Chapter 3 (171924)

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

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Why is the simple hexagon not a two-dimensional point lattice?
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Point lattice:
The array of points having similar surroundings in three-dimensional space is defined as point
lattice.
These lattices are the skeleton upon which crystal structures are built by placing atoms or group
of atoms on or near the lattice points. Introduction Mechanisms Mate
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There are two types of point lattices. They are three-dimensional point lattice, and two right now
dimensional point lattices.
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If we represent the structure of crystal by arranging the lattice points in the two dimensional Ileana
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space we get two dimensional point lattice.
We cannot represent all crystal systems as dimensional point lattice.

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The crystal lattice of hexagonal system is as follows:
In simple hexagon for two dimensional point lattice it may show cubic or orthorhombic
lattice.
Thats why simple hexagon is not a two dimensional point lattice.
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What would be an equivalent two-dimensional point lattice for the area-centered hexagon?
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Draw area centered hexagon.
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Connect the centered atoms of the hexagon as shown in the following figure. Connected
lines form a rhombus.
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Why is there no base-centered cubic lattice in Table 1? (Use a sketch to answer.)
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A periodic arrangement of atoms is called as crystal lattice. Arrangements in all the

materials were studied and observed 7 shapes. Again these seven shapes undergo 14
structures named Bravais lattices. The structure of any material must match with these 14
systems.
The base-centered cubic lattice is equivalent to simple tetragonal.
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Draw the Bravais lattice of simple, body-centered, and face-centered cubic systems.
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Draw the Bravais lattice of tetragonal system.
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Consider two adjacent base centered-cubic structures. Connect the base atom to nearest
neighborhood atoms which are shared by two base centered cubic structures as shown in
the figure.
The red colored structure in the figure indicates the simple tetragon. So, the base
centered cubic structure is equivalent to simple tetragon.
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(a) Which two-dimensional point lattice corresponds to the crystalline ceramic illustrated in Figure
1?
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(b) Sketch the unit cell.
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a)
There are five point lattices for two-dimensional crystal strictures. The structures and names of Ileana
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Following is the diagram of the crystalline ceramic illustrated in 1.8a.

The above mentioned crystalline ceramic belongs to area-centered rectangle.
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b)
The unit cell for the area-centered rectangle in the crystalline ceramic can be drawn as follows.
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Under what conditions does the triclinic system reduce to the hexagonal system?
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For triclinic system and
Where a, b, c are unit-cell edge lengths and are angles between adjacent unit-cell axes
where is the angle viewed along a axis i.e. between the b and c axis.
And for hexagonal system and

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Under what conditions does the monoclinic system reduce to the orthorhombic system?
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For a monoclinic system and
Where a, b, c are unit cell-edge lengths and are angle between adjacent unit-cell axes
where is the angle viewed along a axis i.e. between the b and c axis. For orthorhombic
system when becomes then it reduced to orthorhombic system.
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Calculate the density of Mg, an hcp metal.
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For hexagonal closed packed structure
Where a = edge length of hexagonal closed packed
r = radius of the atoms
So, from appendix-2 we get,

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So,
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For ideal unit cell of hexagonal closed packed

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The volume of hcp unit cell
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[As hexagonal closed packed unit contains two atoms]

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So, density of Mg is
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Calculate the APF of 0.68 for the bcc metal structure.
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In body centered cubic lattice the closest distance between two atoms is
Here edge length and the atomic radii .

Each unit of body centered lattice contains two atoms that is . 8th Edition 1st Edition 8th Ed
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So, the fraction of molecule occupied is .
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Calculate the APF of 0.74 for fcc metals.
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For face centered cubic lattice the relation between edge length (a) and atomic radius (r) is given
below:

Number of atoms in FCC lattice is, to Materials... and... Scien
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The volume of 4 atoms is four times the volume of single atom.

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The volume of fcc unit cell ( ) is .
Atomic packing factor (APF) is ratio of volume occupied by the atoms to volume of the unit cell. Ileana
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Thus, APF for FCC unit cell is .
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Calculate the APF of 0.74 for hcp metals.
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In hexagonal arrangement the numbers of atoms present in a unit cell are 3atoms in the central
layer of 2 atoms at the face center of 12 atoms at the corners of hexagon.
So, totally 6 atoms are present in the unit cell.

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Where r = radius of atom
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If the side of the hexagon base = a, and attitude of the cell = C, then

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Hence fraction of the cell occupied by the atoms

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(a) Show that the c/a ratio (height of the unit cell divided by its edge length) is 1.633 for the ideal
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(b) Comment on the fact that real hcp metals display c/a ratios varying from 1.58 (for Be) to 1.89 CONTINUE TO POST
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a)
Following structure represents the arrangement of atoms in hexagonal closed packing. Introduction Mechanisms Mate
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Now, we need to show that the ratio between height of the unit cell divided by its edge length is
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touching. Hence, the edge length is the sum of the radius of two atoms. If we assume as University of Virginia
radius then the expression for edge length will be as follows.
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is the height of the unit cell, is the one third distance in diagonal, is the hypotenuse, and
is the half of the height of the unit cell.
From the figure . But . Hence we can say that (2)
Here is the one third of diagonal.
From the structure we can write the above expression as follows.

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Now, we can use following triangle to find out the relation.
From the above triangle we can write following expressions.
Now substitute the values of and as in expression.
That means value of is and is 3. Then use Pythagoras theorem to calculate .
Substitute the values in the above expression.
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Now, write the expression for .
The relation between is as follows.
Now substitute the values of as and as in .
But the value of is and is 3. So, substitute these values in expression.

Now, we can write
Therefore, for ideal HCP structure .
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b)
The ratio varies from 1.58 to 1.89. This is mainly due to the difference in the bonding which in
turn leads to asymmetric spherical structures of atoms.
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Calculate the IPF for UO2, which has the CaF2 structure (Figure 1).
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Fluorite (CaF2) unit cell showing (a) ion positions and (b) full-size ions. [Part (b) courtesy of
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IPF (Ionic packing fraction): Brian

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The fraction of unit cell volume occupied by various cations and anions is defined as ionic
packing fraction.
Write the expression for IPF as follows: FIND ME A TUTOR
Here, is the volume of unit cell.
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The relations given in table 3.3 are for metallic crystals.
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Structure of is similar to structure. So, Unit cell of has FCC structure.
Now calculate side, , of the unit cell of as follows:

Here, is radius of ion and its value is , and is the radius of ion and
its value is .
Now calculate as follows:

Now calculate as follows:
Thus, volume of the unit cell is .
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There are four ions and eight ions per unit cell.
Calculate total ionic volume of unit cell as follows:
Substitute values of volume of the unit cell and total ionic volume in equation to calculate
ionic packing factor calculated as follows:
Thus, ionic packing fraction of is
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In Section 3.3, the open nature of the CaF2 structure was given credit for the ability of UO2 to
absorb He gas atoms and thereby resist swelling. Confirm that an He atom (diameter ~ 0.2 nm)
can fit in the center of the UO2 unit cell (see Figure 1 for the CaF2 structure). CONTINUE TO POST
Figure 1 20 questions remaining

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Fluorite (CaF2) unit cell showing (a) ion positions and (b) full-size ions. [Part (b) courtesy of Chegg tutors who can
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Structure of is similar to structure which has fcc structure. The body diagonal of the
structure (fcc structure) has 4 ions as shown in the figure.
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From the figure, the relation between body diagonal and radius of ion and radius of
ion is as follows:
All the ions are removed, to create a hole at the center of the unit cell. That is, two ions
are removed from the body diagonal. So, the diameter of the opening at the center is,
The diameter of the opening at the center of the unit cell is more than that of He atom (0.2 nm),
so, it fit the center of the unit cell.
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Show that the unit cell in Figure 1 gives the chemical formula 2(OH)4Al2Si2O5.

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Exploded view of the kaolinite unit cell, 2(OH)4Al2Si2O5. (From F. H. Norton, Elements of
Ceramics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, MA, 1974.)
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Step 1 of 1
From figure 3.14,
Calculate the number of atoms present in each rectangle using following method:
Number of ions:
Number of ions:
Number of ions:
Number of ions:
Number of ions:
Total charge of the neutral molecule should be zero.
So, to make it zero charge the possibility of the compound is
The above molecular formula can be written as
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Calculate the density of UO2.
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Density is defined as mass divided by the volume.
(1)
Calculation of volume of the crystal:

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Here is the lattice parameter. (1) (1) (1)
has fluorite bravais lattice. In this lattice oxide ions are at one-quarter of the distance along View all solutions
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Ionic radius of and are 0.105 nm, 0.132 nm respectively. Now, substitute these values Prameela
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Therefore, edge length is 0.547 nm.
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Substitute the value of as 0.547 nm in equation (2), .
Therefore, volume of is .
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shows fluorite crystal system. There are four ions and eight ions. Hence, mass
of can be expressed as follows.
(3)
But mass of uranium is 238.03 amu and mass of oxygen is 16.00 amu. Now, substitute these
values in the above expression to calculate the mass of .
Therefore, mass of is .
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Now, substitute for mass and for volume in equation (1), .
Therefore, density of is .
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(a) Derive a general relationship between the IPF of the NaCl-type structure and the radius
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(b) Over what r/R range is this relationship reasonable?
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Write the expression for the volume of the ion.

Here, is the radius of the ion. right now
Consider two inter merged fcc lattices. The structure one of the fcc lattice is moved half
way distance along diagonal of the cube represents the NaCl structure. NaCl has four Prameela
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ions and four ions per unit cell.
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Calculate the occupied volume of the ions.
Here, is radius of .
The volume occupied by the ions is sum of volume occupied by and ions.
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Calculation of volume of unit cell:

One side of the NaCl unit cell contains one complete Cl atom two half Na atoms. So, the
side of the unit cell is equal to sum of and .
Substitute for a in the volume equation.
Here is the edge length.
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Substitute for and for in the equation (1).
Pick out R from the brackets.
Therefore, the IPF of the NaCl in terms of is .
(b)
NaCl crystal has six fold coordination, so from the table 2.1, condition for is,
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Calculate the IPF for cristobalite (Figure 1).
Figure 1
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The cristobalite (SiO2) unit cell showing (a) ion positions, (b) full-size ions, and (c) the
connectivity of SiO44 tetrahedra. In the schematic, each tetrahedron has a Si4+ at its center. In Chegg tutors who can
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tetrahedron. [Part (c) courtesy of Accelrys, Inc.]
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Cristobalite has FCC bravais lattice. Oxide ions are in tetrahedral holes. Because of the
tetrahedral bonding most of the atoms lie along the body diagonal. Following is the relation
between edge length and atomic radius.
(3)
Here is the edge length, is the ionic radius of , and is the ionic radius of oxide
ion.
We have radius of as 0.039 nm and radius of ions is 0.132 nm. Now, substitute this
value in the above expression.
Therefore, edge length is 0.7898 nm.
Comment
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But volume of unit cell is the cube of edge length.
(4)
Substitute the value of edge length as 0.395 nm in the above expression.
Therefore, volume of unit cell is .
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Substitute as volume occupied by the ions and as volume of unit cell in
equation (1), .
Therefore, IPF of cristobalite is .
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Calculate the IPF for corundum (Figure 1).
Figure 1
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close-packed O2 ions. The Al3+ ions fill two-thirds of the small (octahedral) interstices between
adjacent layers.

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Step 1 of 5
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Ratio of volume occupied by ions to the volume of unit cell is called as Ionic packing factor (IPF).
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Here, is the radius of the ion.
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Calculation of volume occupied by the ions:
Corundum contains two ions and three ions per unit cell. Basis of the
Calculate the occupied volume of two ions.
Use Appendix-2 to find the ionic radius of ions.
Substitute 0.057 nm for r.

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Step 3 of 5
Calculate the occupied volume of three ions.
Use Appendix-2 to find the ionic radius of ions.
Substitute 0.132 nm for R.
The volume occupied by the ions is sum of volume occupied by two ions and three
ions.
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Corundum has hexagonal closed packed structure. The atomic packing fraction of hexagonal
structure is 0.74. Take as a base of Corundum to calculate the associated volume of the
Corundum. The atomic packing fraction of the Corundum is,
Rewrite the equation for .
Substitute for .
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Substitute as volume occupied by the ions and as volume of unit

cell in equation (1).
Therefore, IPF of Corundum is .
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Calculate the reaction energy involved in forming a single unit cell of polyethylene.
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From fig. 3-18 we know that the volume of unit cell
There will be some multiple n units of in the unit cell with atomic mass:
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Therefore, the unit cell density is
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Solving for n gives

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So, two units of present in the unit cell
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So, for 2 units of unit the reaction energy
So,
So, the reaction energy involved in forming a single unit cell of polyethylene is
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How many unit cells are contained in the thickness of a 10-nm-thick polyethylene platelet(Figure
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(a) Arrangement of polymeric chains in the unit cell of polyethylene. The dark spheres are carbon
atoms, and the light spheres are hydrogen atoms. The unit-cell dimensions are 0.255 nm * 0.494 Chegg tutors who can
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that occurs in thin crystal platelets of polyethylene. (From D.J.Williams, Polymer Science and
Engineering , Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971.) Prameela
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From figure 3-19 we see that the lengths of the polyethylene platelet are 0.741 nm and 0.494nm
and here the thickness of the polyethylene platelet is 10nm.
So, the volume of the polyethylene platelet is
We know the volume of unit cell
So, the number of unit cells contained in the thickness of a 10nm-thick polyethylene platelet
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Calculate the APF for polyethylene.
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From figure 3-18 we know that the volume of unit cell
If there are n units of in the unit cell then the atomic mass of the unit cell is Introduction Mechanisms Mate
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So,

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So, there are 2n = 4 carbon atoms and 4n = 8 hydrogen atoms present in the unit cell. M.Tech (CSE) from
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Where radius of C atom = 0.077nm

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And radius of H atom = 0.046nm
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So,
= 0.116
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Calculate the IPF for the zinc blende structure (Figure 1).

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Zinc blende (ZnS) unit cell showing (a) ion positions. There are two ions per lattice point (note M.Tech (CSE) from
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The actual packing of full-size ions associated with the unit cell. [Part (b) courtesy of Accelrys, Ileana
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Figure 2
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Diamond cubic unit cell showing (a) atom positions. There are two atoms per lattice point (note
the outlined example). Each atom is tetrahedrally coordinated. (b) The actual packing of full-size
atoms associated with the unit cell. [Part (b) courtesy of Accelrys, Inc.]
Step 1 of 3
Ionic packing factor (IPF) is the fraction of the unit-cell volume occupied by the various cations
and anions.
(1)
Volume of the ion can be calculated from the following expression.

(2)
Here is the radius of the ion.
Zinc blend has four ions and four ions per unit cell. We have radius of Chapter 3, Problem 22P
as 0.083
nm and radius of ions is 0.174 nm. Now, use equation (2) to calculate volume.
Therefore, volume occupied by the ions is .
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Zinc blend belongs to FCC bravais lattice. Sulfide ions are in tetrahedral holes. Because of the
(3)
Here is the edge length and is the atomic radius.
We have radius of as 0.083 nm and radius of ions is 0.174 nm. Now, substitute this
value in the above expression.
But volume of unit cell is the cube of edge length.
(4)
Substitute the value of edge length as 0.594 nm in the above expression.
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Substitute as volume occupied by the ions and as volume of unit cell in
equation (1), .
Therefore, IPF of zinc blend is .
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Calculate the density of zinc blende using data from Appendices 1 and 2.
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Density is defined as mass divided by the volume.
(1)

Following is the relation between volume of unit cell and edge length. to Materials... and... Scien
(2) (1) (1) (1)
Zinc blend belongs to FCC bravais lattice. Sulfide ions are in tetrahedral holes. Because of the View all solutions

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(3)
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Here is the edge length and is the atomic radius. M.Tech (CSE) from
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We have radius of as 0.083 nm and radius of ions is 0.174 nm. Now, substitute this FIND ME A TUTOR
value in the expression (3) and solve for a.
Substitute the value of edge length as 0.594 nm in equation (2), .
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has four ions and four ions. Hence, mass of can be expressed as follows.
(3)
But mass of zinc is 65.38 amu and mass of sulfur is 32.06 amu. Now, substitute these values in
the above expression to calculate the mass of .
Therefore, mass of is .
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Now, substitute for mass and for volume in equation (1), .
Therefore, density of zinc blende is .
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(a) Derive a general relationship between the IPF of the zinc blende structure and the radius ratio
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(b) What is a primary limitation of such IPF calculations for these compound semiconductors? CONTINUE TO POST
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(a)
Ratio of volume occupied by ions to the volume of unit cell is called as Ionic packing
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Here, is the radius of the ion. Chegg tutors who can

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Consider two inter merged fcc lattices. The structure one of the fcc lattice is moved
quarter way distance along diagonal of the cube represents Diamond or zinc blende
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structure. In diamond structure, all the atoms are same, whereas in zinc blend, inter M.Tech (CSE) from
merged atoms are different from other atoms.
Zinc blend has four ions and four ions per unit cell. Ileana
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Calculate the occupied volume of four ions.
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Zinc blend belongs to FCC bravais lattice. Sulfide ions are in tetrahedral holes. Because
of the tetrahedral bonding most of the atoms lie along the body diagonal. The relation
between edge length and atomic radius is,
Substitute for body diagonal.
Rewrite the equation for a .
Substitute for a in the volume equation.
Here is the edge length.
Substitute for and for in the equation (1).
Pick out R from the brackets.
Therefore, the IPF of the ZnS in terms of is .
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In the base centered orthorhombic the sides of the lattice is not equal to each other.
The structure of base centered orthorhombic lattice is as follows:

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(c) Use Equation 1 to determine this angle.
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Tetrahedron will be formed by connecting the dots between a corner atom in the Face centered
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Face centered cubic lattice has 8 atoms at each corner and 6 atoms at its faces. One corner
atom is shared with eight fcc lattices, so, the one corner atom contributes part of the atom to
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A useful rule of thumb for the cubic system is that a given [hkl] direction is the normal to the (hkl)
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The members of family are as follows: View all solutions
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Because , and in that case,
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Repeat Problem 1 for the ( 11) plane.

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The direction normal to the plane has same miller indices, thus this direction has as the
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Consider the family of directions, . The members of the family of directions are ,
, , , , , , , , , , .
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Determine the angle between the direction, and each direction of the family using
the following equation:
Here, u, v, and w are the miller indices of the first direction and , , and are the miller
indices of the second direction.
Substitute for , 1 for , 1 for w, 1 for , 1 for , and 1 for in the above equation.
This angle indicates that the directions are perpendicular. As is perpendicular to ,

the former direction lies on the plane.
Similarly calculate the value of between and each of the remaining directions.
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on the plane.
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Repeat Problem 1 for the (101) plane.

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Repeat Problem 1 for the (10 ) plane.
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Sketch the basal plane for the hexagonal unit cell that has the Miller-Bravais indices (0001) (see
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The shaded region in the above diagram is the 0001 slipplane.
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List the members of the family of prismatic planes for the hexagonal unit cell { 01 0 } (see Figure
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Here, Miller-Bravais indices are and the relation between h , k , and i is,
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Since, the miller indices of Hexagonal are not equal. There are several combinations for
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Although we get number of combination, but we must consider the planes that satisfies
the condition . In the above combinations, the blue colored planes are satisfies
the condition.
So, the equivalent planes to plane are:
Therefore, the family of planes of is,
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The four-digit notation system (Miller-Bravais indices) introduced for planes in the hexagonal
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[0001] direction, and (b) the [11 0] direction.
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Hexagonal system has 8 faces as shown in the figure.

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The direction is shown below. The plane shaded in lite green color represents the
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The direction is shown below. The plane shaded in blue colored lines represents
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(a)
Axial lengths and angles of tetragonal structure are:
Structurally equivalent directions are termed as family of directions. This group of

directions is indicated by the brackets . Since, the miller indices of tetragonal are not
equal. So, the equivalent directions to direction are:
Therefore, the family of directions of is
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(b)
Axial lengths and angles of orthorhombic structure are:

Since, the miller indices of orthorhombic are not equal. So, the equivalent directions to
direction are:
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The family of directions described in Practice Problem 2 contains six members. The size of this
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tetragonal system and (b) the orthorhombic system.
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Family of planes, {100}, representing all faces of unit cells in the cubic system.
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Axial lengths and angles of tetragonal structure are:

Structurally equivalent planes are termed as family of planes. This group of planes is
indicated by the brackets . Since, the miller indices of tetragonal are not equal. So,
the equivalent planes to plane are:
Therefore, the family of planes of is .
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Axial lengths and angles of orthorhombic structure are:
Since, the miller indices of orthorhombic are not equal. So, the equivalent planes to
plane are:
Therefore, the family of planes of is .
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(a) List the first three lattice points (including the 000 point) lying on the [112] direction in the fcc
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Draw the FCC lattice as follows: Introduction Mechanisms Mate

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Draw the lattice point in the direction of FCC lattice as follows:

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.
Sketching this case gives

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The lattice points are

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Draw the plane. Red colored blocks are front one. Green arrow represents the
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From the sketch, the first three lattice points along plane are:
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The following sketch represents the plane. The green colored arrow shows the
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(a)
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All the sides of the orthorhombic structure are not equal and angles are equal to .

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The following sketch represents the plane. The red colored arrow shows the
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In the cubic system, which of the (110) family of directions represents the line of intersection
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If the term becomes zero, then the angle is equal to .
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Calculate the term for and members of family.
For and :
For and :
For and :
For and :
If we calculate like this, we get 0 for , , , , and .
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For and :
For and :
For and :
For and :
If we calculate like this, we get 0 for , , , , , and

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From the above two calculations, it is clear that the lines are
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For and :
For and :
For and :
For and :
If we calculate like this, we get 0 for , , , , and .
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For and :
For and :
For and :
For and :
If we calculate like this, we get 0 for , , , , , and
From the above two calculations, it is clear that the lines are
perpendicular to lines both and . Hence, these two lies between the planes
and .
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Sketch the members of the {100} family of planes in the triclinic system.
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Axial lengths and angles of triclinic structure are:
Draw the body-centered triclinic structure.

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The first eight planes that give x-y diffraction peaks for aluminum are indicated in Figure 1.
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Some members of family are represented in the following way:

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Some members of family are represented in the following way:

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In Figure 1 and Figure 2, we show atoms and fractional atoms making up a unit cell. An
alternative convention is to describe the unit cell in terms of equivalent points. For example, the
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two atoms in the bcc unit cell can be considered to be one corner atom at 000 and one body-
centered atom at The one corner atom is equivalent to the eight atoms shown in Figure
1. In a similar way, identify the four atoms associated with equivalent points in the fcc structure.
Figure 1

(b) the actual packing of atoms (represented as hard spheres) within the unit cell, 8th Edition 1st Edition 8th Ed
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corner atom is shared with eight fcc lattices, so, the one corner atom contributes part
of the atom to fcc lattice. The face centered atom is shared with 2 fcc lattices, so, it
contributes half part of the atom. Moreover, the total atoms present in the fcc lattice is 4.
Sketch the fcc lattice. The equivalent points in the fcc structure are shown below.
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The equivalent atoms means, if the wave vectors can be transformable from one lattice
point to another lattice point. In other words, we are able to repeat the structure with
those elements. For example, in fcc, the wave vector of the one corner atom can be
transformable to other seven corner atoms of the cube.
Let us consider four atoms , , , and . These four atoms
are equivalent to total fcc lattice, because, we can construct the total fcc structure with
these four atoms by transforming wave vectors.
Therefore, the equivalent points in the fcc lattice are,
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Identify the atoms associated with equivalent points in the hcp structure. (See Problem 1)

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Step 1 of 4

Comment Chapter 3, Problem 54P
Step 2 of 4
One corner atom is shared with six hcp lattices, so, the one corner atom contributes
part of the atom to hcp lattice. It contains 12 corner atoms. so, total contribution from
corner atoms is,
Two face centered atoms are shared with two hcp structures. So, the contribution from
face centered atoms is,
Three atoms are present in the middle of the structure. So, the contribution from these
atoms is,
From the above discussion, it is concluded that total number of atoms present in the hcp
structure is
Comment
Step 3 of 4
those elements. For example, in fcc, the wave vector of the one corner atom can be
The following sketch gives the equivalent points. The two atoms
are equivalent atoms for hcp.
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Therefore, the equivalent points in the hcp lattice are:
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Repeat Problem 1 for the body-centered orthorhombic lattice.
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The body centered orthorhombic structure has 8 atoms at each corner and one atom at its
body center. One corner atom is shared with eight body centered orthorhombic
structures, so, the one corner atom contributes part of the atom to body centered
orthorhombic structure. The body centered atom is totally belongs to body centered
orthorhombic structure. So, the total atoms present in the body centered orthorhombic
lattice are 2.
those elements. For example, in bcc, the wave vector of the one corner atom can be
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Sketch the body centered orthorhombic lattice. The equivalent points in the body
centered orthorhombic structure are shown below.
Let us consider two atoms and . These two atoms are equivalent to total
body centered orthorhombic lattice.
Therefore, the equivalent points in the body centered orthorhombic lattice are
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Step 1 of 2
The base centered orthorhombic structure has 8 atoms at each corner and two atoms at
its base center. One corner atom is shared with eight base centered orthorhombic
structures, so, the one corner atom contributes part of the atom to base centered
orthorhombic structure. The base centered atom is totally belongs to base centered
orthorhombic structure. So, the total atoms present in the body centered orthorhombic
lattice are 2.
those elements. For example, in bcc, the wave vector of the one corner atom can be
Comment
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Sketch the base centered orthorhombic lattice. The equivalent points in the base centered
orthorhombic structure are shown below.
Let us consider two atoms and . These two atoms are equivalent to total
base centered orthorhombic lattice.
Therefore, the equivalent points in the base cent ered orthorhombic lattice are
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Sketch the [1 0] direction within the (111) plane relative to an fcc unit cell. Include all atom-
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Face centered cubic lattice has 8 atoms at each corner and 6 atoms at its faces. One
corner atom is shared with eight fcc lattices, so, the one corner atom contributes part
of the atom to fcc lattice. The face centered atom is shared with 2 fcc lattices, so, it
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Sketch the plane and then sketch the direction . The atoms that are
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Sketch the [1 1] direction within the (110) plane relative to a bcc unit cell. Include all atom-center
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The body centered cubic structure has 8 atoms at each corner and one atom at its body
center. One corner atom is shared with eight body centered cubic structures, so, the one
corner atom contributes part of the atom to body centered cubic structure. The body
centered atom is totally belongs to body centered cubic structure. So, the total atoms
present in the body centered cubic lattice are 2. (1) (1) (1)
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One corner atom is shared with six hcp lattices, so, the one corner atom contributes
part of the atom to hcp lattice. It contains 12 corner atoms. so, total contribution from
corner atoms is,
Two face centered atoms are shared with two hcp structures. So, the contribution from
face centered atoms is,
Three atoms are present in the middle of the structure. So, the contribution from these
atoms is,
From the above discussion, it is concluded that total number of atoms present in the hcp
structure is
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Face-centered cubic (fcc) structure for metals showing (a) the arrangement of lattice points for a
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The diffraction pattern for aluminum in the presence of radiation gives

peaks at planes .
The plane relative to FCC is represented in following way:
The intercepts on coordinate axis are 1,1 and 1.

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The intercepts on coordinate axis are , and .
Comment
Step 3 of 9
Comment
Step 4 of 9
The intercepts on coordinate axis are , and1 .
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Step 6 of 9
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Step 7 of 9
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Step 8 of 9
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Calculate the linear density of ions along the [111] direction in UO2, which has the CaF2 structure
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The structure of unit cell is shown below: Brown University
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The [111] direction line in unit cell is along AB. From the triangle ADC, the length of AC is:
Here, a is edge length of the unit cell.
From the triangle ABC, the length of AB is:
That is, length of the [111] direction line is .
The ions and touch along the body diagonal at minimum distance (AE). The triangle
AEF will be one-fourth of the triangle ABC.
So, the sum of the radius of ions in body diagonal of is,

So length of the [111] direction line is,
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Number of ions centered on [111] direction line is 1 ion and 2 ions.
Linear density of along the [111] direction line is:
Thus, the linear density of along the [111] direction line is .
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Identify the ions associated with equivalent points in the NaCl structure.
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atom. Moreover, the total atoms present in the fcc lattice is 4.
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Step 2 of 3
The equivalent atoms means, if the wave vectors can be transformable from one lattice point to
another lattice point. In other words, we are able to repeat the structure with those elements. For
example, in fcc, the wave vector of the one corner atom can be transformable to other seven
corner atoms of the cube.
Let us consider four atoms , , , and . These four atoms are
equivalent to total fcc lattice, because, we can construct the total fcc structure with these four
atoms by transforming wave vectors.
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Draw the NaCl structure and mark the equivalent points for both Na and Cl atoms. Blue and aqua
colored atoms represent Na atoms. Amaranth pink and green colored atoms represent Cl atoms.
From the above structure, the equivalent points associated with Na atoms are:
From the above structure, the equivalent points associated with Cl atoms are:
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Sketch the ion positions in a (111) plane through the cristobalite unit cell (Figure 1).

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The ion position in a (111) plane through the cristobalite unit cell is shown above.
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Sketch the ion positions in a (101) plane through the cristobalite unit cell (Figure 1).

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Sketch the fcc lattice.
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Cristobalite belongs to fcc group. The chemical formula of the Cristobalite is . It contain
and ions. The following sketch shows the positions of the ions and in the
plane.
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Calculate the linear density of ions along the [111] direction in zinc blende (Figure 1).

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the outlined example). Each atom is tetrahedrally coordinated.
Step 1 of 1
ZnS has a hexagonal structure.
The radius of ZnS
For hexagonal structure
Edge length
The length of body diagonal
The ionic linear densities then, are
And similarly
Giving
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Calculate the planar density of ions along the (111) plane in zinc blende (Figure 1).

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the outlined example). Each atom is tetrahedrally coordinated.
Step 1 of 1
ZnS has a hexagonal structure
The radius of
For hexagonal structure
Edge length
Length of diagonal
The planar area is then
Ionic density
Ionic density
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Identify the ions associated with equivalent points in the diamond cubic structure.
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The positions of four atoms , , , and are equivalent to total fcc
lattice, because, we can construct the total fcc structure with these four atoms by transforming
wave vectors.
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Diamond structure: Consider two inter merged fcc lattices. The structure one of the fcc lattice
is moved quarter way distance along diagonal of the cube represents Diamond. In diamond
structure, all the atoms are same as shown in the figure 3.20 (a).
Diamond structure contains two fcc lattices. These two fcc lattices diagonally separated by a
distance of one fourth of the diagonal length. The four positions of atoms , ,
, and are equivalent to one fcc lattice. Since, the second fcc lattice moved one
fourth diagonal distance, all the equivalent atoms in the second fcc lattice are moved one fourth
distance. Therefore, the positions of equivalent atoms are:
Therefore, the equivalent points associated with first fcc lattice of diamond structure are:
The equivalent points associated with second fcc lattice of diamond structure are:
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The positions of four atoms , , , and are equivalent to total fcc
lattice, because, we can construct the total fcc structure with these four atoms by transforming
wave vectors.
Comment
Zinc Blend: Consider two inter merged fcc lattices. The structure one of the fcc lattice is moved
quarter way distance along diagonal of the cube represents zinc blende structure. In zinc blend,
inter merged atoms are different from other atoms as shown in the figure 3.21 (a).
Zinc Blend structure contains two fcc lattices. These two fcc lattices diagonally separated by a
distance of one fourth of the diagonal length. The four positions of atoms , ,
, and are equivalent to one fcc lattice. Since, the second fcc lattice moved one
fourth diagonal distance, all the equivalent atoms in the second fcc lattice are moved one fourth
distance. Therefore, the positions of equivalent atoms are:
Therefore, the equivalent points associated with first fcc lattice of Zinc Blend structure are:
The equivalent points associated with second fcc lattice of Zinc Blend structure are:
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The diffraction peaks labeled in Figure 1 correspond to the reflection rules for an fcc metal (h, k, l
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Figure 1
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Diffraction does not occur
Crystal structure Diffraction occurs when
when
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h + k + l = odd number h + k + l = even number
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Face-centered h, k, l mixed (i.e., both even h, k, l unmixed (i.e., are all even numbers
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cubic (fcc) and odd numbers) or all are odd numbers)
Hexagonal close (h + 2k) = 3n, l odd (n is an

All other cases
packed (hcp) integer)
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For Body-centered cubic metal diffraction does occur when .
So, the indices for the three lowest diffraction angle peaks for a bcc metal are
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Using the result of Problem 1, calculate the diffraction angles (2) for the first three peaks in the
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Table 1 Prameela
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All other cases
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The radius of
It has a bcc structure.
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So,
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Body-centered
cubic (bcc)
Face-centered h, k, lmixed (i.e., both even h, k, lunmixed (i.e., are all even numbers

All other cases
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In this case
Now
In this case
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Figure 1
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All other cases
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For body centered cubic (bcc) metal diffraction does not occur when number
and diffraction occur when even number. So, the indices for the three lowest
diffraction angle peaks for a bcc metal are
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Problem 2
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All other cases
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The radius of
It has a bcc structure.
So, the edge length

Now
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Here
And we know,
So,
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Similarly,
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Assuming the relative peak heights would be the same for given (hkl) planes, sketch a diffraction
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In this case intensity versus diffraction angle is plotted and the range of diffraction angle is
.
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This is for copper powder diffraction using radiation.
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Repeat Problem 1 for lead powder.
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The diffraction pattern of plotted with intensity of X-ray on vertical axis and diffraction angle Brown University
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powder is as follows:
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The diffraction for lead powder is taking place for unmixed h, l and k i.e., for all even values or for
all odd values.
Thus, the structure of lead powder is face centered cubic (FCC).
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For hexagonal closed packed metal diffraction does not occur when and l
is odd (n is an integer). Diffraction occurs in all other cases. So, the indices for the three
lowest diffraction angle peaks are .

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What would be the (hkl) indices for the three lowest diffraction-angle peaks for an hcp metal?
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The radius of to Materials... and... Scien
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So,
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Repeat Problem 1 for CrK-radiation ( = 0.2291 nm).
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Problem 2
What would be the (hkl) indices for the three lowest diffraction-angle peaks for an hcp metal? My Textbook Solutions

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The spacing between adjacent hkl planes is, View all solutions
Here, a is the length of the side.

Magnesium has hexagonal closed packed structure. So, the length of the edge is, right now
Substitute for r.
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Calculate the spacing between adjacent and 110 .
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Calculate the spacing between adjacent and 211 .
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Write the formula for diffraction angle.
Here, .
Substitute for and for .

Therefore, the angle is .
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Calculate the first six diffraction-peak positions for MgO powder using CuK-radiation. (This
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The edge length of

The peak positions of MgO powder based on face centered cubic lattice are (1) (1) (1)
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Here = 0.1542 nm
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And we know,
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Similarly,
Similarly
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Here in this case

And edge length (1) (1) (1)
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Similarly
Similarly
Similarly
=>1
Here no diffraction will greater because the limiting value of sin is
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The first three diffraction peaks of a metal powder are 2 = 44.4, 64.6 , and 81.7 using CuK -
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The difference in path lengths between the adjacent x-ray beams is integral number (n) of
radiation wavelength ( ).
(1)
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The radiation wavelength ( ) for radiation is 0.1542 nm and for powder samples n = 1.
The angles (2 ) of first three diffraction peaks of a metal powder are .
Solve equation (1) for d:

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Step 2 of 4
Substitute the values and calculate for three diffraction peaks: Brian
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Step 3 of 4
Reflection rules of X-ray diffraction for the BCC, FCC metal structures:
BCC (h + k + l = even):
110
200
211
(h, k, l unmixed - all even numbers or all odd numbers):

111
FCC
200
220
The spacing between adjacent hkl planes is given by,
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Step 4 of 4
Assume metal powder to be BCC, calculate edge length of unit cell (a):
As edge length of unit cell is approximately the same for all three diffraction peaks, the metal has
a bcc structure.
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More specifically, is the metal powder in Problem 1 Cr, Ni, Ag, or W?
Problem 1
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The first three diffraction peaks of a metal powder are 2 = 44.4, 64.6, and 81.7 using CuK -
radiation. Is this a bcc or an fcc metal? 20 questions remaining
Step 1 of 1
Out of Cr, Ni, Ag, and W metal powders only Cr has a bcc structure.
So, Cr metal powder was used. to Materials... and... Scien
(1) (1) (1)
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What would the positions of the first three diffraction peaks in Problem 1 have been using CrK-
radiation ( = 0.2291 nm)?
The first three diffraction peaks of a metal powder are 2 = 44.4, 64.6, and 81.7 using CuK - 20 questions remaining
radiation. Is this a bcc or an fcc metal?
Step 1 of 2
The radius of Introduction Mechanisms Mate

It has a bcc structure 8th Edition 1st Edition 8th Ed
(1) (1) (1)
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The first three diffraction peaks are .
Here, Prameela
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Now, from equation (1) we can write,
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Similarly
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The wavelength given for CuK-radiation ( = 0.1542 nm) is, in fact, an average of two
closely spaced peaks (CuK1 and CuK2). By carefully filtering the radiation from a copper
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target x-ray tube, one can perform diffraction with a more precise wavelength (CuK1 = 0.15406
nm). Repeat Example 1 using this more precise radiation. 20 questions remaining
Example 1
Using Braggs law, calculate the diffraction angles (2) for the first three peaks in the aluminum
powder pattern of Figure 1. My Textbook Solutions
SOLUTION
Figure 1 indicates that the first three (i.e., lowest-angle) peaks are for (111), (200), and (220).
From Example 2, we note that a = 0.404 nm. Therefore, Equation 1 yields

(1) (1) (1)
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Noting that = 0.1542 nm in Figure 1, Equation 2 gives

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Figure 1
powder particles.
Example 2
(b) For an fcc structure, only one atom is intercepted along the body diagonal of a unit cell. To
determine the length of the body diagonal, we can note that two atomic diameters equal the
length of a face diagonal (see Figure 2). Using data from Appendix 2, we have
face diagonal length = 2dA1 atom
= 4rAl atom = a
or the lattice parameter is 4
a= rAl atom (see also Table 3.3)

= (0.143 nm) = 0.404 nm.
The repeat distance is
r = body diagonal length = a
= (0.404 nm)
= 0.701 nm,
which gives a linear density of -1
r1= = 1.43 atoms/nm.
Equation 1
Figure 2
unit cell, (b) the actual packing of atoms within the unit cell, and (c) the repeating fcc structure,
equivalent to many adjacent unit cells. [Part (c) courtesy of Accelrys, Inc.]
Equation 2
= 2dsin
Step 1 of 2
The first three lowest angle peaks are
Here edge length
And
Here
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So, from the equation we get,
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Calculate the percentage change in diffraction angle (2) for each peak in Problem 1 that results
from using the more precise radiation, CuK1.
The wavelength given for CuK-radiation ( = 0.1542 nm) is, in fact, an average of two 20 questions remaining
nm). Repeat Example 1 using this more precise radiation.
Example 1
powder pattern of Figure 1.
SOLUTION
From Example 2, we note that a = 0.404 nm. Therefore, Equation 1 yields to Materials... and... Scien
(1) (1) (1)
View all solutions

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Noting that = 0.1542 nm in Figure 1, Equation 2 gives
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Figure 1
powder particles.
Example 2
= 4rAl atom = a
= (0.143 nm) = 0.404 nm.
= (0.404 nm)
= 0.701 nm,
Equation 1
Figure 2
Equation 2
= 2dsin
Step 1 of 2
The radius of crystal is .
Edge length is calculated using following formula:
The magnitude of interspacing distance is calculated using following formula:
(1)
From equation (1), calculate interspacing distance at each peak.

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Step 2 of 2
The average wave length for radiation is, .
From Braggs equation, the diffraction angle is calculated using following formula:
(2)
Here, is diffraction angle, is wave length of radiation and is interspacing distance.
From equation (2) , calculate diffraction angle at each peak.
The diffraction angle for peak is,
Similarly, calculate diffraction angle for more precise wavelength .
The percentage change in diffraction angle is as follows:

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As with copper radiation in Problem 1, chromium radiation, CrK ( = 0.2291 nm), is an average
of two closely spaced peaks (CrK1 and CrK2). Repeat Problem 2 using CrK1 ( = 0.22897
nm). CONTINUE TO POST
nm). Repeat Example 1 using this more precise radiation. My Textbook Solutions
Example 1
powder pattern of Figure 1.
SOLUTION
Figure 1 indicates that the first three (i.e., lowest-angle) peaks are for (111), (200), and (220). to Materials... and... Scien
From Example 1, we note that a = 0.404 nm. Therefore, Equation 1 yields 8th Edition 1st Edition 8th Ed
(1) (1) (1)
View all solutions

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Noting that = 0.1542 nm in Figure 1, Equation 2 gives Prameela

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Figure 1
powder particles.
Example 1
= 4rAl atom = a
= (0.143 nm) = 0.404 nm.
= (0.404 nm)
= 0.701 nm,
Equation 1
Figure 2
Equation 2
= 2dsin
Problem 2
Repeat Problem 3 using CrK-radiation ( = 0.2291 nm).
Problem 3
Using the result of Problem 4, calculate the diffraction angles (2) for the first three peaks in
the diffraction pattern of -Fe powder using CuK-radiation ( = 0.1542 nm).
Problem 4
The diffraction peaks labeled in Figure 1 correspond to the reflection rules for an fcc metal (h, k,
l unmixed, as shown in Table 1). What would be the (hkl) indices for the three lowest diffraction-
powder particles.
Table 1

when
Body-centered
cubic (bcc)

All other cases
Step 1 of 2
The radius of
It has a bcc structure
So, edge length
Now,
Here,
And we know
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Step 2 of 2
Similarly
Similarly
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Calculate the percentage change in diffraction angle (2) for each peak in Problem 1 that results
from using the more precise radiation, CrK1.
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Problem 1
As with copper radiation in Problem 2, chromium radiation, CrK ( = 0.2291 nm), is an average
of two closely spaced peaks (CrK1 and CrK2). Repeat Problem 3 using CrK1 ( = 0.22897
nm).
Problem 2 My Textbook Solutions

nm). Repeat Example 1 using this more precise radiation.
Using Braggs law, calculate the diffraction angles (2) for the first three peaks in the aluminum Introduction Mechanisms Mate
powder pattern of Figure 1. to Materials... and... Scien
SOLUTION (1) (1) (1)
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From Example 2, we note that a = 0.404 nm. Therefore, Equation 1 yields

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Noting that l = 0.1542 nm in Figure 1, Equation 2 gives Ileana

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Figure 1
powder particles.
Example 2
length of a face diagonal (see Figure 2). Using data from Appendix 2, we have Chapter 3, Problem 88P
= 4rAl atom = a
= (0.143 nm) = 0.404 nm.
= (0.404 nm)
= 0.701 nm,
Equation 1
Figure 2
Equation 2
= 2dsin
Problem 3
Repeat Problem 4 using CrK-radiation ( = 0.2291 nm).
Problem 4
Problem 5
The diffraction peaks labeled in Figure 1 correspond to the reflection rules for an fcc metal (h, k,
l unmixed, as shown in Table 1). What would be the (hkl) indices for the three lowest diffraction-
powder particles.
Table 1

when
Body-centered
cubic (bcc)

All other cases
Step 1 of 3
The radius of crystal is .
The structure of is body center cubic crystal.
Edge length is calculated using following formula:
The magnitude of interspacing distance is calculated using following formula:
(1)
From equation (1), calculate interspacing distance at each peak.
Comment
Step 2 of 3
The average wave length for radiation is, .
From Braggs equation, the diffraction angle is calculated using following formula:
(2) Chapter 3, Problem 88P
Here, is diffraction angle, is wave length of radiation and is interspacing distance.
From equation (2) , calculate diffraction angle at each peak.
Comment
Step 3 of 3
Similarly, calculate diffraction angle for more precise wavelength .
The percentage change in diffraction angle is as follows:

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TEXTBOOK SOLUTIONS EXPERT Q&A Search

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

Why is the simple hexagon not a two-dimensional point lattice?

We cannot represent all crystal systems as dimensional point lattice.

The crystal lattice of hexagonal system is as follows:

Thats why simple hexagon is not a two dimensional point lattice.

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

Why is there no base-centered cubic lattice in Table 1? (Use a sketch to answer.)

Table 1 CONTINUE TO POST

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Step-by-step solution Brian

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A periodic arrangement of atoms is called as crystal lattice. Arrangements in all the

The base-centered cubic lattice is equivalent to simple tetragonal.

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

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Following is the diagram of the crystalline ceramic illustrated in 1.8a.

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

And for hexagonal system and

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

Calculate the density of Mg, an hcp metal.

Where a = edge length of hexagonal closed packed

r = radius of the atoms

So, from appendix-2 we get,

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[As hexagonal closed packed unit contains two atoms]

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

Calculate the APF of 0.68 for the bcc metal structure.

Step 1 of 1 My Textbook Solutions

Here edge length and the atomic radii .

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Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (8th Edition)

Calculate the APF of 0.74 for fcc metals.

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The volume of 4 atoms is four times the volume of single atom.

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TEXTBOOK SOLUTIONS EXPERT Q&A Search

Chapter 3, Problem 10P Bookmark Show all steps: ON

Calculate the APF of 0.74 for hcp metals.

layer of 2 atoms at the face center of 12 atoms at the corners of hexagon.

So, totally 6 atoms are present in the unit cell.

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Hence fraction of the cell occupied by the atoms