Table 3. Treatment Means (lbs ./tree, for Flordagold peaches).
Size of Fruit (in.)
Emitters
Trt per Tree 1 3/4 1 7/8
1 1 0.267 15.04
2 2 0.342 17.92
3 3 0.525 19.00
Significant at the 5% level based upon pooled error.
number of degrees of freedom for estimating experimental
error.
For 1-3/, 2 and 2-1/4 in diam fruit, results of a prelimin
ary test indicated a pooled estimate for error could be used.
Based upon this estimate, a significant difference among
treatments was found for size 2 1/4-inch fruit. Applying
Duncan's multiple range test to these treatment means
indicated that the yield is significantly greater with two
emitters than with three.
During 2 years of previous experiments (4, 5) using
sprinkler irrigation, the highest yielding plots received an
average of 5.3 inches of supplemental irrigation per season.
Rainfall was 19.8 inches for 2 seasons (5.0 and 14.3 inches,
respectively). This is equivalent to 1295 gallons per tree
on a 20 ft. x 20 ft. spacing. Rainfall for 1976 was 14.4
inches. Drip irrigated plots during 1976 used only 29 to
75 percent of this amount, even though they were irrigated
continuously, rain or shine.
Summary and Conclusions
With one year's preliminary data, what appeared to be
the best plot (2 emitters per tree) indicated a conservation
of water of 49% as compared to sprinkler irrigation. Energy
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89:245-248. 1976.
STYLAR-END BREAKDOWN IN 'TAHITI7 LIME:
SOME CAUSES AND CURES
Tom L. Davenport
Carl W. Campbell
Paul G. Orth
IFAS, Agricultural Research and Education Center,
18905 SW 280th Street,
Homestead, FL 33030
Additional index words, maturity, field heat, turgor pressure.
Abstract. Recent studies of stylar-end breakdown in
'Tahiti' lime fruit have revealed that what has been thought
to be a rind disorder is, in reality, a breakdown of juice
vesicles in the pulp tissue. The rupturing of juice vesicles
results in release of juice which subsequently invades the
rind at the stylar end and on occasion the stem end of the
fruit. This juice invasion of the rind then sets into motion the
degradative processes which give rise to the watery patches
of discoloration which are the visible symptoms of the dis
order.
In an effort to determine the factors involved in juice sac
breakage, we have isolated heat stress and high turgor pres
sure associated with fruit maturity as the major elements
Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations Journal Series No. 166.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89: 1976.
Avg.
2 2 1/4 >2 1/4 (2,2 1/4, >2 1/4)
14.88 27.14 17.70 19.90
17.31 32.17* 18.32 22.60*
11.78 20.37 10.19 14.11
savings was estimated to be some 80%. Further testing as
the trees mature will be used to verify these results.
Literature Cited
1. Ballinger, W. E. et al. 1963. Interrelationships of irrigation nitrogen
fertilization and pruning on 'Redhaven' and 'Elberta' peaches in
the sandhills of North Carolina. Proc. Am. Soc Hort. Set., 83.248-
258.
2. Bartholic, J. F. and D. W. Buchanan. 1975. Drip irrigation increases
yield and size on 'Sunrich' Nectarines. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc,
88:509-511.
3. . et al. 1975. Measurements of evapotranspiration in a
mature orchard. Research Project Tech. Completion Report, OWRR
Proj. No. B-014-Fla. Fruit Crops Dept., Univ. of Fla., Gainesville
November 1975.
4. Buchanan, D. W. and D. S. Harrison. 1974. Soil moisture studies on
Florida peaches. Proc. Hort. Soc, 86:313-316.
5. Harrison, D. S. and D. W. Buchanan. 1973. Peach irrigation in
Florida. Proc Fla. State Hort. Soc, 86:313-316.
6. . 1975. An energy and water saving irrigation system for
deciduous fruits. Proc Fla. State Hort. Soc, 88:512-513.
7. Lyons, C. G. and A. H. Krezdorn. 1962. Peach rootsfertility levels.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc, 75:371-376.
8. Morris, A. A. et al. 1962. Response of 'Elberta' peaches to the inter
active effects of irrigation, pruning and thinning. Proc Amer. Soc
Hort. Sci., 80:177-189.
9. Sharpe, R. H. and C. E. Arnold. 1971. Peaches and nectarines in
Florida, Circ. 299-A, Fla. Coop. Ext. Service, May 1971.
contributing to stylar end breakdown. These observations
are discussed along with positive steps that the lime industry
can take to reduce the problem in the field and eliminate in-
shipment breakdown.
Stylar-end breakdown (SEB), also known as stylar-end
rot, of 'Tahiti' lime (Citrus latifolia Tan.) fruit has been
a problem in the Florida lime industry since the early
1930's when the fruit first went into production in this
state (1). Packing house grade-outs attributed to SEB vary
throughout the year with heaviest losses of greater than
40% frequently occurring in the hot summer months.
Indeed, because of these heavy losses at the packing house
and the breakdown of fruit during shipment to market,
the lime industry has deemed SEB its number one problem.
Environmental factors thought to influence the incidence
of SEB include high ambient temperature (3, 7), high
relative humidity (3), and seasonality (7). Rough handling
of the fruit during harvest has been shown to aggravate the
disorder (4, 6, 7, 10). However, it is doubtful that rough
handling is the primary causal agent (6). In recent studies
on SEB, we have reexamined these as well as other factors
possibly involved in the etiology of the disorder. Following
is a summary of pertinent observations and conclusions.
245
 The symptoms of SEB have been described in detail Table 1. Effect of relative juice content15 on incidence of SEB in freshly
elsewhere (2, 8, 12). Externally, SEB appears as a brownish, picked^ limes after heating 3 hr at 42 C (106 F) in constant tem
perature water bath.
translucent patch which rapidly spreads laterally from the
stylar and at times the stem end of the fruit. However,
close examination of the albedo of affected rind and % no. of fruit
central core tissues reveals a translucent appearance as juicex in sample
though they were water soaked. If one slices the tip from
the stylar end of a fruit showing symptoms of SEB, tastes 24 0
the albedo, and makes a similar taste test on a good lime 35-40 31 0
40-45 40 2.5
he will quickly conclude that the watery appearance is 45-50 58 10.3
caused by juice which can also be seen "weeping" from 50-55 50 31.4
the cut surface of the fruit. The loss of cellular integrity 55-60 132 36.4
and pigmentation in the rind appears to be closely 60-65 196 36.2
^65 163 22.7
associated with the presence of this juice. Hence, the juice
normally retained in the pulp is somehow being released
to invade rind tissues. We have examined the pulp of both 'Excludes rind tissue.
yAll fruit harvested at approximately 8:00 a.m. daily.
sound fruit and those affected with SEB, and the differences
xwt. of expressed juice
between the two are quite striking. The juice vesicles of
wt. of juice + pulp
sound fruit are always turgid while many vesicles from
fruit affected with SEB appear to be soft and flaccid. those fruit with 70% or more juice was real. Perhaps this
Furthermore, the flaccid vesicles invariably appear to be reduction is a reflection of abscission of susceptible fruit
torn open. What factors could contribute to such breakage? from the trees thus reducing the number of such fruit
Ample evidence indicates that rough handling of fruit in the experimental samples.
during summer harvest aggravates the incidence of the The diam and volume of the same fruit used in the
disorder (4, 6, 7, 10). With the knowledge that SEB is a preceding experiment were also determined. Our results
result of juice vesicle breakage, care in handling fruit be (Table 2) confirm the conclusion of Conover (3). Fruit size
comes especially relevant. However, we and others (6, 7) appears to have a direct bearing on the incidence of SEB.
have found induction of SEB by rough handling to be in Perhaps as the fruit increases in size the membranes and
consistent and dependent upon the "inductive" periods of cell walls of juice vesicles become weakened and have a
the hot summer months. Furthermore, during these periods, decreasing ability to contain the juice. Hence, the fruit
SEB occurs not only in carefully picked fruit but also in becomes more susceptible to SEB.
fruit stiJJ attached to the tree. It appears, therefore, that
Table 2. Effect of fruit size on incidence of SEB in freshly picked2 limes
the primary causative factor(s) does not involve bruising
after heating 3 hr at 42 C (106 F) in constant temperature water
or rough handling. bath.
Conover (3) investigated the influence of fruit maturity
on SEB by relating the juice content and fruit size to the
Fruit size
No. of fruit
incidence of the disorder. He concluded that fruit size
diam. (cm) vol. (cm3) in sample % SEB
rather than juice content was correlated to the development
of SEB. However, the data contained excessive variation
^3.0 ^18 12 0
between experimental lots, perhaps because the fruit were
3.0-3.5 18-28 73 0
collected from packing houses where the post harvest 3.5-4.0 28-40 56 1.4
treatment of the different lots varied. In an effort to clarify 4.0-4.5 40-53 64 10.7
the question, we reinvestigated the influence of fruit 4.5-5.0 53-78 49 10.9
5.0-5.5 78-110 20 20.0
maturity on SEB.
5.5-6.0 110-128 116 44.0
Twenty to forty limes of varying stages of maturity were 6.0-6.5 128-158 109 47.0
harvested at 8 a.m. each morning and placed in a water ^6.5 ^=158 63 63.6
bath maintained at 42 C (106 F) and allowed to incubate
for three hours. This treatment, the basis of which will "All fruit harvested at approximately 8:00 a.m. daily.
be discussed later, has been sufficient to induce approxi
mately 30% SEB in fruit harvested throughout the past Stylar-end breakdown appears most often during the
year. Following incubation, each fruit was noted for in hot summer months which suggests that heat may play a
ternal and external symptoms of SEB by examination of role in its incidence. Conover (3) and Hatton and Reeder
the albedo at the stylar end. The diam of each fruit was (7) have demonstrated that high storage temperatures are
recorded and the relative juice content determined. The conducive to increased levels of SEB. Interestingly, it is
latter was determined by first excising the rind then noting common practice in commercial groves to allow freshly
the weight of the rindless fruit and the weight of the picked limes to sit in the sun while pallet boxes are being
expressed juice. The ratio of expressed juice to juice -f- filled. These limes often stay in the sun for hours. The
pulp weight is reported here on a percentage basis. In internal temperature of such limes can reach levels greater
this way the relative juice content values are independent than 45 C (113 F) in the hot summertime. Further,
of variations in rind thickness. Nearly 700 fruit were external symptoms of SEB develop in some of these fruit
examined in this manner. The incidence of SEB as in within 2 hours after being placed in the sun. Based on
fluenced by fruit maturity, i.e., relative juice content is these observations, we began in fall of 1975 to heat limes
shown in Table 1. The number of fruit affected by SEB in a water bath set at 42 C (108 F) for 3 hours and
is near zero in those fruit containing 45% juice or less. found that the development of SEB was not only similar
However, there is a marked increase to approximately 35% to that found in limes exposed to the sun but we were
SEB in fruit containing 50% juice or greater. While able to get consistent breakdown of approximately 30% of
sufficient juice is required for the fruit to have the potential the fruit. Even during the winter months when SEB was
to develop SEB, excessive juiciness is apparently not a not present in groves or packing houses the heat treatment
contributing factor. The decrease in the level of SEB in produced this same level of SEB in the fruit. The post-

246 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89: 1976.

harvest heat accumulated in the field can, therefore, be
a major factor in the development of the disorder in the
packing house. The levels of SEB induced by 3 hr incuba
tion at various temperatures in limes picked at 8:00 a.m.
are presented in Table 3. Even at a temperature of 30 C
(86 F) diere is some SEB. When temperatures are main
tained at levels commonly found in the field during summer
(40 - 45 C, respectively 104 - 113 F) there is considerable
loss. It is interesting that the levels of SEB found at these
temperatures correspond to estimates of losses in the pack
ing houses during the summer months (8). Temperatures
as high as 50 - 55 C (122-131 F) are disastrous and will
cause the loss of nearly 100% of the fruit.
Table 3. Effect of temperature on incidence of SEB in freshly picked
limesz after heating 3 hr in constant temperature water bath.
Temperature
c F % SEB*
30 86 7.5
35 95 15.3
40 104 26.9
45 113 43.8
50 122 84.5
2All fruit harvested at approximately 8:00 a.m. daily.
yMean SE calculated from 3 samples of 50 limes each.
Thus far we have discussed three factors which can
contribute to the incidence of SEB; bruising, fruit size
(maturity), and field heat. The juice vesicle breakage result
ing from such factors must be taking place by two possible
mechanisms; 1) the vesicle membranes and cell walls are
becoming sufficiently weakened so that they cannot with
stand the existing turgor pressure, 2) the turgor pressure
and/or internal fruit pressure is building to a point
sufficient to break juice vesicles.
Mechanism 1 must be occurring to some extent in
maturing fruit for as maturity advances, as indicated by
increasing size (Table 2), so does the susceptibility of the
fruit to SEB. Thus, maturation of limes appear to involve
a process of vesicle membrane and cell wall weakening.
Mechanism 2 must also be taking place for the incidence
of SEB is more prevalent in limes picked in the morning
hours than in the afternoon hours (5, 11). This relation
ship coincides, of course, with the daily fluctuation of
high and low fruit turgor. Superimposed on a declining
ability of the fruit to withstand turgor with age are periods
during which turgor pressure and possibly additional in
ternal pressure caused by the swelling of fluid during
transient heat loads exceeds the ability of the fruit to hold
this pressure. If this supposition is true one should be able
to increase the internal pressure in the absence of heat
and induce symptoms of SEB or conversely reduce the
turgor pressure and reduce the level of SEB normally ob
tained with the heat treatment. We have, indeed, observed
such responses.
Water (5 ml) was injected with a syringe into fresh limes
through the stylar or stem ends. Care was taken to insert
the needle into the central axis of the fruit without damage
to juice sacs. Controls were limes into which the needle
was inserted but no water was injected. Within 24 hr at
room temperature all fruit that had the water injection
treatment had symptoms of SEB. The controls showed
none. Grierson and Pantastico (4) obtained similar results.
In another experiment the fruit turgor was reduced by
placing the limes in front of a fan, allowing water to
evaporate from the fruit for 24 hr. The rind oil release
pressure (RORP), a measure of fruit turgor, was determined
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89: 1976.
with a Magness-Taylor pressure tester (9) equipped with
a 3/8 inch head. The level of SEB in the low turgor limes
(greater than 10 lb RORP) after subsequent 3 hr incuba
tion at 42 C was approximately 1% compared to approxi
mately 30% in the high turgor fruit (approximately 4 lb
RORP). Further studies to determine the threshold level
of fruit turgor required for heat-induced SEB are now
being conducted, but the implications are clear. Vesicle
rupture, juice invasion of the rind, and the associated
symptoms of SEB require the driving force of turgor
pressure.
We have described observations and experiments which
indicate that SEB is caused by excessive turgor pressure
and heat stress associated with fruit maturity. Central to
the understanding of the cause and effect relationships is
the knowledge that SEB in limes is mediated by juice in
vasion of the rind. Control of the disorder is simple and
straightforward. The fruit should not be allowed to over
mature on the tree. Susceptibility to SEB is minimized in
harvested fruit with diameters 5 cm (2 in) or smaller
0.4 (Table 2). Larger limes should be harvested with certain
1.3 precautions.
3.9
Control of postharvest field heat is by far the most
7.8
2.5 important concern of the grower if he expects to lower
the losses to SEB. The temperature of the harvested fruit
should never exceed the level it had when picked from
the tree. Temperatures can be easily checked by insertion
of a thermometer into the fruit. If the fruit is picked in
the morning when it is cool and turgor pressure is high
then it is imperative that the fruit remain cool. Picking
when the turgor pressure is low and the fruit is soft
minimizes losses to SEB, although these fruit should also
be cooled. Sufficient cooling in the field may be accomplished
by continuously sprinkling the fruit with well water as
the pallet boxes are being filled. Well water is typically
about 23 C (75 F) which is adequate to keep the fruit
temperature well below 30 C (86 F). Even if hydro-
cooling is not feasible the pallet boxes should be placed
in the shade to avoid accumulation of heat. Once the fruit
is harvested, kept cool in the field, and delivered to the
packing house, care should still be taken to keep the fruit
in the shade. Limes arriving at the packing house with
RORP of greater than 10 pounds (usually those fruit
picked in late morning to late afternoon on sunny days)
and which were not allowed to overheat may be processed
immediately. The danger of loss to SEB during packing
and shipment is minimal. However, fruit with greater
turgor pressure (those picked in the morning of hot days)
should be temporarily stored until the RORP of the fruit
reaches greater than 10 pounds. SEB will occur even in
the shade until the turgor is reduced. One can effectively
shorten the storage time and the losses to SEB by placing
the fruit in an area with rapidly moving air. Depending
upon the velocity of air movement and the accessibility
'of this air to all the limes the storage time can be reduced
to 24 hr or less. The purpose is to remove, by evaporation
of water, approximately 4% of the fruit weight. A small
percentage of fruit will break down during this period.
However, when this water loss has been achieved further
development of SEB is avoided.
SEB in limes appears to be an inherent weakness in the
development of the fruit. This weakness of the juice
vesicles occurs to a lesser or greater extent in all limes
and increases with fruit maturity. The most susceptible
fruit will break down while attached to the tree while
other fruit seemingly survive the worst harvest maltreat
ment. The simple procedures outlined above have enabled
us to control the disorder and even store fruit at ambient
temperatures during the summer months without SEB
247
development. At present, we believe these same procedures
will work on a production scale.
Literature Cited
1. Camp, A. F. 1933. The production of limes in Florida. Proc. Fla.
State Hort. Soc. 46:115-120.
2. Campbell, C. W. 1975. Research on stylar end breakdown of
'Tahiti' lime. Proc. Trop. Region, Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 19: In
press.
3. Conover, R. A. 1950. Studies of stylar end rot of Tahiti limes.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 63:236-240.
4. Grierson, W. and E. B. Pantastico. 1967. Artificially induced stylar-
end breakdown of Persian limes. Proc. Trop. Region, Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 11:1-9.
5. , W. F. Wardowski, and G. J. Edwards. 1970. Postharvest
rind disorders of Persian limes. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 84:294-
298.
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89:248-249. 1976.
COMPARISON OF NATURAL FIELD INFESTATION VERSUS
LABORATORY INFESTABILITY OF 'MARSH1 WHITE
GRAPEFRUIT BY CARIBBEAN FRUIT FLY,
ANASTREPHA SUSPENSA (LOEW)
D. L. Von Windeguth, A. Arner, J. B. Owens and
A. K. Burditt, Jr.
13601 Old Cutler Rd.,
Subtropical Horticulture Research Station,
USDA, Agricultural Research Service,
Miami, FL 33158
Additional index words. Citrus paradisi.
Abstract. Grapefruit picked from a Fort Pierce grove over
a 6-month period were divided into 3 groups: 1) as picked
from the grove, 2) exposed to gravid females in the labora
tory colony for 24 hours within 2 days of picking from the
grove, and 3) held at 75F (24 C) for 2 weeks, then exposed
to gravid females for 24 hours. Although fruit flies were ob
served in the grove, no natural infestation was observed in
the fruit. Infestability of fruit when exposed to high popula
tions of females increased over the period of the study (No
vember-May). Holding fruit for 2 weeks before exposing it
to gravid females did not increase infestation rate.
Infestations of Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa
(Loew), have been found in citrus, usually in overripe fruit
on backyard trees (3). However, sporadic spring infestations
reported in grapefruit in Puerto Rico were found to result
primarily from movement of the flies into the citrus growing
areas and were not related to the attraction of mature
fruit (2). Moreover, such natural infestations averaged no
more than 8 fruit fly puparia/4 infested grapefruit. The
mean was 0.8 pupae/infested fruit. In previous studies, we
attempted to supplement the natural infestation in Florida
fruit by injecting eggs or placing fruit in cages containing
large numbers of flies (1). The levels of infestation we
achieved by these methods were higher in June than in
February. In 1975 we undertook to determine the extent
of the natural infestation of fruit flies in grapefruit in
the Fort Pierce area and also the susceptibility of such
fruit to induced infestation.
Materials and Methods
Eighty ripe hanging grapefruit were collected at random
each month from November 1975 through April 1976 from
248
6. Hatton, T. T., Jr. and W. F. Reeder. 1967. Effects of source and
handling on stylar-end breakdown in Persian limes. The Citrus In
dustry 48:23-24.
7. and . 1968. Stylar-end breakdown in Persian
limes influenced by temperature and bruising. Proc. Fla. State Hort.
Soc. 81:344-349.
8. Klotz, L. J. and H. S. Fawcett. 1948. Color handbook of citrus dis
eases. University of aClif. Press, Berkeley, p. 85-86.
9. Magness, J. R. and G. F. Taylor. 1925. An improved type of a
pressure tester for the determination of fruit maturity. U.S. Debt.
Agr. Circ. 350.
10. Pantastico, E. B. 1968. Postharvest physiology of fruits. II. Oleocel-
losis and stylar-end breakdown. The Philippine Agriculturist 51:
731-746.
11. , W. Grierson, and J. Soule. 1966. Peel injury and
rind color of Persian limes as affected by harvesting and handling
methods. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 79:338-343.
12. Pratt, R. M. 1958. Florida guide to citrus insects, diseases, and
nutritional disorders in color. Fla. Agr. Expt. Sta., Gainesville.
2 centrally located rows in a grove located at the University
of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture, Agricultural
Research Center (ARC), Fort Pierce, Florida. At the same
intervals about 20 fruit that had dropped to the ground
were collected from beneath the trees in these rows so
we could determine the rate of infestation in these fruit.
(Dropped fruit were not used to determine the rate of
infestation).
The picked fruit were divided into 10 groups of 8 fruit
each. Four groups (32) were exposed to caged gravid female
Anastrepha suspensa from the laboratory colony soon after
picking, another 4 (32) were held for 2 weeks at 75 F
(24C) before they were exposed, and 2 groups (16) were
held to determine the natural level of infestation. The
exposures (either immediate or after 2 weeks) were achieved
by placing a group of grapefruit in a colony cage con
taining ca. 18,000 female fruit flies that were at their
ovipositional peak (about 2 weeks old), and leaving it for
24 hours. Then each fruit was placed in a separate 1 gal
(3.79 1) wax tub with a cloth cover where it was suspended
on a wax cup stand over ca. 1 cm sifted and moistened
silica sand. Any larvae that emerged from the fruit fell
into the sand and pupated there. Pupae, if present, were
sieved out of the sand once a week for 6 weeks. Then the
fruit were dissected to check for remaining larvae or pupae
and discarded. Fruit were held at ca. 78F (26C) through
out the test since that temp is optimum for development
of larvae.
Fruit held to determine the natural infestation and
dropped fruit were held in the wax tubs in the same way as
the cage-infested fruit.
Results and Discussion
No larvae survived and pupated from the 96 tree-picked
and ca. 120 drop fruits held for natural infestation, though
trapping records indicated that flies were present in the
area. (There were some alternate hosts on the ARC grounds,
but none in the immediate vicinity of the trees used for
this study.)
Results of the artificial infestations are summarized in
Table 1. (These data were subjected to analysis of variance
(using log (x-fl) transformation) and Duncan's multiple
Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 89: 1976.