Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Probability Theory Notes Chapter 2 Varadhan
Probability Theory Notes Chapter 2 Varadhan
Weak Convergence
The above definition makes sense. We write the integrand eitx as cos tx +
i sin tx and integrate each part to see that
|(t)| 1
Exercise 2.1. Calculate the characteristic functions for the following distri-
butions:
for 0 k n.
31
32 CHAPTER 2. WEAK CONVERGENCE
The next question is how to recover the distribution function F (x) from
(t). If we go back to the Fourier inversion formula, see for instance [2], we
can guess, using the fundamental theorem of calculus and Fubinis theorem,
that Z
0 1
F (x) = exp[i t x ] (t) dt
2
and therefore
1
Rb R
F (b) F (a) = 2 a
dx exp[i t x ] (t) dt
1
R Rb
= 2
(t) dt a exp[i t x ] dx
R
1
= 2
(t) exp[ i t b]exp[
it
ita]
dt
RT
= limT 21
T
(t) exp[ i t b]exp[
it
ita]
dt.
We will in fact prove the final relation, which is a principal value integral,
provided a and b are points of continuity of F . We compute the right hand
side as
Z T Z
1 exp[ i t b ] exp[ i t a ]
lim dt exp[ i t x ] d
T 2 T it
1
R RT exp[i t (xb) ]exp[i t (xa) ]
= limT 2
d T it
dt
R RT
1
= limT 2 d T sin t (xa)sin
t
t (xb)
dt
R
= 12 [sign(x a) sign(x b)] d
= F (b) F (a)
provided a and b are continuity points. We have applied Fubinis theorem
and the bounded convergence theorem to take the limit as T . Note
that the Dirichlet integral
Z T
sin tz
u(t, z) = dt
0 t
satisfies supT,z |u(T, z)| C and
1 if z > 0
lim u(T, z) = 1 if z < 0
T
0 if z = 0.
34 CHAPTER 2. WEAK CONVERGENCE
(t) = pk (1 qeit )k .
cp cx p1
2. The gamma distribution with density f (x) = (p)
e x , x 0 has
the characteristic function
it p
(t) = (1 ) .
c
where c > 0 is any constant. A special case of the gamma distribution
is the exponential distribution, that corresponds to c = p = 1 with
density f (x) = ex for x 0. Its characteristic function is given by
(t) = [1 it]1 .
3. The two sided exponential with density f (x) = 12 e|x| has characteristic
function
1
(t) = .
1 + t2
1 1
4. The Cauchy distribution with density f (x) = 1+x2
has the character-
istic function
(t) = e|t | .
mk = E[X k ] (2.3)
for
P every P k 0. We can then replace them by { m an
0
}, { m
bn
0
} : n 0 so that
k ak = k bk = 1 and the two probability distributions
P [X = en ] = an , P [X = en ] = bn
will have all their moments equal. Once we can find {cn } such that
X
cn en z = 0 for z = 0, 1,
n
There
R is in fact a positive result as well. If is such that the moments
mk = xk d do not grow too fast, then is determined by mk .
P a2k
Theorem 2.2. Let mk be such that k m2k (2k)! < for some a > 0. Then
R k
there is atmost one distribution such that x d = mk .
Proof. We want to determine the characteristic function (t) of . First we
note that if has moments mk satisfying our assumption, then
Z X a2k
cosh(ax)d = m2k <
k
(2k)!
by the monotone convergence theorem. In particular
Z
(u + it) = e(u+it)x d
for any interval I = [a, b] such that the single point sets a and b have proba-
bility 0 under .
1. n or Fn F
and
Z
X
N
f (x) d f (a )[F (a ) F (a )] + 2M. (2.5)
j j+1 j
j=1
Proof.
Step 1. Let r1 , r2 , be an enumeration of the rational numbers. For each j
consider the sequence {Fn (rj ) : n 1} where Fn is the distribution function
corresponding to n (). It is a sequence bounded by 1 and we can extract a
subsequence that converges. By the diagonalization process we can choose a
subseqence Gk = Fnk such that
lim Gk (r) = br
k
This is true for every rational r > x, and therefore taking the infimum over
r>x
lim sup Gn (x) G(x).
n
Suppose now that we have y < x. Find a rational r such that y < r < x.
Step 5. We now complete the rest of the proof, i.e. show that n . We
have Gk = Fnk G as well as k = nk . Therefore G must equal F
which has for its characteristic function. Since the argument works for any
subsequence of Fn , every subsequence of Fn will have a further subsequence
that converges weakly to the same limit F uniquely determined as the distri-
bution function whose characteristic function is (). Consequently Fn F
or n .
Exercise 2.7. How do you actually prove that if every subsequence of a se-
quence {Fn } has a further subsequence that converges to a common F then
Fn F ?
Proof. The proof is already contained in the details of the proof of the ear-
lier theorem. We can always choose a subsequence such that the distribution
functions converge at rationals and try to reconstruct the limiting distribu-
tion function from the limits at rationals. The crucial step is to prove that
the limit is a distribution function. Either of the two conditions (2.7) or (2.8)
will guarantee this. If condition (2.7) is violated it is straight forward to pick
a sequence from A for which the distribution functions have a limit which is
44 CHAPTER 2. WEAK CONVERGENCE
and therefore
Z Z
lim sup n (C) lim fk (x) dn = fk (x)d.
n n
Letting k we get
We are now ready to prove the converse of Theorem 2.1 which is the hard
part of a theorem of Bochner that characterizes the characteristic functions
of probability distributions as continuous positive definite functions on R
normalized to be 1 at 0.
Theorem 2.7. (Bochners Theorem). If (t) is a positive definite func-
tion which is continuous at t = 0 and is normalized so that (0) = 1, then
is the characteristic function of some probability ditribution on R.
Or
|(s) (t)|2 1 |(s t)|2 + 2|1 (t s)|
4|1 (s t)|
2.3. WEAK CONVERGENCE 47
Z
1 T
|t| i t x
f (x) = lim 1 e (t) dt (2.10)
T 2 T T
Z T Z T
1
= lim e i (ts) x (t s) dt ds (2.11)
T 2T 0 0
Z T Z T
1
= lim e i t x ei s x (t s) dt ds (2.12)
T 2T 0 0
0.
We can use the dominated convergence theorem to prove equation (2.10),
a change of variables to show equation (2.11) and finally a Riemann sum
approximation to the integral and the positive definiteness of to show that
the quantity in (2.12) is nonnegative. It remains to show the relation (2.9).
Let us define
2 x2
f (x) = f (x) exp[ ]
2
48 CHAPTER 2. WEAK CONVERGENCE
Z Z
2 x2
itx
e f (x) dx = ei t x f (x) exp[ ] dx
2
Z Z
1 2 x2
= ei t x (s)ei s x exp[ ] ds dx
2 2
Z
1 (t s)2
= (s) exp[ ] ds. (2.13)
2 2 2
If we take t = 0 in equation (2.13), we get
Z Z
1 s2
f (x) dx = (s) exp[ 2 ] ds 1. (2.14)
2 2
Now we let 0. Since f 0 and tends to f as 0, from Fa-
R lemma and equation (2.14), it follows that f is integarable and initxfact
touss
f (x)dx 1. Now we let 0 in equation (2.13). Since f (x)e is
dominated by the integrable function f , there is no problem with the left
hand side. On the other hand the limit as 0 is easily calculated on the
right hand side of equation (2.13)
Z Z
1 (s t)2
itx
e f (x)dx = lim (s) exp[ ] ds
0 2 2 2
Z
1 s2
= lim (t + s) exp[ ] ds
0 2 2
= (t)
proving equation (2.9).
Step 3. If (t) is a positive definite function which is continuous, so is
(t) exp[ i t y ] for every y and for > 0, as well as the convex combination
R 1 2
(t) =
(t) exp[ i t y ] 2 exp[ 2
y
2 ] dy
2 2
= (t) exp[ 2t ].
The previous step is applicable to (t) which is clearly integrable on R and
by letting 0 we conclude by Theorem 2.3. that is a characteristic
function as well.
2.3. WEAK CONVERGENCE 49
and Z
sup g(x) dn C < .
n
Then show that Z Z
lim f (x) dn =
f (x) d
n
R R R
In particular if |x|k dn remains bounded, then xj dn xj d for
1 j k 1.
Exercise 2.10. On the other hand if n and g : R R is a continuos
function then the distribution n of g under n defined as
n [A] = n [x : g(x) A]
converges weakly to the corresponding distribution of g under .
Exercise 2.11. If gn (x) is a sequence of continuous functions such that
sup |gn (x)| C < and lim gn (x) = g(x)
n,x n
Can you onstruct an example to show that even if gn , g are continuous just
the pointwise convergence limn gn (x) = g(x) is not enough.
Exercise 2.12. If a sequence {fn ()} of random variables on a measure space
are such that fn f in measure, then show that the sequence of distributions
n of fn on R converges weakly to the distribution of f . Give an example
to show that the converse is not true in general. However, if f is equal to a
constant c with probability 1, or equivalently is degenerate at some point c,
then n = c implies the convrgence in probability of fn to the constant
function c.