Conditions at a Boundary

Surface.
Why are boundary conditions important ?
 Why are boundary conditions important ?
When a free-space electromagnetic wave is incident upon a medium
secondary waves are
transmitted wave
reflected wave
The transmitted from the incident side
The reflected wave is wave is due to the E and H fields at the boundary as
seen due to the E and H fields at the boundary as seen from the
transmitted side
To calculate the transmitted and reflected fields we need to know the
fields at the boundary
These are determined by the boundary conditions
 Boundary Conditions contd
At a boundary between two media, r ,r , are different on
either side.
An abrupt change in these values changes the characteristic
impedance experienced by propagating waves
Discontinuities results in partial reflection and transmission
of EM waves
The characteristics of the reflected and transmitted waves
can be determined from a solution of Maxwells equations
along the boundary
 Boundary conditions
The tangential component of E is continuous E1t, H1t 1,1,1
at a surface of discontinuity
E1t = E2t E2t, H2t 2,2,2
Except for a perfect conductor, the
tangential component of H is continuous at a
surface of discontinuity
H1t = H2t

The normal component of D is continuous at

the surface of a discontinuity if there is no
surface charge density. If there is surface D1n, B1n 1,1,1
charge density D is discontinuous by an
amount equal to the surface charge density. D2n, B2n 2,2,2
D1n = D2n+s
The normal component of B is continuous at
the surface of discontinuity
B1n = B2n 4
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Et
x
1,1,1
y
E y1 E x1 E y3
E y2 E y4 2,2,2

Ex2

Integral form of Faradays law:

B
0 0 E.ds = A t
.da
0 0
y y y y B
E y2 + E y1 + E x1x E y 3 E y4 E x 2 x = z xy
2 2 2 2 t
0
As y 0, (B z t )xy 0 That is, the tangential
component of E is
E x1x E x 2 x = 0 continuous
E x1 = E x 2
5
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Ht
x
1,1,1
y
H y1 H x1 H y3
H y2 H y4 2,2,2

H x2

Amperes law
D
0 0 H.ds =
A t
+ J .dA

0 0

y y y y D z
H y2 + H y1 + H x1x H y 3 H y4 H x 2 x = + J z xy
2 2 2 2
0
t
As y 0, (D z t + J z )xy 0 That is, the tangential
component of H is
H x1x H x 2 x = 0 continuous
H x1 = H x 2
6
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn
Dn1
y

z 1,1,1
2,2,2

Dn 2
The integral form of Gauss law for electrostatics is:
D.dA = V dV
applied to the box gives
Dn1xy Dn 2 xy + edge = s xy
As dz 0, edge 0 hence
The change in the normal component of D at a
Dn1 Dn 2 = s boundary is equal to the surface charge
density
7
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn cont.
Dn1 Dn 2 = s
For an insulator with no static electric charge s=0
Dn1 = Dn 2

For a conductor all charge flows to the surface and for an

infinite, plane surface is uniformly distributed with area
charge density s
In a good conductor, is large, D=E0 hence if
medium 2 is a good conductor

Dn1 = s

8
 Proof of boundary conditions - Bn
Proof follows same argument as for Dn on page 47,
The integral form of Gauss law for magnetostatics is

B.dA = 0
there are no isolated magnetic poles

Bn1xy Bn 2 xy + edge = 0
Bn1 = Bn 2

The normal component of B at a boundary is

always continuous at a boundary

9
 Conditions at a perfect conductor
In a perfect conductor is infinite
Practical conductors (copper, aluminium silver) have very large
and field solutions assuming infinite can be accurate
enough for many applications
Finite values of conductivity are important in calculating Ohmic
loss
For a conducting medium J=E
infinite infinite J
More practically, is very large, E is very small (0) and J is
finite
 Conditions at a perfect conductor
It will be shown that at high frequencies J is confined to a surface
layer with a depth known as the skin depth
With increasing frequency and conductivity the skin depth, x
becomes thinner

Current sheet

x
x
Lower frequencies, smaller Higher frequencies, larger

It becomes more appropriate to consider the current density in

terms of current per unit with:

lim Jx = J s A/m
x 0 11
Conditions at a perfect conductor cont.
x
1,1,1
y
H y1 H x1 H y3
H y2 H y4 2,2,2

H x2

Amperes law: D
0
H.ds =
A t
+ J .dA
0 Jszx
0
y y y y D
H y2 + H y1 + H x1x H y 3 H y4 H x 2 x = z + J z xy
2 2 2 2
0
t
As y 0, D z t xy 0, J z xy xJ sz

H x1 H x 2 = J sz That is, the tangential component of H is discontinuous

by an amount equal to the surface current density
12
 Conditions at a perfect conductor cont.
From Maxwells equations:
If in a conductor E=0 then dE/dt=0
Since
H
E =
dt
Hx2=0 (it has no time-varying component and also
cannot be established from zero)
H x1 = J sz
The current per unit width, Js, along the surface of a
perfect conductor is equal to the magnetic field just
outside the surface:
H and J and the surface normal, n, are mutually
perpendicular: J = nHs
13
Summary of Boundary conditions
At a boundary between non-conducting media
E t1 = E t 2 n (E1 E 2 ) = 0
H t1 = H t 2 n (H1 H 2 ) = 0

Dn1 = Dn 2 n.(D1 D 2 ) = 0
Bn1 = Bn 2 n.(B1 B 2 ) = 0

At a metallic boundary (large )

n (E1 E 2 ) = 0
n (H1 H 2 ) = 0
n.(D1 D 2 ) = s
n.(B1 B 2 ) = 0
At a perfectly conducting boundary
n E1 = 0
n H1 = J s
n.D1 = s
n.B1 = 014
The wave equation for a conducting medium
The derivation of the wave equation with J0
D B
H = J + E =
dt dt
As on page 8:
B
E = = B = o H
t t t

D
E = o J +
t t
J = E
J 2D D = E
= o o 2
t t
E 2E
= o o 2
t t
15
 The wave equation for a conducting
medium cont.
E 2E
E = o o 2
t t
E 2
E
.E 2 E = o o 2
t t

In the absence of sources .E = = 0 hence:

E 2E
E = o
2
+ o 2
t t

This is the wave equation for a decaying wave

to be continued...
16
Reflection and refraction of plane waves
At a discontinuity the change in , and results in
partial reflection and transmission of a wave
For example, consider normal incidence:

Incident wave = Ei e j (t z )
Reflected wave = E r e j (t + z )

Where Er is a complex number determined by the

boundary conditions

17
Reflection at a perfect conductor
Tangential E is continuous across the boundary
see page 45
For a perfect conductor E just inside the surface is
zero
E just outside the conductor must be zero

Ei + E r = 0
Ei = E r
Amplitude of reflected wave is equal to
amplitude of incident wave, but reversed in
phase 18
 Standing waves
Resultant wave at a distance -z from the interface is
the sum of the incident and reflected waves

ET (z , t ) = incident wave + reflected wave

= Ei e j (t z ) + E r e j (t + z )
(
= Ei e jz e jz e jt ) sin =
e j e j
2j
= 2 jEi sin z e jt

and if Ei is chosen to be real

ET (z , t ) = Re{ 2 jEi sin z (cos t + j sin t )}
= 2 Ei sin z sin t

19
 Standing waves cont...
ET (z , t ) = 2 Ei sin z sin t

Incident and reflected wave combine to produce a

standing wave whose amplitude varies as a function (sin
z) of displacement from the interface
Maximum amplitude is twice that of incident fields

20
Reflection from a perfect conductor

21
Reflection from a perfect conductor
Direction of propagation is given by EH
If the incident wave is polarised along the y axis:
Ei = a y E yi
H i = a x H xi From page 18

then ( )
E H = a y a x E yi H xi
= +a z E yi H xi
That is, a z-directed wave.
For the reflected wave H = a z E yi H xi and E r = a y E yi
So H r = a x H xi = H i and the magnetic field is
reflected without change in phase

22
Reflection from a perfect conductor
j j
Given that e +e
cos =
2
derive (using a similar method that used for
ET(z,t) on p59) the form for HT(z,t)

H T (z , t ) = H i e j (t z ) + H r e j (t + z )
(
= H i e jz + e jz e jt )
= 2 H i cos z e jt
As for Ei, Hi is real (they are in phase), therefore
H T (z , t ) = Re{2 H i cos z (cos t + j sin t )} = 2 H i cos z cos t
23
Reflection from a perfect conductor
H T (z , t ) = 2 H i cos z cos t
Resultant magnetic field strength also has a standing-wave
distribution
In contrast to E, H has a maximum at the surface and zeros at
(2n+1)/4 from the surface:

resultant wave resultant wave

E [V/m] H [A/m]

z [m] z [m]

free space silver free space silver

z = 0 24 z = 0
Reflection from a perfect conductor
ET ( z , t ) = 2 Ei sin z sin t
H T (z , t ) = 2 H i cos z cos t

ET and HT are /2 out of phase( sin t = cos(t /)2 )

No net power flow as expected
power flow in +z direction is equal to power flow in - z direction

25
 Reflection by a perfect dielectric
Reflection by a perfect dielectric (J=E=0)
no loss
Wave is incident normally
E and H parallel to surface
There are incident, reflected (in medium 1)and
transmitted waves (in medium 2):

26
Reflection from a lossless dielectric

27
 Reflection by a lossless dielectric
Ei = 1H i j
Er = 1H r = =
Et = 2 H t + j o r
Continuity of E and H at boundary requires:
Ei + E r = Et
Hi + Hr = Ht
Which can be combined to give
H i + H r = (E i E r ) = H t = (Ei + E r )
1 1 1
Et =
1 2 2

1
(Ei Er ) = (Ei + Er )
1 Er 2 1
1 2
E = =
Ei 2 + 1
2 (Ei Er ) = 1 (Ei + Er )
Ei (2 1 ) = Er (2 + 1 )
The reflection coefficient
28
 Reflection by a lossless dielectric
Ei + E r = Et
Hi + Hr = Ht
Similarly
Et E r + Ei E r 2 1 2 + 1 2 2
E = = = +1 = + =
Ei Ei Ei 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 + 1
2 2
E =
2 + 1
The transmission coefficient

29
 Reflection by a lossless dielectric
Furthermore:
Hr E
= r = H
Hi Ei
H t 1 Et 1 2 2 21
= = = H
H i 2 Ei 2 2 + 1 2 + 1

And because =o for all low-loss dielectrics

Er 1 2 n1 n2
E = = = = H
Ei 1 + 2 n1 + n2
Er 2 1 2n1
E = = =
Ei 1 + 2 n1 + n2
2 2 2n2
H = =
1 + 2 n1 + n2
30
Conditions at a perfect conductor
 Maxwell's equations in the differential form express
the relationship that must exist between the four field
vectors E, D, H, and B at any point within a continuous
medium.
Because they involve space derivatives, they cannot
be expected to yield information at points of
discontinuity in the medium.
However the integral form always be used to
determine what happens at the boundary surface
between different media.
 The following statements can be made regarding the electric and
magnetic fields at any surface of discontinuity
 Overview of Waves
A wave is a pattern of values in space that appear to
move as time evolves.
A wave is a solution to a wave equation.
Examples of waves include water waves, sound waves,
seismic waves, and voltage and current waves on
transmission lines.

34
Overview of Waves (Contd)
Wave phenomena result from an exchange
between two different forms of energy such that
the time rate of change in one form leads to a
spatial change in the other.
Waves possess
no mass
energy
momentum
velocity

35
Time-Domain Maxwells Equations in
Differential Form
Kc + Ki

B
E = K D = qev
t
D
H = J + B = qmv
t
Jc + Ji
 Time-Domain Maxwells Equations in
Differential Form for a Simple Medium

D = E B = H J c = E Kc = m H

H qev
E = m H + K i E =
t
E qmv
H = E + J i + H =
t
Time-Domain Maxwells Equations in Differential
Form for a Simple, Source-Free, and Lossless
Medium
J i = K i = 0 qev = qmv = 0 = m = 0

H
E = E = 0
t
E
H = H = 0
t
 Time-Domain Maxwells Equations in
Differential Form for a Simple, Source-Free,
and Lossless Medium

Obviously, there must be a source for the field

somewhere.
However, we are looking at the properties of waves in
a region far from the source.

39
Derivation of Wave Equations for Electromagnetic
Waves in a Simple, Source-Free, Lossless Medium
E = ( E ) E2

( H ) E
2
= = 2
t t
H = ( H ) H2

( E ) H
2
= = 2
t t
Wave Equations for Electromagnetic Waves in
a Simple, Source-Free, Lossless Medium
The wave equations are
E
2
not independent.
E 2 = 0
2

t Usually we solve the

electric field wave
H
2
equation and determine
H 2 = 0
2
H from E using Faradays
t law.
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in
the Time Domain
A uniform plane wave is an electromagnetic wave in which
the electric and magnetic fields and the direction of
propagation are mutually orthogonal, and their amplitudes
and phases are constant over planes perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
Let us examine a possible plane wave solution given by

E = a x Ex ( z , t )
42
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Time Domain (Contd)
The wave equation for this field simplifies to

Ex
2
Ex
2
2 = 0
z 2
t

The general solution to this wave equation is

Ex ( z , t ) = p1 (z v pt ) + p2 (z + v pt )
43
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
The functions p1(z-vpt) and p2 (z+vpt) represent uniform
waves propagating in the +z and -z directions
respectively.
Once the electric field has been determined from the
wave equation, the magnetic field must follow from
Maxwells equations.

44
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
The velocity of propagation is determined solely by
the medium:
1
vp =

The functions p1 and p2 are determined by the

source and the other boundary conditions.

45
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
Here we must have

H = a y H y ( z , t )
where

H y (z, t ) =
1
{p (z v t ) p (z + v t )}
1 p 2 p

46
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
is the intrinsic impedance of the medium given by

=

Like the velocity of propagation, the intrinsic
impedance is independent of the source and is
determined only by the properties of the medium.
47
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
In free space (vacuum):

v p = c 3 10 m/s 8

= 120 377

48
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
Strictly speaking, uniform plane waves can be
produced only by sources of infinite extent.
However, point sources create spherical waves.
Locally, a spherical wave looks like a plane wave.
Thus, an understanding of plane waves is very
important in the study of electromagnetics.

49
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Time Domain (Contd)
Assuming that the source is sinusoidal. We have

p1 (z v pt ) = C1 cos (z v pt ) = C1 cos(t z )
v
p

p2 (z + v pt ) = C2 cos (z v pt ) = C2 cos(t + z )
v
p

=
50
vp
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
The electric and magnetic fields are given by

Ex ( z , t ) = C1 cos(t z ) + C2 cos(t + z )
H y ( z , t ) = {C1 cos(t z ) C2 cos(t + z )}
1

51
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time Domain
(Contd)
The argument of the cosine function is the called the
instantaneous phase of the field:

( z , t ) = t z

52
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Time Domain (Contd)
The speed with which a constant value of instantaneous
phase travels is called the phase velocity. For a lossless
medium, it is equal to and denoted by the same symbol as
the velocity of propagation.
t 0
t z = 0 z =

dz 1
vp = = =
dt 53
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
The distance along the direction of propagation over
which the instantaneous phase changes by 2p radians
for a fixed value of time is the wavelength.

2
= 2 =

54
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time Domain
(Contd)

The wavelength is Function vs. position at a fixed time

also the distance 1

between every 0.8

other zero 0.6

0.4
crossing of the 0.2

sinusoid.
0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

55
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
Relationship between wavelength and frequency in free
space:
c
=
f
Relationship between wavelength and frequency in a
material medium:
vp
=
f
56
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
is the phase constant and is given by

= =
vp

rad/m
57
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Time
Domain (Contd)
In free space (vacuum):

2
= 0 0 = = k0 =
c 0

free space wavenumber

(rad/m)
58
 Time-Harmonic Analysis
Sinusoidal steady-state (or time-harmonic) analysis is
very useful in electrical engineering because an arbitrary
waveform can be represented by a superposition of
sinusoids of different frequencies using Fourier analysis.
If the waveform is periodic, it can be represented using a
Fourier series.
If the waveform is not periodic, it can be represented
using a Fourier transform.
59
Time-Harmonic Maxwells Equations in Differential
Form for a Simple, Source-Free, Possibly Lossy
Medium
E = jH E = 0
H = j E H = 0

= j j

m
= j j
60

Derivation of Helmholtz Equations for Electromagnetic
Waves in a Simple, Source-Free, Possibly Lossy Medium
0

E = ( E ) E 2

= j H = E
2
0

H = ( H ) H 2
2

= j E = H
2

61 2
 Helmholtz Equations for Electromagnetic
Waves in a Simple, Source-Free, Possibly Lossy
Medium

The Helmholtz equations are

not independent.
E E = 0
2 2

Usually we solve the electric

field equation and determine H
from E using Faradays law.
H H = 0
2 2

62
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain
Assuming a plane wave solution of the form
E = a x Ex ( z )

The Helmholtz equation simplifies to

2
d Ex
2
2
E x = 0
dz
63
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain (Contd)
The propagation constant is a complex number that
can be written as

= = j = + j
2

attenuation
constant phase constant
(m-1) (Np/m) (rad/m)

64
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain (Contd)
is the attenuation constant and has units of nepers
per meter (Np/m).
is the phase constant and has units of radians per
meter (rad/m).
Note that in general for a lossy medium

65
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
The general solution to this wave equation is

Ex (z ) = C1e + C2e z + z
z j z z j z
= C1e e + C2e e
Ex (z )

Ex (z )
+

wave traveling in the

wave traveling in the
-z-direction
+z-direction
66
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain (Contd)
Converting the phasor representation of E back into the
time domain, we have

{
Ex ( z , t ) = Re Ex ( z )e
j t
}
= C1e cos(t z ) + C2e cos(t + z )
z z

We have assumed that C1 and C2 are real.

67
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
The corresponding magnetic field for the uniform plane
wave is obtained using Faradays law:

E
E = j H H =
j

68
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Evaluating H we have

H y (z ) =
1

(Ce 1
z
C2 e z
)
=
1

(E x
+
(z ) Ex (z ))

69
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain (Contd)
We note that the intrinsic impedance is a complex
number for lossy media.

j
=e

70
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Converting the phasor representation of H back into the
time domain, we have

{
H y ( z , t ) = Re H y ( z )ej t
}
= e cos(t z )
C1 z

e cos(t + z )
C2 z
+
71
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the
Frequency Domain (Contd)
We note that in a lossy medium, the electric field and the
magnetic field are no longer in phase.
The magnetic field lags the electric field by an angle of .

72
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Note that we have Uniform plane waves are a
E H a z type of transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
These form a right-handed
coordinate system
aE

az aH
73
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Relationships between the phasor representations of
electric and magnetic fields in uniform plane waves:
unit vector in
1 direction of
H= a p E propagation

E = a p H

74
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Example:

f = 110 Hz 0 = 0.300 m
9

= 2.5 0 = 1.191 Np/m

= 0 = 33.16 rad/m
= 0.01 S/m

Consider
Ex (z , t ) = e cos( t z )
+ z

75
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency Domain
(Contd)
1
Snapshot of Ex+(z,t) at t = 0
z
0.8

0.6
e
0.4

0.2
E+ (z,t)

0
x

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
z/0
76
Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Properties of the wave determined by the
source:
amplitude
phase
frequency

77
 Uniform Plane Wave Solutions in the Frequency
Domain (Contd)
Properties of the wave determined by the medium are:
velocity of propagation (vp)
intrinsic impedance ()
also depend
propagation constant constant (=+j)
on frequency
wavelength ()

vp 2
= =
f
78
 Dispersion
For a signal (such as a pulse) comprising a band of
frequencies, different frequency components propagate
with different velocities causing distortion of the signal.
This phenomenon is called dispersion.
25

20
input signal
15

10

5
output signal
0

-5
79
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
 Plane Wave Propagation in Lossy Media

Assume a wave propagating in the +z-direction:

Ex (z , t ) = Ex 0 e cos(t z )
+ z

We consider two special cases:

Low-loss dielectric.
Good (but not perfect) conductor.

80
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric

A lossy dielectric exhibits loss due to molecular forces

that the electric field has to overcome in polarizing the
material.
We shall assume that
r =
0
= j = 1 j

= (1 j tan ) = r 0 (1 j tan )
81
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric (Contd)
Assume that the material is a low-loss dielectric, i.e,
the loss tangent of the material is small:

tan = << 1

82
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric (Contd)

Assuming that the loss tangent is small, approximate

expressions for and can be developed.

= j = j 0 (1 j tan )
(1 x )
1/ 2
1
x
tan
2 j 0 1 j = + j
2
0 = r k0 = k
wavenumber

tan k tan
0 =
2
83
2
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric (Contd)

The phase velocity is given by

c
vp = =
k r

84
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric (Contd)
The intrinsic impedance is given by

= = [1 j tan ]1 / 2

tan
0 tan 0 j
1 + j e 2
r 2 r

(1 x )
1 / 2
1+
x (1 + x ) e x
2 85
 Plane Waves in a Low-Loss Dielectric (Contd)

In most low-loss dielectrics, r is more or less

independent of frequency. Hence, dispersion can
usually be neglected.
The approximate expression for is used to
accurately compute the loss per unit length.

86
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor

In a perfect conductor, the electromagnetic field must

vanish.
In a good conductor, the electromagnetic field
experiences significant attenuation as it propagates.
The properties of a good conductor are determined
primarily by its conductivity.

87
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor

For a good conductor,

>> 1

Hence,

j

88
Plane Waves in a Good Conductor (Contd)

= j j j = j


= (1 + j )
2


2


2 89
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor (Contd)

The phase velocity is given by

2
vp = << c

90
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor (Contd)
The intrinsic impedance is given by

j
= =

j

1 + j j 45
= = e
2
91
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor (Contd)

The skin depth of material is the depth to which a

uniform plane wave can penetrate before it is
attenuated by a factor of 1/e.
We have
1
e =1 =

92
 Plane Waves in a Good Conductor (Contd)

For a good conductor, we have

1 2
=

93
Wave Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields in Simple
Medium
1 Ki
E k0 r E = j0 J i
2

r r
1 Ji
E k0 r E = j 0 K i
2

r r

k0 = 0 0
94