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Power Factor Correction PDF
Power Factor Correction PDF
CORRECTION
mean
What does Cos 1
Centralised Compensation 2
- Capacitors 4-7
- Contactors 4-5
- Fuse Protection 5
- Isolating 6
- Capacitors 9
- Contactors 9
- Fuse Protection 9
- Busbars 9
Harmonics 11
Power factor is simply a name given to the ratio of actual power 1. Increased authorities cost since more current has to be transmitted,
(active power) being used in a circuit, expressed in watts or more and this cost is directly billed to consumers on maximum demand
commonly kilowatts (kW), to the power which is apparently being kVA systems.
drawn from the mains, expressed in volt-ampere or more commonly
kilo volt-ampere (kVA). 2. Causes overloaded generators, transformers and distribution lines
within a plant, resulting in greater voltage drops and power losses, all
P.F. = Active Power (kW) representing waste, inefficiency and needless wear and tear on
Apparent Power (kVA) industrial electrical equipment.
All modern industries utilise electrical energy in some form or other. 3. Reduces load handling capability of the plants electrical system.
Two basic categories of load are encountered in alternate current
(AC) networks. Most electrical supply authorities have changed to kVA demand
systems from the inefficient kW demand system. Consumers are
1. Resistive Loads now billed and penalised for their inefficient systems according to the
apparent power being used. In future, consumers will be penalised
Devices containing only resistance e.g. incandescent lamps, heaters, for plants with power factor below a pre-determined value.
soldering irons, ovens, etc.
The current drawn from the supply is directly converted into heat or Improving Power Factor
light. Since the voltage is assumed to be constant, the actual power
(kW) being used is identical to the apparent power (kVA) being drawn The most practical and economical power factor improvement device
from the line. The power factor is therefore unity or 1. In these purely is the capacitor. As stated previously, all inductive loads produce
resistive circuits, the current and voltage sinewave peaks occur inductive reactive power (lagging by a phase angle of 90).
simultaneously and are said to be in phase. Capacitors on the other hand produce capacitive reactive power,
which is the exact opposite of inductive reactive power. In this
2. Inductive Loads instance, the current peak occurs before the voltage peak, leading by
a phase angle of 90. By careful selection of capacitance required, it
All motors and transformers depend on magnetism as the basis of is possible totally cancel out the inductive reactive power when
their operation. Magnetism is a force and in the physical sense is not placed in circuit together.
consumed. In AC motors and transformers, magnetic forces are only
required periodically. Consequently, a permanent magnet cannot be kW
used and the necessary magnetism is produced by electrical means.
2
The electrical current needed for this purpose is not fully utilised. 1
Having produced the magnetic force, the current flows back to the
power station again. This current is called the reactive current in con- KVA2
trast to the active current which performs work and is fully utilised in
so doing. Although the reactive current is not utilised, it imposes a KV
load on the electrical distribution system and supply authorities A1
Capacitor
demand payment for this load according to specific tariffs. kVAr
Required
The current drawn from the supply is made up of two separate kinds
of current power producing current and magnetising current.
Therefore the current flowing in an AC circuit (unless corrected) is Cos1 is the kVA used before Power Factor Improvement equipment
generally larger than is necessary to supply the power being by the was added to the network.
expended point. Cos2 is the kVA used after Power Factor improvement equipment
was added to the network.
mean?
What does Cos To prevent the continual flow of reactive current back and forth
between the load and power station, a capacitor, which is in effect a
Reactive power and active power flow through the motor or trans- reactive current storage device, is connected in parallel with the load.
former. Geometrical calculation of these two powers yield the apparent The reactive current supplied by the power station and used for the
power. The ratio of the active and apparent power is denoted by magnetic force when the load is switched on does not now return to
cos and indicates what fraction of apparent power flowing is actually the power station but instead flows into the capacitor and merely
used by the motor. circulates between the latter and the load. Consequently the distribu-
tion lines from the power station are relieved of the reactive current.
Active Power (kW)
Capacitors can therefore be utilised to reduce kVA and electrical
costs. Improved power factor results in:
App Inductive Reactive
aren Power (kVAr) 1. Reduced kVA charges
Fig. 1 t Po
wer
(kVA
) 2. Improved plant efficiency
1
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Correction
Power Factor Correction using Capacitors Centralised Compensation
(Automatic Power Factor Correction)
Two methods of improving power factor using capacitors are:
In large industrial plants where many motors are generally in use or,
a) Individual motor compensation (static capacitors) when the main reason for power factor is to obtain lower electricity
b) Centralised compensation (automatic capacitor banks) bills, then centralised compensation is far more practical and eco-
nomical than individual motor compensation.
Individual Motor Compensation In this instance, large banks or racks of capacitors are installed at the
main incoming distribution boards of the plant and are sub-divided
Most effective correction is obtained by connecting individual capac- into steps which are automatically switched in or out depending on
itors directly to the terminals of each motor. The motor and capaci- specific load requirements by means of an automatic control system,
tor can be controlled jointly by the motor switchgear. The capaci- improving the overall power factor of the network.
tor rating should be matched as closely as possible so that the power
factor of the entire plant can be corrected to the optimum value, Utilising Table 4 for calculating capacitor kVAr size requirements for
irrespective of the number of motors switched on. power factor correction. The following information must be known
beforehand.
The size of capacitor required may be determined from Table 3 by
taking the motor kW and speed into consideration. Table 3 is a guide a) The average plant power factor
only and no guarantee of correct power factor. The correct method b) The maximum running load of the plant in kW
of maximum capacitor rating can be determined by using the following
formula: To avoid ferro-resistance and dangerous voltage rises, the total kVAr
required should never exceed 65% of incoming transformer kVA. In
Qc = 0.9Io V3 practice, to be absolutely safe, this limit should be set at approx. 50%.
where Io = motor magnetising current Generally an automatic power factor system consist of:
Qc = capacitor power in VAr
a) a main load-break isolator (or circuit breaker)
If the magnetising current is not known, 95% of the motor no-load b) an automatic reactive control relay
current can be used as an approximate value. Care should be taken c) power factor capacitors backed by suitable fuse protection
not to exceed the value calculated to avoid dangerous overvoltages d) suitably rated contactors for capacitor switching
and possible self excitation of motors at switch-off.
The automatic reactive control relay monitors the total network and
Over compensation can cause higher supply voltages which can will switch-in the required capacitor banks at pre-determined inter-
cause consequent break down of motor insulation and flashover at vals compensating for capacitor discharge times and load dependant
motor terminals. To be safe, rather use standard capacitor sizes (as requirements.
indicated below). For this reason, individual motor compensation is
not recommended for motors which are rapidly reversed e.g. cranes, As capacitor switching subjects components to exceptionally high
hoists, etc. stresses it is imperative to correctly size and rate all components
utilised in a system.
Table 3
Substantiating Power Factor Correction Costs
Individual Capacitor Rating in kVAr to improve Power Factor to 0.95
or better at all loads. This question can best be answered by an example. Assuming a
plant has a total load of 500 kW and a power factor (cos) of say 0.75
Motor Rating 2 Pole 4 Pole 6 Pole
lagging. Supply authorities kVA demand charge is approximately
kW 3000 rpm 1500 rpm 1000 rpm
R40.00 per kVA (actually above R50.00 in most areas.
0.75 0.5 kVAr 0.5 kVAr 0.5 kVAr Johannesburg is currently R53.10).
1.1 0.5 kVAr 0.5 kVAr 1.0 kVAr
1.5 0.5 kVAr 1.0 kVAr 1.0 kVAr kW 500 kW
= kVA = 666 kVA
PF 0.75 PF
2.2 1.0 kVAr 1.0 kVAr 1.5 kVAr
4.0 1.5 kVAr 1.5 kVAr 2.0 kVAr Total costs @ R40.00/kVA = R26,640.00/month
5.5 2.0 kVAr 2.0 kVAr 3.0 kVAr By installing capacitors to improve power factor (cos) to 0.98 lagging
7.5 2.0 kVAr 2.0 kVAr 3.0 kVAr new costs are;
It is imperative that correct capacitor sizes be selected when calcu- Existing PF Target Power Factor
lating capacitor requirements. In the case of centralised compensa- Cos Required Cos
tion, it is recommended that the first capacitor step be equal to half Before applying
the value of the following steps, to allow a smooth overall linear cor- capacitors 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.98 1.0
rection system.
0.40 1.54 1.67 1.81 1.87 1.96 2.09 2.29
Table 4 (right) will assist in calculating capacitor values in specific 0.42 1.41 1.54 1.68 1.73 1.83 1.96 2.16
applications. 0.44 1.29 1.42 1.56 1.61 1.71 1.84 2.04
Prior knowledge of the following is required: 0.46 1.18 1.31 1.45 1.50 1.60 1.73 1.93
0.48 1.08 1.21 1.34 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.83
a) Power factor before applying capacitors (left vertical column)
b) Required power factor (top horizontal row) 0.50 0.98 1.11 1.25 1.31 1.40 1.53 1.73
c) Total consumption in kW 0.52 0.89 1.02 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.44 1.64
0.54 0.81 0.94 1.07 1.13 1.23 1.36 1.56
The correct capacitor size can be calculated by multiplying the factor
when crossing the horizontal and vertical columns in the table below 0.56 0.73 0.86 1.00 1.05 1.15 1.28 1.48
by kW.
0.58 0.65 0.78 0.92 0.98 1.08 1.20 1.40
0.60 0.58 0.71 0.85 0.91 1.00 1.13 1.33
Example: 0.61 0.55 0.68 0.81 0.87 0.97 1.10 1.30
1. Convert the plant load to kW (kVA x PF = kW) 0.62 0.52 0.65 0.78 0.84 0.94 1.06 1.27
666 kVA x 0.75 Pf = 500 kW (useful power) 0.63 0.48 0.61 0.75 0.81 0.90 1.03 1.23
2. To correct a load of 500 kW at 0.75 PF to 0.98 PF. 0.64 0.45 0.58 0.72 0.77 0.87 1.00 1.20
Follow the 0.75 value (in left vertical column) 0.65 0.42 0.55 0.68 0.74 0.84 0.97 1.17
horizontally until below the 0.98 value (in top
0.66 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.71 0.81 0.94 1.14
horizontal row). The factor value is 0.68.
0.67 0.36 0.49 0.63 0.68 0.78 0.90 1.11
3. Capacitor required to correct from 0.75 to 0.98
0.68 0.33 0.46 0.59 0.65 0.75 0.88 1.08
(power x capacitor from the table value)
500 kW x 0.68 = 340 kVAr 0.69 0.30 0.43 0.56 0.62 0.72 0.85 1.05
0.70 0.27 0.40 0.54 0.59 0.69 0.82 1.02
savings: 500 kW @ 0.75 PF = 666 kVA
500 kW @ 0.98 Pf = 510 kVA 0.71 0.24 0.37 0.51 0.57 0.66 0.79 0.99
Reduction of 156 kVA 0.72 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.54 0.64 0.76 0.96
(23.4% less of transformer load) 0.73 0.19 0.32 0.45 0.51 0.61 0.73 0.94
0.74 0.16 0.29 0.42 0.48 0.58 0.71 0.91
0.75 0.13 0.26 0.40 0.46 0.55 0.68 0.88
0.76 0.11 0.24 0.37 0.43 0.53 0.65 0.86
0.77 0.08 0.21 0.34 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.83
0.78 0.05 0.18 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.60 0.80
0.79 0.03 0.16 0.29 0.35 0.45 0.57 0.78
0.80 0.13 0.27 0.32 0.42 0.55 0.75
0.81 0.10 0.24 0.30 0.40 0.52 0.72
0.82 0.08 0.21 0.27 0.37 0.49 0.70
0.83 0.05 0.19 0.25 0.34 0.47 0.67
0.84 0.03 0.16 0.22 0.32 0.44 0.65
0.85 0.14 0.19 0.29 0.42 0.62
0.86 0.11 0.17 0.26 0.39 0.59
0.87 0.08 0.14 0.24 0.36 0.57
0.88 0.06 0.11 0.21 0.34 0.54
0.89 0.03 0.09 0.18 0.31 0.51
0.90 0.06 0.16 0.28 0.48
0.91 0.03 0.13 0.25 0.46
0.92 0.10 0.22 0.43
0.93 0.07 0.19 0.40
0.94 0.03 0.16 0.36
0.95 0.13 0.33
3
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Power Factor Components, Systems and 3 Phase Monobloc Capacitors 440V
Specifications H Type 440V, 50 Hz, 3 Phase
(Maximum Voltage 520V - 50Hz)
Electromechanica have been involved in all aspects of power factor
Alpivar heavy duty capacitors are totally dry units with no impregna-
correction in our specific environment for some 20 years now, and it tion or insulation liquid.
is with this experience gained, that we can confidently recommend,
specific components required in power factor correction, and
complete ready to connect automatic power factor systems.
Electromechanica offers a range of Alpivar capacitors far exceeding The capacitors comply fully with international requirements of
all of the above requirements. IEC60831-1/2, CEI-EN60831-1/2, NF C54 108/9, CSA 22-2 No.190,
UL810.
4
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Capacitors are rated at 440V to accommodate overvoltages in sys- Contactors
tems due to the presence of harmonics (becoming more prevalent in
electrical networks today). This accommodates a further 10% over-
voltage factor above the 10% tolerance anticipated by IEC require- Selection criteria for suitable contactors:
ments. Alpivar capacitors withstand overvoltages of 1.18 Un contin-
uously (24h/24) effectively offering a 30% overvoltage factor when a) Contactors utilised within a system should comply fully with
applied in a 400V system and can operate effectively up to 520V, 50 requirements of IEC/EN60947-4-1
Hz. b) Should be rated for operational temperatures of 50C (ratings
higher than 50C to 70C should be reduced by a percentage
Standard maximum permissible current requirements for conventional equal to the difference between the ambient temperature and
capacitors is 1.3 In. 50C)
Alpivar capacitors are designed to withstand up to 2.0 In. c) It is recommended to underrate the contactors by 10%
d) Contactors should be limited to 120 cycles per hour with an
electrical life of 200,000 cycles
Specifications e) Effective limiting inductances should be incorporated
f) Consideration must be made for capacitor discharge times and
Rated Voltage : 440V, 50 Hz three-phase reactive control relays should incorporate sufficient delay to
Internal Protection : - Self Healing Dielectric ensure that capacitors are sufficiently discharged before they
- Electric Fuse (per are reconnected.
element)
- Overpressure disconnecting The contactor during the closing transition is influenced by electrical
device (per element) currents having high frequencies and high amplitudes. The frequencies
Tolerance : 5% capacitance of these currents range between 1 and 10 kHz; the amplitudes must
Max. Voltage Overload : 1.18 Un continuous (24h/24) have values lower than the maximum permissible current peak of the
Max. Current Overload : 2.0 In contactor to be used.
Loss Factor : <0.3W per kVAr (including
discharge resistors) If this condition cannot be verified, it is necessary to use limiting
Operating Temperature : -40 - +55C inductances or special capacitor switching contactors.
Insulation Class : 6 kV for 1 minute at 50 Hz
(25kV 1.2/50mS shockwave) Lovato contactors utilised in our systems
L1 L2 L3
Discharge Resistors : Incorporated (<50 within 1 min) are specially designed for capacitor 1 3 5
Standards : IEC60831-1 and 2 switching and are equipped with early-
EN60381-1 and 2 make contacts which introduce resistors to
NFC54108-9 limit the connecting current of capacitors
CSA22-2No.190 for a very brief interval, (2-3 ms) during the A1
5
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Fuse Protection Mains Isolators
The use of a main incoming isolator is highly recommended, prefer-
Selection criteria for suitable fuses: ably door interlocked to prevent opening of the enclosure with power
applied to the components. As circuit breakers have been known to
a) Should conform fully to requirements of IEC60269-1, cause unnecessary nuisance tripping in many instances the use of
IEC60269-2-1 fuses or a fuse switch should be considered if protection of the mains
b) Should be gl-gG type high rupturing capacity supply cable is required additionally.
c) Offer protection for overcurrents and short circuits with
fault levels of up to 50kA
d) Fuse bases should be highly resistant to temperature
withstand up to 120C and be self-extinguishing - UL94Vo
with a creepage resistance of CTI = 600V.
Fuse Bases
Table 5
Rating Rated Voltage 440VAC
Selection criteria for fuse bases:
Rated Fuse Cable
Current Rating Cross Section a) Should be fully compliant with the requirements of IEC/EN
kVAr A A mm2 60269-1/2, VDE0636, DIN43620.
2 2.9 10 1.5
2.5 3.6 10 1.5 b) Should be made of self-extinguishing material UL94 VO.
3 4.3 10 1.5
c) Be rated for voltages up to 690V.
4 5.8 10 1.5
5 7.2 16 2.5
7.5 8.6 20 2.5 The df range of polyester fuse bases offer a very high insulation and
are able to withstand extremely high temperatures.
10 14.4 25 4
15 21.5 40 10 The insulation (IP) protection can be enhanced by additional fuse
20 28.5 40 10 and terminal covers.
25 33.0 63 16
30 39.2 63 25
35 46.5 80 35
40 53.5 80 35
50 66.0 100 50
60 80.0 125 70
70 93.0 160 70
80 108.0 160 95
6
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Reactive Control Relay The capability of performing complex calculations regarding reactive
power, permits the rapid switching of capacitor banks in a timeous,
Selection criteria for suitable control relays: explicit manner, resulting in a drastic reduction in the number of
operations and their homogeneous use.
a) Must be compliant with requirements of IEC/EN60255-5/6,
IEC60068-2-61/6 Besides instantaneous power factor indication, the large LED digital
b) Should incorporate an accurate power factor indicator display also indicates:
c) Offer clear indication of steps switched-in
d) Must facilitate a suitable delay between disconnection and recon-
nection of the same step (min 60 sec) even when operated in Voltage (True RMS)
manual mode Current (True RMS)
e) Have a contact rating of at least Ith: 5A-250V (AC1) kVAr (Indicating the required reactive power to correct to pre-set
f) Ensure balanced/equally distributed use of switching steps value)
g) Be configurable for stepping 1-1-1.../1-2-2.../1-2-4
h) Allow accurate readings and indication even in the presence of A configurable alarm function indicates the following:
high harmonic content or waveform distortions.
Over/Under Voltage (A.HU/A.LU)
The Lovato DCRE range of reactive control relays more than meet Over/Under Current (A.HI/A.LI)
the above requirements. They perform the control and adjustment Over/Under Compensation (A.HC/A.LC)
functions in a totally digital manner and incorporating latest micro-
processor technology, facilitating accurate, reliable power factor The trend in the market place is to supply systems with separate
control. An appropriate algorithm ensures accurate operation even
in systems characterised by high harmonic content. auto-off-man selector switches and pilot lights. This trend should be
strongly discouraged as this method of switching overrides the inherent
safety delays incorporated in the controller (which is able to perform
the same function) and exposes contactors to undue stress and a
potentially dangerous situation when operated inadvertently on fully
charged capacitors.
DCRE12
L1 L2 L3
VOLTAGE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CURRENT
380-415V
/5A
OV
S1 S2 14 15 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
QS1
Current Limit
Note
Rated Current Ie 5A
Operating Limits 0.125 ... 5.5A 1) Always ensure that C.T. is connected to the phase not utilised for
Overload Capacity 1.1 Ie supply voltage to controller.
Overload Peak 10 x Ie 1s
2) Ensure that C.T. is correctly rated for system requirements and
Reading and Control Range connected in the correct direction.
Voltage Reading Limits -15% ... +10% Ue
Current Reading Limits 2.5 ... 110% Ie
Type of Voltage/Current Reading True RMS
Power Factor Adjustment 0.85 Inductive - 0.95 Capacitive
Re-connection Time of Same Step 5-240 sec
Switching Sensitivity 5-600 sec
Relay Output
No. of Outputs
(1 x Isolated can be Alarm Relay) 5 7 or 12
Contact Arrangement 1 x NO
Rated Capacity Ith 5A-250V (AC1)
Rated Operating Voltage 250 VAC
Maximum Switching Voltage 440 VAC
Housing
7
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Series 4000 Rack
The Series 4000 rack system is a convenient all-in-one component kit for mounting into a standard enclosure to complete a system. The
system incorporates latest developments in capacitor, contactor and fuse technology.
Contactors
Capacitors
Fuseholder
Are potted in thermoset polyurethane
resin under vacuum offering excellent Fuses utilised in the rack sys-
heat dissipation qualities. They are tem provide effective protec-
mounted onto the rack exposed, tion from short circuits and
permitting effective airflow from all overload conditions. They
sides. The capacitors incorporate the are specially designed for
following internal protections: direct mounting onto busbars,
which are incorporated in the
Self Healing Dielectric Discharge Resistors rack.
Electrical Fuse
Overpressure Disconnecting Device Enable the capacitors to be
discharged in compliance with
Capacitors are rated at 55C and can applicable standards. They are
operate at voltages of up to 520V and mounted externally to enable
are designed to withstand up to 2.0 In. ease of visual inspection.
8
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Series 4000 Rack System As contactors are wired in the delta loop, current requirements are
lower, thereby decreasing the contacting ratings by 3.
The Series 4000 rack system has recently been developed as a
convenient all-in-one component for inclusion into a standard The table below indicate contactor requirements with 6 terminal
enclosure or as a complete system. The design combines many capacitors and conventional 3 phase capacitors.
years experience gained in power factor and its application in very
Standard 6 Terminal
harsh local conditions. Incorporating latest up-to-date technology in
kVAr 415V 3ph Capacitor Capacitor
capacitor, contactor and reactive control relay developments.
12.5 BF12K10 BF9K10
25 BF40K10 BF20K10
30 BF40K BF25K10
40 BF65K BF40K
50 BF65K BF40K
60 BF80K BF65K
75 BF65K
100 BF80K
Racks are supplied with capacitor sizes from 25 to 100 kVAr in various Fuses utilised in the 4000 series rack system are DIN (blade type)
configurations. They incorporate capacitors, special capacitor Class gl-gL-gG HRC fuses. They provide effective protection from
switching contactors and fuse protection. short circuits and overload conditions for all 3 phases of the capaci-
tor bank and conform fully to requirements of IEC60269, CEE16,
Fuse bases are directly mounted onto a suitably rated, incorporated VDE0636 and DIN57363.
busbar system suitable for capacities up to 500 kVAr, offering simple
expansion capabilities by merely coupling to busbars of another rack. Fuse-link Capacitor Breaking
Type In (A) Size (kVAr) Capacity
300063 63A 25 kVAr 80 kA
Capacitors 300100 100A 50 kVAr 80 kA
300160 160A 75 kVAr 80 kA
Capacitors utilised in the Series 4000 rack system are the Alpivar
300160 160A 100 kVAr 80 kA
heavy duty types. They are self-healing and incorporate independent
internal fusing, overpressure protection facilities and are able to with-
stand permanent overvoltages up to 520V and over current at 2.0 x
In (see pages 4 and 5 for detailed technical specifications).
Capacitors are designed to withstand undue stresses caused by
potential exposure to overvoltage, increased frequency and limited
harmonic effects.
L3
T
1 2 T3 L3 Busbars
9
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Components
Series 4000 Rack System Series 5000 Complete Power Factor Systems
kVAr Configurable The Series 5000 Power Factor Correct System encompasses
Type 440V 400V (kVAr) all the advantages of the 4000 Series rack system in a pur-
pose built, floor standing enclosure. The racks are securely
40025 25 21 1 x 25
mounted into the enclosure (measuring 550mm wide x
40050 50 41 1 x 50 400mm deep) and coupled together via the incorporated bus-
42050 50 41 1 x 25 + 1 x 25 bars of the racks. A mains isolator is included (for top or
40075 75 62 1 x 75 bottom entry) and the reactive control relay, door mounted
and connected to the circuit.
42075 75 62 1 x 25 + 1 x 50
40100 100 83 1 x 100 The panel is supplied as a complete floor standing ready to
42100 100 83 1 x 50 + 1 x 50 connect system providing effective ventilation and dissipa-
tion of heat build-up within the panel. An additional fan
cooling facility can be included for applications where the
environment provides very low airflow.
Dimensions
400 550
Sizes above 540 kVAr are readily available but in this case
two standard systems with their independent isolators are
utilised, with only one reactive control relay to maintain the
current ratings of incorporated busbars on the racks.
10
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Systems
HARMONICS (curve x c). For the 5th harmonic there is an absorption effect
which is more intense at a resonance frequency of 204 Hz
than at 189 Hz.
What are harmonics?
For the 7th harmonic (=350 Hz) and even more for higher fre-
Harmonics are undesired signals which are present in electrical quencies there is a block effect caused by the filter circuit as
networks that have a frequency multiple of the fundamental: can be seen on the diagram.
as they overlap they create a new distorted wave shape
which is no longer sinusoidal. Electromechanica offer combined solutions for harmonics in
our Series 6000 racks which incorporate capacitors with high
Most modern factories are making increasing use of modern overvoltage and overcurrent capabilities allowing application
power electronics. A feature of semi-conductor controlled into networks, with a degree of interference up to 25%, with-
devices and drives is to generate a high content of harmonics out the need for reactance. Should the interference be high-
in the mains. The result is that resonance occur which leads er, racks incorporating inductances are also offered.
to dangerous excess currents which overload capacitors,
cables, fuses and especially contactors.
Degree of
Harmonics do not originate from power generators but are Interference
produced by non-linear loads which can be divided into three
main groups: SH
ST
Loads with variable impedance i.e. arc furnaces, fluorescent
lighting, etc. 25% > 25%
Loads with saturated magnetic circuits i.e. reactors, satura-
tion transformers, induction furnaces, etc.
H SAH
Loads that make use of semi-conductor devices i.e. static
rectifiers, static frequency converters, static uninterruptible
power supplies, static induction regulators. SH (kVA) The weighted total of the harmonic generators present
at the transformer secondary.
Non-linear loads are therefore typical harmonic generators. ST (kVA) The power rating of the HV / LV transformer
Harmonic currents are load independent and are caused by
the harmonic generator which is dependent on the phase
angle of the power supply. The frequencies occurring form
multiples of the mains rated frequency, since impedance of
Series 6000 Rack incorporate:
the line system rises during increased frequency (whereas te
impedance of capacitors falls). The harmonic current flow
capacitors 25-50-100 kVAr
through capacitors installed in the vicinity of the harmonic
capacitor switching contactors
generator.
anti-harmonic reactor with thermal protection
fuses and fuse holders
As a remedy each capacitor can be in series with a reactance.
suitably rated busbars
The inductance is so designed that series resonance fre-
quency below the 5th harmonic results. Usual values are 189
Hz or 205 Hz.
12
Contents are illustrative only - final details must be checked when placing orders
Power Factor Equipment
Fusegear
Load-break Switches
Anti-harmonic Reactors
(www.em.co.za)
Telephone: (011) 249-5000 / 496-2773 Telephone: (021) 529-7000 Telephone: (031) 205-1571
Telefax: (011) 496-2779 Telefax: (021) 552-0331 Telefax: (031) 205-1625
E-mail: info@em.co.za E-mail: info@em.co.za E-mail: info@em.co.za