CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P.

Sood

1) Draw and Explain Network Topologies.

Ans:

MESH TOPOLOGY
The mesh topology is a type of passive network.
Features:
No of devices =
No of links =
No of ports =

Advantages:
A dedicated link guarantees that each communication can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating traffic problems.
Mesh Topology is robust, i.e. if link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
Greater privacy and security as message travels along a dedicated line.

Drawbacks:
Installation and reconfiguration is difficult. Hardware required is more and hence it is more
expensive.

STAR TOPOLOGY
The star topology is a type of Active network.
Features:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. A star topology does
not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device.

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Advantages:
Less Expensive than mesh topology.
Easy to install and reconfigure.
Robustness, if any one link fails, the remains active.
Hubs can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Drawbacks:
Dependency of whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
system goes down.
Applications:
LAN and High Speed LANs.

EXTENDED STAR/TREE TOPOLOGY

The tree topology is a type of Active Network.
Features:
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology
In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus. This main cable
seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called
Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology.

Advantages:
1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't
be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best
alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. The whole network is divided into segments (star networks) which can be easily managed
and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
Disadvantages:
1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

BUS TOPOLOGY
The bus topology is a type of Passive Network.
Features:
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those
taps.

Advantages:
1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
Drawbacks
1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages.If the main cable (i.e.
bus ) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators is must.
4) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
5) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
6) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
7) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

RING TOPOLOGY

Features:
In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make a
closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side, and it
communicates with these two adjacent neighbours. Data travels around the network, in one
direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN.

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Advantages of Ring Topology

1)This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This reduces chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the
traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
5) Each computer has equal access to resources.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1)Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
4) MAUs and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.

Q.3. Write a short note on Transmission Media.

Transmission media/Data Link/ Media Link/ channel is a pathway that carries
the information from sender to receiver. We use different types of cables or waves to transmit
data. The types of transmission media can be classified as follow:
Types of Transmission Media:
Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media:

Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are
limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair
cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has its own characteristics like
transmission speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost etc.

2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:

Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables.
These media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission is called

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Wireless communication. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and college campuses.
This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infrared are some of popular unbound
transmission media.

Wired Transmission Media:

In Guided Media Copper Cables are used in transmission media and it is classified as
Twisted Pair and coaxial Cables.

Twisted Pair cables: There are two types of twisted pair cables,

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in
metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise and crosstalk.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific
use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are
connected by RJ45 connectors.

Category 1 - Telecommunication, the cables for the analogue telephony

Category 2 (Low Speed Data), the cables for analogue and early digital telephony,
offering data transmission services at low speeds
Category 3: UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission
characteristics are specified up to 16 MHz
Category 4: UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission
characteristics are specified up to 20 MHz
Category 5: UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission
characteristics are specified up to 100 MHz.
Future cables, categories 6 and 7, will operate at speeds of 200, respectively
600Mbps; low attenuation and higher noise immunity.

Coaxial Cable:

Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of
solid conductor. The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped
around over the sheath and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath .This all is covered
by plastic cover. Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high
frequency signals than that of twisted pair cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good
shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

mbps. There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin
Ethernet), and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government. Cables are
connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire
at the far ends.

FIBER OPTIC:

Fiber Optic works on the properties of light, total internal reflection. When light ray hits at
critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. It is
made up of core and cladding.The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or
plastic.It comes in two modes, one is single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber.

Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying
multiple beams of light.

Multimode fiber optic cable has a large diametral core that allows multiple modes of light to
propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections created as the light passes through
the core increases, creating the ability for more data to pass through at a given time.This
application is typically used for short distance, data and audio/video applications in LANs.
RF broadband signals, such as what cable companies commonly use, cannot be transmitted
over multimode fiber. Multimode are of two types Step Index and Graded Index.

Wireless Transmission Media:

Infrared: Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has
wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.Infrared
wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and its
remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles. Application are Mobile, Remote
control, Wireless Mouse, keyboard.

Radio Waves: Frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz
(Extremely High Frequency).Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls
whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and bounce back.The power of low frequency
waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more
power.Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earths surface.Applications are FM,AM,TV Bands,Mobile
GSM,CDMA,2G,3G,Bluetooth,WiFi.

Mircowaves: Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and
signals over them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station.
Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be

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 CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

strictly in line-of-sight. Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm 1 meter and
frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. Application are Military,defence and WiMax.

Satellite communication: A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay

station.It is used to link two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers, known
as earth stations, or ground stations. The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency
band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency
(downlink). A single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency bands, called
transponder channels, or simply transponders. Applications are Television
distribution,DTH,GPS and long distance telephone transmission.

Q5.)Write short note on networking devices?

Ans:
Switches:
In a telecommunications network, a switch
is a device that channels incoming data
from any of multiple input ports to the
specific output port that will take the data
toward its intended destination.
In the Open Systems Interconnection

Transmission
Media

Unguide
Guided
d
Copper Fiber Optic Infrared
Cable Cable
Twisted Radioa
Coaxial Single Multimode Waves
Pair
Micro
STP UTP Cable TV Step Waves
Index
CAT 1 Thick-Net Graded
Index Satellite
Communication
CAT 2 Thin-Net

CAT 3

CAT 4

CAT 5

CAT 6

CAT 7

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

(OSI) communications model, a switch performs the Layer 2 or Data-link layer function.
A network's paths can be used exclusively for certain duration by two or more parties and
then switched for use to another set of parties. This type of "switching" is known as circuit-
switching and is really a dedicated and continuously connected path for its duration. Today,
an ordinary voice phone calls generally uses circuit-switching.
In packet-switching, a message is divided into packets, which are units of a certain number
of bytes. The network addresses of the sender and of the destination are added to the packet.
Each network point looks at the packet to see where to send it next. Packets in the same
message may travel different routes and may not arrive in the same order that they were sent.
At the destination, the packets in a message are collected and reassembled into the original
message.

Routers:
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. A
router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks (as opposed to
a network switch, which connects data lines from one single network).
When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information in
the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing
table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey.

Hub:

Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports.
When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the
LAN can see all packets.Hubs serve as a central connection for all of your network
equipment and handles a data type known as frames. Frames carry your data.
When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted on to the port of the
destination PC.

Repeaters:
Repeaters are network devices used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in
transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss.
Analog Repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

a signal to near its original quality.

Bridges:
A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other bridge
networks that use the same protocol. Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the OSI model,
connecting two different networks together and providing communication between them.

Gateways:
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On Internet,
a node or stopping point can be either a gateway or a host node. Both the computers of
Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes. The computers

that control traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet Service
Provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.

Q6.)Differentiate between TCP/IP and OSI Models.

SR TCP/IP OSI MODEL

NO

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood
1 Has 4 layers
It is not easy to replace the protocols
2 be easily replaced as the technology
3 No session layer, characteristics are
provided by transport layer
4 Network layer provides both
connectionless and connection oriented
services
5 Vertical approach
6 It does not clearly distinguishes between
service interface and protocols
7 This model is bad model as compare to
OSI.
8 This model is made by K&K
(Kerf and Kahn)
9 This good as protocol stack.
10
Q7) Draw and Explain vertical and horizontal communication.
Ans: Diagram:
It has 7 layers
The protocol are better hidden and can
changes
Separate presentation layer
Network layer provides only connection
less services
Horizontal approach
It defines the services, interfaces and
protocols very clearly and makes a clear
distinction between them
This is good model than TCP/IP.
This model is made by ISO.
This is average as protocol stack.
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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Vertical Communication

The seven layer of OSI Reference model are used to split up the various functions that
are required to implement a networking system. On any given device in a network,
different software and hardware routines and devices may be functioning on any or all
of these layers simultaneously. Since in general, all of these are supposed to be
working together to implement networking functions, there is a need for layers to
communicate vertically between the layers within a particular host.

Osi interface

In OSI Reference Model parlance, the mechanism for communication between

adjacent layers in the model is called an interface.
Vertical communication is done up and down the protocol stack every time anything
is sent across the network, and of course, whenever anything is received.
This occurs because the higher levels are implemented as logical functions, in
software; there is no actual physical connection.
The higher layers package data and send it down to the lower layers for it to be sent
across the network.
At the very lowest level, the data is sent over the network. On the receiving end, the
process is reversed, with the data traveling back up to the higher layers on the
receiving device.

Horizontal Communication
Each layer in the OSI Reference Model has a particular role (or roles)a set of
general tasks for which it is responsible.

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On each system on the network, hardware and software are running at many of the
different levels in the model. The routines doing a particular job on machine A are
designed to communicate with similar or complementary ones that are running on
machine B.
This horizontal communication is the very heart of what networking is about. It is
what enables Web browsers and Web servers to talk, email applications to exchange
messages, and so much more.
The OSI Reference Model is intended to be a formal way of describing networks. As
such, the term protocol has a formal meaning in the context of the model.
It refers specifically to a set of communication rules, instructions and/or procedures
that describe communication between specific software or hardware elements
running at the same layer on different machines within a network.

Q8) Draw and Explain Data Encapsulation and Data De-capsulation.

Ans:

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Encapsulation of data communications in the OSI model A packet (header and data) at level 7
is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet
at level 5, and so on. In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the
whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is called
encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and
which part is the header or trailer. For level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is
treated as one integral unit.
De-capsulation is performed at the receiving end and is the exact inverse process as in
Encapsulation.

Q2. Mention short note on Area Networks/Geography.

Ans:

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

TYPE EXAMPLE RANGE PROTOCOL

PAN Room 100m IR,Bluetooth

(Personalized Area (802.15)
Network)
LAN Building Campus 1-10kms Ethernet, TokenBus,
(Local Area Token Ring, Wifi,
Network) CDDI
(802.3,802.4,802.11)
MAN City/State 10-100kms DQDB,SMDS
(Metropolitan Area 802.16
Network)
WAN Country 100-1000kms X25, FrameRelay,
(Wide Area ATM, FDDI,Wi-Max
Network) (802.16)
GAN Continent 1000-10000kms TCP/IP, IPX/SBX,
(Global Area Netbieu, Appletalk
Network)

Q4. Explain OSI Model.

Ans:

The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2),
network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and application
(layer 7). Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B.
As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model. The OSI model
allows complete interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems. Within a single
machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses
the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer x on
one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed by
an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine
that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication between
machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.

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CCN CH # 1, 2 Notes by Prof. Rakshak P. Sood

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
o Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
o Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os
or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical
or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to
signals).
o Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how
long it lasts.
o Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
o Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
o Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to
every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device
is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
o Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can
send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-
duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or
simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer:

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer).
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
[I Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
o Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address
is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.

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D Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
o Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism
to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
D Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

Network Layer:
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links). If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.
Some responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
o Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer
adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes
the logical addresses of the sender and receiver. We discuss logical addresses later in this
chapter.
o Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer
is to provide this mechanism.

Transport Layer:
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
A process is an application program running on a host. The transport layer, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at
the source-to-destination level.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
o Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next
but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process
(running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet
to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.
o Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
o Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-
oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and
delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport

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layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
o Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
o Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a
single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.

Session Layer:
The session layer is the network dialog controller.
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
o Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time)
or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
o Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000
pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page
unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are
pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent. Figure 2.12 illustrates the
relationship of the session layer to the transport and presentation layers.

Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
o Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its
sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
o Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends
the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original form.
o Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video.

Application Layer:

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The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information
services.
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
o Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a
software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software
terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is
communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.
o File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use
in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
o Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
o Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

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