Instrument transformers

Instrument transformers are used for measurement and protective application,

together with equipment such as meters and relays. Their role in electrical systems is of
primary importance as they are a means of "stepping down" the current or voltage of a
system to measurable values, such as 5A or 1A in the case of a current transformers or
110V or 100V in the case of a voltage transformer. This offers the advantage that
measurement and protective equipment can be standardized on a few values of current
and voltage.

Voltage transformers
Principle of operation
Definitions
Standards
Tests
Typical Specifications

Principle of operation
The standards define a voltage transformer as one in which "the secondary voltage is
substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle
which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections."
This, in essence, means that the voltage transformer has to be as close as possible to
the "ideal" transformer. In an "ideal" transformer, the secondary voltage vector is exactly
opposite and equal to the primary voltage vector, when multiplied by the turns ratio.
In a "practical" transformer, errors are introduced because some current is drawn for the
magnetization of the core and because of drops in the primary and secondary windings
due to leakage reactance and winding resistance. One can thus talk of a voltage
error,which is the amount by which the voltage is less than the applied primary voltage
and the phase error, which is the phase angle by which the reversed secondary voltage
vector is displaced from the primary voltage vector.
Kappa designs its VT's so that the resistance and reactance drops are minimized. It
also uses the best grades of cold rolled grain oriented electrical steels which enables
operation at optimum levels of magnetic induction, thus reducing both the size and the
cost of the VT.

Definitions
Typical terms used for specifying a voltage transformer (VT)
a. Rated primary voltage: This is the rated voltage of the system whose voltage is
required to be stepped down for measurement and protective purposes.

b. Rated secondary voltage: This is the voltage at which the meters and
protective devices connected to the secondary circuit of the voltage transformer
operate.

c. Rated burden: This is the load in terms of volt-amperes (VA) posed by the
devices in the secondary circuit on the VT. This includes the burden imposed by
the connecting leads. The VT is required to be accurate at both the rated burden
and 25% of the rated burden.

d. Accuracy class required: The transformation errors that are permissible,

including voltage (ratio) error and phase angle error. Phase error is specified in
 minutes. Typical accuracy classes are Class 0.5, Class 1 and Class 3. Both
metering and protection classes of accuracy are specified. In a metering VT, the
VT is required to be within the specified errors from 80% to 120% of the rated
voltage. In a protection VT, the VT is required to be accurate from 5% upto the
rated voltage factor times the rated voltage.

e. Rated voltage factor: Depending on the system in which the VT is to be used,

the rated voltage factors to be specified are different. The table below is adopted
from Indian and International standards.

Temperature class of insulation: The permissible temperature rise over the specified
ambient temperature. Typically, classes E, B and F.

Residual voltage transformer (RVT): RVTs are used for residual earth fault protection
and for discharging capacitor banks. The secondary residual voltage winding is
connected in open delta. Under normal conditions of operation, there is no voltage
output across the residual voltage winding. When there is an earth fault, a voltage is
developed across the open delta winding which activates the relay. When using a three
phase RVT, the primary neutral should be earthed, as otherwise third harmonic voltages
will appear across the residual winding. 3 phase RVTs typically have 5 limb
construction.

Metering Units:11kV metering units consist of one 3 phase VT and 2 CT's connected
together in a single housing. This can be used for three phase monitoring of energy
parameters. It is used with trivector meters and energy meters.

Tests
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on VT s before they can meet
the standards specified above. The tests can be classified as:
a. Accuracy tests to determine whether the errors of the VT are within specified
limits

b. Dielectric insulation tests such as power frequency withstand voltage test on

primary and secondary windings for one minute, induced over-voltage test ,
impuse tests with 1.2u/50u wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage>=6.6
kV) to determine whether the discharge is below the specified limits.

c. Temperature rise tests

d. Short circuit tests
e. Verification of terminal markings and polarity

Rated time Method of connecting primary

winding in system
Continuous Between phases in any network
Between transformer star-point and earth in any network
Continuous
Between phase and earth in an effectively earthed neutral system
for 30 seconds
Continuous Between phase and earth in a non-effectively earthed neutral
for 30 seconds system with automatic fault tripping
Continuous Between phase and earth in an isolated neutral system
for 8 hours without automatic fault tripping or in a resonant earthed
system without automatic fault tripping
Standard Number Year
IS 3156 1992
BS 3841 1973
BS 7625 1993
BS 7729 1994
IEC 186 1987
AS 1243 1982
ANSI C.57.13 1978

Current transformers
Principle of operation
Definitions
Standards
Tests
Typical Specifications

Principle of operation
A current transformer is defined as "as an instrument transformer in which the
secondary current is substantially proportional to the primary current (under normal
conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately
zero for an appropriate direction of the connections." This highlights the accuracy
requirement of the current transformer but also important is the isolating function, which
means no matter what the system voltage the secondary circuit need be insulated only
for a low voltage.
The current transformer works on the principle of variable flux. In the "ideal" current
transformer, secondary current would be exactly equal (when multiplied by the turns
ratio) and opposite to the primary current. But, as in the voltage transformer, some of
the primary current or the primary ampere-turns is utilized for magnetizing the core, thus
leaving less than the actual primary ampere turns to be "transformed" into the
secondary ampere-turns. This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The
error is classified into two-the current or ratio error and the phase error.
Kappa CT s are designed to minimise the errors using the best quality electrical steels
for the core of the transformer. Both toroidal (round) and rectangular CT s are
manufactured.

Definitions

Rated primary current: The value of current which is to be transformed to a lower

value. In CT parlance, the "load" of the CT refers to the primary current.

Rated secondary current: The current in the secondary circuit and on which the
performance of the CT is based. Typical values of secondary current are 1 A or 5 A. In
the case of transformer differential protection, secondary currents of 1/ root 3 A and 5/
root 3 A are also specified.

Rated burden: The apparent power of the secondary circuit in Volt-amperes expressed
at the rated secondary current and at a specific power factor (0.8 for almost all
standards)

Accuracy class: In the case of metering CT s, accuracy class is typically, 0.2, 0.5, 1 or
3. This means that the errors have to be within the limits specified in the standards for
that particular accuracy class. The metering CT has to be accurate from 5% to 120% of
the rated primary current, at 25% and 100% of the rated burden at the specified power
factor. In the case of protection CT s, the CT s should pass both the ratio and phase
errors at the specified accuracy class, usually 5P or 10P, as well as composite error at
the accuracy limit factor of the CT.

Composite error: The rms value of the difference between the instantaneous primary
current and the instantaneous secondary current multiplied by the turns ratio, under
steady state conditions.

Accuracy limit factor: The value of primary current upto which the CT complies with
composite error requirements. This is typically 5, 10 or 15, which means that the
composite error of the CT has to be within specified limits at 5, 10 or 15 times the rated
primary current.

Short time rating: The value of primary current (in kA) that the CT should be able to
withstand both thermally and dynamically without damage to the windings, with the
secondary circuit being short-circuited. The time specified is usually 1 or 3 seconds.

Instrument security factor (factor of security): This typically takes a value of less
than 5 or less than 10 though it could be much higher if the ratio is very low. If the factor
of security of the CT is 5, it means that the composite error of the metering CT at 5
times the rated primary current is equal to or greater than 10%. This means that heavy
currents on the primary are not passed on to the secondary circuit and instruments are
therefore protected. In the case of double ratio CT's, FS is applicable for the lowest ratio
only.

Class PS/ X CT: In balance systems of protection, CT s with a high degree of similarity
in their characteristics are required. These requirements are met by Class PS (X) CT s.
Their performance is defined in terms of a knee-point voltage (KPV), the magnetizing
current (Imag) at the knee point voltage or 1/2 or 1/4 the knee-point voltage, and the
resistance of the CT secondary winding corrected to 75C. Accuracy is defined in terms
of the turns ratio.

Knee point voltage: That point on the magnetizing curve where an increase of 10% in
the flux density (voltage) causes an increase of 50% in the magnetizing force (current).

Summation CT: When the currents in a number of feeders need not be individually
metered but summated to a single meter or instrument, a summation current
transformer can be used. The summation CT consists of two or more primary windings
which are connected to the feeders to be summated, and a single secondary winding,
which feeds a current proportional to the summated primary current. A typical ratio
would be 5+5+5/ 5A, which means that three primary feeders of 5 are to be summated
to a single 5A meter.

Core balance CT (CBCT): The CBCT, also known as a zero sequence CT, is used for
earth leakage and earth fault protection. The concept is similar to the RVT. In the CBCT,
the three core cable or three single cores of a three phase system pass through the
inner diameter of the CT. When the system is fault free, no current flows in the
secondary of the CBCT. When there is an earth fault, the residual current (zero phase
sequence current) of the system flows through the secondary of the CBCT and this
operates the relay. In order to design the CBCT, the inner diameter of the CT, the relay
type, the relay setting and the primary operating current need to be furnished.
Interposing CT's (ICT's) : Interposing CT's are used when the ratio of transformation is
very high. It is also used to correct for phase displacement for differential protection of
transformers.

Tests
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on CT s before they can meet
the standards specified above. The tests can be classified as :
a. Accuracy tests to determine whether the errors of the CT are within specified
limits.
b. Dielectric insulation tests such as power frequency withstand voltage test on
primary and secondary windings for one minute, inter-turn insulation test at
power frequency voltage, impulse tests with 1.2u/50 wave, and partial discharge
tests (for voltage >=6.6kv) to determine whether the discharge is below the
specified limits.
c. Temperature rise tests.
d. Short time current tests.
e. Verification of terminal markings and polarity.
Kappa conducts routine tests on each and every CT produced and all designs are type
tested.

Typical specification for a 11 kV CT

System voltage:11 kV
Insulation level voltage (ILV) : 12/28/75 kV
Ratio: 200/1 - 1 - 0.577 A
Core 1: 1A, metering, 15 VA/class 1, ISF<10
Core 2: 1 A, protection, 15 VA/5P10
Core 3: 0.577 A, Class PS, KPV>= 150 V, Imag at Vk/2 <=30 mA, RCT at 75 C<=2
ohms
Short time rating:20 kA for 1 second

Metering or measurement current transformers

Accuracy - instrument security factor - accuracy requirements for various applications -
use of CT s in indicating and metering units - summation CT.

Protection CTs
Composite error - Accuracy limits - transient stability and class PS CTs - Basic
protection schemes - CT requirement for various protection schemes - CBCTs.

Further notes on current transformers

Transient performance - non conventional CTs - screening of CTs.
Voltage transformer - theory and specifications
Operating principles - difference between power transformer and VT - circle diagrams
and VT errors - three phase VTs - voltage transformer protection - transients in VTs -
construction of VT s. specifications for VTs.

Voltage transformers for measurement and protection

Measurement VTs protection VTs- Residual VTs - Cascade VTs - Capacitors VTs .

A discussion on partial discharge

Definition - partial discharge and breakdown in a cavity - study of partial discharges