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groundwat
er table
was
lowered
from
ground
surface to
the base of
the clay
layer. Ifthe
clay layer
was
25
ft
below grou
nd surface
and the
water table
was
lowered
fromthe
top
of
the clay
layer to the
bottom of
the clay
layer, the
settlement
would
beabout
2
in. In
addition to
the
settlement
of
overlying
structures,
this
phenomeno
ncan also
cause
additional
loads on
deep pile
foundation
s by
inducing
additionald
ownward
vertical
load, called
negative
skin
friction, on
the piles.If
consolidati
on of soils
nearby is
anticipated
, and
if
such
consolidati
on may
haveadvers
e effects on
adjacent
structures,
settlement
monitoring
points
should
beplaced on
the suspect
structures
to
document
the rate
and
magnitude
of any
settle-ment
that
occurs. It is
also a good
idea to
perform
preconstruc
tion
surveys of
nearbystru
ctures to
document
preexisting
conditions.
If
observation
s indicate
that
intoler-able
levels of
settlement
are
occurring,
pumping
should be
halted until
new esti-
mates are
made
based on
actual field
observatio
ns and
preventativ
e
or
remedialm
easures are
planned
and
implemente
d.
Pumping
of
Fines
Another
potential
hazard to
structures
adjacent to
a
dewatering
site as well
as to
theexcavati
on
supports is
the
pumping
or
piping of
fine-
grained
soil
particles. If
thisoccurs
in
significant
quantities,
voids may
be created
that are
filled by
overlyingso
ils,
creating
depressions
at the
ground
surface. If
the
dewatering
system is
de-signed,
operated, a
nd
monitored
properly,
with
suitable scr
eens and
filters in
place,the
piping
of
fines
should not
occur. If
observation
s indicate
a high
amount of
finesoils
in
the
discharge
water,
pumping
should be
stopped
until the
source of
thesefines
can be
determined
and
corrected.
Settlemen
t
Both of the
phenomena
above, as
well as
elastic
response of
soils, can
causesettle
ment
adjacent to
dewatered
excavations
. It should
be noted
here too
that
therewill
likely be
settlement
due to the
excavation
itself,
which must
be
considered
inthe
context of
the overall
effects on
adjacent
structures t
hat
constructio
n may
cause.The t
otal anticip
ated
settlement
around
the dewate
red
excavation
s should
be esti-
mated and
evaluated
with
respect to
the
allowable
settlements
that
adjacent
struc-tures
may
tolerate. As
a rough
guide,
masonry
walls can
tolerate
about
1
to
2
in. oftotal
settlement;
framed
buildings
can
tolerate
about
2
to
4
in. of total
settlement(
Sowers,
1979).
Angular
Distortion
Angular
distortion
represents
the differen
tial vertica
l movement
between
two points
divided by
the
horizontal
distance
between the
points.
Most
structures
can
toleratemo
dest
amounts of
settlement
if it is
uniform
across the
structure.
It is often
thedifferent
ial
settlement,
which can
be
expressed
as angular
distortion,
that causes
54
GROUNDWATER
LOWERING
AND DRAINAGE
TECHNIQUES
damage
to structures
. A further
consideratio
n is whether
this damage
is
architectura
l
or
structural. A
ccording to
Cording et
al.
(1978),
architectura
l damage
can
begin atan
angular
distortion
of about
1/
1000
for brick
bearing
walls and
1/650
for
infilledfram
e structures.
Again,
preconstruct
ion surveys
and
settlement
instrumenta
tionwill
give indicati
ons of
angular
distortion
damage
to adjacent
structures c
aused
bydewaterin
g.
Rotting and
Corrosion
of
Submerged
Structures
It is well
known that
rotting and
corrosion do
not normally
occur
without
thepresence
of oxygen.
When
dewatering
is planned
near other
structures,
consider-
ation should
be given to
whether
these
structures
have any
submerged
wooden
or
metallic
components
that could be
exposed to
air as a
result of the
dewateringp
rogram. If
so,
the possible
deterioratio
n and
corrosion of
these
components
mustbe
considered
to verify that
the duration
of
dewatering
and any
possible
futureeffects
of
construction
, such as
permanent
lowering of
the
groundwate
r table,
willnot have
detrimental
effects on
the
components.
If lowering
the
groundwate
r table may
cause
significant a
mounts of
rotting
andcorrosio
n, actions
will have to
be taken to
prevent
or
mitigate
these effects.
For
instance, a
structure
supported on
wooden piles
might need
to be
underpinned
priorto
construction
, or exposed
concrete
reinforceme
nt might
need to be
sealed.
1-
1 1 IMPERME
ABLE BARRI
ERS
Often
excavation
supports
and ground
treatment
are
combined
with
dewateringp
lans to work
as a system.
This should
be done
whenever
possible. For
instance,gro
uting can be
used to
reduce soil
permeability
and thereby
water inflow
into
theexcavatio
n. Barrier
or
cutoff walls
can
be placed
deep enough
to reduce or
eliminatethe
need for a
dewatering
system
(Figure
1-49).
Still other
techniques,
like com-
pressed air
in tunnels
or
ground
freezing, can
eliminate
the
need for
dewateringc
ompletely.
These
techniques
are
discussed in
greater
detail in
later
chapters.
Thepossible
relationship
to
dewatering,
however, is
discussed
below.
Grouting
Grouting
can be used
both to
reduce the
permeability
of the
ground and
to strength-
en it.
A
method such
as jet
grouting, for
instance,
does both.
Vpes of
groutingincl
ude
permeation
with cement
or
chemicals,
contact and
pressure
grouting to
fillvoids
with neat
cement,
compaction
grouting
with neat
cement to
densify
theground,
and
jet grouting,
which mixes
or
completely r
eplaces the
soil with
cement.By
decreasing
the
permeability
of the soil
or
rock, dewate
ring needs
can be
reduced
or
eliminated.
A
cost study
can be made
to determine
the best
combination
fromeffectiv
eness and
economic
standpoints
(Figure
1-50).
1-11
IMPERMEABL
E BARRIERS
55
4
20

e
r'
tl
B
1.5
1
z
2
1.0
0.1
0
Sheet
Piles
Interlockin
g steel
sheet piles
are
frequently
used for
excavation
support
when
aflexible
system can
be used but
when the
high water
inflow
amounts
possible
withsoldier
 piles
and laggin
g systems
cannot
be
tolerated. S
heet pile
support sys
tems arerel
atively
impermeab
le,
although
leakage
between
the sheets
is common
partic-