E

Use of the universal

ssil loss equation to predict
erosion in West Africa
E. J. Roose
Erosion has f o r c e n t u r i e s been an o b s t a c l e t o development. Consequently,
man has t r i e d t o remedy t h i s i n d i v e r s e ways ( t e r r a c e s , r e s e r v o i r s , i t i n e r a n t
c u l t i v a t i o n , e t c . ) t h a t more o r less t a k e i n t o account c l i m a t i c , economic,
and human circumstances. With t h e purpose of r a t i o n a l i z i n g t h e c h o i c e of ero-
s i o n c o n t r o l methods, s e v e r a l a u t h o r s have formulated e q u a t i o n s l i n k i n g
s o l i d s t r a n s p o r t of f i e l d scale t o c a u s a l and c o n d i t i o n a l e r o s i o n f a c t o r s .
Among t h e s e a t t e m p t s , t h e u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s e q u a t i o n i s by f a r t h e b e s t
known and t h e most widely used on o t h e r o n t i n e n t s as w e l l as i n t h e United
S t a t e s . T h i s e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n i s based on t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of more
t h a n 10,000 p l o t - y e a r s of d a t a of s h e e t and r i l l e r o s i o n on p l o t s and s m a l l
watersheds. The e q u a t i o n i s
A = RKSLCP [Il
I '

i n which e r o s i o n (A) is, a m u l t i p l i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n of f i v e determining f a c t o r s :

R, an index of r a i n f a l l e r o s i v e n e s s t h a t . i s a product of maximum 30-minute
i n t e n s i t y of t h e r a i n and i t s t o t a l k i n e t i c energy; K , a n i n d e x of t h e sus-
c e p t i b i l i t y of a c o n t i n u o u s l y fallowed s o i l t o s h e e t and r i l l e r o s i o n ; SL, a
topographic index i n c l u d i n g both t h e a n g l e and l e n g t h of t h e s l o p e ; C , a
b i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e combined i n f l u e n c e of v e g e t a l cover and cul-
t u r a l p r a c t i c e s ; and P , a n index showing t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s u p p o r t i n g ero-
s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , such a s contouring.
Knowing t h e va1ue;of r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y , s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y , and s l o p e ,
one can c a l c u l a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v a r i o u s e r o s i o n c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s t o
u s e i f one d e c i d e s t o i n t r o d u c e a c u l t i v a t i o n system i n t o a n a r e a w i t h o u t
exceeding an a c c e p t a b l e e r o s i o n rate.
My purpose i s t o apply t h e e q u a t i o n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
i n West A f r i c a by t h e French O f f i c e of Research Overseas (ORSTOM) and t h e
French I n s t i t u t e of Applied Research (GERDAT) and d e f i n e i t s l i m i t of v a l i d i t y .

Procedure
I
The r e s u l t s came p r i m a r i l y from 13 s t a t i o n s measuring

I -
E. J . Roose is a master of research in soil science at@et"Ji.&cg,OB&&%
of Research Overseas, B.P. V51, Abidjan, Ivory Coast. "h,
Reprinted from Soil Erosion: Prediction and Control QJi@&@Fa de E&S&EmP~
Copyright O 1976
Soil Conservation Society of America
Ankeny, Iowa
 L -

T i

O 400 300
I i
200 600 1000Krli

Figwe 1 , R index i n ,West and Centra2 A f m k a and Zoeation of runoff pZots, 1 -,

d

. .
t .

-.
- i.:
62 Use o f the USLE to predict erosion i n West Africa

m, Co o erosionson about 50 plots of 100 to

'rlm I I 5,000 square meters located in five
West African countries (Figure 1,
W
"O
u O m I Table 4 ) - Climates vary from the
dense subequatorial forest in the
lower part of Ivory Coast (rain =
2,100 millimeters) to the steppe of
the Sahelien plain of the Niger (rain
= 500 mm). Aside from the AIlokoto
station located on a vertisol, all
other stations are set up on ferral-
'Ln I litic and ferruginous tropical soils.

ResuZts
The most significant results of
experiments are shown here to demon- -
strate the advantages and the limi-
tations of the universal soil l o s s
equatiod in West Africa.

RainfaZZ Erosivity Index, R

On the old eroded surfaces of
the African continent, as on the
Great,Plainsand Corn Belt in Ameri-
ca where the cultivated slopes are
moderate to nearly level, it is the
impact energy of raindrops that
causes erosion. This impact energy
sets into motion the destruction of
aggregates while runoff water pro-
vides for the transport of detached
particles.
On the bare plots of Adiopo-
doum, it has been shown (28) that
the amount of rainfall fails to ex-
plain the phenomenon of erosion if
03 one does not simultaneously take in-
O 0 0
hmcnrl to account soil water content before
O 0 0 0 the rainfall and the maximal inten-
u u u u sity of the rainfall during a suffi-

""I ciently long period of time (20 min-

utes for solids transport and 10 min-
utes for runoff flow.)
In the Mediterranean and Sahelien
zone, Keusch ( 2 2 ) and Eoose ( 2 4 , 3 4 )
' I
estimate that it is the exceptional
50- to 100-year-frequency rain that
radically transforms the landscape.
On the other hand, the results show
that in dry or humid tropical envi-
ronments the level of erosion depends
on the sum of the 10 or 20 most se-
m o o 0
d m u ) h vere rains in a year rather than the
II II II II exceptional rainfall, taking into ac-
S S S S count existing well-devel*opedvegetal
 Roose 63

cover. A l l t h i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c l i m a t i c e r o s -
i v i t y index of Wischmeier and Smith (42, 4 3 ) , which t a k e s i n t o account t h e
combined e f f e c t s of amount, maximal i n t e n s i t y , and d u r a t i o n of a l l s i g n i f i -
cant rain.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e a n a l y s i s of r a i n gauge c h a r t s i s extremely time-con-
suming. I n a n a t t e m p t t o s i m p l i f y t h e method, several a u t h o r s ( 4 , 6 , 11)
have n o t i c e d t h a t e x c e l l e n t l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n s e x i s t between k i n e t i c energy
and t h e amount of r a i n ; b u t t h a t t h e r e g r e s s i o n between t h e maximal i n t e n s i t y
(130) and t h e amount of r a i n i s c u r v i l i n e a r ; and t h e scatter of p o i n t s i s
much g r e a t e r ( 4 , 26). S e v e r a l a u t h o r s (6, 7, 11) have published a n e q u a t i o n
v a l i d i n Upper V o l t a and i n Niger (and probably i n a l l of West A f r i c a ) t h a t
p e r m i t s t h e e s t i m a t i o n of t h e R index as a f u n c t i o n of t h e r a i n f a l l amount (H)
and i t s maximum i n t e n s i t y i n 30 minutes (130):

R = (0.0158 H x 130) - 1.2 r21

However, t h e s t u d y of t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s index of e r o s -
i v i t y , R, poses a major d i f f i c u l t y i n A f r i c a due t o t h e s m a l l number of sta-
t i o n s equipped w i t h a r e c o r d i n g r a i n gauge and t h e s h o r t p e r i o d d u r i n g which
t h e y have been keeping r e c o r d s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s e s t a t i o n s have had
a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l f o r t h e l a s t 20 t o 50 y e a r s i n West A f r i c a a r e l a t i v e l y
dense network of measuring s t a t i o n s of t h e amount of d a i l y r a i n f a l l , which
a l l o w s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e averages. We t h e r e f o r e have been l e d
t o s t u d y i n d e t a i l t h e connection e x i s t i n g between t h e amount of d a i l y r a i n -
f a l l and t h e index of r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y , R. The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e r e
e x i s t s t r o n g v a r i a t i o n s of R f o r r a i n f a l l of t h e same amount and t h a t t h i s
v a r i a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e amount of r a i n f a l l (Table 1). On t h e o t h e r hand,
t h e a v e r a g e amounts v a r y l i t t l e from one s t a t i o n t o a n o t h e r from t h e lower
I v o r y Coast as f a r as t h e Niger.
I n t h e c o a s t a l zone of t h e lower I v o r y Coast, a l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n e x i s t s
(R = 0.577 H - 5.766) between t h i s index (R) and t h e r a i n f a l l amount (H) f o r
r a i n f a l l of t h e "June t o September monsoon" t y p e . A c u r v i l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n
e x i s t s f o r high i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l i n t h e o t h e r months. T h i s c u r v i l i n e a r
r e g r e s s i o n i s v e r y s i m i l a r f o r a l l t h e s t a t i o n s s t u d i e d between Abidjan and
Ouagadougou. Based on t h e s e r e g r e s s i o n s , one can t r a n s f o r m l o n g series of
o b s e r v a t i o n s of d a i l y r a i n f a l l i n o r d e r t o f i n d s a t i s f a c t o r y monthly and
y e a r l y a v e r a g e s (5% e r r o r ) of t h e r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y i n d e x and t r y t o map
t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n (28). It h a s been s t a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a s i n g l e em-
p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between f h e y e a r l y a v e r a g e e r o s i v i t y index (Ram)
over 5 t o 1 0 y e a r s and t h correspdnding annual a v e r a g e o f r a i n f a l l amount
(Ham) :

RamiHam = 0.50 2 0.05 [SI

This r a t e h a s been v e r i f i e d a t about 20 r a i n f a l l r e c o r d i n g s t a t i o n s i n
t h e I v o r y Coast, Upper V o l t a , Senegal, Niger, and Tchad, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of
s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d around t h e mountains as w e l l a s i n t h e a r e a n e a r t h e sea.
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p [3] h a s p e r m i t t e d u s t o s k e t c h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h i s i n - '
dex i n I v o r y Coast ( 2 8 ) , i n Upper V o l t a (31) and f o r t h e whole of West A f r i c a
(32, 33). T h i s s k e t c h ( F i g u r e 1) i s a g u i d e t h e p r e c i s i o n (5%) of which out-
s i d e of mountainous and c o a s t a l zones i s s u f f i c i e n t t o permit t h e u s e of t h e
u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s equation.
F i g u r e 1 shows t h a t t h e r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y i s v e r y h i g h i n t h e humid
-
t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s and d e c r e a s e s almost p a r a l l e l t o t h e i s o r a i n f a l l l i n e s be-
tween Abidjan (Ham = 2,100 mm; Ram = 1,200) and Ouagadougou (Ham = 830 mm;
'Ram = 4 3 0 ) . T h i s i s explained by t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e a n n u a l a v e r a g e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h i s r e g i o n , t h e amount of t h e 10-year r a i n f a l l and t h e
64 Use of the USLE t o predict erosion in West A f r i c a

c u r v e s " i n t e n s i t y x d u r a t i o n " ( 2 , 3 ) . Since r a i n f a l l i s of the same t y p e i n

a l l of t h i s zone, i t i s no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o i n c l u d e t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e
r a i n f a l l i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s amount i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e average r a i n f a l l
e r o s i v i t y , as several a u t h o r s have proposed.
By way of comparison, l e t u s p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e index varies from 5 0 t o
650 i n t h e United S t a t e s ( 4 2 9 , 60 t o 300 i n T u n i s i a ( 2 7 ) , 50 t o 300 i n
Morocco ( 2 4 ) , 60 t o 340 i n t h e South of France ( 1 8 ) , 500 t o 1 4 0 0 i n I v o r y
Coast (28), and 200 t o 650 i n Upper V o l t a (32).

soil Erodibility, K
The l a b o r a t o r y tests being i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c l a s s s o i l s as a f u n c t i o n .of
t h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o s h e e t and r i l l e r o s i o n , Wischmeier suggested a s t u d y
of t h i s f a c t o r on r e f e r e n c e p l o t s of about 100 s q u a r e meters, w i t h a 9 per-
c e n t s l o p e and t r e a t e d as b a r e - t i l l e d f a l l o w w i t h o u t the a d d i t i o n of any
o r g a n i c matter f o r t h r e e y e a r s . Many s o i l s c u l t i v a t e d i n A f r i c a are n o t
r e p r e s e n t e d by s l o p e s of 9 p e r c e n t . We t h e r e f o r e have adapted t h i s proced-
u r e by choosing s l o p e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s o i l s and the l a n d s c a p e s and by
c o r r e c t i n g t h e measurements w i t h t h e a i d of t h e topographic f a c t o r (SL). The
s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y i n d e x t h e r e f o r e i s c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g equation:

K = A
R x SL x 2.24
where A i s t h e e r o s i o n i n t o n s p e r h e c t a r e , R i s t h e r a i n f a l l e r o s i v i t y index,
SL i s t h e topographic f a c t o r , and 2.24 t h e c o e f f i c i e n t n e c e s s a r y t o go from
metric u n i t s ( t / h a ) t o E n g l i s h u n i t s ( t i a c r e ) . I n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e

Table 2. Measured index of e r o d i b i l i t y (K) of v a r i o u s s o i l t y p e s used i n

t h i s study.
Measured K
Value N o . of
Location S o i l Types Max. Min. Used Measures Source

Adiopodoume Low b a s e - s a t u r a t e d f e r -
r a l i t i c on a r g i l l i c -
s a n d y a e r t i a r y material 0.17 0 . 0 5 0.10 24 (28)
Agonkamey Medium b a s e - s a t u r a t e d
f e r r a l l i t i c on a r g i l -
lic-sandy t e r t i a r y
m a t er i a 1 0.11 0.03 0.10 4 ( 3 8 , 28)
Bokake Eroded reworked f e r -
r a l i t i c on g r a n i t e 0.16 0.02 0.12 4 ( 2 , 15)
Korhogo Impoverished, reworked
f e r r a l l i t i c on g r a n i t e 0.02 Q . O 1 0.02 6 (32)
Gampela T r o p i c a l f e r r u g i n o u s on
l a t e r i t i c pan a t 20 c m 0.32 0.05 0 . 2 5 5 (6)
Saria T r o p i c a l f e r r u g i n o u s on
l a t e r i t i c pan a t 50 c m 0.28 0 . 0 6 0.25 3 (29)
Sefa Leached t r o p i c a l f e r -
ruginous w i t h s t a i n s
and c o n c r e t i o n s 0.17a 0 . 0 5 0.25a 2 (4)
a
The v a l u e used f o r K a t S e f a i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e maximum v a l u e observed be-
cause o r g a n i c matter w a s plowed i n t o t h e s o i l the f i r s t y e a r . The e f f e c t s
of t h i s w e r e n o t overcome i n t h e s h o r t t e r m of t h e experiment.
 Roose 65

Table 3 . E f f e c t of s l o p e on e r o s i o n and runoff as a f u n c t i o n of v e g e t a l

cover and s o i l .
Erosion (mt/ha/year) Runoff (%)
Slope Bare Cropped Bare Cropped
(%) F o r e s t Soil Soil Forest S o i l Soil

Adiopodoume 1965-1972 4.5 - 60 19 - 35 16

F e r r a l l i t i c s o i l on ter-
t i a r y argillic-sandy
materials 7 0.03 138 75 0.14 33 24
Average r a i n f a l l =
2100 mm 23 0.1 570 295 O. 7 24 24
S f a (Senegal). Clean
c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s from
1955 t o 1962. Leach-
ed f e r r u g i n o u s t r o p - Slope
ical s o i l with s t a i n s
and c o n c r e t i o n s 1.25% 1.50% 2.0%
Average e r o s i o n (m t /
ha/year) 5 8.6 12
Annual average r u n o f f
(a 16 22 30

e r o d i b i l i t y index, K y i n c r e a s e s from 0.03 t o 0.60 f o r p r o g r e s s i v e l y more '

e r o d i b l e s o i l s . T a b l e 2 summarizes what few e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s e x i s t i n
West A f r i c a .
A p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y nomograph (45) i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e
s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of s o i l s t o e r o s i o n h a s g i v e n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s f o r t h e f e r -
r a l l i t i c ' a n d f e r r u g i n o u s s o i l s s t u d i e d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of s o i l s t h a t were
g r a v e l l y o r covered w i t h rocky d e b r i s t h a t a c t s as a p r o t e c t i v e mulch. This
i s v e r y important i n t r o p i c a l and mediterranean r e g i o n s (8, 32, 3 7 ) . A t
Korhogo, f o r example, n o t o n l y i s t h e f a c t o r K v e r y low (0.02) b u t i t dimin-
i s h e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y as t h e g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t e s i n t h e upper s u r f a c e (Table
2)

K Estimated
by t h e Nomograph'

Various f e r r a l l i t i c s o i l s
I
from t e r t i a r y sand
from g r a n i t e
from s c h i s t
Ferruginous t r o p i c a l s o i l s from g r a n i t e
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
to
to
to
to
0.10
0.15
0.18
0.30

Two c o n c l u s i o n s can b e d e r i v e d from t h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t s :

1. The v a r i a b i l i t y of monthly and y e a r l y measurements n e c e s s i t a t e s go-
i n g ahead w i t h r e p l i c a t i o n s i n s p a c e and e s p e c i a l l y i n t i m e . The .measure-
ments should o n l y b e done on t i l l e d f i e l d s f o r over t h r e e y e a r s w i t h o u t b u r i a l
of o r g a n i c matter. Working of t h e s o i l e l i m i n a t e s the s u r f a c e seals formed
by t h e b e a t i n g a c t i o n of r a i n . However, t o o much c u l t i v a t i o n g i v e s s o i l l o s s
'
and runoff r e s u l t s lower t h a n t h e c o r n o r c o t t o n p l o t s . T h e r e f o r e , one till-
age i n each r a i n y s e a s o n and two o r t h r e e c u l t i v a t i o n s and chemical weedings
are enough t o m a i n t a i n t h e s o i l s u r f a c e i n t h e d e s i r e d c o n d i t i o n .
2. F e r r a l l i t i c s o i l s are v e r y r e s i s t a n t t o e r o s i o n , and f e r r u g i n o u s
t r o p i c a l s o i l s a r e c l e a r l y l e s s r e s i s t a n t a f t e r two o r t h r e e y e a r s of c u l t i -
v a t i o n . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e low p e r m e a b i l i t y of f e r r u g i n o u s
T a b l e 4. Location, v e g e t a l cover, s o i l , and r a i n f a l l a t e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t e s . o\
m
Location Years Agency Vegetation Soil Rainfall Seasons

Adiopodoum 1955-75 ORSTOM Secondary evergreen Impoverished f e r r a l l i t i c 2100 mm 4

forest

Anguddou 1966-72 IRCA-ORSTOM Rubber p l a n t a t i o n (par- Impoverished f e r r a l l i t i c 2000 mm 4

a l l e l t o contours) on t e r t i a r y a r g i l l i c -
sandy m a t e r i a l

Azagui 1966-73 IFA-ORSTOM Secondary r a i n f o r e s t , Reworked f e r r a l l i t i c on 1800 .mm 4

i r r i g a t e d banana plan- on s c h i s t
tation

Divo 1 96 7-74 IFCC-ORS TOM Semi-deciduous dense Reworked f e r r a l l i t i c on 1750 mm 4

forest granite

Bouak 1960-75 IRAT-ORSTOM Dense shrub savannah Erodaed f e r r a l l i t i c on 1200 mm 4

granite

Ko rho go 1967-75 ORSTOM Clear shrub savannah Reworked f e r r a l l i t i c on 1400 mm 2

granite

Ouagadougou 1967-73 IRAT-ORSTOM: Sparse t r e e savannah Leached f e r r u g i n o u s 850 mm 2

on g r a n i t e

S e f a (Sngal) - 1954-68 ORSTOM-IUT Woodland Leached f e r r u g i n o u s 1300 mm 2

Cotonou (Benin) 1964-68 ORSTOM Dense t h i c k e t Impoverished f e r r a l l i t i c 1300 mm 4

on t e r t i a r y a r g i l l i c -
sandy m a t e r i a l ~

Boukombe (Benin) 1960-61 ORSTOM P a r k ,savannah Leached g r a v e l - f i l l e d fer- 1100 mm 2

ruginous on s c h i s t

Allokoto (Niger) 1966-71 CTFT I Shrub savannah Vertisol/calcareous 500 mm -1 2

 Roose 67

s o i l s , t h e i r tendency t o s e a l , t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c o n t e n t of s i l t and f i n e
sand, and t h e i r v e r y low l e v e l of o r g a n i c matter. It seems, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t
t h e s p e c t a c u l a r e r o s i o n observed i n A f r i c a i s due t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y r a i n -
f a l l e r o s i v i t y r a t h e r t h a n t o a p a r t i c u l a r h i g h e r o d i b i l i t y of t r o p i c a l s o i l s .
However, E l Swaify (9) h a s shown t h a t i n H a w a i i t h e r a n g e of e r o d i b i l i t y of
t r o p i c a l s o i l s i s as g r e a t as i n t h e temperate' zone.

The Topographie Factor, SL

Most a u t h o r s a g r e e on t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h a t s l o p e ( l e n g t h , s h a p e , and
e s p e c i a l l y s t e e p n e s s ) p l a y s i n t h e development of e r o s i o n , a l t h o u g h e r o s i o n
can sometimes s t a r t on s l o p e s less t h a n 2 p e r c e n t ( 1 0 ) . Zingg ( 4 6 ) , summar-
i z i n g e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t on t h e s o i l s of t h e temperate American r e -
g i o n s , showed t h a t s o i l l o s s e s i n c r e a s e e x p o n e n t i q l l y w i t h s l o p e s t e e p n e s s ,
t h e a v e r a g e exponent being c l o s e t o 1 . 4 .
On a f e r r a l l i t i c s o i l r i c h i n g r a v e l ( a l f i s o l ) i n NigLria, L a 1 (26)
found t h a t e r o s i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h s l o p e a c c o r d i n g t o a n e x p o n e n t i a l c u r v e
exponent 1 . 2 when t h e s o i l i s b a r e , b u t t h a t i t i s independent of t h e s l o p e
(1 t o 15%) i f a n a d e q u a t e amount of r e s i d u e ( 4 t o 6 t / h a ) i s l e f t on t h e
surface.
On t h e o t h e r hand, Hudson (13) i n Rhodesia and Roose (34) i n I v o r y Coast
found exponents l a r g e r t h a n 2 f o r v a r i o u s t r o p i c a l s o i l s t h a t are p o o r l y
coyered. Wischmeier and Smith (42) e s t i m a t e d t h a t a second d e g r e e f i t s
b e t t e r than a logarithmic function.
The i n f l u e n c e of s l o p e l e n g t h b e i n g v a r i a b l e , p a r t i c i p a n t s in a workshop
a t Purdue U n i v e r s i t y f i n a l l y adopted, f o r c u r r e n t usage, t h e exponent 0.5 t o
e x p r e s s t h e i n f l u e n c e of s l o p e l e n g t h on s o i l l o s s e s . The e q u a t i o n l i n k i n g
erosion t o s l o p e is w r i t t e n :

SL =
100
(0.76 + 0.53 s + 0.076 s2) r51

where A i s t h e s l o p e l e n g t h i n f e e t and s i s t h e s t e e p n e s s i n p e r c e n t .
A t Adiopodoum, on b a r e s o i l and averaged over f i v e y e a r s , r e s u l t s
s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of Wischmeier and Smith's t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e have been found,
b u t t h e s e r e s u l t s v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y from y e a r t o y e a r ( 2 8 ) . Under c u l t i v a -
t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s v a r y g r e a t l y as a f u n c t i o n of t h e p e r c e n t of s o i l covered
and c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s (Table 3 ) . A t Sfa i n Senegal ( 1 9 ) , i t a p p e a r s t h a t
v e r y s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s l o p e (0.5%) are s u f f i c i e n t t o l e a d t o n o t a b l e
v a r i a t i o n s of e r o s i o n and runoff (Table 3 ) . A t Bnin, W i l l a i m e and a s s o c i a t e s
. (40, 4 2 ) observed t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of s l o p e l e n g t h on e r o s i o n i s n o t con-
s t a n t , n o r v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h i s u n c e r t a i n i n f l u e n c e of s l o p e l e n g t h on s p l a s h
and r i l l e r o s i o n b r i n g s back i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r A f r i c a n
c o n d i t i o n s of a n t i e r o s i v e t e c h n i q u e s , such a s t e r r a c e s , banks, and d i v e r s i o n '
d i t c h e s t h a t a r e t o o o f t e n b l i n d l y used i n a v a r i e t y of c l i m a t e s ( 2 9 ) .
From a s c i e n t i f i c p o i n t of view, t h i s t o p o g r a p h i c f a c t o r i s s u r e l y t h e
weak p o i n t of t h e u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s e q u a t i o n because t h e i n f l u e n c e of s l o p e
i s n o t independent of v e g e t a l c o v e r , c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s , s o i l , and probably
of c l i m a t e (28, 3 4 ) . However, w h i l e w a i t i n g t o have s u f f i c i e n t d a t a a v a i l a b l e ,
one can r e l y e i t h e r on t h i s t o o g r a h i c index of Wischmeier o r an e x p o n e n t i a l
e q u a t i o n of t h e t y p e (SL = A O s g x s f S 5to 2). Both a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y i n a l a r g e
number of p r a c t i c a l c a s e s , a t l e a s t on non-swelling c l a y s o i l s (13, 2 8 ) .

Vegetal Cover and CuZtural Techniques, Factor C

T h i s i s by f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n a l f a c t o r . I n f a c t , as long
as t h e v e g e t a l cover i s u n i n t e r r u p t e d , whether i t i s a matter of f o r e s t s , bush,
Table 5. E r o s i o n ( t / h a / y e a r ) and runoff (% of a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n ) from v a r i o u s s l o p e p e r c e n t a g e s i n West A f r i c a .
Erosion Runo f f
Natural Bare Cropped Natural Bare Cropped
Stations Slope Environment Soil Soil Environment Soil Soil - Source

m t/ha/yr % of a n n u a l r a i n f a l l

Adiopodoume 4.5 - 60 - - 35 [98] - (281,

(36)
7% 0.03 138 0.1 t o 90 0.14 33 1951 0.5 t o 301871
20% 0.1 570 - O. 7[12a] 24 [76] -
65% 0.20 t o 1 - - 0.6 t o 2.2(16) - -
Anguedudou 29% - - 0.6 t o 0.3 - - 0.3 t o 0.9 (23)
Azaguie 14% 0.5 to 0.7 - 0.9 t o 4.6 0.4 t o 4 - 5 t o 10 (36)
Mdb 0.155 - Md = 1.83 Md = 1.9 - Md = 7
- - - Max = [31] - Max = [74]
Divo 9% 0.5 - 1 - - (21)
Bouake 4% "b. O. 20 18 t o 30 0.1 t o 26 b.0.3[16] 15 to 30 0 . 1 t o 26 (27),
(1)
n.b. 0.01 n.b. 0.03
Kor ho go 4% b. 0.1 t o 0.2 3 to 9 - b . 5[50] 35 - (32) ..
Ouagadoug U 0.5% b. 0.15 1 0 t o 20 0.6 f o 8 b. 10[50] 4 0 , t o 60[70] 2 t o 32[60] (6),
(30)
n.bO.01 n.b. 2.5[10]
Sefa 1 t o 2% b. 0.02 to-0.50 30 to 55 b. 0.3 t o 1.5

n.b. 0.02 t o 0.20 2. t o 20 n.b. 0 . 1 t o 1.2

Co tonou 4% 0.3 t o 1.2 . 17 t o 10 t o 85 0 . 1 t o 0.9
27.5 a f t e r
land c l e a r i n g
L2.51
B oukombe 3.7 - - 0.2 t o 1.6 -

Alloko t o 3.0 . - - 0.10 t o 18.5 -

. .

aThe numbers i n b r a c k e t s r e p r e s e n t t h e maximum c o e f f i c i e n t s of f l o w d u r i n g a u n i t r a i n f a l l of 10-years frequency.

bMd = Median.
CThe n o t a t i o n s b and nb s i g n i f y "burned" o r "not burned."
 Roose 69

savannah, and p a s t u r e l a n d , o r of a simple mulch, e r o s i o n and runoff are s m a l l

d e s p i t e the e r o s i v i t y of t h e r a i n f a l l , s l o p e s t e e p n e s s , and s o i l i n s t a b i l i t y
(Tables 4 and 5 ) . The burning of savannah, e s p e c i a l l y i f i t i s l a t e i n t h e
d r y season, s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s runoff and i t s s o l i d c o n t e n t (30). But
when t h e s o i l i s t o t a l l y denuded, e r o s i o n becomes c a t a s t r o p h i c : S o i l l o s s e s
are m u l t i p l i e d by 100 t o 1,000 and the f l o w by 20 t o 50. Under c u l t i v a t i o n ,
e r o s i o n i s i n t e r m e d i a t e and varies t o a l a r g e d e g r e e according t o t h e t y p e
of c r o p , t h e r a p i d i t y w i t h which i t c o v e r s t h e s o i l , and t h e c u l t u r a l tech-
n i q u e s p u t i n t o u s e t o encourage i t s growth. D e n s i t y and e a r l i n e s s of p l a n t -
i n g , c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e s o i l , a p p r o p r i a t e f e r t i l i z a t i o n , and r e t u r n of resi-
dues p l a y a predominant r o l e .
F a c t o r C of t h e Wischmeier e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s e s t h e combined i n f l u e n c e of
t h e v e g e t a l cover and c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s on s o l i d t r a n s p o r t . It i s calcu-
l a t e d f o r each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c crop-stage p e r i o d (5 i n t h e United S t a t e s and
up t o 8 i n t h e humid t r o p i c a l zone w i t h two c u l t u r a l c y c l e s ) . Taking i n t o
account o n l y t h e mean annual v a l u e , Table 6 p r e s e n t s t h o s e v a l u e s t h a t have
been o b t a i n e d f o r f a c t o r C i n West Acrica.
The u s e of f a c t o r C i s c a p a b l e of h e l p i n g t o d e f i n e t h e c u l t u r a l tech-
n i q u e s b e s t s u i t e d t o each crop and t h e r o t a t i o n t o u s e i n o r d e r t o t a k e i n t o
account r e g i o n a l e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Erosion Contro2 Practice, Factor P

. Buffer s t r i p cropping and n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l mulching a l o n e could be
the s u b j e c t of s m a l l p l o t s t u d i e s . These s t u d i e s could h e l p s o l v e c e r t a i n
problems of s o i l and water c o n s e r v a t i o n (Table 7 ) .
Buffer Strip Cropping. By a l t e r n a t i n g on a s l o p e c u l t i v a t e d i n p a r a l l e l

TabLe 6. The v e g e t a l cover f a c t o r and c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s (C F a c t o r ) i n West

Africa.
Annual
Average
C u l t u r a l Techniques C Factor

Bare c o n t i n u o u s l y fallowed I
F o r e s t o r dense shrub, h i g h mulch c r o p s 0.001
* Savannah, p r a i r i e i n good c o n d i t i o n 0.01
Over-grazed savannah o r p r a i r i e 0.1
Crop cover of slow develspmeht o r l a t e p l a n t i n g -
f i r s t year 0.3 t o '0.8
Crop cover of r a p i d development o r e a r l y p l a n t i n g -
f i r s t year 0.01 t o 0.1.
Crop cover of slow development o r l a t e p l a n t i n g -
second y e a r 0.01 t o 0 . 1
Corn, sorghum, m i l l e t ( a s a f u n c t i o n of y i e l d ) 0.4 ' t o 0.9
Rice ( i n t e n s i v e f e r t i l i z a t i o n ) 0 . 1 t o 0.2
Cotton, tobacco (second c y c l e ) 0.5 to 0.7
Peanuts ( a s a f u n c t i o n of y i e l d and t h e d a t e of p l a n t i n g ) 0.4 .to 0.8
1st y e a r cassava and yam ( a s a f u n c t i o n of the d a t e of
planting) 0.2 t o 0.8
Palm tree, c o f f e e , cocoa w i t h crop cover 0.1 t o 0.3
burned r e s i d u e 0.2 t o 0.5
P i n e a p p l e on contour ( a s a f u n c t i o n of s l o p e ) buried residue 0.1 t o 0.3
Surface residue 0.01
P i n e a p p l e and t i e d - r i d g i n g ( s l o p e 7%) 0.1
70 Use of the USLE t o p r e d i c t erosion i n West A f r i c a

strips (20 to 50 m wide) with narrow strips (2 to 4 m> permanently covered

with grass, the landscape is rapidly transformed into a succession of fields
of gentle slopes separated by grass-covered embankments. Due to fine roots
and to numerous grassy stems, the strips absorb a large part of the flow
(10 to 60% at Adiopodoum) and cause the deposit of eroded soil in the up-
stream area (70 to 90% at Adiopodoum) ( 2 2 ) . Embankments of 50 cm formed
naturally in five years following alluvial deposits in buffer strips have
been observed at several locations in Ivory Coast. In the Sahelien zone
where the grasses have difficulty protecting soils from the first rains,
Delwaulle (7) has shown on large plots ( 4 , 0 0 0 m2) that ridges of earth and
low dry stone walls are slightly more effective than grass buffer strips.
These mefihods further permit the determining of a guide from which it will
be possible to move from an extensive nomadic agriculture to intensive
stabilized cultivation while progressively modifying the topography ( 2 2 , 3 3 ) .
A S t r a k mulch several centimeters thick is as effective as a dense
secondary forest 30 meters high ( 2 8 , 3 5 ) in absorbing kinetic energy of rain-
fall and maintaining erosion (0.03 t/ha/year) and runoff (0.5%) within ac-
ceptable limits. Given the difficulty of procuring the enormous vegetal
quantities necessary to cover large industrial plantings, one must consider
either leaving the maximum crop residue on the soil surface or using soil
conditioners.
A r t i f i c i a l Mulch. By spraying a thin permeable film of polyvinyl ace-
tate (Curasol supplied by Hoechst) at 60 grams per liter per square meter
after plowing, soil losses ,have been reduced from 40 to 90 percent and the
flow from 25 to 55 percent of the check. The spraying of this type of
permeable plastic, mixed with grass seeds and fertilizers, is a future prac-
tice for protection of scalped industrial zones, road embankments, and chan-
nels. However, it is still too expensive for ordinary agriculture ( 3 5 ) .
Cultural practices (maximum soil cover through early and dense planting,
use of fertilizer, optimum working of the sail, mulch, plant covering, rota-
tion, etc.) are much more effective in humid tropical zones than mechanical
techniques (terraces or diversions) that are costly to build and difficult to
maintain. The latter, however, are the practices mentioned most in soil
conservation manuals all over the world and most of the time are recommended
without preliminary study of adaptation ( 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 8 , 2 9 ) .

Discussion and Conclusions

More than 500 annual measurements of erosion on experimental plots have
been completed in West Africa. This allows us today to evaluate and to put
into practice the universal soil l o s s equation ( 4 4 ) .
It is well to recall, first, that this equation aims at predicting sheet
and rill erosion in hilly areas, excluding mountains, where energy from runoff

Table 7. P factor for conservation practices in West Africa (7, 2 8 ) .

Conservation Practices P Factor

Tied-ridging 0.20 to 0.10

Antierosive buffer strips from 2 to 4 meters width 0.30 to 0.10
Straw mulch 0.01
Curasol mulch (60 gr/l/m2) 0.50 to 0.20
2-3 years of temporary grassland 0.5 to 0.1
Reinforced ridges of earth or low dry stone walls (ridge
elevation : 80 cm above channel) + tillage cultiva- +
tion and balanced fertilization. 0.1
 Roose 71

and l i n e a r e r o s i o n (mountain, s t r e a m and r i v e r ) predominate and where t h e

r a i n f a l l has v e r y d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . It n e i t h e r approaches t h e prob-
lem of flow nor t h a t of t r a n s p o r t i n s o l u t i o n and n e g l e c t s t h e q u a l i t a t i v e
a s p e c t of eroded m a t e r i a l s . But t h e f e r t i l i t y f a c t o r s of a . l a r g e number of
t r o p i c a l s o i l s a r e found s t o r e d i n t h e f i r s t 20 c e n t i m e t e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y under
f o r e s t c o n d i t i o n s ) , and s h e e t e r o s i o n s e l e c t i v e l y removes t h e o r g a n i c and
m i n e r a l c o l l o i d s a s w e l l a s t h e n u t r i t i v e elements t h a t a s s u r e t h e chemical
and water r e s e r v e of t h e s o i l (29, 20, 28).
Secondly, s i n c e t h i s e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n i s based on t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s of a l a r g e number of r e s u l t s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o have numerous r e p l i -
c a t i o n s i n s p a c e and c h i e f l y i n t i m e t o e v a l u a t e l o c a l l y t h e v a l u e of t h e
d i f f e r e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s t o use.
F i n a l l y , s i n c e t h e d a t a come from p l o t s of l i m i t e d a r e a , it i s d i f f i c u l t
t o u s e t h e s e r e s u l t s t o p r e d i c t r e g i o n a l v a l u e s of sediment t r a n s p o r t on
l a r g e watersheds.
Realizing t h i s , i t i s necessary t o recognize n o t only t h e p r a c t i c a l
u t i l i t y of t h i s e q u a t i o n on t h e l a n d t o o p t i m i z e t h e management of a g r i c u l -
t u r a l land, b u t a l s o an evident s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t t o d e f i n e t h e r e l a t i v e
i n f l u e n c e of each of t h e f a c t o r s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h i s e q u a t i o n f u l f i l l s
i t s purpose, which i s t o determine t h e a n t i e r o s i v e t e c h n i q u e s t o p u t i n t o
p r a c t i c e i n each p a r t i c u l a r c a s e of s o i l management. On t h e a n c i e n t A f r i c a n
c o n t i n e n t , i t s u s e seems t o b e p e r f e c t l y a c c e p t a b l e and j u s t i f i e d by a m a s s
of r e s u l t s r e l a t e d t o s o i l s and t o t h e s l o p e s most c u r r e n t l y c u l t i v a t e d i n
West A f r i c a .
The e r o s i v i t y index a c c u r a t e l y t a k e s i n t o account t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s of
amount, i n t e n s i t y , and d u r a t i o n of r a i n f a l l on s o l i d t r a n s p o r t ; t h e r e c o u l d ,
however, be added t o i t a n "antecedant s o i l m o i s t u r e index" e x p r e s s i n g t h i s
c o n d i t i o n b e f o r e t h e r a i n . The a n a l y s i s of thousands of r a i n gauge c h a r t s
has allowed u s t o p r e s e n t a f i r s t approximation of t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
of t h e annual mean e r o s i v i t y index. However, t h e q u e s t i o n must b e asked
whether i t i s b e t t e r t o b a s e t h e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l system on t h e mean e r o s i v i t y
o f - r a i n o r on t h e h a z a r d of a 10- o r 100-year-frequency r a i n s t o r m .
The s o i l cover r e s u l t i n g from p l a n t s (and s t o n e s ) h a s a n importance t h a t
exceeds t h a t of a l l t h e o t h e r f a c t o r s determining e r o s i o n . P l a n t a r c h i t e c -
t u r e as w e l l as t i l l a g e p r a c t i c e s p l a y o n l y a secondary r o l e once t h e s o i l
i s 90 p e r c e n t covered; however, t h e c u l t u r a l a n t i e r o s i v e t e c h n i q u e s a r e v e r y
h e l p f u l i n a l 1 t h e c a s e s where t h e s o i l is s p a r s e l y covered. Index C a l l o w s ,
i n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e l e c t i o n of p r a c t i c e s and c r o p s b e s t adapted t o l o c a l
ecological conditions.
Contrary t o an o p i n i o n widely h e l d among agronomists, f e r r a l l i t i c s o i l s
and, t o a lesser d e g r e e , f e r r u g i n o u s t r o p i c a l s o i l s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y a r e
g r a v e l l y , seem l e s s e r o d i b l e t h a n a l a r g e number of leached s o i l s of tem-
p e r a t e regions. It i s t h e s p e c i a l e r o s i v i t y of t r o p i c a l r a i n f a l l t h a t l e a d s
t o t h e s e v e r e e r o s i o n damage seen i n t r o p i c a l zones when t h e s o i l i s b a r e .
The s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y nomograph proposed i n 1 9 7 1 ( 4 5 ) , which p e r m i t s t h e es-
t i m a t i o n of t h e index of t h e r e s i s t a n c e of s o i l s t o e r o s i o n , seems a p p l i c a b l e ;
however, a moderating c o e f f i c i e n t should be added t o t a k e i n t o account t h e
g r a v e l o r rocky d e b r i s p r e s e n t i n t h e t i l l e d s u r f a c e .
I f t h e u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s e q u a t i o n seems t o be c o r r e c t l y a p p l i e d t o
t h o s e c l a y s o i l s t h a t a r e predominantly k a o l i n i t i c , t h e most widely o c c u r r i n g
and c u l t i v a t e d i n West A f r i c a , one must be v e r y c a u t i o u s where s w e l l i n g c l a y
s o i l s are concerned ( d a r k brown s o i l s , v e r t i s o l s , e t c . ) . The work of Heusch's
group (12) i n Morocco demonstrates t h a t t h e v e r t i s o l s on t h e m a r l s of t h e Rif
r e a c t very d i f f e r e n t l y .
The topographic f a c t o r and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s l o p e l e n g t h c e r t a i n l y con-
s t i t u t e s t h e weak p o i n t of t h i s e q u a t i o n , s i n c e i t varies w i t h t h e s o i l t y p e ,
c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e , and t h e v e g e t a l cover. But w h i l e w a i t i n g t o g a t h e r a
72 Use of the USLE t o predict erosion i n West Africa

sufficient amount of data under natural or simulated rainfall, it can be used

in the majority of cases. Let me note, however, the importance of'this cau-
tion for the choice of erosion control techniques that are often based on
limitations of slope length. Consequently, the antierosive techniques of the
biological type, that is to say cultural practices favoring soil cover, are
at the same time the most efficient, the cheapest, the least difficult to
use; and they are the best adapted to the conditions of the hills and plains
of the ancient African continent.
.To be of maximum use in West Africa, data is needed to modify the
Wischmeier-Smith equation for soils with swelling clays; for mountainous
regions of recent origin, where gully erosion predominates; and for Saharien
and Mediterranean zones, where unusually intense rains are important. How-
ever, this equation seems to me to be well adapted to the majority of culti-
vated soils in West Africa and to the moderate slopes on ferrallitic and
ferruginous tropical soils in particular. .

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