Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Part A
Part A
Part A
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In general, this paper highlights the significance of societal culture to developing theory,
some people point toward the tendency for similar policies and practices to extend across
political, cultural and geographical boundaries. On the other hand, by `societal culture', we mean
those enduring sets of values, beliefs and practices that tell between one group of people from
another. This paper also argue that globalization tends to close the eyes to societal culture, the
latter tending to act as a arbitrator to the spread of ideas and practices across the globe, resulting
acknowledgment of societal culture and cross-cultural similarities and differences becomes more
crucial. Therefore, the insertion of societal culture as a factor in investigations covering such
themes as the curriculum, teaching and learning, leadership and school-based management is
In a brief introductory, the first part of the paper gave definition to the concept of
'globalization'. In the second part, globalization and societal culture are juxtaposed and the
interface between them is explored. The third part offers a set of dimensions by which to gauge
the influence of, and to compare, cultures. Finally, we illustrate our argument for greater cultural
sensitivity by raising some key issues concerning school reform and improvement.
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The influence of culture on beliefs about education, the value of education, and participation
styles is something that cannot be underestimated Many Asian students, for example, tend to be
quiet in class, and making eye contact with teachers is considered inappropriate for many of
these children (¦ ? while in contrast, most European American children are taught to
value active classroom discussion and to look teachers directly in the eye to show respect, while
their teachers view students' participation as a sign of engagement and competence. Indeed, these
are caused by what we called culture inclusion of self-oriented or group oriented culture.
fairly loose and relational ties tend to be based on self-interest. People in this society primarily
regard themselves as individuals first, and members of a group, second. They are more
independent and self-contained. In self-oriented cultures, people are judged and status ascribed
more in line with individual performance or what has been accomplished individually-values
Japanese do not like to be alone or to do things differently from others. They stick together:
eating, working, or traveling in a group. Following others and being part of a group gives them a
kind of care freeness and joy. Why are Japanese group-oriented? The reasons originate from
their geography, history, and culture. Geographical location and climate play a key role in
promoting this group-orientedness. Japan is isolated from other countries. Japan is composed of
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four main islands which are surrounded by sea and located far from America, Europe, or
Australia. Thus, Japan is isolated from other countries. In the past, this geographical location
makes it difficult to communicate with other countries, so this isolation reinforced their tendency
to stick together.
While Japanese who belong to group-oriented cultures, their affiliation and ties between
people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are subservient to
collective needs. Group-oriented cultures value harmony, face-saving, filial piety and equality of
Status is traditionally defined by factors such as age, sex, kinship, educational standing, or
curricula, teaching and learning is discernible. While such an approach may be harmonious with
cultures emphasizing self orientation, its suitability for group-oriented cultures may be
individualist and most Asian cultures as group oriented or collectivist. On the contrary,
are students in group-oriented cultures more comfortable with its adoption than students in self-
oriented cultures.
Finally, in the pursuit of quality schools and schooling, the part played by competent and
Anglo-American cultures that the appointment and promotion of staff be on the basis of merit, as
what we call `limited relationship' cultures; that is, decisions taken specifically on the issues at
stake.
sway, personnel decisions may be made as much on the basis of connections as on merit. For
example, a teacher may be appointed because a trusted friend of the school may speak highly
of her loyalty, and loyalty is seen as a desirable quality leading to commitment and eventually
performance. This more holistic perspective may make the attainment of openness with respect
relationship' cultures.
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The historical Anglo-American culture (primarily a male norm? is based on the freedom
of individuals to develop themselves to their fullest potential. Indeed, our traditional classroom
seating arrangements, teaching procedures and grading systems encourage competition among
students to be the "first with the correct answer," write the "best" essay and, generally, be the
"winner."
Compare this perspective to that of most other world cultures which value the group over
the individual. In Japanese schools, for example, the classroom is creatively arranged with
circular seating. When the teacher asks a question, students within each group confer with each
other, reach a consensus, and then raise their hands in unison with the answer they jointly think
is best; teams are rewarded for the quality of their answers and their cooperative efforts.
Translated into the education and learning environment, the Anglo-American mindset can
put their students into competition with one another for education growth and progress. A by-
product of such a system can be a lack of cooperation and absence of true team spirit if not
managed correctly. Mean while, the group orientation of the Japanese has helped them to build
effective teams and study hard for the betterment of their own kind.
Another aspect of the individualistic outlook is to prize the imagination and creativity of
each person. American ingenuity has been responsible for much of the nation's success.
Brainstorming, a popular American method of gleaning ideas from groups, requires that the
individual offer ideas for group consideration as they occur, without evaluation or judgment.
Such offerings require courage, sometimes, because the ideas may at first appear to be foolish,
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particularly in the eyes of others. As a result, some cultural groups (such as Asians, American
Indians, and some Hispanics? may be reluctant to join into the process, fearing to lose face in the
eyes of the group members. This caution also explains their reluctance to respond negatively
when asked questions--to them such a response would be construed as being rude and
disrespectful. People who honor others before themselves need to be encouraged to excel as
individuals and to be assured that they will not be ridiculed for their views.
problem solving and higher-order thinking skills. Recent school curricular reforms in Anglo-
American societies have given prominence to these aspects, linking them with skills needed by
The Asian economic crisis beginning in October 1997 for example has stopped the
phenomenal rate of economic growth achieved by the so-called Asian 'tiger' economies in its
tracks. It became apparent that economies such as Hong Kong needed a technologically skilled
workforce capable of sustaining a qualitatively different economic structure in the future. While
societies such as the USA have cultures (and to an extent school curricula? conducive to
creativity-they are what we call 'generative'-some in East Asia are more renowned for their
replication and rote learning. Although these school systems are successful in producing high
achieving students in mathematics and science, they are less likely to cultivate creativity in their
young people.
tends to focus on "getting the job done" over the concerns of the people who are doing the job.
Indeed the Anglo-American norm is often distrustful of emotions, assuming that emotions
interfere with efficiency. African Americans often value the interpersonal aspect of relationships
highly, and may feel ignored and uncomfortable in a learning setting with little interpersonal
contact. Some Anglo-Americans, on the other hand, prefer to work alone, concentrating on the
facts associated with task achievement. Self-reliance is another American value, considered a
virtue by many Americans. A popular saying of early Anglican settlers was, "The Lord helps
those who help themselves." Although many cultures encourage self-development, it is usually
toward the advancement of the common good rather than for self-promotion. In America, in
societies where "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down," such a notion is equal to
profanity.
Asian, Hispanic, American Indian, some Blacks and even some Anglo-American women will
praise themselves for their own performance. It is assumed that the authority figure will already
know their level of performance and will make the appropriate evaluation. In addition, their
respect for authority figures may impede their inclination to speak on behalf of themselves. If
appraisers do not understand this assumption and, consequently, appraise the individual as
lacking self-confidence, they can severely devalue the true contributions of the person as well as
create a demoralizing work environment. Understanding the values of the individual being
While globalization has become an emergent phenomenon, relatively little credence has
been given to the concept of societal culture. Yet, as theory, policy and practice are transported
globally, they interface with the cultures of different host societies. The interaction merits
consideration for a number of reasons. First, as policies such as decentralization and school
based management spread from Anglo-American systems to become more globalised, what are
the implications for 'leadership' and 'management' in the host societies? Leadership and
management may not mean the same in different societal cultures. In Western societies, for
example, leadership is seen to rest on a set of technical skills, whereas in Chinese societies it is
viewed more as a process of influencing relationships and modeling what are deemed to be¶
desirable' behaviors.
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contemporary society. Presented in such new versions of globalization and educational reform
situate localized culture often as a kind of obstacle, something we must overcome or improve in
order for progress to be continued and maintained. In Malaysia, these kinds of discourses inform
public policy debates. From debates over university competitiveness through to arguments over
language and literacy in a global world, the pressures on Malaysian educators to change their
practices and reform are often presented with an implicit assumption that local culture is
somehow in deficit.
Education for matters up to the secondary level, and the Ministry of Higher Education for tertiary
education. Although education is the responsibility of the federal government, each state has an
Education Department to help coordinate educational matters in their respective states. Education
homeschooling. As in other Asian countries such as Singapore and China, standardized tests are
a common feature.
For the introductory, a decade before the end of the British rule, the educational system in
Malaya was reorganized along the lines of the Barnes Report of 1951. Up to that point of time,
Malaya's educational system lacked uniformity in curriculum and an articulated rationale for a
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policy which would be relevant to the political and socio-economic goals of the people within
different culture lives under the same umbrella. In regards to that, the country's three principal
ethnic communities; Malays, Chinese and Indians should always be matter of concern. In 1955,
two years before Malaya's independence, the Razak Report endorsed the concept of a national
education system based on Malay (the national language?, being the main medium of instruction.
1957:
national system of education acceptable to the people of the Federation [of Malaya] as a
whole which will satisfy their needs and promote their cultural, social, economic and political
development as a nation, having regard to the intention to make Malay the national language of
the country while preserving and sustaining the growth of the language and culture of other
understand it historically within a scaffold that recognizes the tensions between forms of
and respect. To a greater or lesser degree, this dialectical interplay has animated
Malaysian discourse since British Imperial times. Besides, one should also mull over the shift
toward nationism and developmental nationalism as a discursive legitimating for language the
shift in Malaysia that can run into significant political and cultural difficulties if it does not take
seriously the needs in Malaysia for a sense of recognition and respect for language. An
discourse that marginalizes Bahasa Malaysia, or implicitly articulates it as a deficit in the current
globalized world runs the risk of creating serious backlash and discontent. The way language
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policy is discussed by elites and how those who are uncomfortable with the direction of language
policy are discursively framed is a critical contributor to the success or otherwise of language
reform.
education require decision making of a shift in how we correlate and see language and Malaysia
respect for a nation and its culture comes through economic and development, which essentially
provides power. Apart from, a prerequisite for this respect lies in acquiring English language
competency especially in Science and Mathematics (Zakaria and Iksan 2007?. However, the
implications of this position for the broader educational system are clear (Ridge 2004; Thang and
Kumarasamy 2006?. If the achievement of national development and national strength correlates
to how a nation competes in a globalized knowledge economy then language identity must be
dilemma presciently:
W e need to move from the extreme form of nationalism which concentrates on being a
language nationalist only, not a knowledge nationalist, not a development oriented nationalist. I
This is because Malaysia wants their people to succeed, to be able to stand tall, to be
respected by the rest of the world. Not to be people with no knowledge of science and
technology, very poor, very backwards, working as servants to other people. If we have no
knowledge we will be servants to those with knowledge. µ(Gill 2006? essentially, the argument
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put by articulate advocates of English in Malaysian educational institutions are that the shift to a
Whereas linguistic policy in Malaysia has historically been aimed at engendering national unity,
the process of globalization the growth of the knowledge economy has according to advocates of
Back in 1967, Malaysia proclaimed Bahasa Melayu the national language for purposes of
made the main medium of instruction in schools and institutions of higher learning. At the same
time, the people had the option to use their mother tongue and other languages.
further educational growth, in late 2000, the Malaysian government announced that technology
education and high-tech industries would have leading roles in the country's economy which
country's "digital divide by de-emphasizing past practices of promoting businesses run by ethnic
Malays." For this purpose the government would focus on education "as a means to deliver the
promise of empowering the individual in the twenty-first century." In real terms, economy and
education would aim at closing the digital divide between the rural and urban centers of
population. The emphasis on high-tech economy and education shifted the government focus
from the practice of hand-picking individuals and businesses under the indigenous or Bumiputra
increase in the number of public and private higher education institutions in Malaysia. The
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leading school and universities in the country are currently facing unique challenges as well as
continual environmental change, as they attempt to meet the human resource demands from
various industries. At the same time, universities have been asked to reexamine their roles in
nation-building. In context, effective leadership is a key issue. Effective leadership plays a vital
role in leading universities through change as this often involves ambiguity, uncertainty and
risks. Where there is poor leadership, employees may be reluctant to change as they view change
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In conclusion, once cannot claim that societal culture is the only mediating power on
globalised trends in education policy, theory and practice. Nor is it without conceptual and
misleading to see culture as simply a reactive and mediating phenomenon when it too is subject
to change from globalization. How the tension between the two, globalization and societal
culture, is resolved will predictably vary according to their relative strengths in particular
societies. Projecting into the future, perhaps the best scenario would be that each society
ways that respect the integrity of its indigenous culture while allowing room for change and
development.
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