TAKORADI POLYTECHNIC

SCHOOL OF APPLIED ARTS

END OF SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION
2015/2016 ACADEMIC YEAR

Program: B-TECH Textiles I REGISTRATION NUMBER

Course Code: IAT 425
Course: MILL FINISHING
Time: 2Hours, 30 min.
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the process of Finishing. {6 marks}

b. Fabric Finishing depends on a number of factors. Identify three of these factors.
{9 marks}
2. With your knowledge of general mill finishing discuss how a fabric treated with
starch, adhesives and other agents and passed through a calendar is more resistant
to abrasion and light than same fabric that has not gone through such a process.
{20 marks}

3. Explain the process of laundering as a mill finishing process. {10 marks}

b. identify and explain the laundry formulations known to you. {10 marks}

4. What is a Calendar? {2 marks}

b. Identify and explain three main types of calendaring. {9 marks}
c. Outline the effects of calendaring. {10 marks}

5. Discuss the three main effects mill finishing of textile goods. {15 marks}
b. Give three examples each of the above mentioned effects. {9 marks}

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 TAKORADI POLYTECHNIC
SCHOOL OF APPLIED ARTS
END OF SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION
2015/2016 ACADEMIC YEAR

MARKING SCHEME

Program: B-TECH Textiles REGISTRATION NUMBER

Course Code: IAT 425
Course: MILL FINISHING
Time: 2Hours, 30 min.

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the process of Textile Finishing {6 marks}

Textile finishing is a process that converts grey goods into merchandise that is
appropriate for sale to the user and textile product fabricator. The process makes
use of chemicals, heat and mechanical means to attack and change the physical and
chemical constitution of yarns and fabrics into desirable forms. Finishing may take
many different forms that are determined by the type of fibre, yarn or fabric and,
most important of all, the intended purposes of the goods to be finished. This is due
to the fact that a particular type of grey good can be intended for different purposes
(end-uses) according to the type of finishing processes applied.
The third and final stage of the treatments of textile goods to prepare them for the
consumer is known as general mill finishing. It is the final treatment or set of
treatments applied to the textile good to improve their properties of serviceability,
appearance and handle. As stated earlier, pre-treatment and colouring form the first
and second stages of the term finishing in its widest sense.

b. Fabric Finishing depends on a number of factors. Identify three of these factors.

{9 marks}

Fabric finishing depends on a number of factors. These include

i. Kind of fibre and its arrangement in the yarn and the type of fabric (e.g. twist
kind of weave).
ii. Physical properties of the fibre, such as swelling capacity, fastness to wet and dry
rubbing at different temperatures.
iii. Sensitivity of fabric to physical and chemical action.

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 2. With your knowledge of general mill finishing discuss how a fabric treated with
starch, adhesives and other agents and passed through a calendar is more resistant
to abrasion and light than same fabric that has not gone through such a process.
{20 marks}

The aim of general mill finishing is to make the fabric attractive, of good feel,
unshrinkable and with a high fastness both of the fibre and the colours after various
effects such as laundering, abrasion, light, weather conditions etc.
A fabrics ability to withstand abrasion will depend on how flat the individual yarns
are, the yarns tensile strength and the weave structure of the fabric. A fabric that is
loosely woven with a yarn with a low strength will not be able to withstand abrasion.
This is because the least friction of the fabric will leave loose ends on the fabric
surface.
Treating a fabric with starch and adhesive will give the fabric much strength and will
bring the yarns within the fabric closely packed to each other, thereby sealing all
loose ends which would otherwise be liable to abrasion. The starches and adhesives
lubricate and protect the fabric against abrasion and to a large extent make the
fabric pliable, thus preventing tear.
Nevertheless, treating the fabric with starch and adhesives give some form of
lamination property to the fabric. With all these properties, when such a fabric goes
through the calendaring process it gives some level of smoothness and lustre. The
calendaring process which deals with heat and pressure help to fix other wet
processes, thereby ensuring a fabric that is resistant to light.

3. Explain the process of laundering as a mill finishing process. {10 marks}

Laundering is essentially a wet cleaning process in water solvent in the presence of a

detergent formulation. The physical parameters, agitation and temperature affect
the ease and effectiveness of soil removal. Agitation permits the aqueous surfactant
solution to flow through the textile structure, conveying the surfactant to the soil,
and aids in removal of emulsified soil from the fabric. As the laundering temperature
increases, the surface activity of the surfactant solution increases, which in turn
increases the ease and rate of soil removal. Although higher temperatures markedly
improve soil removal, the maximum temperature that can be used may be tempered
by a number of factors, including the stability of the textile and its wash-fastness.

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 b. Identify and explain three laundry formulations known to you. {10 marks}

Laundry powder formulations or synthetic detergents are complex mixtures of

surfactant and other materials including many of the following surfactant (10-30%),
builders and chelating agents (5%-40%), anti-soil redeposition agents (0.5%-2%),
corrosion inhibitors (5%-10%), foam stabilizers and antifoaming agents (0%-5%),
electrolytes and fillers (5%-40%), oxygen bleaches (0%-25%), fluorescent brighteners
and colorants (0.1%-1%), bacteriostats (0%-2%), perfumes (0%-1%), and moisture (0-
10%). The composition of the detergent formulation will change with the
manufacturer and intended use.

The laundry formulations are explained below:

Builders: Builders are salts added to a detergent composition to improve the

effectiveness of the surfactant present through complexation or precipitation of
calcium and magnesium and other multivalent salts. The builders act through
complexation (chelation) with these cations to form a stable complex or through
reaction with the cations to form an insoluble salt that precipitates from the wash
bath. Complexing builders include the sodium polyphosphates (trisodium
tripolyphosphate and tetrasodium pyrophosphate), amine carboxylates, citrates,
carboxylate polymers, and zeolite ion exchange resins. These are all complex
builders with calcium and magnesium ions to form water-soluble complexes
(chelates) or suspensions that do not interfere with the action of the surfactant. The
polyphosphate builders are the most effective builders but have come under
increasing pressure over the last decade due to their role as biological nutrients and
contributors to algae growth.

Corrosion Inhibitors: The basicity and reactivity of ingredients found in laundry

formulations lead to attack and corrosion of various metal parts in laundry
equipment. To minimize this effect, the sodium silicates are added to the detergent
formulation.

Anti-Soil-Redeposition Agents: Soil removal is a dynamic process in which

suspended soil may be re-deposited on the textile as well as removed during the
laundering process. Addition of agents with appropriate soil-repelling functional
groups inhibits such re-deposition. Carboxymethylcellulose is an inexpensive
negatively charged water-miscible polymer that forms a thin deposit or coating on
the textile and repels the charged soil detergent micelle. Other polar or charged
water-miscible polymers such as polyvinylpyroll idone are particularly useful on
synthetics as effective anti-soil-redeposition agents and can be incorporated with

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 carboxymethylcellulose to improve the overall effectiveness of anti-soil-redeposition
particularly on synthetic-natural fibre blends.

Foam Modifiers: Excess foaming during laundering can occur readily due to agitation
and can lower the overall effectiveness of soil removal. On the other hand, the
consumer views moderate and stable foam formation during laundering as an
indication of detergency and soil removal. Two approaches have been used to
provide products which meet both of these concerns.

Antifoaming agents such as long-chain aliphatic alcohols, emulsified terpenes

(naturally occurring alcohols), and organo silicones are used in conjunction with
foaming surfactants to lower and moderate foam formation.

The second approach has been the use of detergent-like derivatives that modify and
stabilize foaming in conjunction with surfactant. These foam modifiers include
monoalkylolamine adducts of fatty acids and their polyethylene oxide derivatives.

Electrolytes and Fillers: Inorganic salts such as sodium sulfate are added to laundry
formations to bring them up to uniform cleaning strength and to provide appropriate
measurable quantities for addition in laundering by the consumer. These materials
may be considered fillers but also are electrolytes in solution that serve to enhance
to some degree the migration and action of the surfactant as well as improve the
physical characteristics of the product.

Bleaches and Fluorescent Brighteners: Oxygen bleaches such as sodium perborate

are often added to enhance the whitening power of the formulation through
destruction of colour centres remaining on the fabric. Fluorescent brighteners are
added to nearly all synthetic fibres in manufacture to cover yellow coloration
through blue fluorescence of these colourless dyes in the 1ight. Fluorescent
brighteners added to laundry formulations are mixtures of brighteners which have
affinity for all fibre types commonly found in a wash load. Bleaches and brighteners
also can be purchased and used separately to enhance whitening of the textile
substrate.

Germicides: Biologically active germicides are added to some syndets and are
particularly important in low-temperature laundering, where biological agents are
not destroyed by heat. The germicides include cationic surfactants and phenol
derivatives as well as natural products such as contained in pine oil. Chlorine
bleaches also act as germicides in laundering.

Perfume: Perfumes are added to laundry formulations to mask odours of other

ingredients and to convey a pleasant odour which may be suggestive of a natural
fragrance or of a clean wash. The perfume has essentially nothing to do with

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 effective soil removal but adds to product aesthetics and aids in consumer
acceptance of the product.

Fabric Softener: Fabric softeners are product compositions containing a cationic or

nonionic surfactant or a1koxya1ky1amide, and they may be applied during the
laundering rinse cycle or transferred to the textile during drying from an inert
cellulosic or polyurethane substrate. Liquid softener compositions usually contain
alcohol (0%-2%) (To increase solubility of the softeners), softeners (2-8%), surfactant
(0-2%), electrolytes (0%-0.25%), fluorescent brighteners (0%-0.32%), germicides (0%-
2%), colorants (0%-0.2%), and perfumes (0%-2%). The rest is water. Fabric softener
components used in dryers are less complex, containing softener with a carrier and
perfume in an inert substrate.

Starches: Starches used to give textile stiffness and body are usually added during
the rinse or applied as a spray after washing. Starches include naturally derived
starch, starch derivatives, and acrylic polymer emulsions.

Enzymes: In the late 1960s enzyme pre-soaks and laundry products containing
enzymes were introduced. The proteolytic enzymes contained within the products
must have a pre-soak period to be effective. They act as catalysts is speeding the
hydrolytic attack of protein and carbohydrate components in soi1s, breaking them
down into more easi1y removed decomposition products. Since oily soils are not
readily attacked by the enzymes, their use and effectiveness is limited.

4. What is a Calendar? {2 marks}

A calendar is a machine consisting of two or more massive rollers which are

compressed by means of hydraulic cylinders applying pressure at their nip. One
roller is considered the pattern roller and is responsible for the finished appearance
of the fabric while the other roller is called the bowl and serves as the pressure back-
up for the pattern roller and also finish, which is the end product, is obtained by
passing fabric between these rotating rollers when both speed of rotation and
pressure applied are variables. The surface of the rollers can be either smooth or
engraved to provide the appropriate finish to the fabric.

A calendar is used for industrial ironing process with an objective similar to the
ironing done at home. The main difference being that more pressure is exerted in
calendaring. The fabric is passed between and around a series of heavy, high
polished steam-heated metal rollers hydraulically compressed against each other,
moving at different speeds with varying degrees of heat.

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 b. Explain three main types of calendaring. {9 marks}

Schreinerizing: This is another lustre imparting finishing process by use of a schreiner

calender. These types of calenders are engraved with fine lines that are transferred
as diagonal ridges, ranging from 125 to 600 lines per inch (2.54 cm) of the fabric.
These lines reflect a lot of light that gives such fabrics their inherent lustre. If the
fabric has already been mercerized, lustre imparted improves to simulate that silk.

Moiring: This is a process of creating attractive lustrous wavy indefinite designs on

ribbed fabrics. Such designs usually referred to as water-mark effects. Such fabrics
are called Moir, which is a French word pronounced as either Mor-ray or Mwa-
ray. It is another calendering process that makes use of special heavier hydraulic
calenders to rub two ribbed surfaces of the fabrics off grain. The reaction is more
effective on filaments fibres than the staples. Common among these are fabric made
from silk, acetate, triacetate and nylon. The moir effects can also be simulated by
use of specially engraved calenders.

Ciring: This is polishing action with the use of wax and calenders which are
equipped with highly polished heated steel rollers. The finished fabric is highly
polished and flattened by weight of the steel rollers.

Embossing: This is another calendering process in which calenders with raised

designs transfer their motifs as engravings on fabrics. Such fabrics, therefore, show
textures of raised patterns on submerged background. Distribution of light will,
therefore, vary on the fabric as a result of the embossing from the hollow, engraved
copper rollers called embossing calenders. The fabrics are sometimes treated with a
resin before the embossing process to stabilize the resultant patterns.

c. Outline the effects of calendaring {10 marks}

The main effects of calendering are as follows:

Smoothening the surface of the fabric.
Increasing the fabric lustre.
Closing the threads of a woven fabric
Decreasing the air permeability
Increasing the fabric opacity
Obtaining silk-like to high gloss finishes on fabrics.

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 Surface patterning by embossing
Consolidation of non-wovens
Improving the handle of a fabric i.e. softening
Flattening slubs
Reducing fabrics thickness
Flattening of the fabric.

5. Discuss the three main effects mill finishing of textile goods {15 marks}

Mill finishing involves physical and chemical treatments that aim at improving the final
structure, appearance, inherent properties, aesthetic qualities, and performance and
maintenance properties of textile products.

The effects of mill finishing lies in its major objectives which are:

i. Finishing for final corrective measures

ii. Finishing to improve comfort and protection.
iii. Finishing to enhance aesthetic appeal.
iv. Finishing for good, easy and effective maintenance.

(i) Finishing for final corrective measures:

Generally, fabric manufacturing processes exert so much stress of fibres and yarns
within fabrics and garments. This results in different forms of distortions in such
fabrics and garments. These distortions may also result from initial finishing
treatments that the fabric might have gone through.

This objective of mill finishing therefore, aims at correcting all distortions created by
earlier manufacturing or finishing treatments 4 marks

(ii) Finishing to improve comfort and protection:

This objective of mill finishing aim at improving the amount of comfort and
protection that users can derive from the use of the fabric. A number of mill
finishing processes are used for this and they include weighting, sizing, and moth-
proofing. 4 marks

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 (iii) Finishing to enhance aesthetic appeal:
This objective of mill finishing adds to the beauty of the fabric. One of the most
common attributes of this objective is the provision of lustre to cotton and linen
fabrics. 4 marks
(iv) Finishing for good, easy and effective maintenance:
So much research has gone into fabric production to obtain fabrics with improved
and specialised characteristics. This calls for proper care and maintenance to obtain
maximum performance and satisfaction from such fabrics. This objective of mill
finishing therefore ensures that with proper care, consumers will obtain maximum
satisfaction from fabrics and garments. Pieces of valuable information are put
labels and hand tags on fabrics and garments to guide consumers in choosing the
appropriate fabrics or garments to suit their purposes, and in providing guidance on
the right care as recommended by manufacturers. 4 marks

b. Give three examples each of the above mentioned effects. {9 marks}

i. Finishing for final corrective measures: stentering, crabbing, decatizing, and

calendering
ii. Finishing to improve comfort and protection: Finishing for Softness, Sizing or
Dressing, Weighting
iii. Finishing to enhance aesthetic appeal: Preshrinking, Stonewashing, Slip-
resistance, Water-repellence, Water-proofing, Flame-proofing, Mercerization,
Schreinerizing, Moiring, Ciring, Napping, Gigging, Embossing, Shearing,
Optical Brightening
iv. Finishing for good, easy and effective maintenance: Preshrinking,
Stonewashing, Slip-resistance, Water-repellence, Water-proofing, and Flame-
proofing.

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