nh.

 138

ABOUT

Nhm #learnvocabinieltsreading l nhm chuyn dch thut cc bi reading IELTS. Vi tham vng s
dch ton b cc bi reading trong 12 cun CAM lm t liu hc thut phc v cng ng, hy vng cc
bn s cng chng ti tip sc nh!

Xin cm n!

DANH SCH CC BI READING IELTS C VIT HO

https://sites.google.com/site/learnvocabinieltsreading/home/cac-bai-reading-ielts-da-duoc-viet-ho
a

Cc bn c th theo di cc bi dch song ng khc ca nhm ti a ch sau nh:

Learnvocabinieltsreading.wordpress.com

Chc cc bn thi tt!

#learnvocabinieltsreading
FB Page: https://www.facebook.com/Learnvocabinieltsreading-272836953154100