Archaeoastronomy, no.

II (JHA, xviii (1987

ASTRONOMICAL ORIENTATIONS OF FIVE MEGAUTIDC TOMBS AT

MADAU, NEAR FONNI IN SARDINIA

EDOARDO PROVERBIO, University of Cagliari,

GIULIANO ROMANO, University of Padua, and
ANTHONY AVENI, Colgate University

The "Tombe dei Giganti'' as Megalithic Burial Structures in Sardinia

The megalithic burial structures in Sardinia, as well as in other megalithic sites
in central Europe, have undergone progressive transformations: from monu-
mental dolmens, with or without doors, to the so-called domus de Janas and the
megalithic tombs of the Nuraghic period. The oldest existing Nuraghic tombs in
Sardinia, which are a derivation of the so-called gallery dolmens ("allei
couvert"), I were erected in the period between the end of the Bronze Age
(ancient Nuraghic) and the beginning of the Iron Age (middle Nuraghic), that
is, roughly between 1500 and 1000 B.C. These burial monuments also underwent
a slow transformation. The most advanced "tombe dei giganti", which date
back to the beginnings of the middle Nuraghic period, are characterized by
structures having a rectangular or elongated trapezoidal base, which take the
name of galleries or passages. The cross-section of the gallery is generally
rectangular.' This structure is usually apsidal at the back and closed at the front
with a cambered stela at the base of which there is a small opening or entrance
to the passage. This is covered with platband slabs or, in some cases, monolithic
arches.' In these burial monuments the curved entrance stele is at the centre of
an architectural system made up of stones stuck upright in the ground and rows
of stelae, with or without breaks, in the form of a semi-circular exedra
suggesting the outline of a bull's head and horns," an image found in other
hypogeous monuments in Sardinia.'
The existence of "tombe dei giganti" in Sardinia was reported by Angius" and
De Lamarmora7 and has since been confirmed by other archaeologists. Re-
search carried out up to the present has led to the discovery of numerous
"tombe dei giganti" in many different parts of the island, usually associated
with other megalithic monuments (menhirs, nuraghi) and pre-Nuraghic burial
structures (dolmens, "domus de Janas"). However, up to the present there has
been no real census taken of these collective burial monuments which developed
over a period of slightly less than one thousand years in Sardinia. According to
Lilliu there are at present 321 "tombe dei giganti" spread over the island, over
half of which (187) are in the province of Nuoro." Precise archaeological
research on the "tombe dei giganti" has been carried out over a limited area by
E. Melis in the town of Mamoiada and surrounding areas," and by G. Lilliu at
San Michele near the town of Fonni." A study, preliminary but sufficiently
complete from the viewpoint of the description of pre-Nuraghic and Nuraghic
megalithic monuments on lands in the township of Fonni, has recently been

0142-7253/87/0011-0055 $2.50 1987 Science History Publications Ltd

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FIG. 1. Distribution of the orientations of27 "small hypogeous caves" or "dornus de Janas" (empty circles) and of 54 "tombe dei giganti" (empty triangles) I,CJ
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in the territory of Fonni and Mamoiada according to data reported by G. Lilliu. 16, IJ
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1987 Megalithic Tombs at Madau 857

done by G. Mereu." Some of these authors, on describing these megalithic

burial monuments, point out that the centre-line of the corridor, or better still
the entrance stele, is oriented in the direction of specific points on the horizon.
But they attribute no particular meaning to these orientations.
The idea that the orientation of prehistoric burial monuments and of the
skeletons inside them, from the Neolithic and Mesolithic periods onwards,
towards points on the natural horizon was not in the least casual, received
confirmation from the results of accurate research. It is known that in one of the
oldest and most famous Neolithic burial sites, that of Cernica near Bucharest
belonging to the Boian culture (1st phase) which dates from 3,500 to 4,000 years
before Christ, the skeletons were found statistically to be oriented towards the
points on the horizon from which the sun rose between the two solstices. 12. 13
Analogous results were obtained by analysing the orientation of Bronze Age
graves found in prehistoric graveyards in Hungary."
Evidence that Neolithic (2000 B.C.) burial sites used for the same purpose in
different periods up to the Merovingian epoch (seventh century A.D.) present
well-defined astronomical orientations in the direction of the sunrise at specific
times of the year has recently been brought to light in the Jura region of
France. IS
As regards Sardinia, it is interesting to observe that the axes or the entrances
of "small hypogeous caves" ("domus de Janas") situated in the territories of the
towns of Fonni, Gavoi, Mamoiada and Sarule and found by Lilliu," and of
"tombe dei giganti", according to a list supplied by Lilliu," appear to be
oriented in a way that cannot be considered casual.
Of course, there are many factors that can influence tomb orientations. These
include territorial considerations, such as the avoidance of farming land,
orientation to sacred mountains, the need to make important tombs conspi-
cuous or simply the lie of the land; and finally, astronomical considerations that
might possibly have arisen from the development of some sort of sun cult. IS We
have not yet conducted a thorough investigation into all of these possibilities, it
being our intention here only to note the non-randomness of the alignments ofa
particular group of tombs to demonstrate that the astronomical hypothesis
offers one reasonable explanation that accounts for the data. It is worth noting
that in each case the axes ofthe tombs are directed toward a clear and open view
of a relatively distant horizon, a factor that would be required of any
astronomical explanation.
The distribution of the directions observed by Lilliu in the "small hypogeous
caves" (open circles) and those found in the "tombe dei giganti" (open
triangles) are shown in Figure 1. In the same figure we give on the abscissa the
azimuths of sunrise and sunset at the solstices (E) and the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the moon on rising and setting ( E i) for latitude
400N.
It is difficult to interpret the frequency distribution of the directions
observed (indicated by the dashed line in Figure I) for the two types of burial
monument, not only because of the fact that the techniques that had been used
in determining the direction in which the burials are orientated are not known,
but also because we do not know the configuration of the natural horizon visible
from these megalithic sites. Furthermore, neither for the "small hypogeous
caves" nor for the "tombe dei giganti" was the direction established by using the

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SS8 E. Proverbio, G. Romano and A. Aveni 1987

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FIG. 2. I :25,000 map (here reduced) with the indication of the geodetic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) of the Madau area in which the five " tombe dei giganti" are found.

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1987 Megalithic Tombs at Madau S59

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FIG. 3. Approximate representation of the distribution of the five "tombe dei giganti" at Madau
(tomb dimensions are not to scale). Elevation points in metres.

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S60 E. Proverbio, G. Romano and A. Aveni 1987

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1987 Megalithic Tombs at Madau S61

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S62 E. Proverbio, G. Romano and A. Aveni 1987

geometric axes of the caves or graves. From what can be gathered from the
literature it was established by using the axis of the entrance or the central stelae
of the hemicycles, which is a far less accurate procedure. Despite these sources
of uncertainty, it appears clear that the directions observed and shown in Figure
I are not casual or random, and this gives rise to many questions regarding the
meaning of these possible orientations, questions which have not as yet been
fully answered.

Determination of Astronomical Orientations of the "Tombe dei Giganti" at

Madau
On the archaeological map of the township of Fonni drawn up by A. Mereu"
there are 39 "tombe dei giganti" with the approximate orientation of the axes of
the galleries indicated. One group of six tombs, of which at present only five can
be readily recognized, is situated on undulating ground at kilometre no. 5 of the
provincial road known as Pratobello, in a place called Madau. Several authors
have referred to this group as the Nuraghic tombs of "Ghermanu" or
"Gremanu" from the name of a creek known as Rio Gremanu a few hundred
yards away (Figure 2). This necropolis has been the object of four excavation
campaigns directed by G. Lilliu in the period between 1982 and 1985. Four
tombs were mentioned by E. Melis." Of these, three are about a hundred yards
from the provincial road (Figure 3) and the fourth is about 220 yards to the
northwest of the group. The fifth tomb was found by A. Mereu in 1968 and is
about 150 metres southwest of the first three (tomb no. 4 in Figure 3).
A fundamental characteristic of these burial structures is the fact that in three
of them (tombs 2, 3, and 5 in Figure 3) the central stele, above the entrance,
contains deep incisions in the form of dentils from which it takes the name of
"concio a dentelli" ("dentiled ashlar"). This characteristic of the central stele in
Nuraghic tombs was first noted in the Barbagia area by A. Mereu. Chronologi-
cally speaking, the five tombs, or at least the three with the "dentiled ashlars",
are attributed to a period at the end of the Bronze Age (end of the old
Nuraghic), that is, about 1000 B.C. 21 It is more difficult to date the other two
tombs, keeping in mind that tomb no. I in Figure 3, being located so close to the
provincial road, has been almost totally destroyed, and that tombs 4 and the
same tomb no. I require further excavation work.
It is of interest to note that near tomb no. 3 and just under the entrance to tomb
no. 2 were a piece and a complete curved central stele respectively. This shows
that presumably the "dentiled ashlar" tombs found at Madau were preceded by
older burial structures associated with previous cultures and burial rites. 22
Although they have been repeatedly violated since the beginning of the last
century, which has presented great difficulties for their reconstruction, the
tombs in best repair are at present tombs 2 and 3 (Figures 4 and 5). While many
structural elements are missing from these tombs, a part of the large hemicycle
can still be seen.
In order to define the orientations of the five "tombe dei giganti", accurate
measurements of the astronomical azimuths of the axes of these graves were
carried out on II May 1985, with a Salmoiraghi 4200 theodolite (Proverbio)
and a centesimal square (Romano, Aveni). The determination of the azimuth of

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1987 Megalithic Tombs at Madau S63
TABLE I. Observed (A) and Calculated (A c ) Azimuths of the Five "Tombe dei Giganti" at Madau.
Grave A A h, A Celestial Phenomena Declination
Number (Proverbio) (Romano, Aveni) e
I 15620' 300' 15709' Rise u PsA (Fomalhaut) -4237'
15929' Rise ~ Cru -4327'
2 408'
3 354' 13427' Moonrise (upper edge) -e-i+s
13507' Moonrise (lower edge) -e-i-s
4 12330' 620' 12200' Moonrise (upper edge) -e+i-s
12640' 550' 12736' Sunrise (lower edge) -e-s
5 13210' 250' 13300' Moonrise (upper edge) -e-i+s
13330' Moonrise (lower edge) -e-i-s
instrumental zero was carried out with observations of the sun. The results of
the azimuths observed of the axes of the megalithic tombs in the direction of the
exedras, obtained independently with the two instruments mentioned above, are
given in Table 1. The two values (12330' and 12640') reported for tomb no. 4
can be explained by the fact that the corridor presents a slight deviation. As a
consequence the second half of the corridor, closest to the exedra, deviates to
the south by 310'. In the fourth column of Table I we list the heights observed
for the natural horizon in the direction of the tomb axes, while in the fifth
column the calculated azimuths are given, taking into account refraction and
parallax for the epoch 1000 B.C. with reference to the rising over the natural
horizon of the heavenly bodies indicated in the next column. The last column
indicates the value of the declination assumed by the heavenly bodies for the
epoch 1000 B.C. corresponding to the azimuths calculated.
Having examined all the usual astronomical targets," we find that while the
azimuth observed for tomb no. 2 appears not to correspond to any direction of
astronomical interest, tombs 3, 4 and 5 seem to be correlated with the rising of
the moon at its minimum (-+1) and maximum (--1) negative declination
(minor and major standstill), each lying within a degree and a half ofdeclination
of the lunar position. Moreover, these three are distributed well apart, as one
can see from the map. The axis of tomb no. I goes to a point on the natural
horizon at which two stars of magnitude 1.3 (a PsA) and 1.5 (~ Cru) rose;
however, with only a single archaeological datum, one can scarcely draw any
conclusion from this fact.
A first consideration can be advanced in an attempt to explain the differences
on the order of a degree in the azimuths observed with the two different
instruments used in measuring. The most significant systematic error in the
measurement of azimuth A is caused by uncertainty in determining the
instrumental azimuth of the geometrical axes of the graves. If we suppose a
difference of2cm in the position of the theodolite and the stadia rod with respect
to the walls of the tomb gallery, then a maximum systematic error of
approximately 30' in determining the geometric axis with this instrument can be
calculated. If it is kept in mind that with the use of the centesimal square an
error in azimuth of thirty minutes of arc or more can result with the same
positioning errors, it can be argued that the differences between the azimuths
observed with the two instruments (see Table I) are due to systematic errors in
defining the orientations.
Presumably, the differences dA = Am - A c between the mean values observed

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S64 E. Proverbio, G. Romano and A. Aveni 1987
TABLE 2. Differences Between Observed and Calculated Azimuths (AA) and State of Conservation
of the Five "Tom be dei Giganti" at Madau.
Grave Am AA Celestial Declination Condition
Number Phenomena of Grave
I Rise a PsA Very bad
Rise Ii Cm
2 14928' Bad
3 13838' +411' Moonrise -e-i-s Bad
4 12640' -056' Sunrise -e-s Bad
12330' + 130' Moonrise -e+i-s
5 I3rlO' -050' Moonrise -e-i-s Very bad

(Am) and calculated (A c) of the axes of the "tombe dei giganti" given in Table 2
can instead be attributed to inaccuracy in tracing the orientations of the tombs
at the time of their construction. In fact, it is comprehensible that if the
alignment of two menhirs or one menhir with respect to a natural point on the
horizon can easily be carried out in certain cases with an accuracy of much less
than one degree, the orientation of a burial site like a "tomba dei giganti" is
much more difficult, and differences of one or more degrees between the
theoretical axis and the axis actually realized with the stones stuck in the ground
making up the wall of the monument can reasonably be expected.
Further evidence that the ilA values given in Table 2 depend in some way on
the inaccuracy of the material orientations can be found by associating these
orientations with the present state of the five tombs. In fact, the last column of
Table 2 gives the judgement on the state of conservation of the tombs expressed
by A. Mereu," which is in good agreement with that of the authors. It can be
seen that tombs 1 and 5 are in a very bad state of conservation, and this may
explain the fact that the orientation found for tomb no. 1 appears in no way
associated with the rising or setting of sun or moon. On the other hand, tomb
no. 2, recently restored, also presents an orientation which would be quite
difficult to associate with the rising or setting of sun or moon. That this fact may
depend on the restoration work carried out and the replacement of the stones
delimiting the corridor of the tomb cannot be ruled out.

Conclusions
It is not possible to come to any final definitive conclusions on the basis of the
measurement of the orientations of the five "tombe dei giganti" located at
Madau. As was previously pointed out, it is difficult to establish the geometrical
axes of these tombs and very probably the determination of these axes at the
time of their constructions was inaccurate, not to mention what took place
during their reconstruction.
Lacking further data that might lead to a more rigorous statistical approach,
at the present time we can only state that at least three of these tombs (nos 3, 4,
and 5) are oriented close to the direction of the point on the natural horizon at
which the lower edge of the moon rose at the epoch of its minimum (-+i-s)
and maximum ( - s - i - s) negative declination.
This fact may indicate the existence of burial customs associated with moon
worship on the part of Nuraghic communities at the end of the Bronze Age, a
subject requiring further investigation.

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1987 Megalithic Tombs at Madau S65

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank E. Belli, A. Sarais, R. Cara and P. Paolo Sanna for
their valuable help in determining the astronomical azimuths at Madau and P.
Calledda for his contribution to the data compilation program. They also wish
to give very special thanks to A. Mereu for his help in locating the archaeologi-
cal sites and for the information he supplied. The comments of an anonymous
referee also have been valuable to the authors. A. F. Aveni's portion of this
research was supported in part by a grant from the National Science Founda-
tion (Grant No. INT-8319854), USA.

REFERENCES
1. Gallery dolmens represent a later phase of simple or elongated dolmens of the pre-Nuraghic
Age (c. 200(H 500 B.C.). Cf Giovanni LiIliu, La civilta' dei Sardi (Turin, 1983),95-105, 17Q.-I.
2. The "tornbe dei giganti" are collective tombs characteristic of agro-pastoral societies organized
in communities. The name derives from the popular belief that these large graves were built for
the burial of giants.
3. Lilliu, op. cit., 216-17, 251-2.
4. Ibid., 309-14.
5. Bull's head friezes are present in several hypogeous graves and smalI artificial caves in different
parts of Sardinia. The best-known are the friezes of bovine heads on the graves at Anghelu
Ruiu near Alghero (cf Lilliu, op. cit., 60; Alistair Service and Jean Bradbury, Megaliths and
their mysteries (London, 1979), 92).
6. V. Angius, Bib/iograjia Sarda (Cagliari, 1839).
7. A. De Lamarmora, Viaggio in Sardegna (Cagliari, 1840), Parte II, Lib. I, Chap. II.
8. LiIliu, op. cit., 309.
9. E. Melis, Carta dei Nuraghi della Sardegna (Spoleto, 1967), 19-25.
10. G. Lilliu, Monumenti antichi barbaricini (Sassari, 1981),82-132.
I I. G. Mereu, Fonni resistenziale (Nuoro, 1978), 13--48.
12. Gh. Cantacuzino, "Necropola preistorica de 1a Cernica ~i locul ei in neoliticul romanesc ~i
european", Studii si cercetari de istorie veche, xviii (1967), 379--400.
13. I. Singeorzan, "Zur Forgeschichte der Astronomie", Andromeda, i (1970), 1-33.
14. K. Barlai, "On the orientation of graves in prehistoric cemeteries", Archaeoastronomy bulletin,
iiij4 (1980), 29-32.
15. J. P. Parisot and P. Petrequin, "Orientation astronomique des tombes merovingiennes du
cimitiere de Soyria (Jura)", Archaeoastronomy (Supplement to Journal for the history of
astronomy), no. 4 (1982), S41--48.
16. LiIliu, op. cit. (ref. 10), 86.
17. G. Lilliu, "Uno scavo ignorato del dott. Ferruccio Quintavalle nella tomba di giganti di
Goronna a Paulilatino", Studi Sardi, viii (1948), 43-72, p. 45.
18. Cf e.g. A. F. Aveni and G. Romano, "Archaeoastronomical research in Veneto-Friuli, Italy",
Archaeoastronomy (Supplement to Journalfor the history ofastronomy), no. 10(1986), S23--3 I.
19. A. Mereu, Carta archaeofogica del comune di Fonni (Cagliari, 1968).
20. This and the folIowing information on the typology of the "tombe dei giganti" at Madau was
kindly supplied by A. Mereu, Honorary Inspector of Antiquities and Fine Arts of the town of
Fonni.
21. The dating of the "ashlar" tombs was carried out by A. Mereu on the basis of the discovery,
inside the tombs, of fragments of pottery with comb decorations, which in Sardinia are
characteristic of the period from the end of the Bronze Age to the beginning of the Iron Age.
22. This information was given by A. Mereu.
23. Cf Aveni and Romano, op. cit. (ref. 18), S28 and ref. 8 therein.
24. Mereu, op. cit. (ref. 11),45--46.

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