Greek Morality - W. Jones

G RE E K M O RA L I TY
I N RE L ATION TO INSTITUTIO NS
A N E SSAY
BY
w . H . s .
J O N E S , M A . .
H
E
S L WYN CO E G ELL
A S S I ST A NT M A ST ER AT TH E PE SE SC OO
R H L , CA B
M R I DG E
L ON DON
BL A CK I E S ON ,
Li mited 5 0 O ld B ailey , ,
E C . .
Glasgow D ub l in and B ombay

, ,
1 906
PR E FA C E
G R E E K ethics has been studied b y g en erations of scholars ,
an d the broad outlin es are b y this ti m e fam iliar g rou nd .
P erhaps it is onl y i n d etails that o u r kn owled g e wi ll be

i n creased o r corrected . The case i s som ewhat d i ff erent
with Greek m orality . M an y writers o n the subject
p racticall y con ne thei r attention to the works o f
philosophers . B ut this m ethod o f proced u re will n ot
alway s g ive the accepted ideal s o f a n ation H ints of the
.
averag e moral level m ay be g l ea n ed from philosophi c

work s but they n eed supplementin g b y a careful stu d y o f
,
n o n p h i I OS O p h i c
-
l iteratu re. This has bee n d on e wi th
splendid d ili gence b y L S chmidt . I n an i ntrod u ctory
.
chapter he discusses with g reat acuteness the testim on y

o f Greek writers to Greek m orality and the su ppo sition s
,
whi ch m ust be g ran ted before an in qui ry i nto that

morality becomes possibl e I would add o n e word o f
.
warn in g . I t is e x tremel y d i i cu l t to form a correct idea

of a people s m oralit y from its l iteratu re A writer pre
.
S uppo ses i n his reader certai n k nowled g e s y m pathies an d

, ,
m od es of thou g ht and feelin g H ow eas y it is to be

.
deceived o n these poi nts is fam iliar to every visitor to

the Con tinent . M oreover we have n ow description s o f
,
forei g n ers b y au th ors o f di ff eren t nationalities Bu t there .
is no accou nt o f the Greeks b y an ou tsider u ntil R om an

v
3771 8 3
vi G R E E K M O R A L I TY
times H erodotus and X enophon who lived for som e

.
,
time o u t o f Greece furn ish u s with an approach to a ,
stran ger s d escription and ran k accordin g l y amon g o u r

,
most valuable authorities The onl y evidence outside .
literatu re proper is afforded b y the inscri ptions which are ,
very useful to the historian o f Greek reli g ion S o the .
historian of Greek moralit y m ust tak e his authorities both ,
philosophi c an d non philosophic an d n ot on l y p a y atten -

,
tion to their statements bu t a l s o try to i n fer the modes ,
of thou ght and feelin g the y i m pl y This i s a d i f cult .
task and one in which appro x im ate success onl y is

,
possible I ts j ustication is that there is n o other m ethod

.
o f proced u re .
I n the present essay I have tried to let the G reek

writers speak for them selves bu t the followin g m odern ,
authorities have been consulted .
A da m , ii
ed t ons of E u tky p /
z r o, A ol o y ,
p g G ran t, ed t on o f ii Ar i stotl e s E tki cs

.
C r i to, Pr otag or as , R ep u b l i c G if G rote H i s tory f

o Gr eece .
f or d L ectu r es a s re orted i n th e
p pres s . H i
arr s on Pr ol egomena to til e S tu dy
A rc h er H i nd , ed i ti ons of Pka edo, f

o Greek R el i gi on .
T i m aeu s . H o lm H i story f
o Gr eece .
B eck er Cka ri cl es .
J a cks on , i
ar t c es l i n th e E n cy cl o aedi a
p
Burnet, ed i ti on of i
A r s tot l
es E tk ics . B r i ta n n i ca and th e j ou r n a l f
o
J . B B u ry H i s tory
.
f
o Gr eece .
R . G B u ry,
. ed i ti on of Pki l eous.
J a n et H i s toi r e de l a S ci en ce Pol i ti q ue .
L . C a m pb e ll R el igi on in G r eek L l oyd A ge f

o Per i cl es .
Ma h a ff y S oci a l L if e i n Gr eece .
C ou l a nges L a C i te A n ti q u e . R ou s e Gr eek Voti v e Of er i ng s .
D echa rm e E u ri
p i de et

l E spr i t de s on L . h
S c mi dt E tk i k der a l ten Gr i ec/z en .
T /zedtr e
T r a di ti on s R el i gi eu ses T h om s on E u ri
p i des a nd tke A tti c
c kez l es Gr ecs .
D en i s H i stoi r e des Tkeor i es et des I dees

Verra ll E u ri i
p des tke R a tion a l i st
Fou r Pl ay s of E
'
11107 0 16 5 da n s l A n ti gu i te u ri
.
p i des .
D i ck i n s on T he Gr eek Vi ew f
o L if e . Z lle er H i s tory f
o Gr eek P/z i l os op lzy
E E G . . . Tke M a ker s f
o H el l a s .
( E ng .
G om p erz Gr eek Tki n ker s ( E ng .

P R E FA C E vii
R itter an d Prell er s H i s tori a P/zil os op k i a e Gr a eca e has

proved o f some help bu t nearl y al l the quotations cited i n

,
the notes are the res u l t o f a stud y o f Greek literatu re u nder

taken for the pu rpose o f the present essay I have quoted .
from the A ntkol og i a G r a eca for ele g iac fra g m ents and from ,
C hrist s edition in the c ase o f Pi ndar

Prof J ackson has . .
been followed f or the sequen ce o f the Platoni c d ialog u es .
I had hoped to add fairl y complete i nde x es o f passa g es

d ealin g with m oral que stions from all the p ri n cipal non
philoso phic authors L i mits of space compel m e to
.
an al yse onl y the three tra ged ian s who rep resen t a most
,
i m portan t period This book i s onl y a sketch n ot a

.
,
treatise M an y poin ts I m ust reserve u ntil I have an

.
oppo rtu nity o f p u blishin g all my i nd e x es ; but I t ru st

that I have selected vital prin ciples which thro w li g ht
upon the g eneral aspects of Greek m orality .
I have to than k P ro f J Welton M r H J W ol s ten

. .
, . . .
holm e M r H P Cooke an d M r F G Bland ford f o r

,
. . .
,
. . .
,
k ind help an d g eneral criticism s and M r L eonard , .
W h i b l ey for criticism s o f the secon d chapter .

CONT E NT S
PA G E
PR E FA C E v
CH A PTE R I . MO R A LI TY A N D R E LI G I O N
A PP END I X T o C H A P I .
3 2
N OT E S T o C H A P I .
3 6
I I M O R ALI TY
. IN SO CI ETY 47
NOT ES TO CH AP I I
.
73
III . MO R A LI TY I N TH E FA M ILY 83
N OT E S T O CH AP I I I
. 10 1
IV . PRI VATE M O R A LI T Y 10 7
N OT ES TO CH AP . IV 1 37
C O N CL US I O N
CH A R A C TE RI ST IC S OF G R EE K MO R A LI TY I 49
N OT ES ON X EN O P H O N A ND PL A T O 1 57
A PP END I X 1 59
A NA LYS E S OF D R A M AT I STS 1 65
I NDE X 1 83
ix
CH A PT ER I
D R E L I GI ON
06 00s i noiuevos el v a t K a r a v uov s 01566 2: m ln ror e 067 6 Email da es

el py da a r o K cuu 061 6 X 67 0 ai r d E l
'
p x ev di v a/1 0 V.
,
v 613 T L 1 6 / 7
2
p u b v r e a x , 8
an t '
7 061 0 61rep eI 1rov mi x yoz ) ) 6 m m 6 m m / O cb l rwy

i 6 pp tj w d
'
'
u e n 6 1 ! t c o v x

y os,
1 o z r e
p ,
T pir ov

et ma pa uvdr ovs l
e l/ a t ava l a ts Kai e

xa ts r a pa y evou v ovs .
P L AT O L a ws 885 B .

L H A I l L K J .
M OR A LI T Y A ND RE LI G I ON
I is in correct to lim it f reli g ion to cults an d ritual Greek

T

. T he
reli g ion i n clud es besides these formal ceremonies every re l i gi ous

, ,
i
s a nc t o n to

effort to apprehen d that power n ot ou rselves which , ,
m ora lity .
makes for ri g hteousness The reco g n ition o f this power

.

i s i mpli ed i n the com mon speech whi ch d esi g nated it ,
6 6 6 69 7 5 66 2022
, The m oral id eals O f a nation can never
.
be u nderstood u nl ess an e ff ort be m ade to see how they

are connected with reli g iou s belie f .
T h e fear and awe of d ivi ne power i n n ate i n the ,
hu m an heart will keep a m an i n the path of ord er an d

,
d isciplin e when other m otives are either m islead in g or

,
in eff ective The wil l o f God is on l y con ceivable as an

.
1
authority which cannot vary and from whi ch there i s n o ,
appeal But moral sanctions are essentiall y conservative

.
the reli g ious san ction is particularl y so I t con se rves .
what is g ood I t m a y also ten d to conserve blem ishes

.
and i mperfections H en ce cru de and barbarous moral

.
ideals when re g arded as the wi l l o f Heaven are em ended

, ,
with g reat di f cu lty an d som etimes on l y after a social or

,
po l itical revol ution I t m a y even happen that belief i n

.
reli g ion deca y s in con sequen ce .
I n the ear l y Greek poets the g od s reward the g ood R l i gi

e ou s
m a m
V eri l y

an d pu n ish the wicked say s t h e swineherd
.
,
a m on g

Eu maeu s the happy g ods love n ot wicked d eeds bu t
, ,
th e ea r y l
2 G w ek s
honour j ustice and t h e ri g h teous deeds o f m en The .

1 s
M O R A L I TY

6m g of
the g ods m an s reverence for them an d thei r
, ,
ven g ean ce when the divine laws Q p i a T es have been ,

'
,
3
broken is frequentl y mentioned i n the H omeri c poems
,
.
A mon g the g ods Z eus the father of g ods and men ruler
, , ,
in O l y mpu s and ru ler a mon g m en is S u preme and all ,
wise apparentl y on l y limited i n that he can not u n do the

,
4
past . H e is the g od o f t h e oath ; is an g ry at deceit ;
does n ot h el p liars h elps the su ppl iant an d defends the ,
l aws of hospita l ity I n particular he is the g uardian o f

.
Si m) a word which even i n H omer has besides i ts

, ,
n arrower m ean in g the wider o n e of fai r dealin g g ood

, ,
5
custom law and order d iscipline
,
H esiod presents u s
,
.
with a very S im ilar pictu re : accordin g to him a l s o the

eye of Z eus spies out wron g and pu nishes the sin ner
"
a gainst 851m The few fra g ments which s ti l l remain o f
.
A rchilochus S em o n i d es an d Solon with the poem s o f

, ,
T heog n i s prove that their con ception d id not m ateriall y

,
7
d i ff er from that o f H omer .
T h e go d s The eviden ce is in fact conclusive that the earl y

d o n ot ob ey
th e m oral Greeks considered the g ods especiall y Zeus to be the , ,
law .
g uard ians o f the moral l aw But they them selves are n o t .
boun d b y t h e law they enforce upon all men H ermes .

i nstru cted Autol ycus in deceit ; H elen s sin was cau sed
b y Aphrodite ; Zeus is the d ispenser of evil as well as

o f g ood ; he d eceives A g amem non b y a d ream ; he is
9
pitiless to men althou g h he hi m se l f d id be g et them
,
.
N evertheless men are more to blame than the g ods f o r

10
the woes which they endu re The H esiodi c Z eu s .

devises baleful cares for men an d lau g hs at the thou g ht ,
11
of the m isery he will cause T h eog n i s tells u s t h at a .
man does n ot become g ood o r bad without d ivine aid .
He can not u nderstand why Z eus should treat sinn ers and
t h e ri g hteous i n e x actl y the same wa y 12
I n brief t h e .
,
g ods m a y do evil and the fact has ,

be g un to perple x men
an d to requi re j ustication .
I t has become almost a com monplace to s a y that the

M O R A L I TY A N D R EL I G I O N 5
relation between a Greek and his g od was a sort of Do ut des

com mercial contract The weak spot Of Greek reli g ion
.
as o rthodo x y conceived it i n the fth century B C . . . G r ek

e
reh gl o n
i s do u t des The whole relation between man and the
.
'
g od s is o f the natu re of a contract The conception

.
is le g al n ot m oral n or spiritual ; i t has nothin g to d o

,
13
wi th what we cal l S i n and conscience N o w this .
com mercial view o f reli g ion certain l y e x isted but i t was ,
n ot the onl y V iew o f reli gion com mon a mon g the Greeks .
Pl a to i n the E u tkyp k i o g ives fou r other d e fi nitions of

piety b esides this I n earl y tim es at l east the d om inant
.
,
reli g ious thou g ht is the workin g o f an i nvisible j ustice in

the a ff airs o f m en Thi s idea has been am pl y ill ustrated
.
al read y an d be fore proceedin g I wil l g ive som e passa g es

,
bearin g upon the other aspect .
Phoen i x says to Achilles that the g od s m a y be

14
appe ased b y sacri ce an d p rayer Gifts persuade
.

g od s ,
sa y s H esiod I n Eu . ripides we n d the rem ark I t is ,
15
a proverb that g i fts persuade even g ods Yet S ocrates
.
declared ( and here I wou ld remark that sin ce the obj ect
of the M enzor a oil i a is to prove the orthodo x y o f S ocrates ,
a ny teachin g i n i t can not have been very Obno x ious to
the Athen ians) that sacri ce ou g ht to be accord in g to

one s means an d that the g ods are best pleased with
,
16
g ifts from the piou s The .fth d en ition o f piet y i n
E u tkyp k ro m akes it equivalent to emrop ue

This .
certain l y i mplies that the view was not u n com mon in

P lato s ti me Bu t it does n ot appear that it often
.
resu lted i n a read iness to com m it si n be cause it is easil y

atoned for b y sacri ce The on l y approach to this
.
attitude o f mind is to be fou n d i n the doin g s o f certain

d e g rad ed O rphi es who Plato tells us were read y to purg e
, ,
17
away the sins o f m en or cities Plato d istinctl y states
.
i n the L a ws that there were few who thou g ht that the

13
g od s could be bo u g ht o f f We have other eviden ce o f
.
the rarit y of the i m moral aspect of do u t des The whole .

6 G R E E K M O R A L I TY
of
the i nscriptions to Greek votive o ff erin g s down to
ton e
19
4 0 0 B C is utterl y opposed to i t
. . .
But to retu rn We have seen that the earl y Gr eeks

.
bel ieved i n g ods who san ctioned moralit y withou t bein g

themselves Subject to its laws A s was not u n natu ral .
they usuall y assi g n these attributes to the suprem e god

Z eus author o f the weal and woe o f human kin d who
, ,
rewards the ri g hteous and pu nishes the g uilty But .
alread y m en have be g u n to wonder why the u n ri g hteou s

som eti m es ourish while the j ust suff er .
Such I take to have been the Greek view down to the

m idd le o f the si x th cen tu ry B C But d urin g this centu ry
. .
occu rs the rise o f philosoph y an d of m ysti cism .
Ph l ph y
i os o The frag ments of the philosophers from Thales to
an d
re l igi n
o
Heraclitu
.
s contain little abou t the g ods and this little ,
throws doubt neither u pon thei r e x isten ce nor u pon thei r

20
cham pi onship o f m oral ity But n evertheless the g rowth
.
o f philosoph i nvolved a dan er to the national faith

y g .
The domin ion o f the g ods i f I m ay S O term it was , ,
g rad uall y l i mited N atu ral causes took

. the place o f a
rst cause S cepticism followed as a m atter of cou rse
.
,
thou g h we d o not meet i t u ntil the mid dle o f the fth

century .
P i ti o
ur ca B ut criticism was at work i n another d irection
n .
o f th d
e c ree
b y X no e
Du rin g the latter hal f o f the s i x th centu ry X en ophanes
ph a n es attacked H omer and H esiod for i m putin g i m moral ities
.
21
to the g od s The perception that the g ods ou ght n ot
.
to com m it sin resulted eventuall y i n scepticism bu t ,
scepticism was n ot a n ecessary consequen ce X enop h anes .
h i msel f formulated what m ay be called a creed to the ,
eff ect that there is o n e God g reatest amon g gods and ,
men g ood and not evil n either i n bod y n or i n m in d

, ,
resembli n g m en thin kin g throu g ho u t all his frame a n d

,
rulin g all thin g s b y his mind P y tha g oras who was a .

,
Pyth g a contemporary o f X enophan es and d eepl y in debted to the

o ra s
an d
iw o
O
a ts
rphi es tau ht his brotherhood that the sou l is i m mortal
g ,
p .
M O RAL I TY A N D R EL I G I O N 7
and p asses from bod y to b od y i n a series o f in carn ation s .
The souls o f men have been en cl osed b y the g od s i n

bod ies as in a tomb ; the d iv i ne i ntention i s that m en
shou ld free themselves from this tomb n ot b y self ,
destru ction bu t b y be com in g l ike u nto G od f

,
"2
The
doctrin es o f X enophanes an d P y thag oras are thu s

m utuall y complem entary God is g ood God i s
. .
not like ma n
M an m u st g row i n the likeness of
.
G od

. The H omeri c g od s were n ot su ch as m an ou g ht
to C op y .
I must here di g ress to s ay a few word s about

the m y steries an d the Greek views concern in g i m
m ortality .
O f O rp h is m an d the m y steries I have not m u ch to Or p hi sm
s a y both because o u r k n owled g e i s sli g ht and also b e

,
cau se th eir con n ection with morality was n either wid e n o r

23 24
close . Doubtl ess they had thei r d ark sid e I t is .
25
i n sisted upon b y P lato The i mportan ce o f O rphis m
.
for ou r pu rpose is th at b y holdin g o u t th e prospe ct o f

com m u nion with the d ivine n atu re it g ave m en the hope
o f sharin g the d ivi n e i m mortal it y I t bore fru it when .
purer conceptions o f the n atu re o f G o d had been reached

b y the more thou g htful m in ds o f Greece .
I m ust d ela y a littl e lon g er over the belief in i m T he
m ortali ty The view o f the earlier Gree k s has been wel l

26
.
grai ny
put b y Z eller That the dead still continue to have
. a m on g th e
G reek s
som e sort of e x istence was a curren t belief i n H om eri c
'
ti mes which contin ued more o r less throu g hout the

,
course o f Greek history B ut the e x istence was on e

.

which inspired fear rather than hope H ateful to m e .
27
as the g ates of H ades say s A chilles O ld m en remarks
, .
,
Cephalus i n Plato s R ep u oli c be g in to fear that the tales

about the n e x t world are true a l thou g h they have lau ghed ,
28
at them hitherto I n what sense then is the hope o f
.
, ,
i m mortalit y d ue to the O rphic m ysteries ? The li fe o f

th e dead was i n the popu lar view a shad ow y d ream li ke
, , ,
-

e x isten ce not worthy to be cal led life at all
, But the .
O rph i c s h el d that b y u nion with the deity m an shared

his i m mortality which was a life worth livin g
,
T o this .
hope we have references i n the H y mn to D emeter i n ,
29
H eraclitu s i n Pindar an d i n S O p hoc I es
,
The last
,
.
reference i s e x tremel y i nterestin g O n l y the in itiated .

,
says the p oet live ; others su ffer manifold woes i n the

,
n e x t world . I n a subsequ ent chapter I S hal l have to s ay

somethin g about the inuence an cestor worship e x ercised -
upon famil y reli g ion and the morality which g rew u p ,
u nder its sanction .
T ra n s . Tran smi g ration a qu ite distin ct id ea was probabl y

, ,
mi g ra ti on
O rphic also and from O rphis m fou nd its way i nto the
,
30
teachin g o f P y thag oras Pi nd ar say s that after three
.
lives in either world free from u n ri g hteousness the good ,
enj o y the l ife o f bliss i n the I sland s O f the Blest an ,
31
e x istence superior to the life i n H ad es The doctri ne .
o f transmi g ration was carefull y woven i nto his philosophic
s y stem b y Plato the on l y philosopher after P ytha goras

,
who mad e a ny real ethical use of it thou g h it was ,
accepted b y E mpedocles .
B y the end of the fth centu ry reli g ious d oubt ,
accentuated b y the d istress of the times robbed the ,
belief i n an after life of m ost o f i ts moral value

-
The .
fam ou s i nscription o n those wh o fell before Potidaea

( 3
4 2 The aether received their souls the earth ,
32
m a y perhaps be taken to i mpl y a belief i n

their bodies ,
ii
E ur p d es im m ortality With it m ay well be compared a remark of
.

o n e of the characters of Eu ripides The m ind of the .
dea th . d ead lives not ( i e the dead can not com m u nicate directl y
. .
with the livin g) but it has an i m m ortal in telli g en ce fallin g

, ,
33
i nto the i m mortal aether Bu t in the same poet we .
nd the cu rrent views clearl y reected These seem to .
have been
.I D eath m ay be l ife We ou ght to lam ent at births.
34
and rej oice at funerals .
M O R A L I TY A N D R E L I G I O N 9
35
2 .Death is ann ihilation .
36
3 .I t is a bl essin g i f death be an nihilation .
I t i s perhaps t y pical of cu rrent Opin ion that Anti s

then es lau g hed at an O rphic prie st who was enlarg in g ,
u pon the felicity o f the i nitiated i n another world an d ,
retorted W hy don t you die then ?

,
37
I ndependen t evidence is a f forded b y the sepulchral T h mon e u
m m e s
m onu ments D urin g the fou rt h cen tu ry their character
.
'
u nderg oes a chan g e such that it is i m possible to s ee

a ny reli g iou s m ean in g i n the desi g ns
38
in other words ,
the l i vi n g ceas ed to feel that the d ead had a ny real

con nection wi th them .
The epitaphs i n the A n thol ogy tel l the same tale I n T h pi . e e
the fth centu ry we nd a si mpl e noble acceptance of ,
death which stri kes every reader The famous epitaph o f .
39
S im onid es is a g oo d e x ample But after the fth .
centu ry comes a chan g e There occu rs mu ch m elan chol y

.
brood in g over death M en feel awe an d resi g nation

.
,
even i n the face of it bu t i t is the resi g n ation of d espai r

, ,
.
Yet the hu mbler fol k had som e belief i n an after

li fe
. I would l ay n o emphasis o u the d istress d ispl ayed
at d eath b y shipwreck The instin ctive wish to be buried
.
o n land mi g ht wel l survive even when its reli g iou s m ean
i ng had lost its vi rtu e j ust as the poo r n owad ay s desire

,
above all thin g s to have a d ecent o r even costl y fu neral .
But we have an epitaph b y L eon idas o f Tarentu m (ci r ca

2 7O who was a poor man leadin g a wanderin g l ife ,
n ear his n ative ci ty I n it a dead shepherd be g s his

.
fellows to honou r his tomb with oblations o f owers an d

m ilk and to let the sheep g raze hard b y to the mu sic of
,

pipes . There are there are returns for favou rs to the
,
4
d ead even am on g those who have perished
, .

I n brief the hope of som e sort O f e x isten ce after death S mm ry

,
u a .
was rarel y den ied but on the whole this e x isten ce was
,
l ooked forward to with despai r The m oral val ue o f the

.
belief was small I t neve rtheless someti mes made men

.
,
I O G R E E K M O R A L I TY
especiall y old m en u n eas y because o f the i nj ustice they

,
had com mitted D urin g the g reat period of Greek history

.
death was accepted with a noble resi g nation afterward s

sorrow and d read were the domin ant thou ghts with re g ard
to it O rphism introduced the idea o f transm i g ration ;
.
and especiall y i n the rst half o f the fth centu ry

, ,
i nspired hopes of a future e x istence which i n the case of , ,
nobl e minds had a deep moral si g ni can ce B ut this was

, .
the e x ception Ethics reects current beliefs and P lato

.
,
was the onl y philosopher who m ade real use o f the

doctrines o f i m morta l it y and transmi g ration An d Plato . ,
be it remembered is g enerall y opposed to the cu rren t

,
Opinion of his time Fu rther the d esire o f m y stic un ion

.
,
with the d ivin e nature was opposed to the Greek love

of moderation and fear of transcend in g hu man l im ita
tion s .
P hil o ophy
s X enophan es and P ytha goras were not strictl y speakin g , ,
d
an
l igi on philosophers an d it was phi l

,
osoph y which dealt the n ational
re .
reli g ion its d eath blow I t was not that philosoph y

-
.
d e nitel y attacked the popular faith f o r even Democritu s ,
41
ma y have taken part i n the customary reli g ious servi ces .
B ut the philosophers insisted with ever increasin g force ,

-
an d clearness u pon the u n iversal ity and x i ty o f n atu ral

,
l aw and u pon the su f cien c y of secondary causes to

,
e x plain the chan g es o f phenomena A n d i n attackin g .
o n e domain of the g ods the

y were preparin g the w a y for
an attack upon the gods themselves O ther factors were .
wantin g but they cam e at len g th i n the shape o f n ational

,
d istress and i ncreased d is g ust at the reli g iou s le g ends It .
wd vr a p t was the d octri ne n du m pet the law o f the u n iverse as

e .
,
form ulated b y H eraclitu s which bred a scepticism that ,
cal led i n question the e x istence o f the g od s an d the

val id it y o f the moral law .

Bu t for a ti me reli g ion kept a rm hold upon m en s
hearts The Greek world passed throu g h the tryin g
.
crisis of the Persian Wars an d emerged victorious from ,

M O R A L I TY A N D R E L I G I O N I I
the stru gg le There followed a peri od o f prosperou s

.
e x pansion for Athens at this tim e the centre o f the

,
i ntell ectu al life o f the n ation H ow far reli g ion steeled

.
'
the hearts of the Athen ians to ght the Persian s at

M arathon and Salam is and h ow far the won derful over
,
throw o f thei r en emies deepened thei r reli g ious fee lin g ,
i t is o f course i mpossible to determ ine What we d o .
k now is that it was a profou nd l y reli g ious a g e Pi ndar .

,
The
Aesch y lus an d S ophocl es have a d eep and si ncere

be lief in the g ods and their providen ce combin ed ,
G reece .
with the reverent d esire to clear awa y o r pass over i n

S ilen ce a ny l e g end that casts d iscredit upon them .
A esch ylus is im pressed with the workin g o f an i nvisible

'
j ustice i n the affairs of m en Sophoc l es sees i n the g ods

.
42
the g uard ians o f the g reat u nwritten laws of morality .
B u t the n ew reli g ious tenden c y e x hibited b y P y t h a g oras

rarel y ap p ears i n these p oets Thei r faith is the n ational
.
fai th
. H erodotus also the contem porary and friend o f
,
Sophocles thou g h n ot a particularl y devou t m an is i n

, ,
pe rfect accordance with traditional views H e believes i n .
a providence w hi ch i s envious an d won t to check arro g an ce

an d e x cess but he has n o trace o f the doctrine Of
,
43
duoi mm s .
But durin g the second hal f o f the fth cen tury cam e a R l igi n e o
chan g e the e x ten t of which m ay be esti mated b y the gf on

,
ng h e u
e O
p
d i s tres s m g d oubt every where apparent i n the play s o f i n n es a
w n a
Euripid es and b y t h e si g ni can t om ission o f d ivine
,
a g enc y from the pa g es of Thucy d ides A period o f .
prosperity was fol lowed b y a period o f troubl e The .
acquisition o f empire b y A t h en s h ad enlarg ed the ex p eri

e n c es o f her citi zens and presented comple x problem s f or
solution . At the sam e ti me she coul d on l y justify that

empire b y the theory that m i g ht i s ri g ht an d that H eaven ,
favou rs the side with better resou rces Then cam e the .
Pe l opon nesian War with its attend ant horrors o f party

stri fe an d pla gu e S avag e i nstin cts bequeathed b y remote
.
I 2 G R E E K M O RAL I TY
ancestors revived from their dorman t state to be g uided

b y i ntellects d eveloped b y an ad van ced civilisation M en .
ceased to bel ieve i n a p rovidence that allowed su ch

violation s of n atu ral j ustice Thuc ydides deplores the
.
44
d ecay o f faith and he is an authority su f cient to settle
,
the m atter withou t fu rther witness I n m om ents of

.
reaction proceed in g s f or i mpiety were set o n foot a g ainst

Pro sec u prominen t individ uals A law was passed du rin g the
.
ti on f o
s r
i mp i ty e
ascenden
.
c y of Pericles which threatened with i mpeach
men t whoever did not believe i n the g ods or tau g ht
astronom y an eloqu en t witn ess to the effect of natu ral
,
philosophy upon reli g ion Even thou g h the prosecution s

.
were sometimes mere prete x ts for attackin g obno x iou s

enem ies they prove that the public conscien ce was u neas y
, ,
and subj ect to sudden revul sion s of feelin g .
Th e The sophists were partl y responsible f or the growth of

s op hi t s s
45
par tly in del it y Prota
.
g oras e x pressed it i n what appears to
res po i b l
ns
have been a sort of professorial treatise and was e x pelled
e.
,
from Athen s for his pain s besides su ff erin g the indi g nity
,
of havin g his books publicl y bu rnt There is also on

.
record a sayin g of Pro d i c u s to the e ffect that men dei ed

46
the powers o f n ature that are helpful to hu m an life while ,
T h ras ym ac hu s d enied the e x istence of a d ivi ne providence

on the g roun d that the u nri g hteous a re often u n
47
pun ished . B ut on the whol e the sophists were n ot
Openl y at variance with the established reli g ion The .
above is al l that can be u rg ed i n proof o f S ophistic

u nbelie f .I t seem s likel y that the sophists fel l i n with
the mood o f thei r audien ce and ventu red on j ust as m uch
,
atheism as they saw was l ikel y to please it When it .
suited their convenience they were perfectl y orthodo x .
The real cause of scepticis m was the teachin g of the

philosophers operatin g d urin g a period o f nation al d is
,
tress and u n rest u pon a people whose intellectual li fe

had been widened b y i n creased e x perience b y the spread ,
o f d emocrac y and b y the rise of the Athenian empire

, .
M O R A L I TY A N D R E L I G I O N 1 3
O ne philosopher however m ust be n oticed i n passin g

, , ,
because o f his i n uen ce o n l ater philosophic reli gion .
This is Ana x a goras who tau g ht that M in d turned Chaos

,
i nto the Un iverse .
The attitude o f thinkin g people towards the nation al

faith is clearl y reected i n the play s o f Euripides ; an d
while the com mon people led b y conservatives lik e
,
A ristophanes who would have put n ew win e i nto o l d

,
bottles retain ed the form o f the o l d belief the doubts o f

, ,
the few leaven ed the i deas of the man y an d d estroy ed ,
m uch i f n ot al l of the m oral value they once possessed .
I t is d i fcu l t f or a man to n d m oral support i n reli g ion

when he sees that m ost o f the g reat thinkers o f his ti m e

have lost faith i n it even thou g h he m a y n ot have the i n
,
tel l i g enc e to appreciate thei r doubts The view o f E u ri pides

.
him se l f is probabl y that e x pressed i n H er Fu r 6 2 . .

,
48
No thin g o f the d ivi ne is c l ear to m en but it m atters
,
little what the poet thou g h t person all y for his characters
,
certai nl y e x press views which met with s y m pathy fro m

some at least amon g the audien ce Whereas P indar and
.
Aesch ylus had suppressed l eg end s that i mputed i m morality

to the g ods Eu ripides insists upon them an d d raws the , E ur i p id es
'
i
,
a tt tu d e to
conclusion that i f the g od s do evi l they are n o gods at all .
th e l eg en d s .
N o g od can be evil ; m ortals m ust not s ay that a g od

tempts to si n ; it i s m on strou s to suppose that the g ods
require from men a m oral ity to which t h ey d o n o t con form
themse l ves ; there are n o g od s at all the onl y g o d is
,
natu ral l aw o r perhaps the intel li g en ce of hu man bein g s

,
49
.
A more dan g erou s scepticism i s shown b y the tyran t C ri ti as

'
exp l an a ti or
C ri ti a s who was a l s o a poet an d com posed a d ram a called
,
50
o f re li gi on
S i sypku s. I n it he dec l ared the laws were i nvented to

check the violen ce which threatened the hu man race .
But law can on l y touch o ff en ces which com e to l i ght To .

deal with secret sin s som e clever m an i nvented t h e
m yth of the g od s who see an d k now all and d eal with
, ,
su ch crim es as escape the law o f the State N o t o nl y .

I 4 G R E E K M O R A L I TY
does this e x tract i l l ustrate the spirit o f t h e time but i t ,
shows b y i mplication h ow stron g the be l ief i n a d ivi n e

j ustice mu st have been an aspect of Greek reli g ion which
,
I hold was far m ore prom inent than that of do u t des .
I t is plain that the national faith had lost i ts hold

u pon thinkin g m en L et us see w h at this i mpl ies
. The .
chief san ction for moral cond uct n o lon g er inuen ced m en .
Utilit y trad ition and State authority were the on l y moral

, ,
supports And the d ecay o f reli g ion m eant d ecay of the

.
authority of the State w ith which belief i n the State reli g ion
,
51
was i n t h e closest con nection I t looked as thou g h m oral
.
anarch y mu st ensue H ow seriou s the crisis was m ay be

.
j ud ged from the fact that i t resu lted in the birth of

R i se of philosophic ethics the function of which has ever been to
,
f op h c
Eg
tf s
nd a n ew m oral san ction in place of those prin ciples of
,
action which the advan ce of hu m an i ntelli g en ce an d the

shock o f bitter e x periences have shown to be i nadequate .
Philosophy mu st heal the wou nd that philosophy had

i nicted .
R l i gi
e on But there is a bri ghter sid e to the question The old .
p u ried '
rel i g ion was dead but its death is a land mark i n the
,

pro g ress of thou ght I f gods e x ist they are not evil
. .

A n ew reli g ion arose o n this basis Fo r a time it cou ld .
appeal on l y to the philosophic few but it had a n oble task ,
in preparin g the wa y for Christian it y .
S ocra tes The rst attem pt to harmon ise the Old and the
n ew was mad e b y Socrates I n ti mes o f doubt it is .
of g reat service to locate the di f cu lt y to k now how ,
far k now l ed g e e x tend s and S O li m it the re gion of

,
uncertaint y S ocrates believed that m uch o f the dan g er

.
b ot h of m oral an arch y would d isappear i f the i ntel lect were

i ntel l ecmal
brou g ht to bear u pon m oral q uestions A ccu rate d en i .
tion s of vi rtues and vices woul d clear the g round and ,
m en would at least have a com m on basis upon which all

were a greed H is in qui ries led hi m to conclud e that
.
vi rtu e i s k nowl ed g e o f the g ood i n its variou s relations ,

M O R A L I TY AND RELIGI ON 1 5
an d that the g ood is simpl y that which is usefu l f o r m an s
well bein g
-
I n other word s the i d ea l s to which the
.
,
Greeks had risen throu gh centuries o f d evelopment were

iven a new support i ndependen t o f the d ivin e sanction
g .
52
S ocrates was t h e fou nder of utilitarian ism .
But whi l e he insisted u pon the u se of i ntelli g en ce and a nd

.
rel gous
blamed those who asked the g ods to d ecide what they '
53
cou ld d ecide for themselves Socrates was a sin cere
,
believer i n the e x istence o f d ivi n e powers Whether o r .

n o t he was orthodo x is an Open question H e at .
least advised men to worship after the m ann er o f thei r

-
cou ntry and followed his own advice

,
B u t that he was .
profoundl y reli g ious is n ot d enied even b y those who

have n o s y mpathy with reli g ion an d g rud g e a ny ad mission
55
O f its power for g o od The simpl e teleolo g y b y which
.
he proved the e x i sten ce of the g od s was n everthe l ess n ew

i n his d a y H ow stri kin g i t m ust have been then m a y
.
be u nderstood when we reect that even now m en of

powerfu l i ntellect are satis ed with proofs o f the divi ne
care which are n o m ore elaborate Socrates believed .
that the g ods care for m en know thei r words d eed s an d

, , ,
secret thou ghts are present everywhere an d make k nown

,
b y various mean s su ch as d ivination what it con cern s

, ,
56
m en to kno w Even the i nte l l ect which Socrates
.
,
valued so m uch as a g uid e to cond uct is a d ivi n e g ift , .
B ut this i ntellect althou g h it can d iscover g ood mean s

, ,
can n ot d iscover the suprem e g ood When pressed for an .
an swer S ocrates can on l y s ay that t h e hi g hest g ood for

,

m an is etm This i s an id entity which carries u s

n o further H e refuses to de n e the term g ood an d
.
,

S o c ra t es

S hows tem per to h is q u es ti o n ers f

8
But althou g h man is
t
i g norant the g od s k now

, H en ce when he p ray s a m an
.
,
should ask for g ood thin g s and leave it to the g od s to

decide what is g ood i n his own parti cular case 59
.
The g ods are not on l y the gu ardian s of men but thei r ,
law g ivers and rulers as well I f vi rt ue viewed from the

.
I 6 GR EE K M O RA L I TY
point of view of the a g en t be kn owled g e viewed ob j ec ,
ti v el y it is con formit y with law I f Buca tom imy be a oci a

.
,
60
T he TOO i xa t ov is T o vdui p ov And amon g the laws to which
.
Lag
v rl u e
o
m an owes obedien ce are certain u nwritten l aws d ecl ared ,
bindin g n ot b y m en bu t b y the g od s in frin g ement o f ,
which bri n g s without fail i ts appropriate pu n ishment .
61
Socrates m entions fou r of these l aws We m ust worship .
the g ods honou r parents avoid i ncest and repay ben e

, , ,
factors A n d that worship o f the g od s in cluded n ot ritual

.
onl y bu t the carry in g ou t o f thei r will m a y be i n ferred

from the fact that Socrates calls his O wn m ission a M T pei a
H e even says that he is a helper o f the g od that ,
is an i nstru ment b y which the d ivine will is accomplished

, .
The doctri ne o f d l LS had b y this tim e becom e

'

fam iliar to the Greek m ind u n ion with a d ivinity bei n g

,
the essential id ea of the m y steries Bu t i n the m ysteries .
i t had an emotional rat h er than an ethical i m port .
Socrates seem s to have been the rst to attem pt to

popu larise the P y thag orean doctrine The evidence is .
sli g ht but the Socratic teachin g certainl y held u p the

,
62
d ivine n atu re as a m odel fo r men to cop y .
T h e creed The creed o f Socrates seem s to have been

o f S ocra tes .
I . There are g ods .
2 . They care for m en .
3 . The y d eman d obedien ce to a moral code which m en ,
i nstinctivel y reco g nise althou g h they have n ot

embod ied it i n their statutes .
4 . They are g ood and m an should i mitate them

,
.
Socrates adhered to all that was g ood i n the national

faith At the same tim e he subm itted al l ethical ques
.
63
tions to the test o f reason To show that these two.
attitudes o f m ind were n ot onl y n o t in compatible but

even com plementary was to have d on e g ood service .
I t m ay occasion som e su rprise as it did even to ,
X enophon that du rin g an a g e when u nbelief was com mon

,
M O R A L I TY A N D R EL I G I O N 1 7
a trul y pious man was convicted o f i mpiety T h e con \V th as ere
i
.
d e m n a ti o n was not du e to a revival of reli g ious feelin g

l a rev va of
l i gi P .
re on
I t was due to the in stin ctive d read o f severin g the

national life from the i nstitutions of the past a d read ,
which spran g o u t o f the reaction from th e horrors o f the

Peloponn esian War and its attendan t m iseries T here .
was n o vital belief such as m ust have colou red the whole
l ives of men who cou ld s ym pathise with an Aesch y lus .
But i t becam e respectable to con form to the State reli g ion .
N o u nau thorised in nov ations were allowed 64

S ocrates .
was a c on form ist bu t it would be e a s y to persuade the

,

i gn orant portion of the dicastery that his d ivin e S i g n
was an O ff en ce a g ai nst the law P ossibl y this part o f the
.
charg e did n ot catch m an y votes Perhaps it was i n .
tended m erel y to supplement the accusation o f corruptin g

the y outh .
This outward con form it y con tinu ed down to the loss

o f Greek independen ce S o strikin g is it that som e have
.
supposed that a real revival o f reli g ious feelin g took

65
place . I t m a y be asked what reason s there are f o r
d en y in g this . I n the rst place custom s an d creeds
often remain as empt y forms an d are even i nsisted upon
,
b y public opinion without i nuencin g character to a n y

,
appreciable e x tent I n the secon d place the g radual

.
d isappearance of reli g ion from ethics i s ver y si g nican t .
B ut the best evidence inasm uch as it i s in dependen t Of E i d v en ce o f

,
philosophy and quite u n consciou s is g iven b y the i n t ti i i p ti ns cr on s

, ,
o vo ve
s c ri p ti o n s of votive off erin g s I t has recent l y been ff i g

.
o er n s .
proved that d urin g the fourth cen tu ry the tone o f these

i nscriptions g rad uall y ceases to be laudatory o f the g o d
and becomes an en comiu m u pon the g iver S tatues be g in .
to be h o nori c T h e victors i n the g ames n o lon g er make

.
thei r o ff erin g s from thankfulness o f heart but re gard them

66
as a means of sel f advertisemen t or g l o ri c a ti o n
-
.
I n the ey es o f Socrates at least the h al f o f life was

u nder the sway o f reli gion But his views do n ot seem
.
( 13 5 81 ) C
9 '
1 8 G R E E K M O R A L I TY
to have i n uenced a ny e x cept his i ntimate circle o f

friend s W hy the simple creed o f Socrates d id n ot wi n
.
its wa y into the hearts of his contemporaries is d i f cult

to e x p l ain The truth h owever seem s to be that while
.
, ,
the Greeks stil l feared the g ods or at least felt uneas y ,
and disi nclined to ne g lect d u e ceremon y they had lost ,
A ttit d t the spirit o f sacri ce and devotion

u e o The fou rt h centu ry
li gi o i was at Athens an a e o f culture and sel f developmen t
.
re n n
th g
-
.
th f e our
t y
c en ur Forei g n affairs did n ot loom so larg e as before but li fe
.
within the city itsel f was rich and full Part y stri fe .
67
disappeared M en be g an to love com fort an d ease
. .
Such a society wou l d n ot listen to a creed which set

service to God a b ove every other clai m an d e x tolled ,
contentment an d few wants as the n earest approach to a

d ivine life T h os e who fel t the reli g ious impulse took
.
refu g e in t h e forei g n worships which with the perm ission ,
68
of the State were established i n Athens and the Piraeus
, ,
doubtless in order to m in ister to the needs o f the man y

forei g n ers who dwel t i n o r visited Attica for t rade
purposes .
Th mi e O f the reli g iou s views of the mi nor Socratics we kn ow

n or
So ti
cra
very little
cs '
Probab l y the C y renaics were sceptics ; o ne

.

of them Theodorus was ni ckn am ed the atheist
,
An
, .
interestin g remark o f Antisthenes the fou nder o f the ,
C y nic S choo l is to the effect that [ca n t v ii/ mu there are

,

69
man y g ods I ca rcl (Mo w but o ne This is o n e o f the
,
'
.
-
.
rst de n ite e x p ressions o f the mon otheism which had

l on g been i m p l ied i n the popular use o f 6 6 6 69 7 5 ,
-
Pl ta o .
I t m ay be re garded as evidence of the reli g ious i n
d ifference o f the ti me that Plato i nsists S O stron g l y upon
the importance o f a tru e conception o f the g ods Perhaps .
the most attractive feature abou t P lato is the coura g eou s

wa y in which he upholds what is best in the ol d ideals ,
and refuses to g i ve them up even when the stru gg le seem s

hopeless Can phi losoph y p rove t h at n othin g e x ists ?
.
Granted rep l ies Plato s o far as this world is con cerned

, , ,
but i f n othin g e x ists o n earth this i s onl y a proof that

,
t h ere must be another world where e x isten ce is possible .
I n a si milar wa y perceivi n g clearl y that the ol d faith n o

,
lon g er controlled the hearts o f m en he y et refused to ,
abandon reli g ion an d proceeded to g ather to g ether al l

,
that was g ood i n the reli g iou s aspiration o f the past ,
includ in g O rphism an d t h e m y steries This n u cleus h e .
e x panded and shaped into con sisten cy b y t h e appli cation

of m etap h y sic an d log i c fon dl y hopin g that herein would
,
be fou nd an all s u fc i en t sanction for m oral condu ct

-
.
Plato f ou nd his escape from utilitarianism b y identify in g t d c on n ec e
n
the sou rce of morality with the sou rce o f e x isten ce his Eg a
ethics are the outcom e o f his ontolo gy; Al l thin g s are t l gy on o o .
g ood i n so far as the y are l ik e the idea o f the g ood ;

therefore to h i m that would be reall y g ood kn owled g e
, ,
70
o f the idea is i ndispensab l e

.
I g ive here a su m m ary o f Plato s theo l og y There is Pl t

. a o s

th I gy eO O
on e etern a l never chan g in g G od who is g ood n o t envious
,
-
, ,

as is g enerall y supposed a n d t h e sou rce of a l l the g ood

,
in the u n iverse thou g h not of the evil The eternal .
never c h an g in g ideas are aspects o f the d ivi n e nature

-
.
M an can attai n to a know l ed g e o f God since the ideas ,
are i m manen t in phen omena L ater Plato probabl y

.
,
held that onl y appro x im ation to this know l ed g e is

possible i nasmu ch as p h enomena are but i m itation s of
,
t h e ideas The hi g h est en d o f m an is to become l ike

.
God b y a careful cu l tivation of the d ivin e intelli g ence

withi n him whic h enab l es hi m to apprehend the ideas
, .
The soul which is eternal passes throu g h a series o f

, ,
incarn ations risin g o r fa l lin g i n t h e scale of e x istence i n

,
proportion to its success i n controllin g the bodil y desires

and i n developin g into pu re i ntelli g ence .
The theo l o g y o f P lato had l itt l e i n com mon with the

popular faith I ts sou rce is to be fou nd i n X enophan es
.
and P y thag oras rather than i n H omer an d H esiod The .
g ods o f the poets are severel y criticised in the R epu bl i c an d

t h e L a ws . But perhaps the m ost strikin g n ovelty in the

Platonic s ystem was his conception o f the relationship o f
man to God God is Truth and Beaut y an d so a health y
.
,
sou l m ust love him An d the word u sed b y P lato to

.
e x press this relation ship pwq is a very stron g word

,

, ,
71
denotin g senti mental and passion ate attachment .
Upon this reli g ion P lato bases his whole m oral code .
True vi rtue is the kn owled g e o f the g o od attainable onl y ,
b y a passionate d evotion to what is d ivine All other .
vi rtu e whether the resu lt o f utilitarianism or habituation

, ,
i s u nworth y of the nam e M en who g ht bravel y becau se

.
they are afraid of thei r com rad es reproaches are cou ra g eous

72
throu g h coward ice .
T ra n s The doctrine o f trans mi g ration helps to complete the

i
m g ra t i on
Platonic con ception of morality The u n ion o f soul and .
a nd
m ora l i ty . bod y lls the form er with passion s and fears which
hinder its search after God To reach the obj ect of his
.
sou l s desire a man m ust free himsel f from the bod y an d

73
g row accustomed to d y in g dail y I f he succeeds . hi s ,
sou l will retu rn at death to the re gion o f the id eas an d be

subj ect to n o more in carnations I f he fail he will sin k
.
at his n e x t birth to a lower g rad e in the ladder of li fe .
B ut it i s alway s i n his power to rise however low he m a y ,
have fallen .V irtue then brin g s its own reward an d vice

, , ,
a n atu ral an d in evitable pu n ishm ent Plato i s the onl y .
philosopher who uses the hope o f i m mortality va g uel y held ,
o u t to the Greek m in d b y the m ysteries as a practical ,
i ncen tive to virtu e L iteratu re does n ot g ive us a shred

.
of eviden ce that his teachin g was taken to heart but it ,
was a g reat g ain to have the idea clearly enu n ciated .
There it was for a n y to use to whom it appealed and in ,
Christian soil the seed bore frui t This is on e ou t of .
man y i n stan ces i n which Plato anticipates the conviction s

Of futu re a ges .
I n this ethical scheme al l sid es o f the hu m an m ind are

taken into accou nt ; reli g ion appeals to the i ntel lect the ,
M O R A L I TY A N D R EL I G I O N 2 1
moral sense an d the emotions

,
The i m pe rfections i n the
.
n ation al reli g ion are avoided ; the successfu l endeavou rs

of predecessors to attai n the truth are embo di ed But i t .
coul d appeal to philosophers on l y The com m on people .
would have n one of it an d n o o n e saw this m ore clearl y

,
than Plato him sel f N atu ral aptitud e an d a lon g cou rse
.
of d ialectic were n ecessary for the attain m en t of the

knowled g e of the g ood S o Plato ad m itted that there T w o t
. o s r s
f m o ue
m ust b e two kin ds o f virtue philosophi c and popular

, .

The philosopher is to stud y the absolute g ood and p ro ,
d uce an i mag e o f it i n the sou ls of his u nphilosophic

74
fellowmen . Pu ri ed m yths and utilitarian motives m ust
be the m ean s employ ed .
But this could on l y be achieved when rulers were

philosophers o f Plato s o wn wa y o f thi n kin g and he never

saw his ideal realised So i n his Old a ge the philosopher

.
tried to n d a basis for morality which S hould be in de

pend ent O f the theory o f ideas althou g h the theory was ,
doubt l ess as dear as ever to his heart .
When Plato wrote the R ep u b li c he re garded vi rtue as R i i f ev s on o
k now l ed g e knowled g e o f the id eas

Bu t i n cou rse o f .
ti m e he revised his theory an d despaired o f knowin g the ,
ideas bein g conten t perforce with an appro x i mate

,
kn owled g e attainable b y a l aboriou s stud y of n atu ral

75
kind s . H e was also compelled to aban don ideas of
vi rtues and vi ces H ence arose the n ecessity o f a revised
.
ethical theory Not that he g ave u p his form er theory

.
,
but h e fou nd that it could not be worked The problem .
was to discover a OedT epos WA O OS V irtue in the L a ws is

.
76
still a g rowin g like God but Pl ato b y this tim e saw n o C
, q nt on s e u e
f
m ean s o f attain in g to a knowled g e o f God e x cept b y O
patient dedu ction from the m oral ideas o f the wisest m en th y eor .
77
an d b y d ivination Thus whereas i n the R ep u bl i c he
.
,
had ne g lected detailed le g islation i n the L a ws the ,
g reatest care is taken to n d o u t the best enactm en ts

that the wit of man has discovered a n d to frame them
i n to a consistent pol ity P lato still believed that no

.
78
m an i s evil volu ntaril y Bu t i n cou rse o f ti me he came
.
to believe that the e x istence o f the wi ll ( Bobk na os )

m ust also be accounted for and he does so b y d eclarin g ,
.
that the g reatest i g norance is to hate that which appears

79
g ood and to love that which appears bad while wisdom ,
(p v nd t9 rather than q )
a o bt a is a harmon y of natu ra l
80
l ikes and d islikes with reason .
81
B y research the few le g islators 6 5 20 5 T w es may
, ,
appro x i mate to a k nowled g e o f the d ivin e will The .
citizens are to obey the laws i mposed b y the rulers n o t ,
m echanicall y but b y bein g convi nced of thei r utilit y and

,
necessity H en ce the preambles to the variou s enactm ents

.
R l ig i
e on in d etailed in the L a ws Bu t the chief i mpulse to ri g ht
.
th e L aw
cond uct is certainl y the reli g iou s Plato is carefu l to.
p rove ( I ) the e x istence Of the g ods ; ( 2 ) their care for

82
men ; ( 3 ) thei r assertion of the m oral law R e l i g ious .
Observan ces are to be the chief occupation of the citizen s

83
throu g hout their l ives A sin a g ainst the l aws i s a sin
.
84
a g ain st the g ods Atheis m an d false n otions about the
.
g ods are the sou rce of all wicked ness R eli g ion is to be
.
public ; p rivate reli g ions are forbid den The law must .
be chan ged onl y with the consent of rulers of the people , ,
an d of the gods as e x pressed b y the oracle

, O n l y the .
g ood can please God Al l the

. n ational reli g ious i mpu lses
are enlisted i n the service o f m orality D aem ons and .
heroes are to be reveren ced an d p ra y ers Off ered to them ,
85
for they are ou r helpers and we are their property .
Wh at The i mportan ce attached b y P lato to the oracle is very

stri kin g Taken with the wa y i n which he i n cludes as
.
i m p l i es . m u ch o f the n ational faith as he consistentl y can i n his

ethical schem e it certai nl y si g nies that he had been
,
forced b y bitter e x perience to the con clusion that the

popular reli g ion puri ed b y a knowled g e o f God s wil l
,

which the leg islators acqui re b y careful observation an d

reason was the onl y basis of m oralit y possible at the
,
86
ti me . This I take to be stron g evidence that rel i g ious
faith was rapid l y decay in g d uri n g the l atter years o f

Plato s life The other evidence that can be brou g ht
.
for ward is the wi tness of votive i nscriptions g iven above ,
and the tone o f the referen ces to reli g ion in the orators R li g i n i 87
. e o n
With the f ewest e x ceptions these e x press n ot reli g ious ,
d evotion but a lan gu id acqu iescence i n a conventiona l ti al

,
on .
beli e f A m an m ay d eem it ri g ht to s ay a g race before

.
his m eals without i n th e least i n creasin g his than k fu l ness

for God s g ifts S uch is the spirit d isplay ed i n the orators
.
,
and Plato was convinced that society needed to have it

replaced b y deep and sin cere reli g ious feelin g Bu t if .
reli g ion provides the san ction for ri ght condu ct it is ethical ,
stud y founded on rational observation with occasional

, ,
appeals to the oracle that m ust discover what this ri g ht ,
condu ct is Herein Plato shows himsel f a true Socratic

.
,
and does n ot essen ti all y d i ffer from his master B ut .

P lato s pupil Aristotle was les s Opposed to the spirit o f

the a g e perhaps becau se he saw the failu re of his teacher s
,
ethica l endeavours an d made ethics i ndepe nden t of ,
reli g iou s san ction I n doin g so he was n o doubt i n

.
u en c ed b y his anal yt ic turn o f m ind which favou red the ,
d ivision of k nowled g e i nto separated g roups .
B ut before tu rn in g to Aristotl e it is n ecessary to touch

upon a very di f cult point of P latonic theolo gy In a .
p assag e o f the L a w s Plato speaks o f an evi l world sou l T h i l

88 -
. e ev
89 w ld w or s
This say s Zeller con tradicts the spirit o f his whole
'
'
, ,
theory I t is i mpossible to reg ard the word s Of Plato

.
as sim pl y metaphorical The y are far too d en ite and

.
precise Without attemptin g a solution I would poi nt

.
out that Plato u ses the word pvx n ot v os o r 6 6 69 ,

.
H e does n ot therefore mean n ecessari l y a person al

90
devil . I n the I ntroduction to his edition o f the Pka edo
M r Archer H ind discusses various p assa g es o f the
.
-
Pk i l eb us T i m a eu s Pka edr u s
,
and Pka edo which are
, ,
concerned wi th the n atu re o f soul ( w v

x) The d i f cul ty .
is this I n the Pk i l eb u s passions are attributed to sou l

.
,
in the Pha edo to the bod y I n the Pk a edr u s and Pha edo
.
al l s ou l is im mortal I n the Ti m a eu s Plato talks o f

.
m ortal soul M r Archer H i nd su m marises his ar g u

.

.
-
men t thus All sou l is sim ple un iform and i n des tru c , ,
tible ; bu t in con nection with bod y it assum es certai n

phases which are temporary an d e x ist onl y i n relation to
91

bod y . I bel ieve that a sim ilar line of arg u ment hold s
g ood i n the case of the evil world sou l S o u l in con -
.
j u nction with m atter ad m its o f modes of e x istence whi ch

are evil Evil i mpulses d ue to the conj un ction o f sou l
.
,
and bod y arise i n man ; why n ot i n the world ? The

,
Platon ic view o f evil seem s to have chan g ed twice First .

,
evil is d ue to the id eas of evil ; then it is a fallin g away

from the perfect archet y pe inseparable from plu ralisation

l astl y it is a n ecessary mode o f sou l s e x isten ce when sou l
and bod y are conj oi ned T h e d ifferen ce between the
.
secon d an d third views i s that i n the former evil is ne g ative ,
in the latter positive This chan g e i s of g reat ethical

.
si g n i can ce I t shows a d eepen in g of the sen se o f sin

. .
The l ife o f m an is n ot merel y deve l opm ent but a stru g g le ,
a g ain st an evil power .
I n ethical i nquiries Plato was alwa y s careful to m ake

it clear that althou g h the end of hu m an action is
well bein g it l ies i n t h e apprehension of the d ivine n atu re
-
,
rather t h an i n happiness as ord in aril y con ceived V i rtue .

,
indeed brin gs well bein g with it but it must have its

,
-
,
source i n philosophic knowled g e o f the ideas Utilitarian .
moral ity he treated with scorn ad mittin g its n ecessity , ,
but protestin g a gain st it at the same tim e H ence the .
inu ence o f Plato i n C hristian times H ence also the .
small i nuence his ethical speculatio n appears to have

e x ercised upon his contem poraries Perhaps it was .
becau se Aristotle saw this that he adapted his teachin g

more to the feel in g s of hi s audien ce H e alwa ys attached .
a hi gh valu e to v Boga received Opinion s

,
Be this as it .
M O R A L I TY A N D R E L I G I O N
2 5
m ay Aristotle viewed cond uct i n the li ght o f its i nuen ce Ari totl
,
s e
upon hu m an happiness H appi ness is harmoniou s develop f gz

g
s
an d
.
men t of a m an s powers i n a su itable environ ment and thi

,
e cs .
this development he shows can onl y be attained b y the

, ,
practice o f vi rtu e .
I n the Pol i ti cs reli g ious i nstitution s are assu med as

92
a matter o f cou rse but n either i n the Pol i ti cs nor i n the

,
E tk i cs is reli g ion made a moral san ction Yet sin ce God is .

,
thou ght thinkin g its el f ( em w 7} mind Ls Pa tio ems vna i s) 93

'
- - -
,
m an ou g ht havin g the d ivin e intelli g ence within him to

, ,
aspire after the d i vine li fe an d to partak e of i m mortality ,
94
so far as in hi m lies H en ce the philosop hi c life i s the
.
b est God attracts the un iverse to hi msel f e w ei c529

.
,
o f duo i wa l q is the onl y con n ection

95
p
e a i uev ov .This version
between A ristotel ian ethics an d theolo gy The m otives .
96
o f condu ct are strictl y ethical an d not reli g iou s In .
Aristotle there is no hope o f i m mo rtality an d consequentl y H d e ,

e o s
$ 3
6
3
1
a futu re l ife can not be mad e an ethical en d M oreover .
,
the conception o f P rovid en ce nd s n o place i n t li ty a or
97 v d en ce'
Aristotle ,
althou g h the g od s care for men i n a g en eral
way . N ot that Aristotl e i s averse to reli g ion The m an .
who doubts whether he ou g ht to love the g od s he compares

to on e who doubts whether he ou g ht to love his parents ,
98
or whether snow is white The cu rren t opinion that .
there are g od s i s true bu t the le g ends o we their ori g i n

,
to t h ei r u ti l ita ri an value Z el ler well su m s u p the atti

.
tude o f Aristotle i n the followi n g word s 99

A ristotle s
philosophy thus stan ds in the loosest rel ation to positive

re l i g ion . I t takes advanta g e o f its ideas as lin ks of
literary connection but m akes n o fu rther use o f them
,
.
J ust as little however does it desire to see reli g ion

, ,
pu ried or reformed o n the contrary i t seems to accept ,
its i mperfection s as somethin g which cou ld not possibl y

be otherwise Each stands to the other i n an attitud e o f
.
essential i ndi fference ; phi losoph y g oes its own way with ,
out much troublin g itself about reli g ion o r fearin g from ,

it a ny i nterruption i n the prosecutio n of its own

work .
Air s tot e s l
The earlier successors of Aristotle seem to have followed
s u c c es s ors '
closel y in his footsteps But E u dem u s i nsisted u pon the

.
connection between human action and the divine even ,

,
d eclarin g that God g ives some men a n atu ral i nclination

to vi rtue and that G o d is the ulti mate source o f al l
,
morality D i c aea rc h u s refused to believe i n i m mortal ity

.
,
and Strato violentl y opposed the arg u ments o f the Pha edo .
Perhaps one m ay see here Stoic and Epicurean inu en ces .
100
I n the L a ws P lato mentions a belief i n the g ods
combined with a denial o f their interference in the a f fairs
of men H e add s that it was n ot shared b y m an y
. This .
Ep i c u ru s . is e x actl y the reli g iou s view of E picu rus The sa yin g .
that m an is the inventor of his own g ods is certain l y true

o f this thinker H is ph ysical theory combin ed with a
.
,
natural desire to accoun t for the u niversal belief of m en ,
1 01
requ ired hi m to believe i n anthropomorphic d eities .
B ut he took as his ethical end dT a pa f i a 102

a freedom from ,
all distress of m ind N o w it i s o f the essence of reli g ion

.
that i t requires certain duties to be performed the om ission ,
of which brin g s pu nishm ent R eli g ion e x ercises d iscipline

.
,
and d iscipline i s i nseparable from m ental tension and a

certai n deg ree Of awe H ence Epicu rus while assi g n in g
.
,
the usual attributes of i m mortality and happiness to his

g od s,
denied that the y i nterested themselves i n hu man
a ffairs Su ch a bel ief he in sisted was true piety
.
,
The
, .
com m on faith was productive of m uch cru elty fear and ,
103
misery O nl y o ne thin g could be worse than the u sual
.
104
reli g ious bel ief n amel y a belief in fate
, , .
Wh at h is I S hal l leave this doctri ne with a brief sum mary o f

what it i mplies The fact that the Epicurean S chool was
.
popular proves that m en were weary o f the stru gg l e in

the world between good and evil an d preferred to retreat ,
from active life and shut thei r eyes to all that could
distress them The denial of a ny relations between m en
.

M O R A L I TY A N D R EL IGION 27
an d g od s was not alto g ether an unhealth y si g n It .
arg ues dis g ust with the e x istin g reli gious beliefs an d I ,
have g iven several ind ications that those beliefs were

reall y d is gu stin g S cepticism is to be preferred to
.
superstition O ne more proof o f the d e g rad ed state o f

.
105
reli g ion shall be g iven here We nd quoted i n Athen aeu s .
an ode i n honou r of D emetrius written on his retu rn , Dur i s

from L eu cas and Corcy ra I n it the g ods are d ispara ged . .
af m r s .
They either are not or they care not for u s Thou art
,.
.

ou r g od . P erhaps t h e troublous ti mes that followed
the death o f A le x ander had somethin g to d o with the
Epicurean den ial o f a providen ce D isaster and sorrow .
l ead m an y m en to den y that the g od s they have served

e x is t at all o r at a ny rate that they i nterfere with the
,
affai rs o f this world .
The Stoics instead of d en y i n g the tru th o f reli g ion

, ,
T h e S to i cs .
tried to reform i t While the Epicu rean d iscarded re

l i g i o n for the harm i t did the S toic accepted it for the ,
blessin g s it could bestow Their theology was lofty an d .
pu re an d had m uch i n com mon with that of Plato

,
The . R l i gi
e on
Stoi cs believed i n on e G o d whose various aspects were ,
m ind fate Zeus etc

, ,
H e is i m mortal perfect and h app y
,
.
, ,
on c e m ore
u n ted
an d e x ercises providen ce over the world H e i s n ot
'
1 06
a n th rO p o m o rp hi c Every sin is an impiety toward s God
. .
The y rej ected the popular le gends but alle g orised them ,
for pu rpo ses o f popular i nstru ction Thes e leg ends they .
,
thou g ht proved the e x istence o f God and form ed a barrier

,
1 07
a gainst violent passions I n a sim ilar accord an ce with .
popular be lief they held that daem on s bound b y a bond

, ,
of s y mpathy kept watch over the a ffairs of m en

,
They .
had n o hope o f i m morta l ity althou g h they believed ,
108
that in som e cas es the soul su rvived the bod y .
The end of m an said the Stoics is to live i n accordan ce

, ,
d
with natu re H ere is duoi wa t c i n an other form and the ,
Stoic G od is worth y o f i mitation H e is g ood ; evi l .
1 10
resu lts from the fool ishn ess o f m en .
2 8 G R E E K M O RA L I TY
N ew The Stoic reli g ion tou ched m orality at yet another

poin t The h y m n o f Cleanthes i s a son g not of prayer
.
,
on l y but of praise
,
The g reatest privi le g e of m en and o f
.
g ods sa
, y s the psal m ist is to praise
,
God I t is a com mon .
place that this attitud e o f m ind puri es the sou l raises ,
the worshipper above the t h in g s o f this world and prepares ,
hi m to do his dut y with m an l iness an d conten t I t is .
virtuall y equivalent to a reli g iou s san ction of m oralit y .
The popularity o f the Stoic school proves that i n spite o f

the superstition and ind i fference o f the ti me there was a ,
con sid erable n u mber o f reli gious men .
S u mm a ry . The above d iscussion has shown that the earl y Greeks

had a reli g iou s faith which was a san ction o f m orality .
The y were also heirs to certai n poetic leg ends pu rportin g

to describe the l ife o f the g ods These le gends ascribed
.
to the g ods acts which the developm en t o f m orality

( a ) R el igi on cond emned At the ti m e when this inconsisten cy was
.
perceived arose the idea o f duoi mm q and the hope o f

i m m ortal ity it i m pl ied A ccord in g l y noble m inds tried
.
to pu rify the le g end s ; but the fau lt was i nherent and ,
to gether with philosoph y which e x plained phenomen a b y

,
natu ral causes produ ced at the ti me of the d isastrou s

,
P e l opon nesian War scepticis m with re g ard to the le g endar y

tales and n all y doubts of the e x istence o f the g od s
,
.
But the State ritual continued and the u n intelli g ent s till
,
possessed a l an g u id belief but a belief robbed of its

,

content the l ivel y realities of the le g ends
,
A fter .
Sophocles we n d n o lofty d iscussion o f m oral problem s

based u pon the n ation al sa gas So the reli g ious i mpulse
.
,
ever i mperious in its d emand s foun d satisfaction i n the ,
case of the less i ntellectual i n debasin g superstitions .
But morality had lost the san ction o f reli g ion I t was .
at this poin t that ethics arose strivin g to g ive a n ew ,
san ction to moral it y and em phasisin g the happi ness that

,
ri g ht cond u ct brin g s with it .
The followin g tabl e g ives i n brief what I have tried

to S how i n the precedin g pa ges
M O R A L I TY A N D R E L I G I O N

29
s

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R m 3
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c
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3 o G R E E K M O R A L I TY
I would l ay stress upon the fol l owi n g points :
( b ) T he I A ll philosophers from Socrates to the Stoics believed

.
p hl lo
s op h ers .
i n t h e e x istence of deities .
2 Declarin g wi th the e xc eption o f Epicu ru s an d

.
, ,
possibl y Socrates that G o d is o n e they d id n ot , ,
d en y the e x istence o f subordinate d ivi n ities .
There is scarcel y a hint that monotheis m was

thou g ht n ecessary for m oral ity .
3 Non
. e believed in the u nworth y le g end s bu t some of ,
the most m orall y earnest wished to retain the m i n

a puri ed form for purposes of popu lar instru ction .
4 O n l y Plato believed i n i m mortality and conn ected

.
,
t h at bel ief with m orals .
5 Those
. who retai ned the le g ends as a basis of
popular i nstruction tau g ht the doctri ne of (Sp otted Ls -
and a l so m ade use of the reli g iou s san ction as wel l

as o f the utilitarian .
6 Socrates felt pwq toward s n oble souls and Plato

.
,
his pupil to w h om reli g ion an d philosophy were

,
o n e conceived of wg as the ideal relation between

, p
man an d God A ristotle believes that God moves
.

the world as a loved obj ect inspires m ovem en t .

The n otion was phi l osophic on l y As a rule the .
relation o f man to the g od s was n ot a sen ti m ental

111
one .
I mp li ca I t m ay
be in ferred that amon g the com m on peopl e
i
t on s f ro m
belief in the g ods d id not d ie o u t But this belief was
th e tea c h .
in g of robbed o f its content The le gend s had fallen i n to

hil
.
th e p o
sop h ers .
discredit E x purg ation and alle g ory were tried bu t are
.
,
suicidal R ecollectin g that A ristotle reects the g eneral

.
opin ion of his ti me while P lato is usuall y opposed to it

, ,
we shall assu me t h at philosoph y with its d octrine o f

natu ral causes had al most destroy ed the belief i n a
providence There was n o i nspirin g hope O f a futu re l ife
. .
M O R A L I TY A ND RELIG I ON 3 I
M en d id ri g ht throu g h custom o r throu g h fear o f pun ish

,
men t u nhappin ess or dishonou r i n this world

, .
The evidence from n o n philosophic sources bears ou t

-
these con clusion s at every poin t .
The work of ethics was to S upport m oral ity when the Ethi cs a n d
reli g iou s sanction failed . I n the followin g pag es I hope li gi

re on
to S h ow t h at i t did so i n a very e ffi cient man ner . It

po inted o u t to the m ore inte ll ectual that there were other
reason s besides the reli g ious why m en should be m oral .
The e x ample o f those who studied et h ics presu mab l y the

,
m ost hi g hl y g ifted an d intellectual prevented comp l ete

,
moral d eca y bu t n ot withou t a loss o f the d evotional

,
insti nct. Nevert h e l ess som e phi l osophers were convin ced
,
t h at reli g ion was necessary to en force g ood cond uct for ,
neither a n ation nor a m an can conti nu e to su cceed

wit h ou t devotion . I n cou rse of tim e this Platonic and
Stoi c view triu mp h ed at the birth o f Christianity but ,
to o late to save the Greek n ation I t was g ood that

.
the i mperfect reli g ion o f H ellas should be abandoned but ,
ou r g ai n was loss for the Greeks .The y perished that

we mi g ht l ive .
A P P E N D I X T O C H A P TE R I
I A PP EN D a f ew pas s age s f ro m t h e c om ic poets wh ic h b ea r upo n

t h e attitude o f t h e A th e n ia n s to wa rd s re l i gio n du ri ng t h e c l osi ng
y e a rs of th e fourth ce ntury .
So meti m e s u n b el i ef or i ndi fferen ce is a pparent .
87 Eydi
'
o y dp w 96 6v

T p eqbo v

70 K tv
T p .
M EN A N D ER a
p u d S T O B Fl . . l v i g3
. .
I A A
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M ENANDE R ap u d S TO B . Fl . xxx ii .
7 .
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M EN A N D E R a
p ud S T O B Ft . . xc i . 29 .
B e l ieve i n an d wors h i p G od, b ut in quire n ot i nto H i s n a tu re

.
T h i s i mp l ie s b el ief , b ut b el ief wh ic h verges upon superstiti on .
66 5 v v 6p ce K a i 0 68 0 11 3 3 ,m j
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WAGZ O V 01 T ei V
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PH I L EM O N a
p ud S TO B E cl i i . . . I , 5 .
32
APPENDI X 33
7 5 O T LV (3 66 09
01 3 p av 6dva w
d0 6 /86 Z 9 OV 3 66A0 V7 a p a l/ Gri m m! 66v

7 01 .
PH IL EM O N ( K oc k
L ove is supre me eve n over Z eus .
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dva yK a O 06 29 '
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O
M EN A N D E R a
p ud S T O B Fl . . l xiii . 2 1 .
T he fo ll owi ng i m pl y di sb el ief i n a divi n e providence .
i r vO a
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M ENANDE R ap u d S T O B . E cl . 1 . vi .
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M EN A N D E R ( K ock I
T he l a st two h ave an E pic u rea n ri ng .
A n
5 I
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T I M OC L E S p ud A TH EN v ii oc k
a . .
3 00
( K I ).
(B 5 81 ) D
G od requires a return f or th e bl essi ngs h e gives .
3 A A
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v o v s 8%

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owe I /T a g K a t 3 01
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3 & 1! dcpecAeO 3 0 a 86 8w1< tb 9

AOL/ 3

d)\a t

7 V 7r .
A L EX I S pu d
a A T H EN ii . .
40 ( K ock
I th e foll o win g th ere are sign s of a nob l er f aith

n . G od is
o od a n d h e lps th e ri gh te ou s H e work s s i l e n t l y
g ,
. .
Si
( n a i /T L Bo d/1 03 1!
pm a fa r a r a t
p . o l/i Sp } . Ov
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M ENANDE R ( K ock 5 5 0, r) .
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M ENANDE R ap u a S T O B
. Fl . vii .
4 .
Aw I
0 69
q C
my g py f
'
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'
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M ENANDE R ap u d STOB E d . . 1 . i . rr .
Superstition is ra mpa nt b ut th e poet c ondem ns it , .

Amrop e 6 w m dp y 7 L9 , av eZn y K a ms
'
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M ENANDE R a p ud S T O B Fl . . x v c iii . 8 .
A dya 96v u oz
y v o n o, wo k ur
m c 96 0 Z

o

. .
,
{m oooup evos 7 5 v {p ai l /T a y up T s .
p oi SOS B ei xor ws, <3 ( Mui r/mp6 , .
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M ENANDE R ap u d C L E M A L E X . . S ir . v ii .
4 . 24 .
APPEND IX 35
96 0 9
I a I
d p wep wra r wv g o)
'
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p .

33 Z wa pew td w

a er
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A A
.
,
SL K a Lov da 96 0 1/
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vew f i dp v/L vov s

'
oZK OL u o ovr a .

M ENANDE R ap u d C LEM . A L EX . Fr atr . v ii 7 5

. .
C ompare T h e op h ra stu s ccou nt of th e 3 ew c8a i p wv ( C/za r

a .
T h ese p ass age s see m to i mp l y th at t h e A th e n i a ns were n ot

a l t oge th er wit h o u t re l i gi ou s be l ie f B u t t h e ge n eral to n e su gge s ts
.
b el ie f wit h i n di ff ere n ce, d i sbe l i ef i n Pr ovide n c e, a te n de n cy to

s et m ateri a l a d va nta ges b e fore trust i n G od, a n d t h e p res en ce of
m uc h sup ers titi on T h ere a re n o expre ss io n s of s turd y ath eis m

. .
T h is i s e vidence i n su pp ort of th e vi ew ta k e n i n th e prece di ng

c h a pter for th e c om b ative sp iri t is o nl y to be f ou n d i n the
,
pres en ce of a l i vi n g f a i th T h e c ontra s t wit h t h e fa i th of

.
A e s c h yl us i n a divine j u s tice is very m ar k e d .

N O TE S T O C H A P TE R I
I . OF c ou rs e p o l yth i m i e s n v o v es l m ora l diff l ti i cu es . Wh a t m ay p l ea se one

g od m a y di s p l ea s e a n o th er. S ee P a to E l u t/
z
y p lzro 7 E . I t is rem ark ab l e,
h owev er, t h at th e G reek s , ev e n hi

t e r p hi l os o p h ers , fe t l l i ttl e i l
d fcu ty i n
a cc ept ng a i p l l i ty
u ra of gods , prov ded i on e was s u prem e.
2 . 0d . xi v . 83
? ,u v
or a x uaEp ya 06 02 u dxa pes (pck ova w ,

( DOVE r
i ia . Tl oum K a i a f a ma Ep y dy cb rrwv

p
'
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3 . e .
g . xv i .
3 86

Z 6 153 87 6 615 p dv dpea a t K o reo v dp ev os X a hem
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i el v dy op a xoh tds v wm 0,u w

at Bg pl K r a s, .
K 5 e 61k m h da wm , O6 0V (i m p 0 0K dh your es
.
4 . S ee M a ker: of H el l as , pp .
53 .
5 . iv . I 6S ; i v . 23 5 ; 0d . vi. 20 7 ; xv i .
3 86 .
6 . Wo rks a nd D ay: 2 67
mi r r or (36b A tos 6 0a hp b s Kai mi r r or vo a a s

K a t vv
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at K kya ,
7rt 5 pxera t,
od Mi ds t
3 m K ai de di lrnv 6)\ts y r os p yet

07
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! r v .
7 . A rc h i l h f 84 ; f
oc us r . r. 10 1 ; S em oni des f r . I ; So l on f r . 12 11
. 1 7- 3 6 ;
T h eogni s l 7 ; l 3 77
. 1 1 . .
8 . ii 6 . .
9 . xx . 201
mi r ep, 06 6 V (Shock spot dhkor

Z ei} 7 n s a ei o
01
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0 13K y ef ueat
10 . 0d . i .
32
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65 77
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.
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'
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1I . Work: a nd D ay : 11 49 . and 59 .
12 . Theogn i s 11 . 1 6 5 , 1 66 ; 1 3 77 .
1ri s 67? K povi dn, T ok p V60: i 6pm (Um pods

( i/
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'
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36

N OTES 37
13 . H arr s on i Pr ol egvmena to S t udy of Greek R el gio i n p 3 . . D i ck i n s on

Gr eek Vi ew o
f L if e p . 23 .
I 4 . i x 499 .
6 7 06: 006m m xwhs d yc wfi a c

i 66
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M a a y evoz ,

67 6 K v T L: r epy K ai d/L dp ry '

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fr . 2 72 (C hi r st )
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662p

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1.

1 631/ 6 130 6 66 07 6 e .
ms

t X a tpew

yais r a tv 6 u It a l 67 i r ov '
n
' '
ra 0v: T or
'
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K a 66r v a pu v 6 6p 6ew l p d a v d ro

w t 6 6 0i 0 t

.
17 . S ee D ec h a rm e C ritiq ue aes

T r adi ti om R elig i eu s er cez 16 : Gr am p p .
20 7, 2 08 . l
P a to R ep 3 64 3 66 .
-
.
18 . L a w : 888 c .
19 . R ou s e G reek V oti e O v er i ngs

'
pp 3 5 0 , 3 5 1
.
20 I q u ote th e m os t pert n ent

. i .
hl
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A na x m en es , D i i el s, 7 ; R tter i and Pre ll er 2 8

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pp 486 f o
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t Pl t m t h p tl y e l i d th n t i n f wi ll
Bu a o s ee s o av e ar r a se e o o o .
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81 . L a w:
95 1 B .
82 . L a w: 889 E
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890 A [6 1 6 11 11 7 10116 ] 6211 011 7 6 611101167 6 7 011 6 7 1 7 1: 11 111 0 a w 16

/ 11 0:
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NOTES 43
d a a al dv pur ms p lr i lr r ovcn v u s, 623 013K

re O6 0V 03 0v: 6 '
V6,u os

n poa
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rpma l
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wi n 0 1366 29 3
1 9 7 07 6 061 6 E

m ail da e s
m i a xwv ,

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pl r ov er a pa / x

T

/a t ei t I ra .
83 . L a ws 83 5 E .
L a ws 7 1 6 A 7 93 0v dr ok em oy vwv

84 . 7 43 06 4
5] 6 ad E uv r ercu

5 lfm; 7
7 0 0 06 1012 v p ov n y m s
p . Cf 72 9 . E fo ll . 842 E fo ll .
85
L a ws 890 A , 909 8 , 772 ,
. C D . For th e wors hi p of d a em ons a nd h eroes
s ee e er P Z ll
p 5 2 6 q u ota t on , lato . i a n d R ou s e Gv eek V
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Q er i ngs p . 12 .
L a w: 996 A Si /L a xm 6% 77u 2u 6 6 0i m '
,
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Kai (Sa tu v wv .
86 . L a w: 7 1 6 D .
87 . S ee T h om so n E u ri p ides a nd tlze A ttic Orat o s r

pp 3 8 44.
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. I g i ve h ere
th e p as s ag es w hi h c c on ta n i th e n ob l es t t h l eo ogy
I s oc ra tes frag .
(a ) 7
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B u rn et, i n l ac .
44 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
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N O TE S 45
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CH A PT E R I I
M OR A L I TY I N S OC I E T Y
47
CH AP TER II
M O RA LI T Y I N S OC I E T Y
To a Greek the most im portan t society was u ndoubtedl y T h S t t e a e .
the State H e re g ard ed i t as an in stitution f o r which

.
1
m an i s natural l y ad apted L oss o f coun try was re g arded
.
a s al most equival ent to loss o f l ife A t Athens the death .
pen alt y coul d n earl y always be avoided b y volun tary banish

2
m ent . C iti z enship was thu s a privile g e an d on e which ,
was j ealousl y g uarded from usu rpation Greeks as su ch .
had f ew ri ghts Theoreticall y they mi g ht be m ad e slaves

.
,
and it was onl y with the g rowth o f a m ore hu m an e spirit

that the practice becam e u nu sual The Greek prison ers .
i n the S icilian War becam e the slave s o f the S yracu san s 3

.
I can nd n o reprobation of this practice before Plato 4

.
S ocrates at least e x presses no d isapproval

, ,
B y the ti m e .
of Demosthenes 5 0 07\m an d Bci pBa poo are p racticall y ,
s y non y mous terms 5

M etics ( residen t aliens ) we re
.
debarred from citizenship an d had to be represented ,
i n the law cou rts b y a patron 6

.
I t was i n the cit y state strictl y limited to male citi z en s C nn ti o

-
,
o ec n
o f full a e that the most characteristic Greek virtues rew

g , g
and ourished I t m ust be remembered that du rin g the
.
g reat a g e i n Greece the S tate was more inuential and

considered m ore i mportan t than a n y other social i n s ti tu ~
tion even the fam il y

, C losel y bou nd up with the State
.
reli g ion its dictates had al l t h e force of a reli g iou s

, .
san ction u nti l questionin g mi nds an d the violence of the

, ,
49 E
5 0 G RE E K M O R A L I T Y
Athen ian em pire caused doubt as to the valid it y o f S tate

,
authority Plato places the happiness of the State before

.
7
that of ind ivid uals ; an d althou g h Aristotle quarrels with
8
this view it is plai n that i n his id eal State he n ever allows
,
ind ividual happiness to interfere with the public benet .
Bot h wish to fu rther the g eneral h appin ess o f the citizens ,

althou g h as Z eller well puts it Plato demand s that the
, ,
ind ivid ual s should seek their hi g hest happin ess in u nselsh
9
d evotion .
5 1 K a 100 151/ 77
'
,
The characteristic virtue o f m an s relation to the State i s
th e S ta te
5 cxa i oo vn A i m) an older

i
v rtu e .
ri g hteousness o r j ustice
, .
,
word is ri g hteousness viewed obj ectivel y bu t i n the abstract ;

,
lit/ca m e is the adj ective correspond in g to both I in ten d .
to base m y d iscussion upon the history o f these words .
I n H omer and H esiod Si m; is Opposed to 3 5a

It .

si g ni es g ood custom d isciplin e o r law and its valid it y
, , ,
is derived from the g od s Even as earl y as this we m ay

.
see that both the wide term ri g hteousness an d the n arrow

term j ustice are equ ivalen ts of 5 5x77 fo r H esiod con stantl y

,

u ses it with referen ce to the verd icts 0 f bribe devou rin g -

prin ces whi le he calls m en who n eg lect their parents
,

eo 0 5 l /ccu
11
X p m akin
, g m i g ht thei r ri g ht To H esiod .
5 0m; is a g ift o f Zeus which d i ff eren tiates m e n from beasts

, .
Z eus is also its g uardian H e blesses the m an who

.
observes j ustice and pu nishes the race o f hi m who

12
violates i t .
D ra co

s Between the a ge o f H esiod an d the n e x t a g e from
c o de .
which m u ch literatu re su rvives occu rred the codication o f

the law . At Athens this took place in 6 2 1 The m oral .
results of this were very g reat I t at once d rew a d i s ti n c

.
tion between le g ality an d m orality The written law was .
severed from the u nwritten law Thus 8i r ay o r rather a

.
,
lar g e part o f it received a le g al san ction which is som e

, ,
thin g qu ite different from the san ction s of reli g ion an d

custom . I n tim e the relation between le g ality an d
m orality called for an e x plan ation O f cou rse m en .
M O R A L I TY IN S O C I ET Y 5 1
perceived the d istin ction g rad ual l y but the i mportant ,
poin t is that it had been de n itel y mad e .
I thin k that the rise of a le g al san ction was partl y A zm i n
respon sible for the ind epend en t position assu med b y

i n subsequen t literature The H esiod ic Zeus punishes l i t
. c us .
violation s o f j ustice but in later writers althou gh the

, ,
reli g ious sanction remai ns 85q is its own aven g er

,
.
D eath says T h eo g n i s someti mes prevents j ustice from

, ,
s eizin g the cri min al 13

H eraclitus declares that j ustice
.
14
wil l arrest workers of an d witnesses to lies ,
I t is i n ,
.
H er aclitu s that occu rs the rst m en tio n which I can nd ,

of

law i n the sense o f constitution The .
d iscover er o f the x ed re g ularity o f n atu ral l aw d eclares

15
that the State should g ht for its law as for a wall .
Bu t scarcel y a ny attem pt is m ade to separate clearl y T h m e ar
e
the broader an d n arrower sen ses O f 5 5m) which are al most {33:51: ,

identical with m orality an d le g ality A ll virtu e sa y s n t .
,
s e n s es o
T h eog n i s is in cluded i n Sw a rm
,
I n the fra g ment gi ggl y
of H eraclitu s quoted above 85m; i n clud es tellin g the g i h d u s e .
17
truth . A esch y lus declares that honou ri n g parents is a
d ecree Of O n t h e other hand Pindar closel y ,
con nects 85m; with s in/ 0 0 501 which A ristotle d enes as

19
, ,
2
ood d isciplin e i m) i n fact i s used i nd i fferentl y

g . A , ,
with either the broad o r the n arrow mean in g The on l y .
hi nt at a con ict between the two that I ca n d iscover

21
before Sophocles i s i n the S ep tem o f Aesch y lus There .
Eteocles is the d efender of 5 6m] inasm uch as he is the ,
d efender of t h e State while Pol y n ices the rebel d ecl ares

, , ,
that 5 5m) is g htin g f o r hi m I t i s i n the A n ti gon e Of T h

.
e
A mg m
!
o
22
S ophocles that the contrast is rst clearl y m ade There

C reon i s the champion Of le g ality the written law while , ,

A nti g one insists upon obey i n g morality the u nwritten ,

law o f the g ods The question i s raised when these
.
,
l aws clash which is to be obey ed P The repl y o f S ophocles

,

is the u nwritten law but it is Obvious that n o solution
,
i s satisfactory which does n o t e x plain the relations Of the

5 2 G RE E K M O R A L I TY
on e to the other and why a ny law should be obe yed,
at al l .
7
5 1 0 1:
0 and There were not wantin g those who declared that con
v en ti o n was the ori g i n O f a l l law and that the latter had ,
n o sanction i n n ature I t was on l y to be e x pected that the

.

fu ndamental doctri ne of the atomists everythin g e x ists ,
23
conventionall y e x cept atoms and the void would be ,
tran sferred to the re g ion Of ethics and politics Those .
who took this view were d oubt l ess en coura g ed b y the

half u nderstood d istinction between le g al ity and m oral it y
-
.
L e g alit y can not but appear somewhat arti cial an d it is ,
to be n oticed that the term contrasted with 96150 1 9 is v 0u os ,

~
,
the re g u lar word for a le gal enactment .
i h
M g t is A pparentl y it was A rchelaus a pupi l Of Gor gias who , ,
ri hg t"
,
rst denitel y propounded the proposition that 1 5

24
was n ot natura l but m erel y convention al,
The doctri ne .
took variou s form s two Of which have been preserved ,
b y Plato who in spite of the dis g ust he felt has e x

, , ,
T hra sy . pressed them with ad mirable candour T h ra s y m a c h u s .

,
in
the sophist holds that Sm a w m mj is the interest of the
,
25
M agi c ,
stron g er I n other word s the stron g est party i n a State
.
,
is the G overnm en t ; the Govern m ent passes laws i n its

o wn interest ; it i s 5 116 0 1 0 0 251277 to keep the laws ; hence
i
Buca w o zi my is th e i n teres t O f the stron g er

I n the Gorgi a s .
,
C a ll i c l es i n C a l l i c l es puts forward with g reat clearness an d force the

th e Gorg a s
i
26
'
followin g theor y The weaker portion o f the citizen s

.
i n a S tate who form the m aj ority pass l aws to protect

, ,
themselves from the stron g er and more energ etic spi rits .
B y lon g an d contin uous education these stron g characters

have been led to bel ieve that 5 81x6 21) is a g reater d is grace
than dBm eZ o 0a a But this view is pu re con vention
-
. The .
e x ample o f anim a l s as well as that of men in cities and

,
races proves that n atu re considers it

,
f o r the stron g
to rule an d accord in g l y 31 5 1106 20 011 1 is reall y m ore d is g race
,
ful tha n 5 81x6 21) A l thou g h the theories O f T h ra s y m a c hu s

.
an d C a l l i c l es are not identical f o r the o n e assu mes the,

M O R A L I TY IN S O C I ET Y 53
powerful few to rul e the o ther the weak m an y y et the y

, ,
a g ree i n that they both assert mi g ht to be ri g ht .
Be it Observed that Plato i s n ot statin g m ere theoretical

specu l ation but a wide spread belie f H eraclitu s h a d s u ng
,
-
.
27
the praises O f Kin g War Plato hi mself says i n the
.
G orgi as that the view p ut forward b y C a l l i c l es is what

28
other people thin k but do n ot care to state Open l y .
We have also the witn ess Of Thu c ydides I n the Fune ral . T he ev i
f
Speech indeed he m akes Pericles praise the Athenian s
, ,
g
rif fyf
29
for thei r obed ien ce to law written and u nwritten ,
But . d id
e
s . T he
1
i n the famous M elian d ialo g u e the supposed occu rren ce , $5 2
2 3 6 .
Of which was i n 4 1 6 t h e Athen ian envoys pu t forward

,

t h e d octrine o f mi g ht is ri ght i n the plain est an d most
30
bru tal term s Bu ry remarks that this was a doctri n e
.
which i t was H elleni c to follow but barbarous to enun ciate ,
i n all its n aked ness ; an d in the n e g otiation s which pre

ced ed the blockade n o Athenian spokesmen would have
uttered the u ndiplomatic cru dities which Thu cydides
31
ascribes to them The fact i s that the Athenian
.
em pire presupposed the theory however m u ch the peopl e ,
shran k from con fessin g it open l y .
I t can not be d enied that the d an g er was g rave A .

Ph il os p hic o
:
r
serious blow had been stru ck at political morality The . Bigg? E
state Of a f fairs was on l y a gg ravated b y the fact that the R ig h t .

theory m i g ht is ri ght contained an elem ent o f t ru th ,
althou g h it m i g ht well be asked what i s m ean t b y ,

mi ght ? When the furiou s passions aroused b y the
Peloponn esian War had subsided law and order resu m ed ,
their sway on ce more The cause was partl y the return

.
Of peace an d partl y the g ood sense Of the Athenian

,
people . B ut m uch was also d ue to philosophi c ethics ,
which fou nd a reason for l aw that appealed to the i ntellect .
T O dem and a reason was an Athenian characteristic an d ,
the satisfaction Of thou g htful m in ds produced b y ethical

stud y could n ot fail to have an eff ect lower down .
Socrates solution o f the d i f culty was simpl e A ccord

. S ocra tes .
54 G RE E K M O R A L I TY
i ng to hi m what the law com mands is ri g ht 05 .

32
a re those who k now what is l awfu l with respect to men .
The laws however in clud e not onl y the com mands of

, ,
m en but the unwritten com m ands o f the gods violation

, ,
Of whi ch brin g s its o wn appropriate and natu ral pu nish

m ent . Fu rther than this Socrates did n ot g o H ad he .
been pressed I thin k he would have said that Obedience

,

to the law is useful to each ind ivid ual B reak the l aw
.
,

as he says i n the Cr i to and y ou wron g y ou r m other
, ,
who g ave y o u bi rth reared and edu cated you and al lowed
, ,
33
y o u a share i n al l the beautifu l thin g s S h e could An d .

i t m ust be remembered that i n Socrates theology the
g ods also identied the l awful an d the ri g ht so that ,
34
moralit y had a d ivi n e sanction .
I can not refrain from quotin g a few sen tences from

35
D r Adam s edition Of the Cri to
.

which describe the
,

Socratic position ad m irabl y I t m a y appear stran g e
.
that a man so prone to doubt an d i nqu iry should have

hesitated to call in question the authority O f the laws ;
bu t the fact is u ndeniable H is whole life was d is
.
ti n g u i s h ed b y absol ute delit y to the laws Of his coun try

an d n ow he consents to death rather than break
them . The g en eration before his birth appeared to
hi m a kind of g olden a ge when the State ourished and
,
the citizen s were happy u nd er the Old u n reec ti n g m orality ,
where n o ri g ht was known but that Of law The li m itation.

O f S ocrates g en iu s appears here H ad he . carried o u t
hi s prin ciples to thei r fu llest lo g ical d evelopment he ,
would not have shru n k from s u b m i tti n g to the test o f

his d ialectic the whole qu estion Of the validity an d
authorit y Of law as a cond ition of the stability o f social
l ife ; but to hi m i t is al most an a x iom that the law

should be obey ed .

To com plete the pictu re we m ust ad d Socrates
thorou g h g oin g u tilitarian ism and his belief i n a reli giou s
-
,
sanction to morality .
M O RAL I TY IN S O C I ET Y 55
I n the ey es of Socrates then mi g ht i s not ri g ht ; ri g ht

, ,
i s the l aw and Obed ien ce to the law is the will Of the

,
g ods,
and is also useful to m an the i nd ividual as wel l as ,
t h e com mun ity This is th e Old V iew with the add itional
.
,
sanction of u tilitari an is m .
I m ust here recapitulate what I have tried to m ake S u m mary

.
clear . C itizenship was the nu rsery Of the Greek vi rtues ,

an d in particular Of 5 06 0 1001 51217 which m eans both j ustice ,

and ri g hteousness C odication of the law help ed to
.
accentuate the di fference between these two id eas b y

d istin g uishin g th e written law from the u nwritten .
For a l on g tim e the distin ction di d n ot lead to a ny m oral

conict . The A n tigon e o f S ophocles is the rst instan ce
Of a d e nite an ta g on is m between the written and the
u n written law N atu ral philosoph y d isti n g u ished between
.
v0 /w 9 an d and this d istin ction was transferred to

ethical questions at a ti m e when the declin e Of politi cal
m orality had prod uced a g eneral belief that onl y m i g ht
is ri g ht . There was i n consequen ce g reat dan g er Of
m oral anarchy be cause i n the attack upon
,
there
was a treacherous attack upon 5 5m} .
S ocrates d id somewhat to l essen the d an g er b y i n

sistin g that all 12000 1 both those O f men and those Of
,
the g ods ou g ht to be obey ed because su ch Obe dience is

, ,
cond ucive to hu man happiness .
Socrates vi g orou s cham pionship Of the Old politi cal

moral ity o n utilitarian g rou n ds was not a complete an swer

to the d ifcu l ties Of the ti me H owever useful it m ay .

be as a g eneral rul e to y ield i mplicit Obedien ce to the

laws from which a man derives birth education an d all , ,
that makes li fe worth livin g e x perience proves that laws ,
m a y com mand what i s distin ctl y n ot u sefu l as S ocrates ,
had been him sel f forced to ad m it i n the case Of election

36
b y l ot . H e was i n fact gu ilty of a seriou s i nconsisten c y
, , ,
which was a gg ravated b y the declaration that the true

37
rulers are onl y those who k now h ow to rul e The .
5 o G RE E K M O R A L I T Y
hu man i ntel lect had reached a sta g e of d evelopm en t

when it could on l y rest satised i n an elucidation O f
the relation Of le g al to moral ri g ht ; i n other words it ,

was n ecessary to nd o u t the m ean in g o f ri g ht before
a satisfactory theory o f morals coul d be form ulated This .
was the task that fell to Plato .
l
P ato. The precise statement Of the problem at the be g in nin g
Of the second book of the R ep u b l i c S hows that Plato was
n ot blin d to the partial truth that is i nvolved i n the

theory m i g ht is ri ght But n ever for a moment would
.
he ad mit that there could be a ny real d iscrepanc y b etween

what is ri g ht 15J L and W hat i s ri g ht R i g hteou s
38
n ess is better than un ri g hteousness Un ri ghteousness .
39
is the g reatest of al l evils I t is a d isease of the soul
. .
But the antithesis between two ki nd s of ri g ht was the

resu lt Of the m an y bad forms of g overn men t i n vog ue ,
t yrann ies of o l i g archs d espots and despotic democracies

, .
Pol itics must be reform ed and le g al ri g ht be assi milated

,
to moral ri ght I n the Fl ori l eg i u m O f S tob a eu s occu rs

.
a frag ment of A rchytas the P y tha g orean who was a ,

g reat friend o f Plato to the effect
,
that the law ou g ht
40
to follow n atu re True ri g hteousness is to be sou g ht
.
for i n the perfect S tate an d i n the citizen o f the ,
perfect State A necessary corollary is that the S tate

.
m ust assum e su preme control over every departmen t Of

hu man l i fe . Philosophic ethics tried to lessen the
anta g onism o f leg ality an d morality b y m er g in g the l atter
i n the former Bu t m oralit y has rst to d etermi ne what
.
l e g a l ity is
. Care must be taken that the constitution be
as perfect as possible .
B y m ean s Of his tripartite division Of the S tate i nto

g uardians ,
au x iliaries an d work men and Of the soul i nto
,
rational cou ra g eous an d appetitive parts Plato concl ud es

, ,
that Sb lca 00 0 151/ 77 resu lts whether i n a S tate o r i n an

i nd ividual when each part perform s its o wn fu nctions

,
41
withou t i nterferin g with those o f the others S ince thi s .
M O R A L I TY I N S O C I ETY 57
l i mitation o f each part to its proper fu n ction pr od u ces a

harm onious c o operation of the whole t a t oo ti my is better
-
,
than 5 5 1 x561 it is more shamefu l

,
than 31 5 016 6 20 061 1 ;
whi le mi g ht is ri g ht onl y i n the sense that knowled g e O f
the c1 5 1 5 d ya 00v g ives the sole clai m to rul e
r .
Plato does n ot appear to have essential l y chan ged hi s

V i ew o f Bu ca tom i my as h e g rew Old er B ut b y t h e tim e
.
he wrote the L a ws he had lost all hope Of reachin g the

051 5 S O the rulers Of that dialo g u e are compel led
to g overn not b y a k n owled g e of the id ea bu t b y pru den t
, ,
le g isla tion an d ad mi nistration O f the law H en ce the care .
which P lato desi res to be devoted to the collection Of g ood

laws from al l quarters and hen ce their i ncorporation i nto
,
the con stitution I n other words le gal ri g ht i s still the

.
,
fo rm al e x pression O f an d g u ide to m oral ri ght bu t Plato

, , ,
sees that i n the absence Of a k nowled g e Of the ideas

, ,
42
complete correspondence is i mpossible .
A heavy debt i s d ue to P lato for bein g the rst to

attempt seriousl y a scien ce O f politics H e had had .
pred ecessors i n H i pp o da m u s Of M iletus an d Ph a l ea s o f

C halcedon but it d oes n ot appear t h at the politics Of
,
these men had a ny philosophic basis Plato would have .
m erg ed al l i n stitutions i n the S tate H e thu s showed that

.
he had cau g ht the spirit whi ch had an im ated the g reat

a g e o f Greece an d d esired to perpetuate i t b a radical
, y
reconstru ction Of city l ife B ut i n foundin g his State u pon
-
.
a basis Of m etaph y sics he attempted the i m possi b le .
There is n o short cu t to knowled g e T h e c1 5 1 5 tin/0 001;

.
can never be reached Even an appro x im ation thereto

.
can onl y be attained b y laborious classi cation and patien t

stud y . Plato tacitl y con fesses as m u ch i n the T i ma eu s
and the L a ws I n t h e latter he abandon s with re g ret i t
.

,
i s tru e an d with the conviction that his Old V iew were i t

, ,
onl y p os s i b l e i s still the better the philosophic g overn m en t

,

hi nted at i n the Pol i ti ca s and worked o u t i n the R op u l i c .
The patient research declared n ecessary i n the L a ws was

attempted b y A ristotle who carefull y i nvesti gated as

,
m an y constitu tion s as he could before writin g the Pol i ti cs .
B ut the work is e x ceed in g l y slow and even at the present ,
d a y we have advan ced bu t little toward the g oal at which

P lato aim ed .
i l
A r s tot e . A ristotle too identi es le gality an d m oralit y
, ,
43
When .
they clash as they m ust occasionall y owin g to the

, ,
n ecessary i mperfection o f hu man institutions harm on y is ,
restored b y equi ty While ad m ittin g a narrow mean in g

.
Of t a too vn i n the sense o f ( I ) the d istribution of State

advanta g es and S tate propert y and ( 2 ) the m ainten an ce
,
Of equa l ity i n contracts he a f rm s that Saw too th/ 77 and

,
virtu e are o n e and the sam e the former bein g the latter
,
re g arded as d ut y towards others Vi rtu e bein g an essential

.
condition O f happiness i t is the fun ction of the State to

,
promote them both to the utmost I n d emand in g .
Sw a rm 25m) the State is affordin g the onl y m eans Of

-
attainin g happi ness S O the powers Of the State m ust

.
be comprehensive enou g h to eff ect this A x ed con .

d ition o f the wi l l bein g necessary for vi rtuous cond uct ,
mere k nowled g e will n ot make a m an g ood H abitu ation .
and strict disciplin e alone can in su re the virtu e of youn g

people and o f the m an y who listen n ot to honou r but to

fear . H en ce the S tate is a n ecessary in stitution that
on l y beasts 0 r g ods can d o without A ristotle leaves .
m uch to the i nd ividual an d the fam il y that P lato would

have brou g ht u n der S tate control bu t he a g rees with hi m ,
in m ak in g the S tate responsible for the ed ucation O f the

y oun g . N O doubt this view was su gg ested to both
P lato and Aristotle b y the actu al practice o f e x isti n g
S tates but it i s n evertheless o f g reat si g n i can ce
,
.
Aristotle is usuall y at on e with cu rren t Athenian feelin g

i n ethical m atters and i f he recom mend ed State control
,
Of edu cation it m ust be becau se the e x istin g s y stem

was unsatisfactory The education which was perfectl y
.
adequate i n 5 0 0 B C to prod uce a splendid bod y of

. .
M O R A L I TY IN S O C I ETY 59
citizens proved decient two hund red y ears later Whet h er .
dail y li fe had chan ged mu ch i n the interval we have

scarcel y a ny mean s Of j ud g in g althou g h it was probabl y
,
m ore comple x But assuredl y the i ntel l ectual horizon Of the

.
people had widen ed enormousl y Q u estions which had .
then seemed simple now proved to be d i f cult i n the

e x trem e . Trad ition was n o lon g er blind l y followed .
M ental d istress an d perple x ity appear to have been

presen t every where Hence the peculiar n ames which
.
phi losophers g ave to th e g ood s they most valued 5 71 006 10 , ,
dr a pa g fa thu s clearl y si g n ify in g the desire to escape from

an u nhapp y state of m in d H en ce also the pecul iar

.
d octrines Of Epi cureans and Stoics S ince m en at al l times ,
are prone either to d rown t h ei r cares in the pu rsu it O f

pleasure o r to shu t their eyes to facts and try to assure
them selves that pai n is a thi n g i nd ifferen t Q uite a .
controversy has ra g ed whether the A then s of 3 0 0 B C . .
was o r was n o t less moral than the Athen s O f o n e

hu nd red o r two hu nd red y ears before S tated i n this.
wa y the problem is an d m ust be insolubl e

, ,
I t was n ot .
i m m ora l ity which m ad e the contrast between the two

epochs so strikin g but the i n compatibility O f o l d i n s ti tu
,
-
tion s and an en li g htened i ntelli g en ce D issatisfaction

.
,
amou ntin g at tim es al m ost to querulousness i s pai n ful l y ,
Obviou s i n the tenden cy to withd raw from the world m et

with in philosoph y i n the sad n ess Of M en ander who could
.
, ,
46
c ry o u t , H ow sweet is solitude and in the views con cern
,
i n g death abou t which I have S poken above These morbid .
feelin gs n atu ral l y man ifested them selves m ost i n hou rs O f

rela x ation an d this i s su re l y on e reason why Aristotle
,
insists that the g reat obj ect of ed u cation is to teach

47
men to spend thei r leisure n obl y N O doubt Aristotle
.
traced the rise of the prevailin g m ental d i s s a ti s f a c

tion to its ori g in in the d iverg ence between State
an d i ndividu al Fo r this reason he would have the
.
State edu cate its citizen s from the very rst in order ,
60 GREE K M ORAL I TY
that con stitution an d n ational character m i ght go han d

in hand .
I t has Often been remarked that althou gh Aristotle

d ecl ares m onarch y to be the best form Of g overn ment ,
he constru cts his id eal S tate after the ordinary Greek

plan i n apparent i g noran ce that the conquests o f
,
A le x ander were destin ed to brin g the city state to a -
nal close But revolt from the idea of the city state
.
-
is clearl y apparen t i n the mi nor Socratics an d their

d escendants the Stoi cs and Epicu reans
,
The Socrati c .
desi re for i ndependence which is a transference Of the

,
Athenian d emocrati c ideal to the dom ain Of ethics was ,
pushed to e x trem e li mits i n al l these schools but i n ,
two different d i rections The C y nic e x tolled freedom

.
above all thin g s but could not con ceive o f freedom apart
,
from l aw . R i g hteousness is to be preferred to

But the wise m an wil l n ot live accord in g to the laws o f
49
the State but accord in g to the law Of vi rtu e
,
The onl y .
50
C yn i cs . true citizenship is that of the world The C y nics put .
thei r preachin g into practice so that Dio g enes coul d s ay

,
that he possessed n o city no hom e n o fatherland that

, , ,
h e was a be ggar an d a wan derer with onl y su f cient

51
i cs
S to . sustenance to last for the d ay The S toics l ikewi se
.
52
d eclare that t a too vn is n atu ral and n ot convention al .
53
The y too desired to be citizen s of the world But .

n everthel ess they felt that since associ ation with on e s
,
fellow m en is n atu ral and tends to the Observance of law

, ,
the wise m an will not shrin k from the d uties of citizen

54
ship. H e will take part i n city l ife le g islation and -
, ,

education H e wil l m arry an d be g et children
. He .
56
will d ie if n ecessary for his coun try This in consisten cy
.
can onl y m ean that the Stoics had an ideal too lofty for
their o wn a g e and were compelled to compromise y et
, ,
without abandon in g their ideal A S i milar compromise

.
has alread y been n oticed i n the L a ws Of Plato The .
work Of both C y n ics an d S toics was to set before the

M O R A L I TY I N S O C I ETY 6 1
e yes of men an ideal which althou g h n eve r real ised

, , ,
has g raduall y led mank in d to believe i n the u n i versal

brotherhood o f man .
The C y renai cs insisted u pon i ndependen ce n o less C y n i re a cs .
?7
than the C y nics They also called the world thei r
fatherland .
58
B ut thei r reasons were vastl y d i ff erent .
The C y ni c y earned after a better city The C y renaic .
avoided politics because i t interfered with the l i fe of

?9
pleasure which he held to be the sup rem e good
Pleasu re is all i n al l R i g hteousness (1 5 BIT
. /ca m p ) m oral ,
6O
beau ty an d u g liness are c on v en ti o n a l The wise m an .
wil l tak e care not to violate the l aws o f the S tate or Of

society because Of the penalties whi ch su ch violation
brin g s with it H e has no n eed O f frien ds
. Every thin g .
61
he does is for his o wn sake I t is absu rd f o r a m an to
.
d ie for his cou ntry 62

W hy shou ld he lose his wisdom
.

because Of others foll y ?
Epicu rus d eclared that j usti ce ( Si r o cc o 152277) has n o E pi c -
urea n s .
63
real e x istence .
J ustice is m erel y an a g reement n ot
to harm i n retu rn for freedom from harm S i nce j ustice .
i s a social compact i t wi ll va ry accordin g to ci rcu m stan ces

, .
The wise man will take n o part i n publ ic l i fe u nless

compelled to d o so f or his o wn safety .
The e thical doctrin es Of A ristippus an d Epicu rus have

o ne g reat meri t They are qu ite free from cant and
.
,
boldl y state what m an y m en have thou g ht an d still

thin k althou g h they are afraid to s ay so
,
B u t hedon is m .
of this ty pe can onl y b e accepted as a creed b y those

who have n o faith i n the sou nd ness O f social in stitution s .

The Epicurean submits to law because he m u st .

N o l es s e ob l ige espr i t a e corp s d evotion to d ut y are to
, ,
hi m m eanin g l ess phrases H e is d iscontented at the

.
battle Of life an d would ee from i t to the refu g e O f

h is ci m pa f ta o r drown his cares l ike the C y renai c i n
'
, , ,
pleasurable in dul g en ces The e x istence Of su ch an ethical

.
s ystem is further evidence that b y the y ear 3 0 0 B C . .

there had g rown u p a spirit Of u nrest and dissatisfaction ,
the result Of rapid intellectual advan ce am id institution s

that could not keep pace therewith The assertion o f t h e
.
ind ividual s self s u fc i en cy his ri g hts and responsibilities

-
, ,
was attained on l y b y the pay ment o f a heavy pri ce It .
was n ot ac h ieved before faith i n the virtue Of patriotis m

ceased to be a power i n the city state With the decay
-
.
Of this faith decay ed also the virtues it had fostered .
Greece died to bequeath an heirloom to her d escendants

amon g the nation s .
I n dividua l ism w as at rst a solvent rather than a

creative power The a ge of Greek em ancipation was
.
in nocen t o f a n y serious attempt to tran sfer its theories

i nto t h e practice Of social an d political life At the .
sam e tim e it would be completel y erron eou s to con clude

that ancien t R adica l is m was decien t on the sid e o f
i ntensity. The history o f C y nicism wil l show us that
there was n o lack of persons read y to push their break
with tradition to the e x trem e len g th Of thei r serious
convictions . S till g enera l l y speakin g philosoph y m ay
, ,
be said to have been a powerful i ntellectual ferm entation

65
withou t d irectl y becom in g a factor i n practical l ife .
But nevertheless an ideal althou g h n ever realised cannot

, ,
fai l to in u ence character and condu ct I f a m an .
sin cerel y believes that he can have no other Obj ect i n

l ife save his o wn pleasure he certain l y d oes n o t establish
,
the sam e relation to his environ ment as the m an who

i s i nspired with the spirit Of d uty an d d evotion I t is .
ind eed possible to possess a creed to believe it sin cerel y , ,
and yet be u nwillin g to m ak e the sacri ces i t d em and s .
N evertheless such a creed will inuence condu ct for i t

, ,
wil l affect the spirit i n which su ch duties are performed

as do n ot com mand the willin g Obed ien ce Of the a g en t .
The C y n ic and the C y ren aic were n on conform ists i n

word and deed The Epicu rean an d S toic were too
.
Often n on con form ists i n word and con form ists i n deed .
M O R A L I T Y I N S O C I E TY 63
The maj orit y m ay be re g ard ed as happ y i n their environ

m ent so lon g as the on l y Opponen ts o f the e x istin g order
practise what they preach S ociety i s sou nd when onl y
.
those rebel who have the cou ra g e Of their conviction s .
B u t n o societ y can l ast lon g when its m embers o r a ,
m aj ority Of them bel ieve o n e thin g an d d o another

, ,
whether the cause be love Of ease as with the Epi ,
c u rea n s o r force Of circum stances as with the S toics

, , .
Friend ship was a re1a ti on which the Greeks alwa y s F i d hi p

. r en s
fh
held in hi g h honou r A t the d awn Of Greek literatu re ggg
.
e
we m eet the frien dship o f Achilles and Patroclus an d the ,
d etermi nation Of the H omeri c hero when he cannot d i e ,
to save his friend at least to d ie that he m ay aven g e

,
66
hi m. The Greeks were never ti red Of d wellin g u pon
this pictu re o f aff ection and u pon the love o f another
,
celebrated pai r P ylades an d O restes

,
The P y tha g orean .
brotherhood n ot onl y g ave con spicuou s e x amples o f

d evoted friendship b ut emphasised b y their m an n er Of
,
li fe the fact that friendship i m plies com mu nity an d

sacri ce . H en ce the proverb Icon/a 1 & 1 0m 905M 0 22 That .
m an does n ot deserve to l ive says Democritus who does , ,
67
not possess on e g ood friend .
A comparison o f this nobl e esti m ate Of friend ship

with its treatm ent i n earl y philosophic ethics shows
plai nl y that ethics m ay Often l a g behind the morality it
seeks to e x plain an d that it is dan g erou s to attempt to
,
estimate the latter from the former wi thout takin g i nto

accoun t n on philosophic l iteratu re
-
.
The utilitarian aspect Of Socratic ethics m ay be in S t ocra es ,
part du e to the sel sh i mpulses which spran g up lik e

weed s d u rin g the Peloponn esian War A t a n y rate the .
,
d istressin g cond ition s O f civil stri fe m ust have brou g ht

out more cl earl y than before the u seful ness Of friends i n
time Of trouble S ocrates wou l d have m en take very
.
m u ch the sam e view Of thei r frien ds as they d o Of thei r

64 G RE E K M O R A L I T Y
68
other possessions They ou ght to be careful to acquire
.
and keep friends to know their n u mber and value i n the

, ,
sam e wa y as they make an i nventory Of ordi nary g ood s

69
and chattels .Even trees are cultivated f o r their fruit ,
an d y et m ost m en completel y ne g lect their friends 70

.
S u rel y this is n ot the ideal of friendship which is pre

sented b y non philosophic writers
-
Even when Socrates .
takes a n obler V iew as for instan ce i n his recom mendation

,
that a m an shou l d m ake himsel f as valuabl e to his friend

as he can the sel sh reason is added in order that his
,
71
friends m a y not d esert him I t was the utilitarianism
.
Of his ethics which led Socrates to acquiesce i n the

cu rrent Greek precept to do g ood to friends an d evil to
?2
enem ies Plato o n the other hand is convi nced that to
, ,

do evil is i n all cases wron g A nd yet what a contrast
.
there is between the theory Of Socrates and his practice !

The preacher Of consisten c y i s here himself in consistent .
The idea that Socrates calcu lated how mu ch bene t he

Obtain ed b y a li fe o f d evotion to the edu cation of his
y oun g com patriots is absu rd The fact i s that
. he had
attained in his life but n ot i n his philosoph y to that
tk a v r l a i n the hi g her sense which i s discussed with so
d
m u ch i nsi g ht b y A ristotle Before leavin g Socrates I
.
s h ould like to remark that he saw d i ml y the connection ,
which was quite plain to Aristotl e between friend shi p ,
74
and political j us tic e H e is accord in g l y very carefu l to
.
poin t o u t the g reat advanta g e which accrues when friend s

work to g ether in pol itics f o r the com m on g ood From .
this we see also that Socrates was n o t b l ind to the m is

chief caused b y the rival ry o f dema g o g ues .
i
M n or A s far as can be j ud g ed from the sli g ht e x tan t ev i d
i cs
S ocra t .
en ce A ristippus the pupil Of Socrates carried his master s
, , ,
utilitarian p rinciples to their lo g ical con sequences I t is .
recorded that he believed that friend ship e x ists b y reason

Of its utility while Theod orus held that the wise man
, ,
76
bein g self s u fc i en t has n o need of friends
-
,
Antisthenes .
does n ot appear to have d ealt at len g th with the question

Of friendship bu t there is e x tan t a remark Of his to the
,
77
e ff ect that the g ood are frien ds which m ean s probabl y ,
n ot so mu ch that friendship is based upon good n ess as ,
that the C yni c wise men are ips o f a cto friends , , .
Plato conceived the i mpulse to friendship to be pw9 Pl t
,
a o.
that attractive force which makes m an y earn after the

beautiful Friendship as a relation he has d iscussed at
.
l en g th i n the dialog ue L y s i s I n the rst part Of this

.
dialo g u e the pupi l Of S Oc ra tes repeats his m aster s c on v i c
tion t h at friendship depend s upon usefulness which is ,
78
apparentl y identi ed with wisdom an d g oodness The .
discussion that follows seem s to be d irected to el ucidatin g

the d i ff erent mean in g s of the word which is som e
ti mes active someti m es passive an d at other ti m es both
, , .
The rest Of the d ia l og ue is occupied wit h d iscussi n g

whether friendship e x ists bet ween persons like an d u nl ike ,
an d so o n N O den ite con cl usion is reached althou g h it

.
,
i s hi nted that the solution m ay be fou nd in the proposition

79
that friendship depends upon g ood ness .
The reader Of the L y s i s feels constrained to ad mit that

the d iscussion had for P lato a d ialectic rather than an
ethical i nterest H e reg arded the m ethod as far m ore
.
i mportant than the matter The arg u men t is concerned

.
too much with words too little with facts , B ut the .
d ialo g ue i s tru l y S ocratic in that it shows the n ecessity Of

form in g clear con cepts of com mon e x pressions su ch as ,

like,
u nlike g ood ,friend , to love I t su g g ests , .
problems without attemptin g to solve them I t breaks .
new g rou nd but i s an ad mirable illustration O f the fact

,
that philosophi c ethics is n ot alway s a g ood test of the

eneral level o f m oralit y
g .
Aristotle s accoun t o f friendship i n the ei ghth and A i

l
r s tot e.
n inth books of the B i k i es has aroused the s y m path y and

ad mi ration o f reader after read er Zeller s words m a y be .
'
taken as ty pical S O morall y beauti ful is the conception

.
(B 5 81 ) F
66 G R EE K M O R A L I TY
of this relations h ip which we nd here u nfolded so d eep ,
the feelin g o f its indispensableness so pu re and d isinter ,
es ted the character assi g n ed to it so k indl y the d isposition ,
that i s indicated S O profuse the wealth of rened an d

,
happ y thou g hts that Aristotle cou ld have left u s n o more

,
80
splend id m emorial o f his own heart and character .

An d it m ay be added that n o su rer proof could be foun d

Of the noble character of friendship as real ised d urin g the
latter part Of the fourth century .

But it must n ot be too read il y assu med that A ristotle s
beauti ful description as com pared with the m eag re account
,
in the M emora b i l i a represents a correspond in g advan ce i n

,
cu rren t moralit y That there was som e ad vance seem s

.
certain The weakenin g of the ties of cou ntry was com

.
en s a ted b y a d evelopment Of other relationships That

p .

the d ecli ne Of A thens say s Hol m O f which we hear so
, ,
much is littl e better than a fable is also proved b y a

, ,
carefu l stud y Of her d omestic i nstitution s as they appear ,
for instan ce i n H a u s s o u l l i er s Fou c a rt s an d other writers

,

works o n the m u n icipal l ife an d reli g ious association s Of

A ttica based on the orators the i nscription s and other
, , ,
81
sources The e x isten ce Of these institutions and their
.
,
d evelopment du rin g the fou rth centu ry i mpl y a fertil e ,
soi l for the g rowth Of frien dship The philosophic schools .

,
also must have fu rn ished the cond itions i n which friend

,
ships are m ade and ripened I n modern d ay s what

.
friendships reach a hi g her ideal than those which sprin g

up in the co rporate life Of ou r u niversities ? But i n spite
o f all this the advance e x hibited b y Aristotle is as m uch
intellectual as moral A ristotle had a clearer i nsi g ht than

.
his predecessors i nto the ethical problem and more than ,
all set the g reat facts Of hum an e x perience far above

,
dialectical d iscu ssion about con cepts Perhaps no part o f .
an cient ethics throws more li g ht upon the tenden cies of

the d ay or has su g gested so man y problems for subsequent
,
thinkers to solve .
M O R A L I T Y I N S O C I ETY 67
A ristotle attempts i n the rst place a solution Of the

pro b lem s put forward b y P lato i n the L y s i s B y an .
anal y si s o f 1 5 he shows that there are three sorts

o f friendship founded u pon the g ood the usefu l an d the
, , ,
82
pleasan t respectivel y M uch Of the d i f culty en cou ntered
.
i n the L y s i s i s du e to a failure to perceive that the verb

LA Z V an d the noun ( ixna w ( g )

p to like an d a li kin
have a wider connotation than (ha l o an d which
83
i mpl y a mutual relationship A ristotl e add s a touch .
characteristi c Of the Greeks who alway s attached i mpo rt ,
a n c e to reputation

when he decid es that the g ood
wi l l O f the friend must n ot be u nperceived b y the person
84
to whom it i s directed M a y we s ay that the i nterro g ative
.
tone i n which Aristotle i ntrod uces the question is a si g n

that even b y this ti m e it was possibl e to con ceive o f a
friendship all t h e pu rer and n obler because felt b y o ne
onl y o f the person s con cerned ? The j u stication o f
friendship is t h at it is n atu ral n ecessary and moral l y , ,
85
b eau tiful ( K a k dv) .

A ristotle s view Of friend ship is m arked b y a breadth of
m i nd which is rem arkable i n a Greek an d which i s d oubt ,
less caused i n part b y the fact that i t was not in hi s n ative

ci ty that he achieved his l i fe s work Every association .
of hu man bein gs every relation Of life those of soverei g n

, ,
to people father to son brother to brother even that Of

, , ,
fellow voy a g ers e x hibits friendship i n o n e or other o f its

-
,

m an y analo g ous forms althou g h i n the hi g hest sense ,
it is on l y possible amon g g ood m en who are o n a footin g

Of equality Even amon g anim als there i s an analo g ou s
.
relationship Bu rn et thinks that Aristotl e con ceived of a

.
scale of friendship beg in nin g with the insti nctive affection

,
O f f o r e x am p l e mother an d child and g rad uall y risin to

, , g ,
the perfect relation between two g ood m en which is based

upon (pp vna cg o r k nowled g e Of the g ood for one s o w n

86
kind . Aristotl e i n fact n otices with g reat penetration
, ,
that friendship has a most i ntim ate con nection with j ustice .
Where friendship e x ists j ustice has n o work to do A .
87
hi g her relation has taken the place of a l ower I would .
ven ture to su g g est that A ristotle was i nuen ced u n c on ,
s c i ou s l y n o doubt i n form in g this view b y the decay of

,
the city state and with it O f that con ception of 1 5 Elf/ca ca o

-
,
88
which the city state fostered -
Duties conti nued to be
.
performed bu t the motive was n o lon g er the sam e

,
M en .
still bel ieved i n 1 5 Ste a my but its sanction now was not
,
the com mand Of the State but outta The chan g e how .
,
ever was n ot y et complete ; rather it was on l y j ust ,
beg in nin g But once clearl y stated the value Of (ck le:
.
,
as the g u id e Of li fe g raduall y g rew i nto a fam iliar

n otion u ntil it becam e the corner stone Of Christian
,
-
ethics .
The individualistic tenden cy whi ch owed i ts bi rth to ,
Socrates and was d eveloped b y the C y nics an d C yren aics

, ,
has left its mark upon the ethics Of Aristotle I n divid .
u a l i s m leads to an appreciation of m an as m an and ,
Aristotle clearl y states that friendship can e x ist between

89
a n y who are able to take part i n laws an d covenants .
Aristotl e would d oubtless have recon ciled this statem ent

with the declaration of the Pol i ti cs that barbarians are the
90
n atu ral slaves Of the Greeks b y den y in g that barbarians,
cou ld take a share i n laws and coven ants bu t he e x p ressl y ,
say s that Nature makes mistakes someti mes an d we m a y ,
d raw the con clusion that even amon g barbarian s A ristotle

ad m itted that there m i g ht be m en naturall y free
.
Further althou gh friends h ip is i mpossible between master

,
an d slave q u a slave it m ay e x ist says A ristotle between

, , , ,
91
master and slave q u a m an , The whole d iscussion Of
.
this question with its i nconsisten cies and I m a y al most

, , ,
s ay u nwillin concessions is the S i g n o f a m in d i n which

, g ,
the Old and the new are i n conict and is al l the m ore ,
si g ni can t o n that very accou nt The birth Of the idea

.
'
Of the u n iversal brotherhood Of man was n ot u n a cc o m

p a n i ed b y d oubts and mis g ivin g s This could n ot help
.
M O R A L I TY I N S O C I ET Y 69
b in g so sin ce it meant the d eath

e ,
the city state to of -
which the heart Of the Greek was so attached .
Th e tenden cy toward s i nd ivid u alis m was also re

sponsibl e f o r Ari stotle s beautifu l con ception of friendship

as an e x tension Of the personality The frien d is on e .
92 93
soul dwellin g i n two bod ies ; he i s an other sel f
.

E g oism an d altruism here nd reconci liation The idea .
i s n ot a mere fanci ful con cei t I t is a tru th to which

.
m od ern science and modern ps ycholo gy bear ever

i n creasin g testi mon y .
.
The clai m s o f the ind ividual had also resulted i n a S lf l o e -

v e.
read iness to admit that self love was n ot i n all cases to

-
be con dem ned The lan g ua g e of Plato i mplies that

.
some men j usti ed self love as natu ral and therefore

-
, ,
94
ri g ht . And y et the e x tracts collected b y S tob aeu s show
that the g eneral conscien ce Of the Greeks did n ot d i ff er
from that Of other civilised peoples i n its abhorren ce Of
95
s el s hn es s Even Plato k nows o f n o other sel f l ove
.
-
than self conceit-

A ristotle solves the d i f cu lt y i n a way
.
which has ever si nce brou g ht satisfaction to the m in d s Of

thinkin g m en L ove Of the hi g her sel f is com mendabl e ;
.
96
l ove Of the lower self is to be condem ned This teach .
i ng is i n perfect harmon y with the e x planation o f

frien dship as an enlarg ement O f the sel f .
Aristot l e has g iven us the n oblest d escription Of

friendship which has come down from pre Christian ti m es -
.
H e mark s the h i g hest point to which the Greek con scien ce

attained . I n his accoun t we doubtless have what man y
Of his contemporaries fel t but could not e x press It .
would be di f cul t to e x a ggerate the benet that resulted

from the clear formulation o f the hi g hest thou g ht o f the
ti me. I t represents a landm ark which cann ot be e ff aced .
L i ttera s cr ipta m a i zet But t h e ideas which are seen

.
g erminatin g i n Aristotle were slow to ripen The truths .
alread y gained were slowl y assimilated u ntil at last a ,
fresh start was m ade with C hristian ity .

7o G R E E K M O R A L I TY
Post A ristotelian philosoph y added n othin g of g reat

-
valu e to A ristotle s accou nt o f friendship while it borrowed

S to i cs l arg el y from it The Stoics insist that friendship can

.
97
e x ist onl y amon g wise m en This m ay be C yn ic teach .
i ng but I thin k i t d oubtfu l

,
The sou rce is m ore probab l y
.
Aristotle s view that the hi g hest friendship is li m ited to

g ood men who are i n a position Of equalit y Dio g en es .

L a erti u s relates that Z eno dened a friend as
.
another
98
sel f. This a gai n i s A ristotelian I n spite Of the hi g h .
valu e which the Epicu rean s placed u pon frien dship they ,
Ep i cu rea n s .
added nothin g to the ethics o f it E picu rus declared it .
to be the m ost i mportant cond ition Of happin ess and ,
99
pri zed i t for the sense O f secu rity it afford s A hi g her .
n ote i s struck i n the declaration that the W i se man wil l

100
die for his friend but the conte x t shows that it is meant
,
to g lorify the wise m an and n ot to l a y stress u pon a d uty

o f friendship I n brief the value attached b y this school
.
,
to friendship the form i n which it was con ceived an d the

, ,
pai ns taken to recon cile it with ind ivid ual ism S how that ,
the clear e x pression which A ri stotle g ave to the hi g hest

i nstin cts o f the Greeks was slowl y producin g its effect .
A ffec tion Notwithstandin g the narrow sphere to which the

f nim l
or a
a m ong th
Greek a s
e
limited his d uties and responsibilities here and ,
G k
ree s there appear g limpses which show that even the claim s o f
.
the brute creation were n ot alway s d isreg arded The .
intimate relations between man an d dom esticated animals

can n ot but g ive rise to feel in g s Of affection which are
perhaps all the m ore tend er becau se O f the i mpassable
barriers which limit the com muni cations between the on e
an d the other The wild Pol yphem us belon g in g to a
.
,
101
tribe that kn ew not law has tend er fee l in g s towards ,
102
h is pet ram Even the man of t h e world O d ysseu s is
.
, ,
m oved to tears at his reco g n ition b y the d y in g hound

1 03
A rg us But instances like these are rare and are
.
,
fu rthermore con ned to relation s between m aster and

domesticated ani mals R es pe ct for the animal as such

.
,
apart from senti mental considerations was o f slow g rowth , ,
and n ever d eveloped to a n y g reat e x tent But the few .
scattered hints which occasionall y oc cu r deserve the m ost

careful consideration .
R espe ct f o r the clai m s Of ani mals has been g reatl y Sym p thy a
d iminished b y i g norance an d b y th e necessi ty under,

d a s
which man lies o f u sin g esh as food Perhaps i g norance h i nd d b y

. ere
W O cau s es
is the g reater drawback I n recent y ears the i m mense
'
pro g ress made b y zo olo gy has been followed b y the pre

v en ti o n b y law Of cruelt y to ani mals an d b y a literature , ,

such as Kiplin g s j u ng l e B ook and the works Of Seton

Thompson i n which the b ru tes are endowed with hu man

,
characteristics without losin g as they do in fables their , ,
bru te n ature .
Greek philosoph y partiall y broke d own both barriers T : ra n s
to s y mpathy with animals The spread b y the Py th a :3?

.
rea n s Of the O rphic d octri ne Of transm i g ration m ade p th y wi th a

g o
mm l a a s
those who believed therein loth to tou ch animal food
'
That there resulted an increased ki ndness toward s brutes

m i g ht have been e x pected and is con clusivel y proved b y,
the well k n own story about P ytha g oras told b y X eno

-
104
phanes . The form er passed b y a man who was beatin g
a d og and told hi m to stop becau se he recog nised the
, ,
voice Of a dead friend E mpedocles considered it u n

.
ri g hteou s to destroy an y thin g that had l ife i n it Euri pides .

,
i n this as i n other cas es seem s to have been i n advance

,
o f his P lato was enou g h o f a P y tha g orean to see

one l ife pervadi n g the k in gdoms O f m en brutes and , ,
plants but the i mportance he attached to m in d and his

, ,
convi ction that brutes were d e g raded hu man bein g s ,
accou n t for the absence i n his works of a ny s y m pathy

with anim als Bu t to j ud g e from the history Of post T h
. e
Platon ic philosophy an d from the biolo g ical portion s Of

,
106
the Ti m a eu s Plato be g an i n earnest the stud y O f ani m als i n
,
sc e ce .
and plants This n ew tendenc y m ust have i nuen ced

.
X en ocra tes X enocrates althou g h he himsel f d oes not appear to have

,
specialised i n biolo gy and in his case i t was j oi ned to a

,
d ecided leanin g towards P y tha g orean ism This philo .
sopher asserted that even beasts partake o f some i nsti n ct

107
Of the divin e natu re . D io g enes L a erti u s relates of h i m
that on ce a sparrow chased b y a hawk took refu g e i n
, ,
the folds of his g arment The philosopher stroked it an d

.
,

afterward s let it g o free with t h e remark O n e m ust n ot ,
108
Th eo g ive up the su ppliant Theophrastus
.

was as zealou s
p h ra s tu s .
a student of botan y and zoolo gy as his teacher and his ,
phi l osophic views were g reatl y i nuenced b y the result of

hi s researches .H e can not see a n y d i fference e x cept i n ,
d e g ree between the souls of an im als an d the lower powers

,
of the hu m an S ince beas ts are akin to m an ,
man ou g ht not to kill them even for food e x cept when ,

absolutel y n ecessary . The an imals possess ri g hts which
no
forbid u s forcibl y to rob them of life . But the Stoics ,
who d id n ot care for biology refused to reco g n ise that

,
111
an ima l s have a ny claim upon m an as d id also
,
1 12
Epi curus .
NOTES TO C HAPTER II
I . A r stoti l e Pol . 1z 53 a dv0pw1ros 0

2150 6 1 11 07
\11 1K 5 1I { 93 0%
2 . K enn edy, tra n s l ti a on
of D em os t h en es

L epti nes etc .
p 3 45 . .
3 . T h u c. v ii . 87 My,

A 0nva l wu K ai 6 f E LK G N W Q V i)

I Ta M m dJ V

Evve0 1p01 6v0 a v, 1 05 $ amous

011 65 0v 1 0 . H lm
o ii .
4 79 d oes n ot m enti on thi s
4 . l
P ato R ep 469 . B . I n th e tl l em . A ii . 15 it is ag reed t h at 609
01 pa r

mr5 8 a i p6 06 2
9 6 5 11031! 1 6 K ai 6x0pc w 11 5 M

6
a v5 pa 1ro5
0 7rr a t hi s i
act on is
5 . D em os t h en es ag a in st M i o i as

48 . Ne v ert hl e ess a ny on e u s u rp ng i
i
c ti z en r igh ts was u
po n c onv c t on so i i ld a s a s av e. l K enn ed y l oc . c it .
6 . For th e res i dent a li en s s ee th e v ery c ear a cc ou n t l in K enned y, o p . ci t.
PP 2 5 14 54
7 . l
P a to R ep 420 . B , c .
8 . i
A r s t Pol . . 1 2 64 b .
9 . Z ll
e er A r istot le ii . 225 .
10 . H om er I l xv i
. .
3 86 ; H es odi Wo rks 2 75 - 28 5 .
II . H esi od Works 1 87
O X T N Ot ,
'
06 5 6 6 15 51 6 5 5 56 02

06 651! (5t '

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6 0 0 1 1 0K 6 130 t r 0p6 11 1 7jpta 5 026 0,

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12 . 2 75 fo ll .
m

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7 69 5 6 7 5 p @0m 0 1 v p ov K pou l wv,

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dv 0p0nroc0 1 5 , i)

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5 p 61! 6Aov 5 15 0? 6 5 p15011 a Z E0

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1 6 00 61 01 , 6v 5 5 5 l xnv
5 B dgb a s vK 6 0 1 0v 010 0 023,
l

1 05 5 6 1 dua vpo pn
116 1 5 11 10 06 M a n1 01
-

dv 5 p5 : 5 6 5 5 pxov
73
13 . Theogni s 20 5
55

555 5 a 51 5 s 61 6 20 6 KaK5u xp os 05 X 0t 0 w
dwr 1ra t 0 2v 1rercp u a 0 6 v ,

0aua 1 os 7 5 p dva t5 77:

dhh ov 5 05 Ka1 xe 5 110 7

ua pt/ '
11
p5 0 06 v HAGWPOLS
76 1 0 K pa pwv .
14 . H era c lit us fr . 28 D i el s
A i m) 10 1 1 0 5 1 6 05 63 1!
5 506 1 0 2 # T xr ova s Kai p apr upa s .
l i a f 6K w0 1rep 1 6 1 6 01

15 . . r .
44 00x6 0 0a t X pi) 1 5y 5 11 5 p 1 05 V6120!) x .
16 . T h eogni s 1 47

69 5 6 5 tK a t00 5 v y

0 vhh 5 nv 11 5 0 01 w,

56 1 dv hp d ya 069 , K 5 pv6 , 5 txa tos 603 v

.
17 . H era cl i tu s fr . 28 .
18 . A es c y hl us S upp 707 .
1 5 7 5 p 1 6 105 01 100 06 00 :

1 pl 1 ou 1 5 5 61/
A im s y ypa r wat
'
u ey
, wr or li w u .
hl
A es c y u s l
f e t k een y th e l i m portance of 06 6 0s

a we .

S ee E u m en i aes

5 16 5 5 7
-
19 . Pi nda r 0l . x iii . 6
6V 1 7 5 p E 5 1 0pl a v a l et , K G O L YV

1 a 1 6,
Bd0pov 11 02\ da a h g w
Aim Kai 5 ,12 61 potp0s E l pv a , 1 a ,ul a t du5 pd0 t 71 1 05 1 00,
Xp5 0 6 a t 1 025 6:
20 .

i
A r s tot l e Pol . 1 3 26 a 8 1 6 75 p V6,U. O$ 1 1: 60 1 2, K 02 1 371
ava -yK a i ou 6 5 1 02 83011! l
e va t .
21 . hl
A es c y u s S eptem 646 6 71 I n th e s a m e p a y, 102 6 . l -
10 5 3 , t h ere is a
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88 . S ee l
a so c h pt a er xi .
( 1 16 1 a , b ) .
89 . S ee E t/z zc:
'
1 16 1 b q t u o ed a b o v e .
90 . Pol i ti cs 1z 55 a 5 1 5 1rep 0 5 7 05 9 05 {3 05 5 5 67 6 111 5 05 5 0 09 ,

0117 0 1 7 05 3
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5 7 6 p 65 070703 9 6 277 0716 11 K 7 5 . es pec i a ll y th e l t nt n

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7 K 773 , K0 .
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exec .
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.
95 . S tob aeu s Fl or z l egz mn

' '
xx iii . m p1
96 . A r s tot i l e E t/z z cs
'
l 1 68 b cl y dp 7 13 di d mrov6d oc 6
K <u a 1rpdr rew

c 67 69 dN O T a i) 6 a dg
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,
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ml

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u p
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a trrb s v7 a er a c 7 ou s (b c
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. . T or
1 6V 66 uo
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For P a to s l
vi ew s ee L a ws 73 1 E 1 6 6% dxndel g ye wdw wv d/L a pmp dr wv '
66pa a v ro (ptM a v a i n ou xdom p yI yv e ra L K dO T or e

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a
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ow 1ra p y
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.
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dua dl a v T hy 7ra p

6e dua p n /L a r os r or ov K a i 6oxei v

la v el m :
' '
ao
y yove 1rda w K T )
'
'
97 . B i og La e t . r . vii .
95 a r ov 6a i ov

(l m y.
k y ovm 6% 37V qSLM a v u p oy oz s Kat 7

'

I za . 124 1 02s a 1rov6a l ocs ch a t , 6L6 . n

yu
dum n rra (pa c k 6 % a dn yv K owwvi a v r w a e a L

. 7 6311 K an } . 7 6v Bl ow xpwp vwv,
77
'
v mm
( o
98 . 23 pwr q del s '

T : i a n 95 1M : m, ycb
dkk os, c/
. S ee th e l ast
l
c a u s e of th e p rec ed i ng q u otati on .
99 . T he E p i cu rea n v ew of i fr i endsh i p i s di s cu ss ed b y Ci ce o i n de m b u s r
'
I .
S ee a so l D i ogenes L a erti u s x . 1 48 (By 7 5 ao l a wa pa a xevdf er a c

Q
'
s s i

7 17u 7 00
6X 01; i ov WON) M yw r ov
a n u 77
duM a s Ka i T hy
bpw p u ocs do cdxa LM a s

v (1 61 02 7 02s p dh

66 2
-
s ( av y opl f ew
'
ara
'
K r aa

a vvr ek ovp vnv .
1 00 . D i og . L a ert . x . 12 1 m 2 zn rp 960 01)

'
7 07 % Te dm
sea da t .
10 1 . Ody ssey i x . 21
5
d yptov,

067 6 61m : el 667 a. 067 6 Guwr a s

.
I b z a 447 460

1 02 . . .
1 03 . Ody ssey xv ii .
3 04

a zrr ctp

6
v ag v m [ 6601' dwap pEa -
r o 6d v
6 6 2a k a dd w E p a tov .
T he m any ep ta p s on a n m a s i n th e A n t o ogy ( A n tlz Pa l i h i l hl . . vi i . 1 89 2 1 6 )

s h o w h ow th e a ffec t on g rew f or t em i n a ter t m es i h l i .
NOTES 81
1 04 . D i og . La ert. vi ii .
36
ml 7ror
'
my ar u eN 0p vov a xuka xos wa pt w a .
a a lv Ka i 65 6 (pdo da c 1ros '

7

1reu 7

#7766 dm f 7\ov dv pos d r l
/ x
i xv , T hu 7 w 66 7 w
a p mys ( .
1 05 . A ri s tot l e R etori c 13 73 1) b
o s M 761 . 7re i
p 7 0 6 My K rei vew

mm 6 6l xm ov ,

7 6p p u 6Z K u

7 6 f ugb vxov '
77 0
7 01 01) 1 10 2 ou
'
. of)

6 AM} . 1 6 h ey n dur wv V6LLL LLOV 6t 7 epvp c l om , ,
'
os
a wpos "
v ex ws T r a T a L 6Ld 7 dwk r ov a t?

.
For E u ri pi des s ee Verra ll Fou r Pl y of E a s ur ipia es p

. Verra l q u otes
1 94 . l
H zpp [ on ; H Fu r en s 1 3 86 1 3 88

. 1 2 40, 1 1 0 1 1 2 , 1 2 1 9 ; 1 79 er cu l es -
.
1 06 . For P a to s l
i
v ews o n ob i o l o
gy s ee T z m aeu s 77 A
'
C an d 90 E , 91 D f oll .
C l em en s S tra w . v .
5 90 C K a d k ov 7 0 6V r iyy c
pl 06
ou w ow w

E ey oxpd ms dr ek r i f a s dk oyms { 9501s

K a i v 7 02

Oll K s
.
Q u oted by Z lle er Pl ato p 5 9 2 . n ote 36 .
1 08 . B i og . L a ert . iv . 10 a r povdl ov
'
66
01 6 6c op u ov 61 6 l pa K os, K a i
m Ma a vr os sis 6)\7rovs /i mdxeu sin 1 6V i x rnv

el a a trr oi} ,
-
K K a r a tf r e d : ,
66 2v p i7 K 6L 66v at
. .
1 09 . S ee Z ll e er A r i stotl e ii .
p p 3 9 5 , 3 96 , wi t
. hq u ota t on s i fr om Porp yry h .
1 10 . I bi a
.
p 413 , w
. h ere s ee q u ota ti on s f rom Porp yry h .
111 . D i og . L a ert . v ii . 129 3 1 1 dp owec

a i rr oi s
'
p 776v
. n
e ve l 601m m! mob s
dkk a f el3 a , 616 l dwoy m r nra

T
'

. .
1 12 . L a ert . x. 150 .
(B 5 81 ) G
C H A PT E R I I I
M O RA L I T Y I N TH E FA M I L Y
du6p2 6% m i 7 1211 m 1M a 601cc? K ur d (Ma w 61rd;
CHAPTER III
M O R AL I T Y I N TH E FA M I L Y
1
L

d e l a famille sa y s Coulan g es
I SOL E M E N T ,

a t , ,
chez cette race 1e com men cem ent de l a m orale

,
L a les .
d evoirs o n t apparu clairs pr cis i mp rieu x mai s

, , , ,

resserr s d an s u n cercl e restrei nt S in ce m an rst .
becam e conscious of duties and capable o f appreciatin g

,
virtues in the circle of his famil y i t is a p r i or i u nlikel y

, ,
that an in stitution so n atu ral as m arria g e and so poten t ,

G re ek V ew i
O f m a ma ge
for good i n the trainin g o f men and citizen s should ever ,
'
have fallen very low i n the respect o f a people who were

so essen tial l y hu man as the Greeks That the Greeks .
kn ew l ittl e o r n othin g o f moral pu rity m ay be readil y

ad mitted But it is quite possible f o r con siderable
.
appreciation o f th e valu e o f m arria g e to e x ist sid e b y

s id e with g reat l a x ity o f m orals outsid e the fam il y ci rcle .
The character of O d y sseus i n the Ody s s ey is a proof .
E x am ination wi ll show that the G reek V iew o f m arria g e

was hi g her than i s g enerall y supposed I n Aesch y lu s .
the fam il y ti e is m ore prom i nent than citi z en ship and ,
Aristotle re g ard s m arria g e as m ore natu ral than the S tate .
The beautifu l pictu res of married life which are P ii

os t on of
W om en
presented to u s i n the H om eri c poems are larg el y d ue '
to the hi g h honou r i n which women were then held .
With the de g rad ation o f woman consequent u pon the

develop men t of cit y life in which she can not play so
,
i m portant a part m arriag e loses the delicate bloom it

,
85
on ce had but assu mes other aspects d ue to the necessit y

, ,
o f m arria g e f o r the pu rposes of the State .
R ea s on s f or The Greek o f every period was in fluenced stron g l y

m arr ag e i .
b y reli g ious m otives i n enteri n g the married state It .
was a d uty to his ancestors that there shoul d always b e

a l in e o f d escendants to p ay the customa ry ri tes to the
departed . The y at d eath becam e spirits whose felicity
, ,
depended upon the service of those on earth and who i n , ,
thei r tu rn were able to bestow blessin gs f o r favou rs

,
2
rendered . H owever little this featu re appears i n Greek
literature i t was certainl y a real it y which was n ot
,
destroyed b y the deca y o f reli g ion or the feeblen ess o f

the hope of i m mortalit y I s aeu s say s that child less m en
.
on their death bed s tak e care to ado pt child ren in order

-
that they m ay not leave their homes desolate withou t a ny

3
successor to perform all accu stomed rites This relation .
of marria g e to famil y reli g ion g rew i nto a relation to

the State reli g ion as soon as city life became com mon .
The relationship of brother an d sister also was a reli gious

on e as is plai n from the A n ti gone o f Sophocles
,
But i n .
its relation to reli g ion l a y the weakness o f the Greek idea

of m arria g e as well as its stren g th R eli g ion required.
that the fam il y stock shou ld be kept pure This cond ition .
satised i t mad e n o fu rther d emand for moral purit y

,
.
An other reason for m arria g e was to sec u re a hou se

keeper as well as child ren who should protect thei r
,
parents i n old a g e There was a solid basis of util i

.
ta ri a n i s m i n a Greek m arria g e 1
.
Fi nall y marria g e was a State dut y

,
I t i s to be .
noticed that this aspect o f it was n ecessaril y absent in

H omeric ti m es and did not appear before the d evelop
,
ment of city life .
A ff ti
ec on in M utual aff ection does not appear to have been a
m id
arr e
cause of m arria g e but there is n o evidence to show that
lf
i e .
,
5
it was n ot g enerall y the result o f i t The m anner i n .
which Socrates d ism isses X an thippe i n the prison has

M O RA L I T Y I N T H E FA M I L Y 87
often been quoted to sho w the scan t respect Greek

6
hu sbands had f o r their wives Bu t i t su re l y i nd icates
.
the desire o f Socrates to shorten a painful partin g that

was prostratin g his wife with g rie f N o t cal lousn ess bu t .
,
g enuin e kindness shines throu g,

h the brief request o f

Socrates to his friend Cri to let som e o n e take h er
, ,
home .

The Oeeon om i eu s of X enophon describes the
relations of m an and wife withou t indeed d we l l in g u pon
a ff ection but i mpl yi n g it throu g hout
,
I f the Greek s .
were educated b y s tud y in g H omer they m ust have been ,
i n uen ced b y the pictures he g ives o f m arital affection .
The heroines o f the d rama Anti g on e M acaria Deian ira , , , ,
A lcestis and the rest wou ld have been meanin g less had
,
they not stru ck a s y mpatheti c chord i n the audien ce .
What does stri ke the modern i s the absen ce o f senti m ental

relations between m en and women S enti ment a g reat .
,
po wer for evi l as well as f o r g ood was i n Greece thrown ,
away o n de g rad in g i nd ul g en ce Between m an and wife .
there e x isted a ff ection but n ot rom anti c love qbwua

, ,

n ot ep o s

The rst three chapters o f X enophon s H i er o

.

show this well .
The blot upon the pictures o f m arried li fe which i

E du c t
a on
0
have come down to us from the g reat period of Greek
l iteratu re is the i mperfect ed ucation and secl uded life of
the women The y oun g wi fe o f I s ch o m a ch u s she was
.

n ot m ore t h an fteen at the ti m e o f her weddin had

g
been tau g ht b y her mother to spin to weave an d , ,
7
a w
p ovei u Care had .been taken that she should see ,
8
hear an d ask as little as possible I s c h o m a c h u s u nder .
takes to edu cate his wife to ful l her n ew station but ,
even he assents to the belief that a wom an s place i s
9
i ndoors an d d eclares that b oth custom and the divin e
,
will h ave so decreed This cram pe d life resu lted i n

.
i g noran ce and lack o f self control The Athen ian lad y s

-
.

vi rtu e was a cloistered virtue H ence no d oubt the .
frequenc y at Athen s o f ad u ltery on the part of the wife ,

88 G RE E K M O R A L I T Y
and the loose moral ity of the husband outside the famil y
circle
. The physique o f the race as wel l as the morali ty
,
( in the wid est sense ) o f the wom en m ust have suf

,
f ered
from the e x clusion fro m Open ai r life and ph ysical -
e x ercise
. H ow m u ch o f this the Athenian woman
enj o yed m a y be g au g ed from the recom mendation of
I s c ho m ac hu s to his wi fe to attend to the clothes and
10
coverlets i n order to ben et her health .
i i
E u r p d es I t seems to have been Euripides who rst perceived
a nd
i
m arr a ge .
the i nadequacy of women s ed u cation and its d eplorable
consequences . H e does not denitel y state this for he ,
took g reat pleasu re i n in nuend o an d assu med that his

,
hearers ( or read ers ) would d raw thei r o wn concl usion s .
The facts are these . The play s o f Eu ripides contain

man y ery outbu rsts a g ainst the spite cu n nin g and ,
im m ora l i ty o f women . They a l so show some o f the

nest female characters that have ever been conceived .

The conclu sion i s obvious . The poet m eans H ere you ,
see women as they are . There you see them as the y

m i g ht be an d ou g ht to be
, .
I f Eu ripides m ust receive the cred it of havin g mooted

the question o f the position of women it was philosophic ,
ethics whi ch rst attempted a serious solution The .
utilitarian views o f S ocrates appear i n his followers

as a tenden c y to in g asid e the fetters of convention ,
and to settl e the m atter b y an appeal to utility and to

the an alo gy of an im al life The C y nics seem to have
.
carried this to the e x tent o f violatin g al l mod esty and

11
decen c y .
l
P a to a nd B y the tim e o f P lato the posi tion o f wom an i n th e
m arri a ge.
fam ily had become a g enerall y d iscussed problem .
Aristophanes had written the E col es i a z u s a e to parody the

com mun istic theories which were then bein g mooted 12
In .
his treatment of the subj ect Plato seems to have been

i nu en ced b y :
( )
a The e x ample of Sparta where women
,
enj o y ed
M O R A L I T Y I N T H E FA M I L Y

89
reater freedom than i n the rest o f Greece and

g ,
where their ph ysical cu ltu re was an obj ect of

g reat attention .
6
( ) The tenden c y to appeal to n atu re characteristic of
t h e Socratic school .
()
e The mani fest decien cies i n the fam il y l ife of
his a ge .
I have alread y had occas ion to n otice that Plato was a

severe criti c of the in s titutions and man ners o f his native
city. So m u ch is this the cas e that i f a ny position i s
,
defended b y hi m with g reat heat i t i s worth whil e ,
i nquirin g whether the Opposite view is n ot the o n e cu rren t;

at the ti me . I n the presen t case he saw that the li fe o f
women was cram ped and mai m ed b y a rti cial restrictions .
Accordin g l y these must all be abolished Wom en were

.
u n ed u cated . They mu st therefore be subj ect to the sam e

edu cation ph ysical and i ntellectu al as the m en
, ,
I n all .
this P lato was g overned b y uti litarian m otives of the

strictest kind I n the an imal world there i s n o waste of
.
a whole s ex why should this waste occu r in the case o f

hu m an bein g s ? R id icule i s n o answer to this question ,

for the golden ru le is that the u sefu l is n oble and the ,
hu rt ful base .S o n o d istinction is to be d rawn between

the d uties o f the two se x es e x cept i n so far as less m ust

,
be e x pected from woman owin g to her ph ysical d is

,
abil ities
.
The com mu nity o f wives an d child ren recom mended W hy P l to a
b y Plato was n o new idea to the Greeks H erodotu s .
noticed i t amon g certain forei g n p eO p l es 13

B ut Plato m m ni ty
.
co u
f W W O CS
was the rst to propose i t seriousl y as an im provem en t
u po n the m ono g amous state in vo g ue throu g hout Greece .
I n this su gg estion o n e o f his obj ects was to brin g the

reg u lation o f marria g e u nder a close State supervision in
order to secu re the best possibl e o ff sprin g A n other .
obj ect was to m ake the S tate a m ore harm oniou s whole
90 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
by tu rn in g it in to on e l ar g e famil y for Plato was b y n o ,
mean s blind to the man y advanta g es to be d erived from

famil y life The d istin ction between m eu m and tu u m was
.
to be obliterated to t h e utmost Eve ryon e would then

.
l ook upon his n ei ghbou r as a father o r m other brother ,
o r sister and i n place o f m a g istrates and law suits

,
the -
two powerfu l warders Fear and Sham e would preven t

, ,
14
vio l ence and crim e Su rel y all this points to the
.
con clu sion that i n spite o f i ts i mperfection s Greek fam il y ,
l ife fostered an aff ection which Plato wished to e x tend so

as to embrace the whol e State .
W o m en P h ilosophic d iscussion seems to have had but littl e

a nd P hil o
in uen ce upon the position o f women in Greece and the
s op hy.
,
in creased fond ness f o r home l ife manifested after the

close o f the fourth century i s probabl y due to t h e u n
satisfy in g nature o f civi c li fe as com pared with what it
was a cen tu ry before There are n evertheless a few
.
s cattere d hi nts that help received i n the stud y of philo

soph y caused a few men to value the aid of wom en i n
m atters outsid e of pu rel y household cares What g en eral .
effect was prod uced b y this it is q uite i mpossible to

state. P y thag oras is said to have had a wi fe T h ea n o ,
Who appears to have helped him i n his philosophical

pursuits . A stor y i s reported o f her which contain s on e
o f the few in stan ces o f a consciousness o f moral pu rit y
15
which I can nd i n pre Christian ti mes -
The dau g hter o f .
P y tha g oras Demo is said to have been en trusted b y him

, ,
with the care o f his books with the com mand to g ive ,
them to n o o n e outsid e the hom e Thou g h a heav y price

.
could have been obtained she refused to sell them i n ,

obed ien ce to her father s com mand and that thou g h a ,
16
woman ad ds the n arrator
,
I t is therefore n ot surprisin g
.
t h at i n the P ytha gorea n schoo l we n d a hi g h idea l of

17
m arital relations .I n the n e x t centur y Aspasia was
m uch esteemed b y Pericles for her culture and wisdom .
L ater o n the dau ghter o f Aristippus Arete stud ied

, , ,
M O RA L I T Y I N TH E FA M I L Y 9 1
philosoph y an d i nstructed therein her s on Aristippu s the

, ,
oun er who was accordin l st led 6 6
y g , g y y n n r
p o t a /c ros .
T h em i s ta th e wi fe o f L eon teus was a student of philo

, ,
sop h y to whom Epicu ru s wrote some o f his d id acti c

,
19
l etters. H i p p a rc h i a who fell i n love with the C y n ic
,
Crates and threaten ed to com mit suicide u n less she were

,
u nited to him i s d eemed worth y b y D iog en es L aerti u s of

,
20
a who l e chapter in his history o f p hi l O S O p hy .
The e x am ple o f these ladies m ust have shown the

G reeks t h at wom en c ou ld share with prot the i ntel lectu al
pursu i ts o f m en .
A ristotle s remarks about fam i l y li fe form stron g A i

l '
r s tot e s
e viden ce that i t was held i n hi g h esteem i n his d a y an d ,
that the speculation s o f previous philosophers con cern in g

a com mu nit y o f wives and child ren m ust n ot be taken to
i mpl y the e x isten ce of hopeless d efects or g en eral d i s s a ti s ,
faction with the actual state o f thin g s I t i s a si gn i can t

.
fact that t h e com mu nity o f wives so stron g l y advocated ,
b y Plato is d ismissed b y A ristotle as d estru ctive o f

,
21
a ff ection . The fam i l y relation to A ristotle is a n atu ral
an d m oral on e M an an d wi fe form an aristocracy i n
.
which bo th partners are equ al but have u nequal ri g hts ;

father an d children form a m onarchy brothers a club o f ,
as sociates o n equal term s Parents he say s love t h ei r

.
, ,
child ren as bein g themselves ; child ren love thei r paren ts

as the sou rce o f thei r bein g an d one another because,
they owe thei r e x istence to the sam e paren ts T h e love .
22
o f m an an d wi fe i s n atu ral A ristotle is here an al y sin g
.
society as he foun d it and the beautiful pictu re he d raws

,
is n ot m arred b y a ny d is g urin g blots I t wou ld even .
ap p ear that as citizen l i fe be cam e less absorbin g with the

d ecay o f political libe rty the activities of the Greek fou nd
,
e x pression in an increased fondness for hom e li fe S uch .
at l east is t h e con clusion hinted at b y the chan g e from

the O l d Comed y to the New wherei n pol itical l i fe g ives
,
place to that o f the fami l y Further evidence is afforded

.
9 2 G R E E K M O R AL I T Y
by the A ntholo gy I t is about the ti me o f Aristotle that

.
fam il y relations be g in to form an i m portant theme of the

epi g ram matists I t is true that we have to wait until
.
al most the Christian era for the beautiful epitap h of

A p ol l o n i d es u pon man and wife rej oicin g i n their tom b
23
as i n a bridal chamber but there are others chie fl y o n
,

,
child ren who have died you n g rem ind in g u s o f M en a n d er s ,

wel l known he whom the g ods love dies youn g which
-
,
prove that hom e life was as cl ear to the hearts of men as

it alway s has been I f two centuries had brou ght
.
d eg en eration to Greece b y the y ear 3 0 0 B C hom e l i fe at . .

,
least m ust be con sid ered e x em pt .
T he m n or i H ow then are we to re g ard th e continuous l in e o f

S oc ra t cs i thin kers who from the d awn of ethics dispara ge the
, ,
th e E p i
cu rea n s a n d famil y o r even advocate the abolition of m arria g e and
,
i
S to cs .
the substitution of free l ove ? Ever since the tim e

when Socrates had asserted the ri g ht of every m an to
test all thin g s before the j ud g m en t seat o f his o w n -
reason there had been some who i n sisted u pon the self
,
su f cien c y of the ind ividual an d his i ndependen ce ,
o f al l in stitutions whether that of the State o r that of

,

the famil y The idea was n ew to the Greek an d was
.
,
pu rsued with all the zest that n ovelty inspires C y n i cs .

,
C y ren aics Stoics and E picu reans are all i n d ifferent wa ys

, , ,
an d i n differen t de g rees su pporters o f the ri g hts o f the ,
in divi dual . I n spite o f this there is sometim es fou nd

in these phi l osophers acquiescence in the e x istin g
in stitutions or even approval o f them These facts need .
recon ciliation The attempt to eff ect such a reconcilia

.
tion will at least throw som e l i g ht on the cond ition of

societ y at the ti me The above m en tioned schools had
.
-
becom e conscious o f the moral value o f the in dividual .
But with the on e sidedness which n earl y alwa ys char

-
a c teri s es makers of n ew d iscoveries the y tried to m ak e it ,
the basis of their whol e ethical s ystem Fam il y society .

, ,
the S tate were n othin g the in dividu al his virtue or his

, ,
M O R A L I T Y I N T H E FA M I L Y 93
p l easu re was every thin g

,
The wise m an o f the C y nics
.
and S toics coul d violate the received cod e o f condu ct and

still be virtuous H e wou l d n ot possess convention al
.
vi rtue it i s true ; but he wou l d be l ivin g i n accordan ce

,
with natu ral virtue I f he belon g ed to a ny society at all

.
,
i t was the world A sublim e idea the true meanin g an d

.
,
bearin g o f whi ch we are on l y now be g in n in g to realise .
B ut in contrast to this idea l the philosopher fou n d hi mse l f ,
i n the mid st o f societies so me o f g reat antiquity whi ch

, ,
form ed an envi ron men t from which escape was i m possible .
T h es e s oc i eti es must be taken i nto accou n t L i fe m ust .
be harmonised therewith Even the C y ni cs with their

.
,
g enera ll y consisten t rad ical ism show i n consistencies when ,
treatin g o f the fami l y an d m arried l ife H en ce An tis .

th en es ,
while d eclarin g that the safes t rampart is
wisdom was forced to bel ieve that i n the wor l d as it is
,
th e com mon life o f u nited brothers is safer than a n y

25
rampart A ntisthenes said that the wise m an would
.
m arry ; Dio g enes that women should be i n com m on .
A ristippus thou g ht ri g hteousness g ood and yet his wise ,
m an will n ot hesitate to com mit ad u ltery su rel y at a n y ,

tim e an off en ce a gainst ri g hteousness i n ttin g circu m ,
26
stan ces .
I t m ust not be forg otten that A ntisthenes was partl y a

Thracian while Aristippu s D io g enes and Zen o all cam e
, , ,
from the outski rts o f the Greek world an d m ust have ,
b een acquainted with the customs and i nstitutions of n o n

Greeks . This would help to accou nt fo r thei r revolt
a g ainst Greek m oralit y We are n ot l eft to conj ectu re
.
,
for Dio genes j usti ed cann ibalism o n the g round t h at

27
som e nations practised i t The in consistencies which .
are often apparen t in the C y n i c and S toic ethics are

certain l y due to the two i mpulses which i nuen ced the
l ives of the philosophers new e x perien ces of li fe an d the
, ,
i mperious n ature of the social pressu re which was e n c ou n

tered i n Greek cities T h e fruit o f the new teachin g was
.
94 GREEK M ORA LI TY
slow to ripen . The u niversal brotherhood of man partl y ,
realised i n the R oman empire became an accepted truth ,
onl y with the adven t o f Christi anit y i n which is neither ,
bond nor free neither male n or fem ale and even n ow

, , ,
after the lapse o f centuries the ideal seems as far as ever

,
from bein g realised i n practice .
Parents an d The lo ve o f parents for their child ren an d of child ren

C h i l dr
en
for thei r parents is so n atu ral an affection that it wou ld
be su rprisin g i f l iteratu re had not reected it plain l y .
A s far as can be seen lial and parental love su ff ered no

,
chan g e from the be g inn in g to the end o f Greek history ,
e x cept in so far as it becam e a cl earer possession when

the State be g an to lose its hold upon the hearts o f m en .
O ccasionall y am on g the philosophers we hear the c ry that

the rearin g of children is so u ncertain in its issue that a
man i f he be wise wi l l refrain from havin g child ren of his
o wn. Several fra g m ents o f D emocritu s to this effect are
quoted b y S tob aeu s 28
. The ph i losopher recom m end s
adoption on the g roun d that this cou rse en ables a m an to
have children o f the character he d esires E picu rus .
appears to have d ispara ged m arria ge for the same reason

as caused Dem ocritu s to ad vocate adoption I t is .
3 31
i nstructive that Eu ripides and M en and er who were ,
contemporaries o f the philosophers m ention ed above both ,
contai n m an y allusion s to the troubles brou g ht upon

parents b y their child ren These facts point to a comm on
.
ori g in . The closin g y ears of both the fth and the fourth
cen tu ries were period s of d istress At such tim es men are .
wont to see that the g reater a blessin g is the g reater the ,
pain it can inict B ut the m ood was tem porary and du rin g
.
,
the third centu ry love o f child ren shines o u t bri ghtl y in the
epi g rams o f the antholo gy while Eu ripides hi msel f i s the
,
author o f some o f the m ost beauti fu l lines ever written on

32
the subj ect . M enan der too i n som e places asserts what
, ,
33
a blessin g it is to have child ren Perhaps the ty pical .
form of the New C omed y accounts for the presence of both

these sentim ents i n M en ander The i rate father when.

~
his s o n wishes to marry someon e o f whom his parent

d isapproves cries o u t u pon the trouble of the than kless
,
child . The childless father ( whose lon g lost son is -
probabl y g oin g to be found i n the course o f the plot )

e x tols the j oy o f havin g an heir The s peeches o f I s a eu s .
are an el oquent testimon y to the val ue o f children i n the

ey es of the Athen ians I f fu rther witn ess were needed we
.
have it in A ristotle who assu mes as a m atter of cou rse

,
that the best happines s i s i m possibl e without g ood birth ,
beauty, and The Greek certai nl y desired

child ren to sustain his o l d ag e ( ynpor pocpei v) an d to succeedr
,
hi m when he died I t was a d isaster for the stoc k to di e

.
out . I t is n ot su rp risin g however to nd that the selsh

, ,
hed on ist A ristippus failed to see that his own son had a
35
clai m u pon his care an d attention .
36
D au g hters were considered an en cu mbran ce I t is .
p robable that it w a s this deep rooted feelin g whi ch caused-
Plato to be alarmed about the ph y sical condition o f future

g en erations and
,
to assert so stron l
g y the wisdom of
g ivin g to each s ex as far ,
as possibl e the sam e ed ucation ,
i n gy m nasti c as well as i n music H is word s d o n ot .
appear to have been taken to heart i m mediatel y O n ce .
ag ain we nd an ethical ideal which rs t clearl y enu n ,
c i a ted b y this philosopher too k centu ries to fi n d its wa , y

i nto g eneral conduct .
That children owe their parents honou r and obed ience H o no u r
i s a sim ple m oral precept which the G reeks al ways

accepted as freel y as a n y other n ation N o du t y is more .

strictl y insisted upon i n Greek l iteratu re L ove y ou r .

mother child ren says Eu ripides for there is n o sweeter
, , ,
37
love ( pwq ) than this

Ale x is d eclares that reli g ion
.
38
can n ever be superior to the claims o f a mother
'
.
M enander say s that l d/2 0 9 assi g ns to parents honou r

i
39
equal to that o f the g ods P l ato i nsists upon this duty
.
i n l an g ua g e o f the g reatest beauty and solem n ity and ,

9 6 G RE E K M O RA L I T Y
declares that n o household i mag e o f the g ods can equal

father mother o r g randparents still livin g i n the hom e
, , .
N emesis the messen g er of ri g hteousness keeps watc h an d

, ,
40
ward over these m atters to pu nish the trans g ressor It .
was not to obliterate lia l piety but to m ak e it em brace

the whole State that Plato i n the R epu ol i c recom m ended
, ,
a com mu nity o f child ren and wives Finall y the S tate .

,
41
pun ished u n l i a l child ren .
S ocra tes
'
We can therefore u nderstand the alarm with which the
Eggggz Athen ian s re garded the teachin g o f S ocrates H e seem s
p
.
e v
i f
s a n c t on or to have wished to g ive to the parental an d lial ties a n ew
san ction that of utility
,
Father m ust show him self u sefu l
.
42
i
aff ec t o n . to son . S on m u st prove to be of service to father His .
cou n try men were i n di g nant T h at paren ts and children

.
ou g ht to help o ne another i s ri g ht an d proper enou g h .
Bu t it ou g ht to be taken for g ranted Utility should n ot .
be made a san ction for it removes responsibilities j ust i n

,
those cases ( a ged parents weakl y child ren ) where the

,
responsibility i s g reatest Even Socrates hi mself does

.
n ot appear to have been consistent here H e bases his .
rebuke to his son L a m p roc l es chie y o n the g rou nd o f

43
com m on g ratitud e w h i l e S tob aeu s attributes to him we
, ,
d o n ot know o n what au thority the sayin g that o n e m u st ,
accom modate on esel f to an u nkin d father as to a harsh

44
law .
E xp os u re We are cu riousl y i n the dark con cernin g the e x posu re

hi l
C d ren
o f su ch child ren as the father for som e reason o r other , ,
d id n ot wan t to rear I t m ay be taken for g ranted that

.
a Greek felt n o horror at the custom A el i a n say s .
45
that it was condem ned b y law at Thebes but it is ,
al most certai n that this was the e x ception Probabl y .
il l e g itimate child ren an d dau g hters were the g reatest

su fferers . The clearest proof that in classical times
child ren were not seldom left to perish is in the l ea etetu s
of P lato . Socrates com pares his art o f cross e x am in ation -
to the art o f a midwife addin g that man y are an g ry when

,

robbed o f thei r pet i deas like a mo ther when her rs t ,
46
born is taken from her The m ere e x isten ce o f this
.

p ractice s hows that however m u ch the sheddin g o f bl ood

,
was l ooked upon as a reli g iou s pollution the ord inary ,
G reek attached n o value to hu man life as su ch P rovided .
that a m an d id n ot k ill his child with his o wn hand s he ,
had n o scruples about leavin g i t i n a desert place to p erish .
P lato and Aristotle alon e o f the philosophers h a ve A ttit d u e of
dealt with the e x posu re o f child ren Both d eal with the .
m atter from the poi nt o f view o f the S tate and are q ti o ,

ues n .
accordin g l y stron g l y utilitarian Plato would apparentl y .
e x po se all sickl y chi ld ren } an d com mand s parents n ot to

7
rear offsprin g from u nions outside the leg al li mits of

A ristotle condem ns e x po su re but recom m ends abortion
49
when too m an y child ren are born The reason he .
assi g ns is cu rious The m orality of the act he say s

.
, ,
d epends u pon the presen ce or absen ce o f sensation .
Aristotle was n o doubt led to this view b y his conviction

that both active and passive reason are n ecessary for
50
thou g ht The latter can not e x ist without sen sation
. .
Therefore i n a sense the embry o has n o li fe A ristotle .

,
it wi ll be seen re g arded al l d eveloped hu man li fe as sacred

, ,
and e x hibits a sli g ht ad vance upon the position o f P lato .
Philosophi c ethics o n this subj ect clearl y reects the

com mon m oral ity Bu t philosoph y had l ittle to teach i n
.
retu rn We have n o evidence that the recom m endation

.
o f Aristotle was ever fol lowed A utilitarianis m based .
upon a wide i nd uction and a deep kn owled g e o f biolo gy

and m edicin e m i g ht have had a considerable i nuen ce
upo n condu ct but the super ci al utilitarianis m of Greek
,
philosoph y could do scarcel y an ythin g bey ond endorsin g

a p ractice which i f not customary was at least rarel y
, ,
condem ned .
The famil y says Aristotle consists o f father m other

, , , ,
51
chi ld ren an d slaves
, I t s ti ll remain s to stud y the
.
position o f the l ast .
(8 5 81 ) H
98 GRE E K M O RALI TY
S l a very . S lavery was an i nstitution which Greek ideas of the

State and the fam il y rendered i ndispen sable That slaves
.
were often kindl y treated was in all cases due to the

hu man e nature o f thei r m asters They had n o ri ghts
.
,
with the e x ception s that they were protected b y law from

in su ltin g violen ce an d i n cases o f m u rder were n ot
,
52
put to death without trial .
T he G reek This view o f slavery was accepted b y the avera g e Greek

Vi ew
withou t com ment or question althou gh i n cou rse o f ti me

,
i t cam e to be considered i mproper to en slave G reeks so ,
that slaves and barbarian s becam e practicall y s ynon y mou s .
Nothin g else could be e x pected from the insistence of the

Greeks upon an e x actin g id eal o f citizenship which m ad e
63
considerable leisu re an absolute necessity To thi s .
m ust be added the characteristic d isl ike to all form s of

54
work that d warfed the bod y and d ulled the m ind Far .
from opposin g this dislike philosophi c ethics g enerall y

re garded freedom from d e g rad in g toil as an essen tial
55
condition for virtue .
Slavery then is accepted as natu ral and n ecessary .

I n the orators there is not a si n g le passag e whi ch
so m u ch as s u gg ests that the slave is the equ al of the
freeman o r that slavery is in opposition to n atu ral
,
56

ri ght. O n the other hand we see that slavery was

re g arded as a deg rad ation and a m isfortu n e ; i n H omer s
57
words it too k away hal f o f a man s worth
.
Q uotation is
u n n ecessary The con notation o f the word du6pa 7roBa36n9
.
is su f cien t evidence .The rst Greek to raise his voice

i n defence o f the slave was E uripid es I t i s l ikel y
.
enou gh that his stu d y o f n atu ral philosoph y contributed

n ot a l ittle to this result A g l impse of the u n iversality
.
of natu ral law makes hu man convention s appear pett y
and u n real and the con trast between (Ma t s and v dp os was
,

E uripid es a com mon place i n the tim e o f Eu ripides 58

The poet
.
clearl y sees the vices and de g radation o f the slave A .
man who believes a slave is a The slave has n o

M O RA L I TY I N TH E FA M I L Y 99
60
hi gher thou g ht than care for his be ll y But on the .
o ther hand it is declared that the on l y sham e o f slavery

61 62
l ies i n the n am e som e slaves are better than free m en .
M ay we as su m e that Eu ripides attacked slavery b y show

i ng the evi l o f its results ?
The g reat philosophers are i n complete accord wi th Vi w of e s
th p hi l o e
Greek senti ment S ocrates consid ered it 6fxcu ov for a
.
vi ctorious g eneral to enslave the i nhabitants o f a con

quer ed city 63
. P lato m erel y demands that n o Greek be
m ad e a slave 64
A ris totl e defends slavery o n the g rou nd
.
that i t is natural f o r those who are not capable of govern

i ng themselves ( i e n on Greeks ) to be g overned b y those
. .
-
65
who are ( i e Greeks )
. . H is d en ition of a slave is a
.
66
tool with a sou l i n it .
B u t i n A ristotle we beg i n to see si g ns that the work

be gu n b y E u ripides had not been alto g ether i n vai n .
While d en yin g that there could be a ny friendship between

m as ter and slave q u a slave he ad mits that there m ay
, ,
67
be q u a man
,
This can onl y be e x plai ned as a half
.
a d mission that after al l hu manit y as su ch ad m its o f the
hi ghest m oral relation s D oubtless A ristotle had seen

.
m an y cases o f friendship be tween m aster an d slave an d ,
felt called upon to e x plain the an omal y .
I n a passa ge o f the Pol i ti cs A ristotle i n forms u s that ,
t here were som e who re g ard ed slave ry as alto g ether

68
c ontrary to natu re H e m ay be referrin g to A l c i d a m as
.
,
a pupil o f Gor ias Perhaps however it is a referen ce

g .
, ,
69
to the C y n ics I t is onl y i n those schools o f thou g ht
.
whi ch wren ched them selves away from citizen li fe o r

a spi red to a citizenship o f the world that a n
y c o n d em n a
tion of sl avery i s to be found u ntil qu ite late I t is s ai d .
that the followers of H eg es i as the C yrenaic d eclared , ,
70
that to the wise m an slavery and freedom are equ al .
T his is not indee d a condemnation o f slave ry but it is a

, , ,
d irect departu re from the cu rren t Greek view I t seem s .
to have been hel d b y som e Stoics that the possession o f

I OO GRE E K M O RA L I TY
71
sl aves was an evil . L ater Stoics are ver y hu mane in
72
thei r d iscussions o f the question .
Et hics a nd The attitude of philosophic ethics towards slavery

l
S ave
shows clearl y that it could n ot rise above a sentim ent
i n g rained i n the n ational character . A few philosophers
held that slavery was un n atu ral but we do n ot k now even
,
thei r n ames. Now and then those who have deserted

the nation al in stitution s show fai nt si g ns of what will
happen when those i nstitutions have passed away . B ut
o n the whole it m ust h e con fessed that in this case con
duct stamped itsel f deep u pon ethics and was total l y
u n i n u en c ed in return .
N O TE S T O C H A P T E R I I I
1 . Cou l an
g es L a Ci t! A nti q ue p . 1 10 .
2 . S ee E u ri pi d es A l cesti s 99 5 f o (b u t A i s a eroi n e . ll . .

h
p 776? vexptbu di s 9694 06v X 66110 v omf a dw
'
. .
6u o

d ov, 06 026 : 6 ws ,
n i t ri a w, O

as mrpwv .
Kai n s 6o m
K k evov
66 pei
'
ua fvwv 1
'

a fir a wor e wpo da y du6p6s ,
v 1! 6 6

6 7 2 jud xa tpa 6a um . l y '

t6 7r67 v1 , 6 66 6ol i ys

X a ip , .
3 . I sa eu s Or . vi i .
30 mi
l / r es 7 6p of . T eh em r a et v

j Wh ali n g 6
7rp u oca v
mper povs

67 m: Sepn/L um ovo t
'
i row w a t 95t i) 1 06$ a dr d w ol K ovs,
'
6 u
,
m i 6 v a yub v K a i m i n d 1 6 wocvja wu K 69

6 DC o ra t a dr oi s 6L6

'
ns
'
.
drra t6es T ek ev n jo wa w , 06V 111611 W OLnO d/L GV OL K a r a h ei r ovm

'
S ee a sol Or . ii
5 81m : m) { d orm
. 10 a x67ret 6 36 0 6 06 9 d wa t s, 6 703 a ovr o
c1 61 9? do n s { aur a W por pocpi j a m K a i r eh evn ja a vr a 0161 69 Ka i sis
b ran d xp 6z/ov . v omf p eu a won om .
4 . A r stoti l e E tni es 1 1 62 a

oi 6

d r dpon roc 06 p 6vov
. T s T eKv owOLfa s
'
xdp w
a vvozxod w, 6 M 6 . Kai 7 0v a s 7 6u l ou .
5 . S ee es p e c a i lly th e s tr k ng words i i of A r stot i l e w hi h c as su m e a ff ec t on i

b etween m a n wi fe m a tter of c ou rs e : o w6pl

a nd as a 66 m 2 y i n/ cu r l t 60e
Kai 6
-
61rdpxew ( E t/z i es 1 1 62 a ) . H a em on a nd i
A nt gon e, h o wev er, a re
un iq ue in G reek li tera tu re .
6 . l
P ato Plzaea o 60 A

.
7 . X en op h on Oeeon . vi i . 6, 14 .
8 I bi d 67 6 em /xek el a s
Mon o

. .
5 wohk vj s 61rws b
t s hdxw r a '
.
p6
. 1! (
-
,

h dxw r a 6
dxoa orr o, kdxta r a 6
' '
. gpour o .
9 . I bi a
.
30 p 69 7 6p 7 W
. u K l t k tov 611 6011 ju v ew i) 6 vpa vk ci v .
10 . X en op h on Oet an . dy a 66v 5 e gb qu el v a t yviw do tov

x . 11
' '
xa l 1 6
[1 6 5 m {mi n K a l a r ptp a r a dv a o etd a t K a i a vv dei vou
'
Kai Kai d
'
. . .
E u r p des i i
i
v ews on th e edu c a t on of wom en a re expres s ed i n fi r . 2 12 N a u ck
cl v 06: gV GO T W cl 66 mi rt 66 ? K a h s
' '
'
yvvau x s, E l g iy .
p y a s x p na r cl s
'
X OL
I OI
102 GR E E K M O R A L I T Y
11 . For the i ndec enci es of the Cyn i cs s ee D i og . L a ert. v i . 69 an d v i .

46 , 4 9 .
A nt st i h i d th a t ma ri age exi s ted x w a

en es s a r T e vo o

as xdp w, a
p pa ren t ly n ot rec og n
n i si n oth er m oti v es D i ogen es recom m end ed a c om m u n i ty of wi v es ( Di og

g . .
L a ert . vi.
12 . For th e c onnect on b etween th e E i ecl es i a z u s ae an d P atol see A dam

A ppend ix I . to Book V . of th e R e u li e
p .
13 . H erod otu s iv . 1 04 [oi r l xow ou TCJV W M K GV T hu

K a a l yv mol dhh h wv f rom , m ! ol m
i oa dw es mi n re

WOLGUVT a t , i Va

es, u

6506c 61

6xdel Xp wvr a t s dh h i
h ov s
a m os t rem a rk a b e an t c l i i pa ti on of
P a to l Pep .
4 3 46 5
6
. S ee a so l H erodotu s iv . 1 80 .
14 . S ee R epu bl i c 462 46 6 .
15 D i og L v i
.
43 6 M 6 K a i . pwr nei a a v 1roa r a l a 7 1W ?
a ert. ) ii . .

.
67 dv 6p6s K a a peti ec ; 966 mm, d1r6 7 06 16l ov, r a pa xpna d7r6 66 .

dhh or pt ov, 066 1rore T 66 1rp6s 7 6v I 6t ov dv 6pa mh h oda y n opedea dcu , r a pzjv et
'
' '
. .

dn or i dea da t , dut a ra p vnv r e m i h w dud

duo . # 661141 0 : K 012 r vyv a la xt m nv

.
6 . 61 01 a 2 dy a ha yuducw . S ee a l s o S tob a eu s Fl or i l eg i u m l xxi v 49 ,

53, 55 . .
16 . D i og L a ert . . v iii .
42 .
E g i bi a 2 1 K oka f ou v ovs 66 m l Mi) d h ovr a s

17 . . . . 1 06: o w etv a t r a f ts (1 61
y vva tgl .
18 . E u s eb . Pr . E 72 . xi v . 1 8, 32 6
7 0 7 01) '
yy ovev 6 6V dhh ocs m l

i) A pn y, cbv uao ev

Gv ydr np n s y evvo a a a A pl crru n rou 1ra i 6a

a tur ou

.
'
, 6s

{ ma xdel s 67r \0tr o la s unr po6
6 1: A67 01) : L7 6a xr os xkdn .
1 9. D i og . L a ert . x . 25 .
20 . D i og . L a ert . vi . c h a p ter v i i .
21 . A r stot i l e Pol i ti cs 1 2 62 b 660 7 6p or w 6 udhw m our? K 1j6ea c u 7 06s

.
'
{610v K a i T 6 dya r nr v 6 w 066 r epov 026V

du pun rovs It a l ( h ei v ,
' '
c
w woh tr evop v ow

67rdpxew 7 0 s 2 067 .
22 . A i
r s tot e l E tlz i cs 1 1 60 b ci v 6p s 6 66 m l y vy a m 6s dp wr oxpa n xl; i ner a l ' '
m .
Krk.
'
1 161 a 6 pxuc6v wa r m ) vi d w 66 1 669 d 6eh
6v
r a tp 1 16 1 b b

tx oucev . '
yovei s n6 0 v 6 T xva t s a v r ods
7 6 p E
gr epm lcv a

i xwpl a da t ),

(1 67 631! ol ov 66
'

yovei s c6: d1r xel v wv

a irr a Ke T .

7re vK 6T a , d6ek ol 6 dhh h ovs 7 43 ex 7 669 1re v1< u a u l 1 62 a 66
K al yw a ucl LA6CL 6 0e K u r d (666 w 67rdpxew
'
. .
23 . A n t/
z . Pa l . v i i 3 78.

6 a vev H h t 66wpos, gb mrer o

066 66 0V 63p?

)
o r epov, du 6pi 960w) A w y ua 6dp a p

. a .

dp gb w os dp
C . va tov , 61r6

t h u d T vue ow a c,
f i n/ 6v dy a M /s evm Kai r dgb ov tb s Gdk a uov .
T o the p er od 3 00 2 00 i B C
. . be l ong ( 1 ) the b ea u ti fu l pi t p h
e a of Ca ll i m h ac us ,
A n t/i Pa l v ii 4 5 3 . . .
m dnxe <I >Dxt7r1r os

6 w6eK rn -
7 6u 7ra 26a. wa r hp a
0d5 6 , lW 7 0AM ) M rl 6a , N LK or hnv

6 1 T
'
.
N O TE S 103
( ) 2 two b y L eo n i das ( vii 463 .

, 66 2 ) on f ou r d a ug ters d ea d i n h c hil d b i th -
r ,
a nd on

a dead g i l orf sev en ; ( 3 ) f ou r b y A nyte ( vi i 486 490 646 , 649 ) on .

, ,
d ea d m a den s ; i (4 ) a n d on e b y M nasa l ca s ( v ii 488 ) on a d ea d m a i d A f ter . .
2 00 BC . . su c h pi g e ra ms b ec om e v ery c o mm on.
24 . For th e Cyni c v ew i of m a rri ag e see D i og . L a ert . vi . 11

'
7 019 756 6 19 7 6
t vi w7 1766 2 ( 6 A toymys ) wol q) K a tpqi 66 2 7 a n6 t9 ;

xdp w 5 4 6 $
'
7 6 K 9 01r0 a s . .
p
6dm, 7 0 6: #69 9 6009 un6 1r07 6, 7 0 $ 6 66 r ped vr povs #715 67 031r07 6 '
. vi .
72
6: W
'
6h 6 7 6 66 (6 A w yvns ) Kai 6 I 9 cu. 66 29 6s a txa s

K 019

7
69 0M 5 0 9 , 6 M 6 69 1r6 l 0 a 9 7 a d 0 119 6 2 wob s 66 646 7 067 0 K a i

'
. 7 1reta 9 01 . Ko .
7 06s vl a s.
T he C yrena cs do not seem to i h av e i

p a d m u ch a tten t on to th e q u es t on, i i
b u t the w o e ton e of t e r sys tem hl hi s h h
ows t a t t ey c ou d n ot h
a v e ha d a l h
n ob e l id ea l.
E p i cu ru s sa i d ( B i og . L a ert x . . 1 1 9 ) K 0 2 p 69 . xa l y a p o ew K 02 7 6 10 07709 0 6 19 6
7 69 K07 6 . 66 # 07 6 Bi ov 06 7 0 9 150 6 19 . Bu t C ob et
rea ds h ere 7 0 7477
0 6 19 7 6 K 9 01r0u 0 6 19 ( om i tti ng
T he S to ics : D i og L a ert . . v ii . 12 1 K02 ya m

a ew ( se . 7 69 0 00 669 ) Ka i
wa t607 '
7
017 0 6 0 6 04 ; I b id . 1 20 60 0 2 66
0 m l 7 69 1rp6s 7 6 . 7 61cm
W LK 579 K al 69 960 16 01 : i n) 6 19 0 1. S ee a sol the q u ota t i ons in
Z lle er S toi es p 3 2 1 B og a ert .
3 3 (607 6 . i . L . E 7 wi xot s
' '
of ml 7 6 .
61cm 6x6pol 06 7 6 p 6 20 1 0 0 ol m u ch 7 6 7 09 0 ? 607 ua r f f 6 t9 , 69 0l

'
7 . . a . .
d n ow . 69 1r0N 7 ef a .
25 . B i og . L a ert . vi . 13 7 6 2xos da a M m a 7 o9 , p69 770 19 .
I bi a . 6 69 09 0069 7 w9 . 6961) l axvpm pa v

629cc . S ee a b ov e f or th e i
v ews of A nt st i h en es a n d D i ogenes a b ou t m a rri ag e .
26 . B i og . L a ert 98 . ii
66 p69 n0 t 9 K a i 6tK at 00 69 n9 : i b i a
.
'
.
99
K M txew / ( se 7 69 0 09069 ) 7 6 m l umxeda ew K a i l epoa vh o ew 69 K a tpt
'
. .
27 . B i og . L aert . vi .
73 p n6

ef v a . 7 6 I ta l 7 669 d9 0pw1r6
w9 @6 639
6 3000 60 5 06: 6X 09 6K 7 669 6 M 07
p
w9 66669 .
28 . For D em oc ri tu s
v ews i on reari ng c hi l d ren s ee S tob a eu s Fl m l egi
'
um
l xxv i . 13 , 1 5 , 1 6, 17 .
29 i
. of E pi cu ru s on thi s
For th e v ews j
su b ec t s ee Z lle er S toi cs 49 2 , 49 3 ,
wi th th e u th ori ti es th e e q ot d a r u e .
3 0 S ee e g E u ri pi de f
.
49 1 N au ck . . s r .

{0 7 w 6 dcppwu 6 7 6 10 7 09 7 6 1rpl 9

1ra t 6a s Ovpa i ovs 6 ts 6K 7 1ja a 7 o,
'
69 p oipa 9
6 p i) xped w wa pa a r p tpwr cf :
'
7 7
7 61p 66 02 6t 6t60 t wly (pf/v a t 7 6x9 0 ,

06 X pr; p dxeo a t 1rp6s 7 6 6 6 2

09 , dh h 66 9 '
.
3 1 . For M ena n der see S tob . Fl or i l egi u nz l xxv i . 1, 4, 7, 8 , 11 .
32 . S om e good q u ota t ons i s h wig th e G reek ov e of c

o n d ren a re c o ec ted l hi l ll
i n the sev en ty-e igh th ch apter
o f S tob a eu s f l or i l eg i u m T he dea d c i d i s a . hl
1 04 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
c on s tan t them e i n th e s epu c lh l ra ep ig ra m s of th e A n t o ogy hl O f th e m any
.
a ll iu s on s to il i
f a m y a ff ec t on i n E u r p des I m a y q u ote f r i i .
3 1 6 N au ck
7 69 0 1, K 0 X 69 1169 0 5 67 7 0: M ov 7 666 ,
}
K 0 )\69 66 17 69 7 01) x6 611 Z 66 79 6 6779 6 11 09 ,

ddh h ov0 0 X 060 169 0 6610p,

7 77p19 69

7706 6 63 9 617 0 19 09 60 7 1 6 65 0 1 K G AGV
'
7

6703 06669 0 67 10 h 0 p 7rp69 . 06 6 166 29 110 6 69
6 669) 5 6 5 777 l 0l 3

1 3 7 02s 6 17 0 10 1 K02 7
9 6 07 9 639 69 66110 1: [ 66 19
A nd f r 3 5 8 . N au ok
06K 60 7 1 11 777 716: 066 69

5 6109 7 6119 013 "
6pms

pa7 6 11 777 7065 3 061: 60 7
7 01 0 7 0s 6 6 AM : 60 7 1: 66009 6p6 9 .
33 . e .
g M
. en a nder ap u a S tob F l xx v 6

. . l .
169 6 7 0 069 60 7 1 pay/1 0 7 6 7 6 9 60 001 . 7 19 6:

1ra 7 p0 .
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.
9 60 7 1 ,
770 7
p

i) 073 09 069 7 0
0 10 K 02 p09 069 7 66 29 7 19 0
69 6E 60 07 0 6
7 6 .
34 . A r s tot i l e E ti cs 1 09 9 b 69 1109 66 7 717 16116 9 01

6 071 0 19 06 0 1 7
-
6 110 11 60 09 , 0109
6 67 6 9 6 i a s, 6
c 7 er 9 a s, i d k ovs .
35 . S ee th e di sgu s ti n g s tory i n S tob . Fl or i l egi u nz l xxv i . 14 .
36 . S ee S tob . Flor i l eg i u nz l xxv ii . 1, 2, 5 , 6 , 7, 8 .
37 . E u ri p . fr .
3 5 8 N au ck .
38 A . l i
ex s a u a p

S tob . Flor i l eg i u nz lx i xx . 13
7 6 06 20 116 1320 11 777 706: 06K 60 7 19 17 07 6 .
39 . M en an der ap ua Stob
. Fl or i l eg i u nz l i xx x . 26
9 61109 7 09 6 60 19 10 066011:
. l
40 P ato L a ws 9 3 1 A 7 0 7 6p 069 Ka )
7 771) 7
i 71 17 '
7 067 009 r a r es
p i ) 0777 673 6 :
27711 67 6 :
K 6 19 7 0 1 116 111 7jlt 101 6 17 6 17
'
69 0211 6; ,
610 9 0776757 10 7 07 6
0 3,
67 0 7 01067 09 61660 7 109 Y6pur1 a 69 061 6; 6x019 , ,
60 6 0 00 1 .
l
P ato L a ws 71 7 D 7 60 1 7 61p 61rl 0 1< 01ros 7 02s

17 6 p2 7 6 7 010 67 0 67 6 x677 A i ms
N 67 0 6 0 15 dw ehos .
41 . X en op h on M enz . B ii . 13 06K 0200

67 1 K02 97
'
66 1: p 69
. 6 x0
67 106 k 6 17 0 1 0666 61 d et, 6 6 6 6
'
p10 7 f as . 1re 10pq1

p 7 0 $6 66 77 6 11 09
-
067 0 :
x6p19 0611 610 061669 7 019 , 66 9 66 7 1: 7 09 60 3 6110 79 76 617 1
7 16170 1 K02 6 17 060K 1/Ldf ov0 0 06K 66 d 6 19 7 067 09 , 169 0 67 6 6 l ep6
7
67 6p 7 73 3
17 6K6 0 9 7 067 0v 0609 7 0: 067 6 d o 1t a t K 0 2 61110 00: 06669 69
6
7 0 7 00 17 p6
0 9 7 0$
S ee a so l I sa eu s v iii .
32 K 6>
\ 6 66 1
7 6p [6 9 600s] 70 605 6 19 7 06: 7 09 60 1
N OTES 105
42 . M am A i i . .
55 .
43 . S ee es peci all y M am B i i 3 . . .
44 . S tob a eu s Fl on l egi u m
'
l xx i x .
42
d yv umom wa rpl xa drrep a rzar npq? v p cp O U TFGpLGVGK T OV

'
.
'
45 . A eli a n Va r . H i st .
7 ( ii . v p os ) 015K Ew r w du dpl G na i cy K OGLz/ a t
pm pp w d ey om

7ra t 6l au , ad eZ s d au c 131 6
. a a l , dy a r or
-
a rrroi} K ara n u
46 . Pl a o t T/zeaetetm 15 1 0 Kai 68w dpa .

/L ev s
a xowoz 64 1 M 7 279 , 1 1 ( By
W W ega tpcbp a c K a i drr odkh w, g iy aL ypl a we

-
) dhnd s,
it? 6 17 a,

en/
L at ef dwh ov K ai .
30 1G
(1 n pwr or xoa n epi
'
m a a y dp #5 77, c?) a vp dm e, 1rp : 6 [M E
'
' '
007 0: 6Ler 6 na a v, drov e dr ev . s M ia /cw T omoc

el v al . In k .
Plato R e u bl i c
p 460 C rd B 6 v xetp v wv , K a l du n 7 631 r pwv
7
dud lrnpov 7 17 9 mm , u dr opp rgo

' '
re K a i d67>p K a T a K p J ova w di s wp n et
xc W '
.
48 . P l ato R epu b l i c 46 1 C K ai r a Ord

" '
#7
67 wdv r a S
( t a k eh eva d/u . v oc 1rp06 v
mw 5e

cw

M y [1 756 [L 775

p ei a c ,
u dh w r a 6 5: MB:
( xcp pew K .
76 n
datmm , 051 w n v at , tb s O13K 060 779 T

po s 7 93 r oco n p
'
.
49 . A i t tl
r s o e Pol i ti c: 35 b 13 1rp2
v a l O Ona w
' ' '
yyev a a c
-
Kai f wv , y worei a a c

dp xw w w mv ov a i od a a Kai 93

5 6 2 7 97v 7 a

7 &p Ka i 1 6 6p '
r 7
a T a t
y .
I t e i t th t th e fu t e
ak a ur

crr a l.

imp i l e th t A i t tl e i
s a r s o s n ot gi v i g n a c u rren t
v e i wb ut hi s o wn O pi ni on .
50 . A i t tl e
r s o ale A n i ma

1 43 0 a .
51 . A ri s t tl e P l i ti
o o cs A c h a
p i . .
De m th ne n t i ph o n '
ai m t M di a : 47, 48 a nd 0 H pqi 6ov
'
52 . os g e s a A wept 7 0
6v ov 48 . E u ri pi des H ecu b a 2 9 1 .
t
5 3 For the n ec e s si y o f s a v ery i n a n ci en s oci e y s ee L i g foo Coloss z a m
. l t t ht t '
p 321
. l
S av e ry wa s i n erwov en i n o t he ex u re o f s oci e y ; a n d to p ro t t t t t
t l
b i b i s av ery wa s to ea r s oc i e y i n o s reds N o i ng es s t
a n a s e rv i e wa r t t h . th l th l
u s t h av e b een the c
m o n eq n s ue ce .

5 4 S ee X en 06 i 5 mi c a :

6 072 v u u 08v r d: m a r /La s 067 6 ua ei v of v

. . . .
,
d xet, k em
'
J a w a rrodoxtp d ew j 78 Ba v a va m ds K a h ovuu a s r xva s

17p V r 1s ,
01 15/1 d K a r a k vy a tv ea a t dok om Kai 7 d: t/vxds K a r a yv ovm

'
.
55 . Plato R ep .
5 90 C ; A ri s t . Pol . 13 3 7 b ; a nd f or th e w h l ub j t
o e s ec of
a va va l a s ee h
Sc mid E h t t ik i i .
43 5 foll .
5 6 . T h om son E un

p i a e:

a nd the A ttic Ora tor s p 94 . .
57 H . om er 0d . x vi i . 2
3 2
/u a v y dp
'
r

dper s dr oa l v er a t e
puovra eus Z
m Kur d

dvpos , 37 (i v ,u a p hg a w
'
61 u . dolh tov .
'
.
58 . For v uos a nd zm s s ee G om p erz i pp 402 . . f o ll .

1 06 G REE K M ORA LI TY
59 . E u ri p .
fr . 86
5 0m 6% 6015M: (pun Z m a r e u Bpon bv ,

-

WORM 1ra p uwplcw 6 N a xdveu
60 . I b id f . r. 49
05 11 0 y dp u k o v 5 015t K
y v os

odev a war d

ya a n yp dr nrl a w 5
'
a vr a , r or

.
61 . I ia
. [ on 8 5 4
EV 7 dp

7 02s dozh o ww a ld xzu nv cppa ,

T OVO O.

r d. 5 c it m i ur a '
h evpwv
013 66 2: K a xl wv 60 mm, 60 7 1 : a h b s
62 I bza f r 511
'

. . .

dahov y dp O OM V T oy oy '
. ? 5 1a
or 06 pe?,
6 dml u ovs d o !

hevpwv .
63 . X en . M em A i i . . 15 .
64 . R ep 469 . B .
65 . Pol . 12 5 2 a , b . S ee P l at o Polit .
3 09 A .
66 . E t/z i c: 1 16 1 b 6 y ap 5 08M : emb vxov (ima v ov .
67 . E t/z i cs b i ia
. u
,
ey otm

i6ohos , i on @M a

1rpb s a trr v , f; 6

dv ponros .
68 P01 5 b 5 Q wa pd zp o w 6ea 1r63 ew v mp 7 &p r b v 11 8w (3 06o

'
1z 3
' '
. . .
6v 5 % h ewepov, 6 013621! 5 La pew P dt r epi od di xa cov f i m oxf

'
h
c a r, 7 n
7 dr
) . See Z ell er s

n ot e P r e. S oc i i 4 77
. . .
69 . Z ll S
e er ocr az es

p 3 2
.
3 .
70 . B io g L a ert i i 94
. . . .
71 . B i og L a ert . ii 1 2 2 . v . .
72 . Z e ll e r S to ics p 3 3 0 . .
C H A PT E R IV
PR I V A T E M O R A L I T Y
107
r ch odn;

m3 wa pnv ; rt 6 { 13 6 5 11 ; Ti 1401 dov 013x
Pyth agora s apu a

Di og .
1 08
C HAPTE R IV
PR I VA T E M OR AL I T Y
H OW far the Greeks felt what is now called conscien ce i s T h e idea

a d i ffi cult qu estion to an swer C ertain ly the Greek an d .
the Christian stan d o n quite differen t plan es i n this amo ng th e
respe ct .

We have al l sinn ed would have been to a ,
G ree k s

Greek either a tru ism or nonsense I t was says .
,

D ickinson a distinguishin g characteristi c of the Greek
,
religion that it did n ot con cern itsel f with the conscien ce

at al l th e conscien ce i n fact d id not yet exist to enact
, , ,
that d ram a of the sou l with God which is the m ain

i nterest of the Christian or at l east of the Protestan t ,
1
faith.
Although a Greek would n ever have cried ou t as d id I n h

w a t

the publ ican G od be m erciful to m e a sin ner yet he
, , ,

d id experien ce som ething very aki n to the feelin gs of

a conscien ce stricken man
-
The Greek recogn ised the .
existen ce o f a m oral law and felt sham e before hi m sel f i f

,
he transgressed it H e often regard ed si n as a lowering

.
2
of the self S el s tem z edrigu ng as Schmidt term s i t
'
,
Vice , .
is m oral ly ugly 7 5 a i a xp v
,

H ateful u nto m e as the .
gates o f H ades is he who hideth on e thi n g in his heart

3
and speaketh an other .
I smen e might easily have held her peace and escaped T he A n ti
the wrath of C reon but her self respect compelled her

,
-
to confess that she shared the off en ce o f Antigon e 4

.
S tob a eu s i n the twen ty fou rth chapter o f the Fl or zl egi u m

'
-
, ,
1 09
1 I O GRE E K M O RA L I TY

has collected som e passages dealing with conscien ce ,
Tb Reasonable d oubt has been thrown upon

the au thenticity o f those attributed to Periander B ias , ,
Q ot t ion
u a and Pythagoras so o f these I wil l quote bu t o ne
s ,
The .
sin ner who is tortured by con science su ff ers greater evils

5
than he whose body is scou rged with blows There .
are others which may be construed to mean that the

si nner is afraid of shame before others j u st as Aristotle ,
de nes a 58a39 as dBO g l a c

6
For example A n ti p h a n es

.
,

says To be consciou s o f n o wro ng doing brings mu ch
,
-
7 8
j oy . O thers are q u oted i n the notes B u t there are .
some whi ch mu st i mply shame o f on e s self A character

.
i n D i p hil u s says H ow can o n e who is not ashamed of

,
hi mself when he is consciou s that he has d one wron g be

ashamed before on e who k nows n othing about th e
9
m atter ? When O restes i s ask ed what d isease i s
destroying him he replies ,

K n owledge i n that I am
, ,
0
conscious that I have don e awful d eeds H ere i s a .

saying of I socrates N ever expect that you wil l k eep
,
hidden a si n ( a Z a Xp v) For even i f you con ceal i t fro m

.
11
others you will be consciou s of i t you rsel f
, I n the .
thirty fi rst chapter o f S tob a eu s ( wepi a i BoDc) are fou n d

-
other quotation s i llustrating those al ready given Of .
the three quoted i n the n otes I tran slate here the on e ,

from Democritus Learn to feel sham e before you rsel f
.
2
m uch m ore than before others .
E th ics a nd I can not n d that Greek ethical writers treated the

m am
subj ect of conscience at any length D eep psychologi cal .
i nq u iry is altogether foreign to thei r spi ri t Altho u gh .
A ristotle had an advanced psychology of his own h e ,
i s con tent i n th e E t/z i cs with the i m pe rfect on e o f

Plato I t is quite i n accordan ce wi th the character of
.
Greek ethics that the natu re o f evil and of m an s relation
to i t is n ot dwelt upon The Greek instin ct was to avoid

.
evi l by becom ing good ; philosophy d elighted to analyse

A i s t otl e Aristotl e s d iscu ssion of a Z BaSq i n
r ,
virtue rather than vice .
P R I VA T E M O R A L I T Y I 1 r
th e fourth book o f the E thi cs is u n fort unately i n com pl ete ,
but he there d isparages i t as a mere preventer of sin ,
which bets the youn g only the i mplication be in g that ,
older peopl e should be so train ed to virtue that they need

l3
n o thin g to hinder them from vice B u t there are si gn s .
that A ristotle ad mitted a nobler ki nd o f u 58a39 which was ,

n ot so mu ch fear o f d isgrace as d isl ike for sin The .

many he says are n atu rally d isposed to obey n ot a Z Ba w

, ,
but fear and they abstain from evil n ot through the

, ,
ugliness of si n ( 7 6 a t azxpv) bu t o n accou nt of the pu n ish

,
14
m en t it i nvolves The id ea o f conscien ce as p resen t
.
,
i n the qu otation s given above is thus reected i n the ,
e th ics o f A ristotle but h e d id n ot m ake any ethical use

,
of it
I f Aristotle represen ts the n ormal Greek attitude P lato P l to , a .
s ee m s i n this case as i n others to have emphas ised what

, ,
h e thought to be a fault of popular m orals Regard ing .
vice as a d isease o f the soul he insists again and agai n ,
that i t shoul d be hated for its o wn sake and n ot for the T h e
I f a man has sin ned h e ought to

.
G e n
punishments i t entails .
or
endure nay voluntarily seek any pu nish ment even d eath

, , , , ,
15
I n the R ep u l zc A d i m a n tu s T h
'
i n order to be ri d of his si n . e
R p y e a
requ ires a proo f that sin which es capes the notice o f god s
a nd m en is the greatest evil and that righteousness though , ,
16
si m ilarly hidden is the greatest good
, P lato had th u s .
clearly con ceived of con science i n o ne o f i ts aspects ,

n amely that sin i n and for i tsel f is an evil a hu rt to the

, , ,
s ouL
We know that the publication o f the G orgva s prod uced

t f
E ffec o
a powerfu l e ff ect 17
The idea of conscience becomes
.

j
l zg ,
more prominen t i n post Platon ic writers Som e cred it -

.
,
I think mu st be given to th e philosopher who defended

,
righteousness with so el oqu en t a pen .
To hi m too is partly du e the healthy moral tone o f

, ,
his pu pil Aristotle The latter n ever nds i t n ecessary

.
to show that righteou sness is better than u nrighteousness .

1 I 2 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y

With hi m the proposition is axiomatic P lato s in uen ce .
is also to be traced i n the pu re almost ascetic m orality , ,
o f the Stoics who by thei r strenuous assertion that virtu e

, ,
is the only good prepared a soil for the reception o f ,
Christian ethics .
18
H ad th e The Greeks says D ickinson had no sense of

k
, ,
G ree s a
duty M oral vi rtue they con ceived n ot as obedien ce to
se n se of
.
du ty "
P an external law a sacri ce of the n atural m an to a power
,
that i n a sense is alien to hi mself but rather as the ,
temperin g i nto du e proportion o f the elements of which

hu man n ature is composed The good m an was the man .

who was beauti ful beautifu l i n soul A nd later o n we
.

read S uch being the conception of vi rtu e characteris ti c
,
o f the Greeks it follows that the motive to pu rsue it

,
can hardly have presented itself i n the form o f what we

cal l the sense of d uty Fo r d uty emphasises sel f rep res
.

-
sion. Again st the desires o f m an it sets a law o f

prohibition a law which is not con ceived as that o f his
,
own complete n atu re asserting against a partial or d is ,
proportioned develop men t the balan ce an d totali ty o f the

ideal but rather as a rul e im posed from without by a
,
power distinct from hi mself for the morti c a ti on n ot the , ,
perfecti ng o f his natu ral i m pulses and ai ms

,
D uty .
em phasises self repression ; the G reek view emphas ised

-

self d evelopment
-
.
D uty i n th e I quote the s e passages i n ful l because adm irably as ,
mod n er
s en s e .
they d escribe the way in which vi rtuous excel lence
p resented itself to the m ind s o f the Greeks they are very ,
far from showing that Greek m orality was without any

sense of d uty While fully ad m itting that n o Athenian
.

considered hi msel f bound to obey a rule imposed from
without for the m o rti ca tio n of his natu ral i mpulses an d
,
ai ms I would u rge that to de n e d uty as su ch a law is

,

to restri ct i t to l imits which are far too n arrow Passing .

over those mean ings o f the word duty where the notion
o f obl igation is so weakened that it m eans little m ore
P R I VAT E M O R A L I T Y 1 1 3

than work o r fu nction let u s consid er duty i n its

,
higher e thical connotation W ord sworth s stern daughter

'
19
of the voice o f God This is certain ly regarded as a
.

check a restrain ing inuen ce

,
I t deman ds self s a c ri c e .
-
.

B u t natu ral i mpulses an d aim s are n o t repressed by a
sort o f maliciou s d eity who delights i n being a spoil sport -
.
Wordsworth regarded d uty as a lawgiver that disciplin ed

the u n ruly m i nd to loyalty to its better sel f I t is not .

cruel but kind ,
I t preserves from wrong an d wears the
.
,
G od head s most b enj g n a n t grace

-

S om e need it n ot .

,
some ,
I n l ov e a n d t thru ,
W h ere m i s g i v i n g i s , re y
no l
l
U p on th e g en i a s en s e of y ou th
l
G a d ea r sh t th t
w i ou re proa c or b h l t o
th
W h o do y w ork, a n d k n ow i t n ot .
I t is i ndeed hard to believe that those who have shown

conspicuou s devotion to d uty have been con scious of a
hard task master mortifying thei r i mpulses an d desires .
I n fact it is n ot strictly speaking d uty bu t the love of

, , ,
d uty which is a moral motive

,
The d istin ction is a vital .
on e ; f o r while an external law su ch as D ickinson s idea ,

o f d uty m ay be cruel o r m alicious love can be d irected

, ,
only towards that which i s believed to be b enec en t ,
although it m ay be stern and repressive N o t even New .
Testament ethics makes d uty a m oral motive There is .
n o nou n i n the book which i n this respect is li ke classical

,

Greek corresponding to the English word d uty
, D u ty .

is not considered the highest moral id eal We are .
u nprotable servants we have done that which i t was ou r,
20
d uty to d o 3 ( bcpefk op ev woca a b
, Y et su rely it could .

not be said that i n the N ew Testamen t there i s n o sense of

d uty The Christian m oral m otive is not d uty bu t love
.
,
the l ove of God

The Greek moral m otive is love also
.
love o f the moral ly beautiful B u t the sense o f d u ty is .
presen t i n both the Greek an d the Chri stian system s of

(B 5 81 ) I
I 14 GR E E K M O R A L I T Y
morality They d iffer it is true for i n the Christian s

.
, ,

d uty sel f repression is a m ore promin ent factor bu t

-
,
n either is wanting i n a feel ing of obl igation to a moral law .
T h e i d ea I f we regard the voice o f d uty not as a pu rposeless

t
of d u y
com mand to repress n atu ral d esires bu t as a call to
,
a mo ng the ,
k
G ree s .
subordin ate the lower i nstincts to the higher then it must ,
be adm itted that the Greeks had a keen sense o f duty ,
and felt an obligation not on ly to ful l a law o f harmoniou s

,
d evelopment but to an external d ivine power which

, , ,
however was believed to be working f or the good of the

,
world . This aspect o f Greek m orality has been wel l

worked o u t i n a recent an onymous work called M a kers of
H el l a s .Wi th a ne l iterary instin ct the author clearly
traces from H om er d ownwards the allegiance u niversally

considered due to the great unwritten laws The .
aspect of this al legiance whi ch con cern s m e n ow is the

ready ad m ission o f the Greek that he ought to obey the
u nwritten l aws an d his shame when he transgresses
, ,
whereby he ack nowledges that sin i s a loweri ng o f the sel f .
B y his volu ntary acceptance he tu rn s an external com m an d

i nto a l aw of his own being Achilles consid ers d eath a
.
21
t penalty for his having failed i n his d uty to his friend .
The O restes o f Euripid es i s hau nted by the consciousness

22
o f m atricide O edipus is d riven to blind himsel f by the
.
discovery o f the sin which he has com mitted A ntigon e .
wi lli ngly sacri ces all even her l ife i n her devotion to the
, ,
great u nwritten laws .
The sen se of d u ty is greatly strengthened when

morality has a religiou s san ction and when d ue value is ,
assign ed to the clai ms of the i nd ividual Either factor by .
itself may create the feeli ng but the combination o f the,
two results i n a more than proportional i ntensity It .
is accordingly i n the religious brotherhood o f the

Pythagoreans the existence o f which was a protest again st
,
the tyran ny o f State clai ms that we nd the id ea o f d uty

,
rst clearly expressed Pythagoras is said to have

.
P R I VATE M O R A L I T Y I 1 5
i mposed upon his disciples a rule of daily self examination T h Pytha - e
go ea ns r
to the followi ng e f fect H o w have I tran sgressed ?
'

What have I done ? What duty (7 5 p 01 Seov) have I not .
23
perform ed ? The Pythagoreans held that suicid e i s

i mpious I t is m an s d uty to l ive
. S ocrates who S oc a t es

.
,
r .
showed that the principle o f d uty i s i n the soul of

25
m an ,

i n his defen ce d eclared that he would not depart
from the post where G o d had placed him through fear o f ,
26
d eath or o f anything else The Cyni c philosophy has
.
n o faith in the u ti l i ty of theories and we are n ot su rpris ed

. ,
that i t contains no d iscu ssion o f d uty ; but the l ives o f the

Cynics themselves thei r loyalty to thei r id eal which
, ,
i nvolved renu nciation o f religion S tate family and al l the , , ,
co m forts o f life clearly show that they were actuated by

,
a sense o f duty To P lato the ethical en d i s k nowledge Pl t o

. a .
o f the good for which the philosopher feels the attractive

,
force pwe The devotion which P lato shows for his ideal
'
.
has all the characteristi cs that are u sual ly i mplied i n a

sense of d uty I n spite of the longing of th e philosopher
.
to escape to the real m o f pure real ity he wil l not com m i t ,
suicide .H e i s the possession the l anguage of the
Pka edo i mplies the slave o f the gods and wi ll n ot ki ll

,
27
himself before they send a com m an d to d ie I n spite of .
the eud aemon istic character of Greek ethi cs the n otion ,
of obligation constantly occu rs I n the L a ws P lato .
denes tru e education to be l earn i ng to hate what o n e

28
oug h t to hate and learn ing to like what o n e ou t to like
g .
A ristotle adds his approval Virtu e consists i n acting A ristotl e

.
, .
with referen ce to pleasu re and pain ( 3 9 86 2 and an ,

29
and so forth A lthough the Greek language had n o n ou n
.

to express the notion of d uty the verbs 5 6 2 X poj ooa xo , , ,
and xa xet i mply it very clearly The fact that they .
often occu r in a weakened sense n o m ore proves that the

idea o f d uty can not be attached to them than o u r use o f

d uty in the m eaning o f work o r fun ction i mplies
that we are without that i dea .
I I 6 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
S elf developm ent and its resultant happiness form the

-
, ,
cen tral idea o f the Aristotelian ethics D uty sinks into .
the backgrou nd Aristotl e and those Greek s whose

.
,
conduct enabled hi m to mould his ethical theory belonged ,

to those glad hearts withou t reproach or blot who do
, ,

thy work an d know it n ot The separation of ethics
.
from religion and the slight m oral value o f the latter

,
d u ring the closing years o f the fourth centu ry explai n ,
why the modern i dea of d uty is less apparen t i n A ristotle

than in P lato f or whom the moral san ction was practically
,
T he St oi cs . a religious o n e B u t in the case of the Stoics all causes

.
combined to produce a stron g sen se o f d u ty religion

,
i nd ividualism and ci rcu mstan ces calling for personal sel f

,

s a c ri c e . A ccord ingly as Coulanges says Zeno taught
, ,
m en that there is a d ign ity n ot o f the citi z en but o f the

, ,
man that besides his d uties toward s the law he has one
towards h i m s el a n d that the suprem e merit is not to live or to
30
die for the State but to be vi rtuou s an d to please God
,
.
The very fatalism which brought the S toics i n to su ch

i n extricable moral d i i c u l ti es d eveloped and strengthened

their sense o f d uty The categorical i mperative was al l

.
the better realised owing to their conviction that there

was at work i n the world an om nipoten t law the ,
various aspects o f which were Fate Reason Providence , , ,
o r i n popular langu age Zeus

,
M an m ust act willingly
, .
,
31
o r u nwil lingly in accordan ce with this law
,
A rational .
act the S toic n amed K a ij/cov that which is tting or i n , ,
32
accord an ce with un iversal law M oral worth lies i n the .

intention which gu id es a m an s condu ct When his wi ll .
is at o n e with the d ivin e will when his reason and u niversal

,
reason are i n harmony then his action becomes a xa r p

,
33
grop er the correct perform ance o f d uty
,
.
The S toic was led to thi s con clusion by th e growth of

the hu man i ntelligence involvi ng as i t did the clear
, , ,
perception o f the inevitableness o f n atural law and ,
by the value which since the tim e o f S ocrates had

, ,
P R I VAT E M O RA L I T Y 1 17
been attached with ever i ncreasing insistence to the

,
-
,
clai ms and responsibilities of the i nd ivid ual O n e other .
factor remain s which ever present even from the founding

, ,
o f Stoi cism assu med greater proportions when the school

,
ou rished with renewed vigou r u n der the Rom an em pire .
34
I n making a dogma o f fatalism says Z eller Stoicis m
, ,
was on ly following the cu rren t o f the age H ow i n an .

,
age i n which political freedom was crushed by the

Oppression of the M acedonian and subsequently o f the
Roman dominion a nd the Roman dom inion was itsel f
,
s mothered u nder the d espotism o f i mperial ism i n which ,
M ight like a living fate crushed every attempt at

, ,
i ndependen t action how i n s uch an age could those

, ,
aiming at higher obj ects than m ere personal grati cation

have any altern ative but to resign themselves placid ly to
the cou rse o f circu mstan ces which i nd ivid ual s and n ation s

were u nlike powerless to control ? B u t i n this case as ,
i n others cruel circumstan ces proved a kin d task m aster

,
-
an d a b en ecen t teacher B y developing the idea o f d uty

.
u nder these i nuen ces the S toics gave to the world a

m oral ai m which even those who believe i t to be a g
m ent o f the i magination con fess to have been o f priceless
value to m ankind both to the race and to the i ndivid ual
, .
B u t I would urge that the sense of d uty was present i n

Greek morality before the S toics form ulated thei r ethical
theory . The referen ces that I have al ready given prove
this. The work of the S toics was to in sist upon the idea
o f duty and to give it full and formal expression .
I t is d i i c u l t to estim ate the inuen ce o f S toicism

upon morality B u t it m ust b e remembered that the
.
Stoics were as m uch a sect as a philosophi c school .
M any of them were high minded men rather than -
philosophers . Thei r lives dom inated thei r creed at l east

as m uch as thei r creed d om inated thei r lives Experience .
proves the remark o f A ristotle that mere verbal teaching

35
has l ittle inuence u pon cond u ct The con servatism o f
.
I I 8 G R E E K M O R AL I T Y
habit and the attractiveness of pleasure are too stron g .
B u t however mu ch ci rcu mstances forced upon the Stoics

non con formity with som e o f their ideals as was the case ,
with the i nstitution s o f the S tate and the family they d id ,
try to bring their doctrin e i nto line with thei r l ives .
Even the in consistencies which they were compelled to

i ntroduce into thei r ethics are eviden ce of this I t is .
when creeds are embodied i n societies that they have

m ost i nuen ce upon the cond u ct not only of the holders ,
o f those creeds but o f the world at large

,
.
M ora l I n spite of the honou rable position held by the wife

u t
p ri y .
i n the I l i a d and the Ody s s ey there d oes not appear to,
have been any respect for moral pu rity i n the modern

sense .The virtu e of chastity was con ned to narrow
li mits such as loyalty to husband o n the part o f the wi fe
, ,
36
o r to m aster an d mistress o n the part o f a maid servant -
.
M en were u nd er n o obligation s except that of avoid ing ,
adu ltery or d ishonou r to a n eighbou r s fam ily

, C hastity
.
,
i n fact was a fam ily an d n ot a personal matter As the

, , , .
city state d eveloped the wife ceased to perform those

-
,
d uties which had given her a position o f d ignity and ,
m arriage became chiey an i n stitution for the produ ction

and rearing of lawful child ren This was n ot a favou rable
.
soil for the growth o f the idea o f personal chastity I t is .
hard to nd passages i n pre Christian Greek literature -
where loose i ntercourse is looked upon as i n itsel f a moral

off ence I am in clined to think that the notion was of
.
Eastern origin O f cou rse the husban d was always

.
protected by law bu t con nections between even married

,
men and l zemer a e were regarded with d isapproval on ly

37
when the wi fe was grossly n eglected This attitud e is .
i n perfect accordance with the Greek spi rit which con ,
s i dered n o n atural im pu lse to be evil S exual i nd ulgen ce .
stood upon exactly the same moral level as eatin g and

d rin king Self control indeed was ad m ired as is shown
.
-
, , ,
38
by a well known story abo u t X enocrates
-
I ndu lgen ce .
P R I VATE M O RA L I T Y I 19
might bri ng with it ceremonial del em en t but i n itself i t ,
was n o sin Nevertheless the cults o f Artem is an d

.
,
Athene show that the Greeks had som e respect for

virginity .This feeling is wel l exempli ed i n the priggish
Hippolytus o f E uripides bu t his enthusias m is largely ,
du e to O rphic an d perhaps Pythagorean asceticism

, ,
.
I lay n o stress upon the S uppl i ces of Aeschylus be cause ,
the chorus of that play obj ect not to m arriage as su ch , ,
but to m arriage with thei r k in ( 11 1 0 3 5 .
Philosophy m a de n o attempt to alter th is moral Eth i c s a nd
h m)"
.
C as
attitud e. I t i s u nnecessary to refer to the stori es of the
amou rs of philosophers told by Diogen es L a erti u s These .
may o r m ay n ot be t ru e
,
B u t that S ocrates himself d id
, .
n ot rise above the Greek view is plain from the state

39
m en ts o f X en Op hon And there is n o reason fo r
.
supposing that subsequent philosophers rose to a highe r

m oral level S u ch at l east is the con clusion to be d rawn
.
from thei r writings Leaving ou t o f consideration the

.
Cyrenaics Cyn ics an d Epicu rean s let u s consider those

, , ,
philosophers i n whom purer ideals m ight be expected .
P lato i ndeed says that the philosopher wi ll n ot thi nk

40
sensual pl easures to be of m uch val u e bu t i n his id eal ,
State he allows prom iscuou s i ntercou rse i n the case o f

men and women who have passed the ages xed for
m arriage provided that in cest be avoid ed an d care taken
,
41
that no child be reared from such u nion s Aristotle .
,
although aware that prem ature i nd ulgen ce is undesirable ,
takes the sam e view as P lato of intercou rse beyon d the

42
l im its xed for child rearing Even the S toics with
~
~
.
,
thei r relatively ascetic m orality mad e n o eff ort to combat ,
the sen sual ity o f the ti m e They even permitted thei r

.
43
wise m an to com m it in cest Zeller i nterprets this as
.
a theoretical con clusion d rawn from prin ciples to which

44
they were pledged bu t stil l it is impossible to avoid the
,
i n ference that the S toics d id n ot regard loose se x ual

i ndulgence as p er s e i m moral .
Wa t ae The case is si milar with u nn atu ral vice Absen t from .
Pu m a "
the H omeric and H esiod ic poem s although the legen d ,
o f Ganym ed e i n the I l i a d i m plies its existence i n pre

H omeri c ti mes wa cBepa m i a appears as early perhaps
,
-
, ,
as M i m n erm u s ( 6 3 o and continues throughout the

whol e o f Greek l iterature The pu rity o f t ragedy is to
.
be attributed partly to the H omeric colou r o f its conten t

, ,
and partly to its associations with other m otives than

that of love There can be n o doubt that the vice was
.
continu ously present an d that as far as ou r evidence, ,
goes i t aroused little i f any moral d isapprobation

, ,
It
, .
is tru e that in the X enophonti c Sy mpos i u m i t i s said that

the boy su ffers rcr woverdw r dr a r a but i n the sam e
'

,
d ialogue we nd a father evidently assenting to the

47
practice i n the case o f his o wn son I n S parta and .
Thebes the vice was esteemed as m aki ng the lover

18
d esi rou s to perform brave deeds

al oe
.
Philosophic ethics took but little notice o f this featu re
gig:
and
of Greek l ife The attitu de of Epicu rus seems to be o ne
.
o f assen t ; he obj ects to passion ate desire on ly becau se it

49
hind ers dr a pa g i a

The early Stoi cs d o not condem n
'
it ; n either d o the m inor S ocratics The statem ents o f .
A ristotle seem to i mply that i n hi s d ay the passion

was chiey con cern ed with the d elight o f ga z ing o n 7 d .
50
7Ta 6 8L/Cd bu t other evid en ce forbid s the supposition that
,
the more disgusting featu res of wa c8epa a r a were wanting
i n Aristotle s ti me S ocrates opposed wa cBepa o r i a but his

.
-
,
reason is sign i can t I t causes expense and trouble he

.
,
51
says while it tu rn s a m a n i n to a slave I n the

.
,
Pka edr u s Plato is ready to pardon physical wa cBepa a rta

,
but it only n eed s pardon becau s e it i s con cerned with the

52
body an d m arks a fal li ng away from spiritual love
, .
Si milarly the R ep u l i e censu res the phys ical passion

,
53
b ecau s e i t shows vulgarity and want o f taste I n his
'
l atest work the L a ws Plato takes the highest standard

, ,
ever reached by Greek ethics in this conn ection All .

P R I VA T E M O RA L I T Y 12 r
intercourse be tween person s of the sam e sex is declared

54
to be u n natu ral .
I t appears from the P/uz edru s that P l ato set a great

valu e o n spiri tual love between men an d boys The .
n otion was n ot n ew I t had its origin i n Greek senti

.
ment which with the d egradation o f women had lost its

, , ,
n atu ral chan nel S ocrates had al ready playful ly used the
.
word epcw to d escribe the relation s between himself an d

55
his you ng pupils With Plato it becom es the m aster
.
passion of life lead i n g to the acquisition o f beauty an d

,
t ruth . We are j usti ed i n d rawing two con clusions .
P lato saw arou n d hi m a lack o f passion ate d evotion ,
a n d wanted to remedy the d efect S o widespread was

.
wa coepa o r la that i n it he thought he saw the on ly mean s

-
h e could use to accomplish his aim .
Greek ethics d id n o t rise above a vice i ngrained i n

the Greek character A ll had been d on e that was possibl e
.
when i t had been pronoun ced by P lato to be r a pt} (pom . .
C on tact with peoples trained i n pu rer ideals was a

n ecessary antecedent to its removal .
I
The Periclean Greek d id n ot d ivorce the p hi O S O p h i c Ph i l osophy
from the practical life I n the Fu neral S peech T h u cy glid es

.
,
d i d es m akes Pericles praise the Athenian s for n ot al low

i n g thei r philosophy to d egenerate i nto effem inacy and ,
for looking upon the m an who abstained from political

56
life n ot as u n oi c i ou s bu t as u seless ,
This is i n perfect
.
a greement with the spiri t o f preced ing ages when the wise ,

m en were great statesmen li ke Solon A ri stophan es a .
,
stau nch supporter o f the o l d order attempted i n the ,
Cl ou ds to p rove that the philosophers were bad citi z ens .
B u t al ready there were forces at work which tended to

change this view The appearan ce o f demagogues upon
.
the political arena and the dangers which threatened

,
publi c characters caused a d istaste for politics

,
Even i n .
A ri stophanes the dwpd yu wv is worthy o f praise and '

l
respec t The word had by this ti m e acqui red a good

122 G R EE K M O RA L I T Y
57
sense am on g the conservative party To this change o f
.
feeling was added the increasing conviction d ue to the ,
rapid growth of scien ce and philosophy that the con ,
tem p l a ti v e life was too absorbing to perm it the stud ent to

engage in politics .A s a resu lt we n d Eu ripides d e
c l a ri n g the pursu it of science a happier occupation than
politics and that though the poet was convi nced that to
,
58
i ncrease knowledge was to in crease sorrow S ocrates .
also refrain ed from public li fe because he felt that he

could n ot take part i n it hi msel f as well as trai n youn g
59
men to becom e good statesmen After Socrates we
.
nd philosophers who kept aloof from pol itics becau se ,
however excellen t a thing in itself citi z en l ife may be -

,
they felt they could not participate therein as it then

existed . These i nclud e the Cyn ics Pl ato an d som e , ,
60
Stoics . Aristippus chose privacy through a sel sh love
of ease an d so d id the Epicurean s
,
We may accord
.
i ngl y om it them from o u r inqu i ry .
The Cyn ics and to a great exten t the S toics desired

, ,
to be i nd ependent o f the S tate but d o n ot seem to have

,
set m uch store by the contem plative li fe A n tisthenes for .

,
i nstan ce thought that the on ly requisite for happin ess

,
was virtu e accompan ie d by the strength o f will of a

61
S ocrates an d Chrysippu s condem n s the contem plative
,
62
l ife as being pu rsued for pleasu re B u t P lato as is
.
,
m an ifest from the whol e tone o f his works believes ,
philosophy to be the n oblest o f pu rsuits N evertheless .
he does not divorce it from politics The philosopher

.
l ives a retired life because owin g to the corruption of

,
existin g govern ments he cannot be righteou s withou t it

, .
U nder a congen ial constitution he wou ld d evelop him

63
sel f m ore completely and benet his cou ntry as well .
Philosophy could n ot m ate politics as pol itics then ,
existed but would do so i n an ideal State

, The philo .
sophic life i s the best statesm en ought to be philosophers

these two propositions com prise a large portion of
P R I VAT E M O RA L I T Y I 2 3

Plato s creed H e has defend ed them vigorously i n P la to s
.

d f n of e e ce
d ialogue after d ialogue T O prove thei r tru th he mad e h i l o h
.
os
p p y
his ha z ardous voyages to S icily and not content to wait th h n d ,
as e a o
m id f t a o ru c
u ntil rulers turn ed philosophers founded his school i n the po l i ti s , c .
A cademy i n order to m ake philosophers of the statesmen

of the futu re I t requ ired n o t a littl e cou rage to teach
.
an d d efend the d octri nes of S ocrates i n the city that

cond emned hi m to d eath an d the erce outbursts i n the ,
G orgi a s an d R ep u oli c prove that P lato en cou ntered

active and powerful opposition Diogen es L a erti u s tells .
u s that when P lato was o n his way to support C ha b ri a s ,

a sycophant n am ed C rob u l u s m et hi m and said Do ,
y ou d efen d another when the hemlock o f S ocrates awaits

64
y o u also ? B u t i n spite of all this he persevered an d ,
lived to see the opposition to philosophy greatly reduced

i f not d estroyed M u ch o f the credit i s d ue to hi m
.
,
although Of course philosophy won m any supporters

, ,
through its own merits Aristotle does n ot seem to have

.
be en conscious o f any Opposition f o r with the shortest Of ,
proofs he asse rts the supremacy o f the contemplative l ife

65
over the practical The fragmen ts i ndeed o f the New
.
, ,
66
Com edy show u s the philosophers held up to rid icul e .
B u t it i s not as bad citi z en s that they are cond emn ed bu t ,
as fools .There i s n o trace o f the hatred o f an A risto

phanes . An d we m ust remember that philosophers ,
in clu ding P lato were regarded not u n favou rably by m en

,
i n power B esides the conn ection between P lato an d

.
D ionysi us it is kn own that Alexander was the pupil o f

,
Aristotle and that Zeno was held i n high respe ct by

,
67
Antigon us Phi losophy in fact su cceeded i n m akin g
.
, ,
the Bl oc ewpnr u c c an ack nowledged virtue H en ce T h Bi . e os
wpm
research an d study i n every f orm were en cou raged by the b om tk s
'
e
ec es a
s u ccessors Of A lexander I t was n o longer considered .
im piety to study astron omy S cholars fou n d a congenial .
home in Al exandria even though the subj ects they ,
stud ied were of n o practical utility I n recent days the .

I 24 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
n ewly discovered natu ral science was n ot received i nto

-

favou r u ntil it showed that it could ll men s pockets but ,
n o sord id aims seem to have su llied the welcom e with

which philosophy scien ce and scholarship were at last
, ,
68
received i n Greece .
W ere th e Truth m ay be looked u pon as a social virtue bu t as ,
G ree k s
it is so sel f regarding it is best consid ered here 69
In
tru th -
.
l ing
ov Roman ti mes the u ntru thfu lness of the Greeks had becom e
7O
al m ost p ro v erb i a l I t is perhaps true that the Greek
.
, ,
n ation compared u n favourably with the Romans i n th is

respect but to argue from the assertions o f Latin writers
,
that the Greeks were a nation o f liars would be

m onstrou sly u n fair For when we tu rn to Greek litera
.
tu re a qu ite d i ff eren t pictu re u n fold s itsel f to ou r eyes .
From H om er to the M acedon ian period occu r passages

which prove con clusively the Greek hatred o f a lie .

Achilles n oble condemn ation has been quoted al ready .

Secrecy says Sophocles
, i s evil an d bets not the , ,
71
n obl e.

I n the Phoeu i s s a e of E uripides I o cas ta spu rns
72
reticen ce as slavish And the Polyn ices of the sam e
.

play d eclares that the u n righteous word m eaning a l ie , ,
73
i s i n itself d iseased I t is also quite com mon to nd
.
the lie con demn ed for pruden tial reasons This point of .
view regards the li e as a social o ff ence H on esty is th e .
best policy was a com monplace with the Greek as with

ou rselves The eleventh and twelfth chapters o f S tob a eu s
.
Fl or i l egi u m contain a ful l collection of passages bearing

u pon this point O n e from M enander m ay be taken as
.
7"
typical I t i s always best to speak the truth i n al l
ci rcu mstan ces This is a p recept which contributes most
.

to safety Of life .
T he l i e O n the other hand with his u sual freedom from cant

t
s om e i m es
, ,
n eces s y ar .
the Greek d id not shrin k from con fessing that the li e
was someti mes necessary T h e twelfth chapter o f .
S tob aeu s wel l ill ustrates this aspect of the u ntruth Even .
as Achilles was regarded as the typical l ie hater so -

,
P R I VA T E M O RA L I T Y 12 5
O dysseus typied hi m who set exped ien cy before the

t ru th as i s clear to us from the L es s er H ipp i e s
,
I t is .

the you ng s o n o f hi m who hated the lie like the gates
o f H ades that in the Phi l octetes of S ophocles remarks

to O dysseus D ost thou not thin k i t sham e to speak a
,

lie ? an d the latter replies Nay not i f the lie brings , ,
75
salvation .We may in fact su m u p the Greek view

with S chm idt by saying that although the Greek was

convi n ced o f the moral uglin ess o f the lie he cou ld not ,
shut his eyes to the sad fact that the truth was not
always protable I t i s d i ffi cu lt to see any essen tial
.
diff eren ce between the Greek and the m odern stan dpoin ts .
O n e factor i n this resul t was of religious origi n The T h . r ee
honesty of the Delphi c A pollo is set forth i n warm words

by his worshipper Pi n dar 76
I t was n o slight gai n to l of
.
o ve
Greek religion and through it to Greek m orality that gi :

t
, ,
o e at
n least o f the deities whom X enophanes had gi usl i o .

reproached for deceivi ng o n e another shou ld have
been set u p before the eyes o f the Greeks as a god Of
truth . A secon d factor is the happy chan ce that the ( a) l ing i s u
Greek language did n o t distinguish between the n u

i ntentional error and the i ntentional falsehood Even .
p oetical embellishm en t was d escribed by the verb

d Seo a a I can not think that this ten ded to l essen
p .
the respect for truth Rather the artistic gen ius o f the
.
Greeks which regarded error as som ething ugly an d

,
hateful increased thei r dislike for the intentional lie

,
wi th which error was linguistical ly associated An d ( ) i n .

c sc e
nally the pursuit o f history and s cience whether natu ral c

, ,
O r ethical which served n o party end s and looked f o r n o

,
reward cou ld n ot fail to have a most benecial effect

,
U po n the Greek character 77

I f the Greeks have been E i l i n
. v
f
regarded as u ntruthful the reason i s that d ebate i n the
,
0
eccle s ia an d the law cou rts occupied mu ch o f thei r tim e

-
,
and it is al most i mpossible for an advocate not to give

colou r to the charge O f m aking the worse argum ent
appear the better . H erei n withou t doubt lay the

Obj ections o f Pl ato to rhetoric which h e puts forward
.
,
with such graphic force in the Gorg i a s .
Ph iI OS O p h i c ethics presents an accu rate reection O f

the cu rrent morality o n the question o f truth an d u n
truth . The three factors religious linguistic an d
, , ,
scientic which have been n oticed i n the Greek love o f

,
truth nd their place also i n philosophic l iteratu re

,
.
The l ie i s constantly condem ned as mean and blame

78
worthy ; while truth is honourable and to be praised .
To the Greek as to us this was an obviou s fact that n o

o n e seems to have d isputed . Philosophy had therefore
n o cause to i nqu ire into the reasons why truth i s d esi rabl e
i n ord er to give i t a n ew moral san ction .
Dec ay of The task o f ethics was to d iscuss when and why an

t t hf l
ru u
u ntruth was someti mes preferable to the truth I t i s there
n es s .
.
fore n o t to be wondered at that after Aristotle a somewhat

laxer vie w appears to have gai ned ground . There are
signs o f it even i n A ristotle for the m an who exaggerates
,

for the sake o f reputation or honou r is said to be not
79
very bl ameworthy .

The problem which i n the Pk i l oetezes
appears as a distressing m oral di ff i culty was accepted as a

n ecessity which need cau se n o scruples of conscien ce . The
ei wv who i n Aristotle is o n e who depreciates himsel f o r

p , ,
at worst only d isplays a contemptible affectation o f

80
hu mility becomes i n Theophrastus a d iplomati c liar
, .
I would lay n o stress on the fact that the twel fth chapter
Of S tob a eu s fu rn ishes fragments from the later comic
poets which assu me the permissibility o f a lie i n certai n
81
circu mstan ces . S i nce the contex t is u nk n own i t is ,
d i ffi cult to m ake o u t the moral tone they imply . I t is

more i mportant that the S toics n ot on ly al lowed the wise
m an to speak falsely but den ied that he lied i n such
,
cases . I t was a lie only when he intend ed to d efraud a

82
n eighbou r . A G reek Of the age o f Sophocles would
have allowed that d eception was som eti mes n ecessary ,
P R I VAT E M O RA L I T Y I 2 7
but to hi m deception was always lying The change i n .
language m atches the i ndifference to truth typical Of an

age when scepticis m had found its way even among the
su ccessors o f P lato .
I have stated that ethics was n ot called upon to

d iscover a fresh san ction f or truthfu lness .
Aristotle with al l the ardou r of the scienti c i nqui rer A i t otl e s

, ,
r s

83 the
sets tru th even before love to his friends I n the M eta .
phy s i cs he carefully distinguishes between the untrue thing

and the u ntrue m an de n ing the latter as o n e who i s
,!
84
i n clin ed through a habit o f wi l l to i nd ulge i n the former .
A ris totle add s n o express disapproval o f su ch a character .
To condem n the liar i s u n necessary There can be n o .
d oubt that we have here the normal Greek view expressed

i n scientic terms .
There i s n o reason for supposing that P lato s views P l to

a

s
differed i n this respect from those o f A ristotle But

f t he .
O
P lato seems to have regarded m etaphysics as something

far m ore precious than ethics To m iss the truth i s to
.
him a greater evi l than to speak an u n truth k n owing it to

be su ch The lie i n the sou l is worse than the lie i n
.
85
word .From this conviction Plato n ever swerved It .
is m an ifest i n the L es s er H ipp i a s i n the R ep u oli e and i n

, ,

the L a ws I t is true that he permits the
. m edicinal
86
l ie to the rulers on ly and i nsists again an d again on
,

the beauty and valu e o f truth which lead s god s and m en
,
87
to all that i s good I t i s true that he i s convin ced
.
that G o d wil l n ot lie 88

B u t P lato s depreciation Of
.

truth telling i n comparison with knowledge m ust have

-
been m isunderstood I thin k that its fru its are to be

.
seen i n the i ncreased toleration o f lyin g apparen t i n the

post Aristotelian period
-
The present essay shows that
.
Plato was often Opposed to the curren t views o f his ti m e ,
u sually with cred it to himself I n this case his opposition

.
was productive o f harm o r at l east helped to strengthen

,
tend en cies that were d ue to the d eclin e of the characteristic

I 2 8 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
Greek virtues which owed thei r being to th e city state

,
-
and decayed with its d ecay .
Greek iw
v e Since it was a characteristi c G reek trait to take happi
ggglif
n l
e a
c
ness as the end of all action it is only to be expected
,
that great stress was laid u pon the possession o f m aterial

advantages There is extant a fragm en t o f Solon which
.
expresses ad mirably the Greek id eal : Pierian M uses ,
glorious daughters of M em ory and O lympian Zeus hear ,
m e as I pray Grant u nto m e wealth fro m the blessed

.
gods and to have alway fair fame i n the eyes Of al l men

, .
Gran t that I may thus be dear to my friends and bitter ,
to my foes ; revered i n the sight O f the o n e awful i n the ,
89
sight o f the other To complete the pictu re we m us t
.
add those n atu ral gifts which were so d ear to Pind ar

good birth and physical and mental excellences Pi ndar .
,
too lays great stress upon reputation and i n hi m the

, ,
desire rises to a higher level in that the good o f his

child ren is often presen t to h is m i nd T O the paths .
of si mplicity let m e cleave throughout my life that being ,
dead I m ay set upon my chi l d ren a nam e that shal l be

o f n o i ll report For gold some pray and som e f o r
.
,
l i m itless lands ; m in e be it am id my townsfolk s love to
shroud my l imbs i n earth still honouring where hon our ,
9
is d ue and sowing rebuke o n the evil doers
, Pi ndar s -
.

conception of dpewj as a n oble m in d i n a beau tifu l body

shows that m aterial good s played a not u nimportan t
part in form ing the m oral ideas of the Greeks I f we .
tu rn to A ristotle i n whose eyes every i dea san ctioned

,
by the general cons cien ce was worthy of d ue consideration

as practically certai n to embody some tru th we n d an ,
excellen t reection o f Greek feel ing o n this poin t Som e .

,
he says d e n e happiness as pleasu re or wealth o r

,
91
hon ou r B u t while refusing to allow that happiness
.
is any su ch thing he believes that perfect happi ness

,
requires certain conditions without which it falls short ,
o f what it m ight be These are friend s wealth political

.
, ,
P R I VA T E M O RA L I T Y I 29
power good bi rth child ren who tu rn o u t well and

, , ,
92
p ersonal be auty .
I t is about the tim e Of the Pelopon nesi an War a Exal t t i on a
pe riod o f trouble as well as of i ntellectual enlighten ment b ody

f l o
,
o s ou v er
,
.
th at de n ite Opposition to this typ ically Greek sentimen t

rst Occurs Education had caused greater val u e to be
.
attached to th e spiritual sid e Of m an even to the occasional ,

98
disparagem ent of the cu ltivation Of the body while the ,
instabi lity o f fortu n e had been deeply i mpressed upo n

m en s minds D e moci i tu s a profoun d moralist i f not

.
,
an ethi cal philosopher recom mends him who wou ld be ,
94
happy to set his a ff ection upon things that d o not perish .
95
H appine ss an d u nhappiness he declares are o f the soul , , .
96
H appin es s dwells n ot i n ocks or gold E u ripides the .
,
con temporary Of Democritus someti mes p raises and som e ,
97
tim es disparages weal th and high bi rth B u t i t m ust .
be remembe red that it i s often not he hi mself who speaks ,
bu t his characters Y et i t i s quite plai n to which side

.

the poet s own feeling in cli nes While n ot bli nd to the .
fact that wealth brings with it the power to d o generou s

d eed s h e holds it to be u n certain worthles s withou t
, ,
vi rtue and often prod uctive o f harm

,
Good bi rt h he .
considers to be a val uable possession ; yet t ru e nobility

lies i n good n ess .
The d isparagement O f m aterial goods becomes i n So t cra es .
S ocrati c ethics the exaltation o f a life Of i ndepen den ce

and self s u f c i en cy
-
B oth i n his li f e an d i n his teaching
.
S ocrates showed that the greatest possession is to have

98
few wants This is a distinct step i n advan ce
. It .
asserts the moral val ue o f the individ ual soul apart from
its environ men t Plato wi th his passionate longing for P la t o
.
,
.
spiritual excel lence is enough of a Socratic to lay but

,
l ittle stres s u po n m aterial good s All these he wou ld .
m ake the com mon property o f the citi z ens Good bi rth .
to Plato is n o mere empty hono u r but the result o f a ,
parentage physically m entally and morally ex cellen t, , .
(B 5 81 ) K
1 3 o G RE E K M O RA L I T Y
The qu alities h e requires i n his guardian s are n ot l ove

of m oney power or honour but to be philosophical
, , , ,
high spirited swi ft footed and strong

-
,
99 -
B u t h e is n ot,
.
blind to the advantages that wealth brings with it The .
beautiful pictu re of Cephalus i n the rst book o f th e

R ep u oli e is surely o n e which Plato d id n o t regard with
enti re The Old m an a typical representative ,
Of al l that was good i n the an cient Athenian character ,
con fesses that his wealth had m ad e a l i fe o f righteousness

an easier m atter than it would otherwise have been .
P lato s Obj ect i n setting su ch a gu re before the reader

at the outset of the book is surely to suggest that th e

polity he is abou t to describe will try to reprod uce an d ,
at the sam e tim e i mprove the vi rtues we ad mi re i n ,
Cephalus virtues which Plato believed were rapid ly

, , ,
van ishing i n the vi cious atmosphere Of existing i ns ti tu

tions Accordingly i n the ideal State the wan ts of the
.
,
guardians would be suppl ied from a com mon stock Each .
man would have su f cient bu t there would be n o place ,
for greed Plato was keenly alive to the danger o f a

.

money l oving spiri t
-
There i s a gul f he says between
.
, ,
wealth and vi rtue that when weighed as it were i n the

, , ,
two scales o f a balance on e Of the two al ways falls as ,
the other rises C onsequ ently when wealth and the

.
wealthy are honou red in a S tate virtu e and the vi rtuou s ,

10
sin k i n estimation The love Of honou r valuabl e
.
,
enough when d irected toward s the good o f the State ,
can sin k into m ere sel shness and cau se the degradation ,
1 02
from the ideal polity to d emocracy B u t the best .
i nstan ce i n Plato of S ocratic sel f s u f c i en cy occu rs at the -
beginn ing o f the second book o f the R ep s e/24 1
A ir
consu m mately u nj ust man who is thought by his fellow ,
men to be perfectly j ust and who h as al l the advantages ,
an d honou r to be obtained from su ch a reputation is ,
cont rasted with a perfectly j ust m an who i s supposed to ,
be altogether u nj ust and who through al l his l i fe s u ers

,
P R I VAT E M O RA L I T Y 1 3 I
accord ingly Even i n su ch a case as this Pl ato is p re

.
pared to show n ot i ndeed that the persecu ted j ust man

, , ,
is happier than an honou red j ust m an but that j ustice ,
is better than inj ustice The Goegi as emphasises the

.
doctrin e that the righteou s are happy an d the un righteou s ,
4
un happy . This rm resolution not to d i m i n ish the
prerogative of wisdom an d virtu e which that philosopher ,
bel ieved to be identical is all the m ore sign i can t when

,
we remembe r that Plato was n o bigoted ascetic but a ,
typical Greek When accord in gly i n the Pki l eou s h e is

.

, ,
discuss ing what is the good for m an after intel ligence and ,
wisd om he rank s arts and scien ces true opi n ions and , ,
105
such pleasures o f sense as are n ot associated with pain .
Recon ciliation of these two apparently contradictory

tendencies m ust be sought for in the d octri nes O f i m
mortality and transmigration While upon earth the .
sou l i s beset with desires pleasu res pai ns an d d isease , , , ,
which preven t her from realising her perfect activity .
The body need s atten tion but f o r the sake o f the sou l ,
an d n ot fo r its o wn The t ru e end o f man is to d evelop

.
his intelligence so that after d eath his soul m ay tak e u p

her abode i n the real m of p ure bein g and su ff er n o m ore ,
bondage i n the prison house o f a mortal body -

.
Something has already been said about Aristotle s

A ri s t tl
o e.
opinion on the question o f m aterial goods The tenden cy .
to exalt the sou l over the body a tenden cy which ,
philosophy strengthened by showing from experien ce the

j oys o f intellectual exercise appears in A ristotle as the ,
supremacy Of the contemplative life over those Of action

and o f pleasu re S elf s u f c i en cy lies n ot i n the solita ry
.
-
,
1 06
man but in the man and his i m mediate environ m en t
, .
This id ea I thin k shou ld be connected with Aristotle s

, ,

con ception of friendshi p as an extension o f the sel f The .
extended personality i s sel f s u fc i en t ; the ind ivid ual is -
not
The Cyrenaics while ,

n ot d isparaging worldly good s ,
C yre n a i cs .
1 3 2 G R E E K M O R A L I TY
d id not lay any stress upon them Cu ltivation of the .
m ind was in thei r eyes the requisite for that enj oym ent
o f life which they regarded as the highest good f o r men .
I t is n ot i n o u r power to com mand i nstru ments of pleasu re ,
bu t we can make the most of such as we have M an .
1 07
m ust be as far as possible ind epen dent O f circu mstances
, ,
.
C yn ics .
B u t with the Cynics Socratic independen ce as Zeller says
, , ,
1 08
became a renu nciation of the world They lived as .
beggars Thei r d ress their food thei r whole m anner O f

.
, ,
life was of the si m plest

,
As far as external m eans o f
.
h appiness are concerned they would have placed man o n a

,
level with the beasts o f the eld Their teaching may b e .
well su m med up i n the saying o f An ti sthenes that virtue

is su f cient for happiness and n eeds nothing else ex cept ,
109 1 10
Socratic strength o f will Reputation they d espised
.
,
1 11
and considered it good to be dishonoured I n spite Of .
the Q uixotism priggishness and indecen cy which o ff end

, ,
u s i n the Cynic m ode Of life it m u st be con fessed they ,
mad e a m agnicent protest again st lu xury and a rti c i a l i ty

at a ti me when it was greatly needed They are the only .
school which attempted to make proselytes I t is prob .
ably i n this con nection that we shou ld tak e the story

112
told of Antisthenes . When reproached f or assoc iating
with bad m en he replied Physicians visit the sick bu t ,

they themselves have no fever C rates was n ickn am ed .

D oor opener
-
because he used to enter into eve ry house
11 3
and give exhortation . D iogenes said o f himsel f that
other dogs ( with a pu n o n Cynics ) bit their enem ies whi le ,
1 14
he bit his friends that he m ight save them I t is .
i mpossible to m easure the in u en ce which the Cyn ics

exerted upon thei r contem poraries They were probably .
always few i n nu mber and were brought into prom inence

,
m ore by their eccentri cities than by their wid e extension .
Y et it is likely that they were m en Of striking personality

an d strength o f character D iogenes L a erti u s relates
.
o f Diogenes that he had wonderful powers Of persuasion .

P R I V AT E M O RA L I T Y x3 3
5
There was m agic charm (i v yf ) i n his words
t I t is .
al so said that many publi c m en cam e to hear him The .
great work Of the Cynic school was to prepare a way for

Stoicism both by bringing ou t in the clearest light the
,
a rti c i a l i ty o f Greek li fe that had long been expressed in

,
the contrast between (pil o t; and v p o g an d also by furn ish ,
ing an exampl e o f exaggerated i nd ividualis m to serv e as

a warn ing to thei r successors .
B oth the Stoics an d the Epicu reans asserted man s S t oi

nd cs a
independen ce of m at erial good s B u t whereas the S toic

.
ideal was volu ntary harmony with u n iversal l aw the

-
,
Epicu rean sought to d etach man as far as possible from

hi s environ men t in order to acqu ire dr a pa f ta
,
I t is
.
therefore n atu ral to n d that al though th e Stoics refus ed

to allow that m aterial goods n ot bein g in a m an s power
, ,
could i nuen ce his happi ness and m ai ntained that only,
virtu e was a good they n evertheless gave to beauty

, ,
strength health an d life a d ecided preference over thei r

,
116
opposites . I t is i mpossible not to see that these
possessions are more in harm ony with law an d reason
than ugl iness sickn ess and death
, , At any rate they are
.
useful as mean s to the life accord in g to n atu re The .
Epicu rean wise man o n the other hand i s sel f s u fc i en t

, ,
-
b ecause he has need Of little H e will nevertheless n ot

.
1 17
neglect external goods when they com e i n his way .
H e accordingly restricts his wants to the ut most so that

he may n ot be d isturbed from repose Of m ind .
This disparagement Of m aterial good s apparen t as i t R n fo

, ea s o r
di p
is in n early every ethical system i s very rem arkable g m n t n , .
e e
s af
I
'
The u nan i mity can not be due to a growin g popularity of p h i l phy os o
m
simple l iving There is n o eviden ce that th e Athen i an o f g
Eogf
a e
.
3 0 0 B .C was more frugal in his ways than his an cestor of

.
a centu ry o r m ore before him O n the contrary the

.
,
cu riously promin en t place occupied by cooks an d cookery

8
in the later comedy can not be en tirely explained by
the fact that the quotation s are mostly mad e by A thenaeus
in his D octors a t D i nn er They are much too long and

.
n u merous I t seems a fact that d uring the fourth and

.
third cen tu ries the pleasu res of the palate were more
highly esteemed than they had been an d Epicu ru s ,
probably voiced a popular sentiment when he declared

119
that he could n o t con ceive of happi ness without them .
The real reason for the d isparagement of material goods

is that philosophy being an exercise of mi nd n aturally
, ,
regards with favou r the exaltation o f soul over body .
Hence as is shown i n another section the contem plative

, ,
life was raised by philosophy to the rank of a virtu e .
P e s i mi s m
s . O f all goods life itsel f is natural ly the most esteemed ,
and the Greeks with thei r exquisitely developed sense O f

,
pleasure and beauty were not behind other peoples i n,
appreciation O f the j oy o f l iving I t is m anifest i n thei r .
delight i n youthful strength and beau ty and i n their ,
horror at Old age Nevertheless there often occu r

.
passages i n Greek literature possibly m ore than i n any ,
other literatu re which express the blackest pessim ism

,
.
The present d iscussion is concerned with that form o f

it which considered death to be preferable to life .
Natu rally it is to be fou nd mostly i n times o f troubl e .
The best lot for men says T heog n i s is n ot to have been

, ,
120
born at all the n ext best to d ie as soon as possibl e
, .
121 122
The lament is repeated by Sophocles an d Eu ripid es ,
the latter declari ng that the complaint was often heard i n

his d ay .
S u i ci d e
.
N o w since the Greeks attached n o m oral blam e to the

taking of life it is only to be ex pected that suicide as a
, ,
remedy for the ills of life was n ot general ly condem ned ,

.
Certainly Sophocles did not hold u p the deaths of

Aj ax and Antigon e as worthy o f m oral d isapprobation .
Eu ripid es in deed i n o n e passage calls sel f slaughter n u

, ,
-
holy but elsewhere h e regards i t as a virtue and a noble

, ,
123
act i n certain circu mstances .
B u t although su icide was n ot condem ned o n pu rely

P R I VA TE M O RA L I T Y I 35
moral ground s i t brought a reli gi ous stain of blood

,
guiltin ess upo n the State Aeschines says th at the gui lty
.
han d o f the suicid e was bu ri ed apart from the rest o f the

1 24
body . Al l takin g o f hum an life was looked u pon at
Athen s as bringing with i t religious del em en t but I ,
can not nd that this i mpl ied any m oral guilt I n the .
fth book o f the B tki es it is d ecided that the suicide

wrongs the S tate and not hi msel f sin ce he acts o f his
, ,
o wn accord . The fault did not lie i n d epriving the S tate

o f a citi z en ,
because as B urnet says the appropriate
, ,
125
penalty is not damages but d ishonou r ( ci r rufa ) ,
The .
suicide is condem ned by A ristotl e o n l egal rather than ,
moral grou nds for polluting th e St ate The Pythagoreans

,
.
,
who attached a high val ue to life as s u ch considered sel f ,

126
slaughter an O ff ence against morality and religion for , ,
as we have s een the Pythagorean m oral san ction was a

,
religious one Some mysteries as P lato i mplies com

.
, ,
pared men to sold iers who m ust not leave the station at
1 27
which they have been placed This doctrin e certai nly
.
makes it a d uty to refrain from suicide Pl ato d oes not .
see his way to accept this view but readily ad m its that ,
voluntary sel f slaughter is a si n against the god s whose

-
,
1 28
possession man is The Cyn ics an d Stoics carried their
.
views abou t independence to such a l engt h that they

cl ai med th e right o f securing their freed om by m ean s o f
sel f destruction
-
Crates the Cynic recom mended suicide
.
129
when ci rcu mstances require i t M etroc l es an d M en i pp u s
.
13 0
put an end to thei r lives Z en o an d C leanthes the rst
.
,
13 1
two head s Of the S toic school com mitted suicide and
, ,
their d eaths are m ention ed by S tob aeu s as instances of

13 2
cou rage . Later adherents of the school favou red the
practice especially d uring th e tyran ny of the Roman
,
13 3
E mpire . Theodoru s the Cyrenai c on the other hand , ,
declared that the wise m an would n ot kill himself for the

sake O f his country Why should he throw away his .
13 4
wisdom to help fool s ? Epicu ru s allowed suicide only
1 3o G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
in rare cases but he d id n ot con sider it i mm oral seeing

, ,
that he held the wise man to be indepen dent of everything ,
13 5
in cl uding life and death .
S uicide was condem n ed by the Pythagoreans the ,
mysteries and Plato fo r religious reason s ; by the State

,

because o f the ceremoni al i mpu rity it entailed Plato s .
u nwillingness to accept the position taken by the ex

pou n ders of the mysteries implies I think that h e did , ,
not follow the Pythagorean s in hold ing all hum an l ife to

be sacred . Socrates i f he d id n ot com mit suicide at
, ,
least cou rted d eath and his pupil had no fau lt to nd

,
with his action . The Cyrenaics an d Epicu rean s were

in u enced entirely by hedon isti c reasons I t i s clear that .
the Cynics and Stoics practised what they preached .
Ci rcu mstan ces certainly m ade them all the read ier to put
their theories into practice but the permissibili ty of su icid e
,
is i mplied i n thei r fu ndamental theory o f man s in de
p e n d en ce of circu mstances Fo r the sam e reason. the

Cyren aics and E picu reans who also shared the belief i n
,
independence did n ot condem n suicide bu t only thought

, ,
13 6
it foolish . Except among the Pythagoreans wh o ,
possibly i nuenced the teaching Of such mysteries as

condem ned su icide there is n o trace that it was ever
,
considered i m moral to tak e hu man li fe although s u ch ,
action brought ceremon i al del emen t When su icide i s .
condem ned elsewhere it is on ground s other than the

,
sacred ness of hu man life .

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV
1 . Di c ki n so n W e Greek Vi ew f
o L if e p . 17 .
2 . h t
Sc m i d E l li i i i 404, d escri b i ng . th e li e.
3 [ l i d ix 3 12
.
e . .
4 . So p h l oc es A nt ig on e 536 foll . Th e c h u or s vo l unt i l y u ff e wi th

ar s r
P rome th u e s P V . . 1 06 3 -
1 070 .
5 . S tob a eu s Fl or . xx i v . th
8 ( Py agoras ) K a la } ws i gw mi a xct Btd .
,
'
r o0 U W L5 6T OS
a o a mf uevos 6 r 4? o rb/t a r t K a t r a i s My-ya k

6 dOLK ttw ,
6 . A ri s t tl e
o

s para p h e ra s of th e P l t ni de ni ti n
a o c o 111 L a ws 6 46 E . See
E rni e: 1 128 b .
7 . S tob a eu s Flor . xxi v .

7 ( A n ti ph an es )

rb u i ; a vv et d l
ye ur al? e)
'
vat lp
,
a p
ra
ddl mua under .

do j v r ohM y
'
v xa

.
8 . I b id . xxi v. 13 w pdr ns pwr nel s r i v e: dr a p s el rreu , at under

c ur ai s ar on ov a vr etdr es
'
.
I soc ra es t N it
39 A ( . q t ed
uo by S tob aeu s i bi d . 16 ) { M ain e n

i ; r ot):
K exr nu v ovs , n w a w etdr a s ner d

r oi s

bl ow

Ad o r a b

. L ro s K a xc a lx .
r7 :3 r at a r m 7 13x779 i j dw r a dv

r ts r dr 73 10p Sta y a y ei r .
S tob a eu s Fl or . xxi v .
3 ( M e na n d er)
3 pa our a r os,
'
6 a vmtrr opco } M 2
'
c lrr q
'
v Tl ,
K
i7 tr il l/ ea t s a r dv 5 6 LA6I Q T OV el l/ at worst

.
I bid 6 .
( S op h l oc es fr . 84 5 N a u ck )

dewor dp r , ij l (i n u s a h b s 6 w
aur ?
a a vv et d .
9 . 15 oz . 1 ( D i phil u s )
'
da r t s y ap a tzr ds a lrrbv our a l d xr er a t

O UVE L5 60 a u
'
ra ? (pa ha dta n errpwy p v qa,

,
mi l s r u y e unti v d 567 al o xvr rjo er at
10 . I bi d 5 E u ri pid es Or estes 3 9 5
. .
"
M E r t xpua arda xets r ls dr M vo w Vba c s ;
' '
a

.
OP
'
mi 5n c1199 0 t Oc i w el p ycw u vos.
'
. l/ea t s ,
11 . I soc ra te s r p b s A ngel/ m oo Sto b a eus Fl or

( i v 9 ) [L n61ror e under al o
p . xx .
v
n ou a a sj ( An t e h a ew r o d 7 64) a r ail s dhh ovs N jo ys, a a vr q? m etdc et s

'
.
I 37
1 3 8 G R E E K M O R A L I TY
12 . S tob a eu s Fl or . xxx i .
7 ( D em oc ri tu ) s
r ttw dAv a ed vr 6u xlvea a t

66 1roA6 udAo
'
a lo .
10 (T h eop h turas s )
a l 6of} a a vr v , xa l dAAoV 06 K d ic xvvrja n
'
I bid . 17 ( A ga th n ) o
611: e v opl gwv 651m ! a l 6oua t i Awu

'
I 3 . A i t tl e E t/
r s o z z cs 1 1 2 8
'
b .
dAAd

14 . M id . 1 1 79 b 06 1re txaa w ( Sc . 01 1roAAol ) n et a pxel y
r tuw
pta s

p 66 4) , 066 drrxeo a t r aw 5 0 6v
0 6td r 6 a la p u dAAd 6cd r d: .
15 . P l a to Go g i as r 480 C K a r nyopei v
'

6ei v
'
ju dAw r a p 61! . .
'
ea vr oi) , ( t etr a. 6e K a i
0v olxel wv
m K at p ly

7 Ka i r aw dAv 6: dv del r 63 1! d 9lv r dvy d6t 6V, .
You 69 6

dr oxp wr ea a t , dAA eZ :6 pa ve/I 61, dy ew
r r 6 K nv K a t 67 th:
y vnr a t, dva yxdgetv 7 06: dAo : 66 m l a br bv m l 9 d 6 A d dA Ad

'
p 1 1ro
. et r v ,
n a pxew M a rr o w K a i dv 6pel ws, (b or ep r eps / en! K a t K detv l a rpt,

. r6 Kat
K d Abv 6tc6K ovr a , uh dr v y tf p evov r 6 dA yew v, dv p 61! 7 e '

. Amide
i j 6t K a 5 rrr ew dv 6e 6eoju 06, 6etv , du 5 e ( ma i d s, dn or tvorr a ,

J: , r n a p x ovr a ,
6dr 6e et7 0rr a , dv 6e Ba vdr ov, drrovzjtr xovr a , a r bu patr on (i rr a .
j yopov K a i
K a rv

a dr ot)

Ita l 7
'
t dAv ol xel wv Ka t 1rl r o r tp xptbuevov r

mopuc drm s ,
dv K a r a 67 jv r 63 1! y ty vou vwv dn a AAdr r wur a t r o0
uey l or ov K a r ol} ,
d6u da s .
16 . P l a to R ep ub l i c 3 66 D WdVT W 60 04 n a wr a t (pa r e 6t xa t00 15m) : el em ,

.
'
E dpx: ptbwv dd uer ot , 60 0 w A67 01 AeAetM t vot [L X pl r t? v u

r cbu
dv pdnrwv , 066d : m fnror e etpef ev d 6uc mjv ea e 6txa t oa zf r nv dAAw: 5)

cw 0 66

665 a : r e K a t r i nd: I ta l 6wped: r d: drr

cur Cm
-
y twop ua s a 6r 6 6 K dr epor

r1 3
5
'
a l zr o 6 0r duet v r r 06

xovr os l
i l/x vbv K a i Ad v dvov 0e06: r e Ka i

dv pdnrov:

0 66d : n dnror e adr eu n ou o et odrj V l 6l ot s A67 06 r eEAev i xa uct} :

r93 A67 9 , ( 69 r d ey neg/co r al! K a xd w 60 a
u
,

i tre p x
u i j v a b r, 5 LK G LOO I5 V1] 6e
'
u yw r ov d7 a 06v cl y dp oilr w: Ayer o E dpx: 61rd n dvr wv I ta l ex

' '
'
r wv nd: h el er e, d l l r b s a l rro

do dAA o s cv dr r oju ev pr}; d6cxci v , dAA

n m a r o: 6Aa m) q E v omo:

66 6t ) : d6mtbv

#67 t

, rg
o 9) [( 0 .
1 7. G omperz Gr eek T/z i n ecrs i i p 3 42 . . .
18 . D i cki n son Tne C r eel: Vi ew f

o L if e pp . 1 3 4, 14 1 .
19 . S ee Word s worth s
Ode to D u ty
St e n d ght f th i e f G d
r au er o e vo c O o
O D u t y i f th t n m e th l e a a ou ov ,
Wh t l ight t gui de
o ar da o , a ro
T h e k th i ng d p
o c c e err , an re rov e
T h u wh t i t y d l w
o , o ar v c or an a
Wh en em p t y t e we errors ov ra
F m ro i n t m p t ti n d t
va t f e e a o s os se re
l m t th e w y t i fe f f i l h u m i ty

A d n ca s ea r s r o ra an
N O TE S 13 9
T h ere a re who as k not i f thi ne eye

Be on th e m wh o i n l ov e an d t ru th ,
Wh e re no mi sgivi ng i s rel y ,
U po n th e geni l s ens e of y ou th a
G l a d h ea rt s l wi th ou t re pro ch or b l ot a
Wh o do th y w ork a nd k n ow i t n ot ,
L o n g m ay th e ki nd l y i m pu l s e l a s t
Bu t th ou i f th ey s h o l d t o tt e r t e a ch th e m to s t a n d fa s t
,
u ,
S e rene wi ll b e ou r day s a nd b ri ght ,
A nd h a p py wi ll ou r n t u re b e a ,
Wh en l ov e i s a n un erri ng l ight ,
And j oy i ts o wn s ec ri ty u .
And th ey a b li ss fu l cou s e may hold r
E v en n ow wh o n ot unwi se l y b o l d
, , ,
L i v e i n th e S pi ri t of th i s c reed
Y et nd th a t oth er s t rength a cc ord i ng to th ei r need ,
.
Ste n l w g e
r a -
iv r yet th u d t we o os ar
The G dhe d o a

s m os t b enign n t g e a rac
N or k n o w we a nythi ng so fai r
A s i s th e s mi l e u po n th y fac e
Fl owers la ugh b efore th ee on th ei r b ed s
A nd fra gran c e i n th y foo ti ng t re a ds
Th ou d os t pre se rv e the s t ars from wrong ; 1
A nd the m os t a n ci en t h e a v en s th rou gh th ee , , a re fre sh a n d s ro t ng .
To h umb l e fun ti n wf u l p we
r c o s, a o r
I call th e I m y e l f mm end
e s co
U n t th y gui d n e f m thi h u
o a c ro s o r
Oh l e t my we k ne h
, d a ss ave a n en
G i e un t m m d l w l y wi e
v o e, a e o s ,
T h e pi i t f l f
s r i o se -
sa cr ce
T h e n den f e n gi e
co ce o r as o v
A d i th e li ght f t u th th y b nd m n l e t m l i
n n o r o a e ve
St. L u k e x ii v . 10 .
2I .
22 .

61 1

5
( 7 1 1/ 0 d 6ety et
py d c u y os .
23 . D i og L a e r
. t . viii . 22

1F?
) wa p q r t 6 { pef a ri M 6eor O6K r eA tr n
'
r l.
1 C f Stob a eus E CI ii r or o i i dAO ya

. . . 15 8 [r 6 xa v xov] j 6 t a r1 t
. . Ka s s rd

. r63 1! grimy , e ve
pyei
yi p xdxei va do oOt- a v rfb v duv et

. ee r .
1 4o G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
24 . P l a t o Pl d 6 1 E zae o .
25 . C o l a ng es L a Ci teA nti gu e p
u .
420 .
26 . P l a t o A pology 2 8 E 67 6 6 ) 0 V 6ew d 61
379 t6 du 6pe:
A OnI / a i or, dpxovr e: r a rr ou , 06:

6 1, th etAea e d xew y ou, 01
e p

A nAl tp, r 6r e p 61! 0 6 6K 6 2VOL

6V H or t 6al g K a l 6V A p t1r 6Aet K a i . .
{ d em o c6trrrep m l dAAo: r t: I t a l K tv 66v evov drroa rei v, 7 06 66 06 06 r drr ovr os,

'
(b : 67 6: 93770771! r e K a i 61r Aa Bou , tAoa o ovr d Me 66 21 { 73v K a i f er df ovr a .
bv r ods dAo vr a a 66 OI3 770Z $ i) Odva r ov r) dAAo dr tov pdyua

eua vr Kai s, . r .
Al rrouu r 9) r d fw .
27 . P l ato Pluzedo 6 2 B p vr m dAAd 666 7 6 p 01 60K ei , (I ! K ns, 6 6

r .

j rrm e vneuov: K a t ri n d: r 06: dupctnrov: 6v

A yetr Oa t, el em.

r6 06 06: v utbv r 06:

r 531! K r nudr wv r oi : l
e va t oxov , 5
7 6 ml 06 dv r 631! a a vr o
mt dr wv a vr d dn oxr w v ol , mjva ur 6:

l 6r ; 6 6

et r t ,w ) an 06Aet a l rr
'
Kr O OU
0 dva t, I 6V a ll r t Ka i 6 2 r wa
'
re y
d erra VOt: ,
6x04: r c/p l a v, r tuwpoi o dv
I a w: i r a r y 06K dAoy ov pr? ) 7rp6r epov a 6r 6v dr oxr wv v a t 6ei y , p dv
'
r o v vv
'
11
d ud yxnu
r wd 6 06 6: rm rpn/
J
y,
(I O T G
p K a i r i p! v iz wa poa c w

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'

, p .
.
NOTES 147
For th e Cy en n
i dep de ce see 26 221 66 u 5 e i m v6s dpy a a a a c m 2 1 61mg
r ai c en n .
'
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) 7 6p 1 6 v dpen yu

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7
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93 wovnpoi s 60 06 1, Kai

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1 16 . D i og L a er . t . Vi i . 10 5 1 66v d6ca 6pwv 6 [1 6V X yovm 7rponyu z/ a , 1 6 66

1 .
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. l ' '
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1 18 . S ee M ah a y S oci a l L if e i n Greece pp . 2 99 f ll o .
1 19 . D i og L aer . t x . . 6 .
1 20 . T h eogn i s 42 5
/a c m
minn ow p ly. ( pil l x00v10c0 w dpc0 1 ov

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148 GRE E K M OR A L I TY
12 1 . S op h l oc es Oed C01 . . 1225
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E u ri p i de
p . 1 20 .
123 . I n E u ri pi de s H er . Fu r . 12 12 s u i ci d e is ca ll ed 6 11 60 1011 . I t is c om .
m ended i n H el . 2 9 8- 3 0 2 a nd T1 0 . 10 1 2 - 1 0 1 4 . S ee Th om s o n E zcn
p
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zdes
'
a nd
M e A tti c Or ator s pp 5 5 , 5 6 . .
1 24 . A es ch i ne s a a
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1 27 . M id . 62 B 6 06 11 6 11 d r oppr oc: 6 6 7 6/L E VOS

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1 29 . D i og L a e r . t . vi . 86 .
13 0 . I 6i d . vi. 95 , 1 00 .
I 6i d ii 2 9 , 1 76
I 3 1 . . v . .
13 2 . S tob a eu s Fl or . v ii. 45 , 5 4 .
13 3 . For the S t oi c v i e w of s u i ci de s ee B i og . La e rt . v ii . 1 3 o e6l\6 yw: r 93 010 111
6e1v 611 111 611 1 06 6 1011 1 611 6611

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13 5 . For th e E pi u n i ew f ui ide Z ll e S t i p 489 c rea v o s c s ee e r o cs . .
13 6 . A i t tl i l
r s o p ib l e ex pti n
e S p 9 7 f th i e
s a so a y oss ce o . ee . o s ssa .
CONC L US I ON
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S O F G R E E K
M O RAL I TY
1 49
C O N CLU S I O N
CH A R A CT E R I S T I C S OF GR E EK M OR AL I T Y
E VE N as earl y as the H om eri c period the Greeks had a ( ) M 1 a ora
The dz cz u m o f H eg el that $2 5 33
'
hi g hl y developed morality .

before S ocrates there was n o morality but m erel y b y i ,

en v ron
m m e
p ropriety o f condu ct is onl y true in the sense that
'
ethics d id n ot yet e x ist But who would assert that

.
n o man is m oral unless he be an ethical philosopher ?

The l ofty ideals of the I li a d an d the Ody s s ey were to a
g reat e x tent the outcom e of econom ic po l itical and social ,
forces at work du rin g a lon g period o f m atu re civi lisation .
The H omeri c cultu re seems to have been a happ y m ean

between patriarchal life an d m onarch y combin in g the ,
e x cellences o f the form er with few if a n y o f the vices of , ,
the latte r . Environ ment is a m ost i mportan t factor i n

the g rowt h of morality I nstitutions are t h e nu rseries o f
.
virtues and ideals B earin g this i n m ind we shall n ot be

.
su rprised at t h e cu rious waves so to speak which m ark , ,
the develop men t o f morality There is ind eed orderl y

.
, ,
pro g ress
. S udden breaks with the past such as the French ,
R evolution are rare and temporary

,
B ut periodicall y .
there comes a slow stron g wave emphasisin g som e

, ,
aspect o r aspects of the m oral l ife Then it reced es or .

,
seem s to recede and there ensu es a lul l which i n its turn

, ,
i s followed b y another wave emphasisin g other ideas ,

.
I llustrations are the prom inen ce o f patriotism political ,
and social questions home li fe and i nd ividualism whi ch

,
-
,
15 1
com e to the fore du rin g the period goo 3 0 0 B C I

. .
wou ld su gg est that the much disputed question whether

-
m orality d ec l ined at A thens d u rin g the fou rth century has

never yet been treated upon the ri ght lines That there .
were moral chan g es wi l l be ad mitted b y everybod y .
H u man e ideals took preced en ce over the more man l y

virtues o f cou rag e an d devoted patriotism Whi ch .
m oral it y makes a nation more li kel y to su rvive in the

stru gg le for e x istence is easil y an swered But who shal l .
s a y that one m orality is better than the other ? The

connection between envi ron ment and morality e x plains
why there is no even developmen t o f the latter thro u g h
ou t Greece from H omer to the fth cen tu ry Each little .
State lived apart b y itsel f S ome intercom munication

.
e x isted but not en ou g h to prevent stri kin g moral d if

,
f eren ces amon g the i nhabitants H ow di fferen t prevalen t

.
m oral ities m ay have been is conclusivel y shown b y a

comparison between the S partan and the Athenian
characters .
(b ) V i rtu e A marked characteristic o f the m oralit y o f the Greeks

as h ar m on was a read y ad m ission that all n atu ral powers were to be
i ou s de
vel o p m ent .
developed yet i n su ch a way as to prod uce a harm on iou s
,
whole . The Greek loved a beauti ful life Perfect ph ysical .
and m ental d evelopment happ y relations with the State

, ,
friends an d fam il y a peaceful end i n o l d a ge al l these

, ,

thin g s and all that they i mpl y are n ecessary constituents

,
o f the 8 50 9 , E wopoa uvq a t ypical Greek vi rtu e , ,
i nsists upon the presence o f activities almost as m u ch

as their harmon ious developm ent Accordin g l y Greek .
m oral ity approved o f practices which are u tterl y opposed

to modern ideas B u t althou g h al l natu ral powers should
.
be d eveloped there m ust be n o e x a gg eration n o want o f

, ,

p roportion The idea o f the happ y m ean permeated
.
Greek li fe throu g h and throu g h I t is seen i n the size of

.
their cities i n the severe form o f thei r tra g ed y and i n th e

, ,
calm repose of their best sculptu re The conception o f .

.
C H A R ACT E R I S T I C S x5 3
virtue as a mean accounts f o r the n egative character o f

sin in Greek m oral ity The Greeks had n o devil . The .
H omeric d eities do ind eed tempt m en to sin ,

Bu t ,
.
the y are non moral rather than i m moral

-
The earl y .
Greeks did n ot thi n k that the moral law concern ed the

action s o f the g ods them selves Consequentl y with t h e .
,
pu rify in g of t h e idea of God there spran g up n o con

c e ti o n o f an evil divin it
p y F o r this reason the Greek .
was t h e more read y to acknowl ed g e that he was him sel f

the cause o r at l east a cau se o f his sin
,
H ence he
,
.
re garded u ntruth an d vice g enerall y as a lowerin g of

, ,
the sel f H e felt s h am e at his failu re to be virtuous

. .
W
1
to the ri g ht path
1 responsibility V irtue m ay be keepin g
But there i s a ri ght path and man y
.
d x
.
!
wron g ones .
Earl y Greek morality was i ntim atel y con nected with ( c

) M ora 1
reli g ion .B ut Greek reli g ion was a hetero g eneou s com

pound som e of the compon ents o f whi ch had n o bearin g
,
upon morality e x cept in so far as they kept alive a

re l i g ious feelin g which was however mu ch contam in ated
, , ,
with superstition s M oreover there was i n Greece n o

.
,
a l l powerful priesthood en forcin g a morality from which

-
the com mon peopl e were inclined to break away .
Ceremon ial reli g ion en forced n o m orality but that which

appealed to the g eneral con scien ce o f the ti m e H en ce .
i t took u nder its protection the defen celess supplian t the ,
orphan an d the a g ed paren t I can not believe that .
homicid e which was forbidd en b y reli g ion was g ener

, ,
a l l y re garded as in itself i m moral The m anslay er was .
pu ried n ot b y repentance bu t b y the performan ce o f

, ,
certain rites The reli g iou s ban mean t ceremonia l n ot

.
,
moral d el em en t I t was the g eneral belief i n a d ivin e

.
power rather than cults an d cerem on ies which h ad the

, ,
most eff ect upon Greek m orality And this i nuence it .
e x erted b y actin g as a san ction f or those moral ideas of

which the Greek con science insti nctivel y approved .
hi
E t cs a n d Greek ethics was g enerall y i n a g reemen t with current
M ral i ty
moral ity but not seld om especiall y i n the teachin g o f

, ,
P lato it d enitel y opposed it

,
Yet i n not a few cases .
philosophic anal ysis transcen ds the received m oral code ,
and anticipates the conviction s o f futu re g eneration s .
Thus the L a ws of Plato condemn s u n natural vice and ,
elsewhere that philosopher m ai ntains that to do harm to

enemies even n on Greeks i s in al l cases wron g Aristotle s
,
-
, .
con ception o f friendship is i n som e respects above that

of his a ge while si g ns are not wantin g that he reco g n ised
,
the claims o f slaves to the ri g hts of hu manit y Plato .
perceived the capabilities of wom en far more than a ny

other Greek either before or after him
, .
hi
E t cs
Philosophic ethics also helped to il lum inate mora l
b rou g t h ideas which before were felt but n ot t h orou g hl y u nderstood ,
.
Clear form ulation i s a g reat gain I t sets u p a land mark .
du ct .
which can not be effaced H ence we see that the Stoics
.
were g reatl y i n uenced b y the teachin g o f Plato and

Aristotle Socrates tried to reduce m oral ideas to order
.
b y means o f de n itions C onsisten c y of action is more

.
likel y to be attained when con cepts an d not i m pulses , ,
are m ade the standards to which conduct has to con form .
H ow far the teachin g o f S ocrates inuen ced th e ord i nary

Athenian we can not s ay but it certain l y i nu en ced ,
philosophers Al l ethical schools owed their ori g i n to it

. .
N ot u nfrequ entl y it happen s that in his attem pt to e x plai n

moralit y the philosopher does n ot i ntrod uce a new ideal ,
but en n obles the o l d A ristotle s accou nt o f frien dship

.

and the Stoic d evelopmen t of the id ea o f d uty are g ood

e x amples .
Et hics g ave B ut Greek ethics inuen ced cond uct main l y b y g ivin g
Z gi i
v
a t o n to
a n ew san ction to m orality when reli gious faith decay ed ,
m ora l ity . an d the philosophic doctrin e of wdvm ,5 5 2 an d the cont rast ,
o m with li d 00 9
of
M were tran sferred b sophists and
-
( / .
, y ,
others to the sphere of m orals

,
Ethics showed that the .
old mora l ity made m en happ y By i nsistin g u pon the .

C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S I 55
happiness o f the moral man Greek ethics considerabl y ,
stren g thened other forces which were tendi n g i n the ,
direction o f individualism Yet althou g h i t did n ot

.
preven t the chan g e from the ol d to the new it mad e the ,
tran sition pe riod slow and orderl y

-
The d an g er o f moral .
an archy was arrested Thi nki ng men saw that m orality

.
was reason a b le an d so l ived disciplined l ives

,
The less .
i n tellectu al followed i n their steps Thu c y dides tel ls u s .
what happened when faith i n mora l s d ecay ed as wel l as

faith i n reli gion That Greece was spared to d o g ood
.
work for at least two centu ries after the Peloponnesian

War was in no smal l d e g ree d ue to the teachin g o f ethical
philosophers .
Greek ethics showed that the source o f m oral ity l ay in

1
the hu man sou l and its capacity of form in g ideal pu rposes .
The philosopher poet Eu ripides shows distin ct traces o f

-

this attitud e I t was n o t C ypris that tempted y ou
.
,
2
say s H ecuba to H elen it was y our m ind that becam e
,

C y pris .That Eu ripides should have criticised the g ods
o f the O l y mpic pantheon proves that he considered the
hu man in tel l i g en ce su preme i n the moral sphere Plato .
held that ri g hteousness is better i n itsel f than u nri ghteou s

n ess whether the g od s perceive ou r action s o r not
, .

H e thus clearl y distin g uished the con cept g ood from

the useful the ,
pleasan t an d all other concepts
, .
A ri stotl e g ives a d enition of vi rtue which i mplies that

the u ltim ate test of g ood cond uct is the opin ion of
the moral man ( 6 m ov Ba i os d gbp dvmos) This is a , .
remarkabl e anticipation o f the spirit of modern ethical

science N evertheless the reli g iou s san ction was n o t
.
abandon ed b y every philosopher I t was kept alon g .

,
with the n ew ethical san ction b y Socrates P lato and the , , ,
S toics . P lato brou g ht prom inentl y forward the doctrin e

o f duol wo cc

g rowth
-
,
i nto the l ikeness o f God which was ,
d erived from the m ysteries an d P y tha g oreanism This .
doctrin e is hinted at before Plato in Socratic teachin g ,

I 5 6 GR E E K M O R A L I TY
bu t becom es after him a cardinal point of S toi c doctrin e .
The cou ra g eous com bination o f ethics an d reli g ion

presented b y the teachin g o f Plato is perhaps the most
in spiri n g lesson of the ancien t world to m odern tim es ,
an d t h e on e which modern teachers shou ld take m ost to

heart .
I t is not the business o f the historian to point a m oral .
But there are two facts w h ich be thei r e x planation what

,
i t m ay stand o u t so C learl y i n the presen t i nqui ry that

,
the y d eserve emphasisin g i n con clusion I t was envi ron .
m en t which determ i ned the pecu l iar featu res e x hibited b y

Greek m oralit y The true g reatness of Athens deca yed
.
as her citizens lost thei r livin g reli g iou s faith .
1
v 7 00

xovr os wx
v
v v l
P a to R ep 3 6 6
. E .
N OT E
ON
X E N O PH O N A ND PL A TO
I T has bee n o b served th at Xen op h on su ff ered fro m a l iterary

van ity wh ic h made h i m wis h to riva l th e m ost ad m ired aut h ors ,
eac h i n h is own speci al b ra n c h of l i terature H as T h ucydides

.
ec l ipsed all th e h istori an s who preceded him b ut l eft h is grea t,
wor k u n n is h ed ? Xe n op h o n is a t o n ce re ad y to step i nto th e

b reac h an d write a conti nu ati on i n wh ic h h e even i m itates th e
,
pecu l i ar col ouri ng of th e T h ucydidea n styl e H a s Pl ato pro .
du c ed i n t h e Sy mp osi u m a m a rve l of p o etic de l i n ea tio n a n d

, ,
p h i losop h ic in si gh t ? Xe n op h on i mmedi ately m a k es use of th e

sa m e fra m e work to e xh i b it a n ew picture of Socrates a n d h is
frien ds on e wh ic h th ou gh n ot co mpeti ng i n m agn i cen ce with

, ,
th e portrait pa i nted b y Pl ato is i nten ded to surp ass it i n n atura l

,
ness a n d truth to l i fe ( G om p erz ii .
A c l ose exa m i n ation s h ows t h at Xe n oph on wh i l e api ng t h e ,
form of h is model s is often Oppose d to th e doctri n e c ontai n ed i n

,
th e m . T h us t h e positi on o f wo m e n a s descri b ed i n t h e 06 6 0720

,
mzcus is directl y opposed to th e sta n dp oi n t o f t h e R ep u l zc

' '
, .
Pl ato favoured gym nastic i n order to secure th e p h ys ica l h ea lt h

of t h e citiz en s ; Xen oph on i n th e Cy r op a ea za a n d e l sewh ere

'
, ,
rel ies m ostly on h u nti ng a n d ridi n g T h e po l itica l views expressed

.
i n t h e R u l zc an d t h e H i er o are p ol es a su n der
'
T o h istori an s of m ora l ity it m atters l ittl e wh at a n auth or t h in k s

person a ll y b eca use u n l es s h e b e specu l ati ng th e views expressed
, , ,
wi ll pro ba bl y represen t so m e opi n ion curre n t at th e ti me I n th e .
presen t essay I h ave assu med th at Xen op h on s work s a l th ough

,
i ntended to up h ol d views de n itel y opposed to th ose of Pl ato are ,
I S7
I 58 G R E E K M O RA L I T Y
n ot specu lative b ut give a fai r picture of th e genera l m ora l ity

,
.
B u t Xe n op h o n is H e ll e n ic rath er t h a n A th e n i an b oth i n se nti

,
m en t a n d i n con victi on a n d it wou l d b e a n i nteresti ng stud y

, ,
th ough one m uc h too l ong for t h e present work to i n quire h ow

,
f ar th e u n A th e n i a n c h ara cteristics of Xe nop h o n s vie ws were due

-
to h is travel s a nd to h is l ong residen ce outside A th e ns M y own .
Opi n io n is th at Xenop h on i n spite of h is prej udices an d common

,
place i nte ll ect wa s very suscepti bl e to n ew i n uen ces 3 and h is

,
h eal th y i nsti n cts l ed hi m to approve th e good poi nts i n c h ar

a c ters , m an n ers a n d i nstitution s wh ic h h is f e ll ow A th e n i a n s
, ,
regarded wit h dis l i k e or u n con cern G om p erz I f ee l sure is

.
, ,

wrong wh en h e s ays th at [Xe n oph o n] wa s well awa re th at h is
own way of t h i n k i n g wa s n o t t h at of h is ti m es ii
( i

. H s
Opi n ion s i n deed were n ot th e opi n ions of th e A th en i a n s of h is

, ,
da y b ut t h e y see m to re ect t h ose of h is c onte mpora ries i n

,
various oth er parts of Greece .

A PPE NDI X
APPENDI X
I N F L U E N CE O F PH I L O SO PH Y
A C O M PAR I SO N eth ics a nd m ora l ity wi ll give at th e b est th e

of W as th e
m ini m u m effect wh ic h th e f orm er m ay b e s ai d to h a ve e xerci sed i n u en ce of
et hi c s u po n
upon th e l atter T he actu a l i n ue n ce m ay h ave been greater
.
c on d u c t
t h an c an b e proved to d em onstration A cc ordi ngl y it is pertinent .

, grea ter
to in quire how great it m ay possi bl y h ave b een ; i n ot h er words ,
t h an we
ca n p rov e
what were the m ea ns o f di s se m i nati ng p h i lo sop h ic d octri n e .
I n m oder n ti m es t h i s fu n cti on is perf orm ed b y b ook s ,

M od ern
m ea n s b y
universitie s a nd sch oo l s th e c h urch es an d th e pu bl ic press
, , , .
hi h hi
w c t s
I t is c onsidered a du ty to ra i se every citiz en to th e h i gh est m ora l i n u e n ce
l evel po ssi bl e E very e ff ort is m ade succes s fully or unsuccessfull y

.
, ,
works .
so th at th e h i gh e st th ough t of th e ti m e m ay work ei th er b y way ,
o f gui da n ce or direct tea c h i n g u po n t h e l ives o f eve n th e m ost

,
i n si gn i ca n t I n A t h ens it wa s n ot consi dered a duty to in s truct

. An i c en t
t h e m as ses a n d th e m ean s of s preadi ng k n owl edge were m ea n s .
some what di fferen t fro m ours I n p articu l ar th ere were n o .
c h urc h es wh ich b y th e wee kl y i n stru ction th ey give exercise

, , ,
a great i n ue n ce upo n m odern l i f e .
D uri n g th e f ourth an d t h ird ce nturies B C b o ok s were f airl y . . B ooks .
c omm on an d a pparently ch eap E u thydem u s th e you ng frien d .

,
o f So crates co ll ecte d a l i b ra ry of b ook s b y p oets a nd s op h i sts

,
1
.
B y th e year 4 0 0 B C th e wor k of A n axagoras cou l d b e purc h ased

. .
2
f or a dra c h m a at mo st M o st of th e ph i l o s op h ers wh o

.
ou rish ed duri ng th e two centuries u n der di s cu s s i on wrote

n u m er ous wor k s We are t ol d th at C h rys ippus was th e a u th or
.
of m ore th an 70 5 treatises 3
E picuru s wa s a noth er vol u m i n ou s
.
writer .
4
T he l ive s of ph i l oso ph er s written b y D i oge n es L a erti u s
co nta i n l i st after l i s t of p h i l osoph ic work s A part from th i s l ate .
te sti m ony th e wri ti ngs of A ri stotl e sti ll exta nt are b y n o mea n s

,
f ew a n d m an y i n c l udi ng hi s p op u la r work s h ave peri s h e d

, , , .
B ook s were m ore u s e d th a n is generally su ppo s ed Pl at o .
(B 5 81 ) 16I M
saw drawb ac k s to th e u se of th e m f or tea ch i ng B y itse l f th i s .

5
p r oves l itt l e b ut
, t a k e n a l o n g wit h t h e ot h er evide n ce te n d s to
s h o w t h at i n hi s d ay b o ok s were b ec o m i ng m ore c omm on .
I s ocrates made hi s views k no wn i n p ol itical p amphlets .
N eith er th e pu bl ic asse mbl ie s n or th e c omic stage can h ave

h el pe d to widen th e i n ue n ce of ph i l o soph y b et wee n th e ye ars
4 0 0 a n d z o o B C . .
T h e teac h th e p h i l osoph ers b es ides wri ti n g b o oks tau gh t th eir

But , ,
h i l sc h ol ars pers on all y T he rst p aid te a c h ers of h i gh er e du ca ti on

i n g of p o
op h
.
s ers
were t h e S oph i sts wh o h o wever did n ot f ou n d sc h ool s l i k e m an y
.
, , ,
of t h e ph i l o s oph ers b u t wa ndere d from t own to t own ,

T h ey .
a ppe a r to h ave b ee n e a ger l y we l c om ed b y t h e you ng m en if we ,
m a y t rust th e picture drawn b y Pl ato i n t h e Pr ozag or azs 6

T h at
.
th ey l ecture d i n ste a d of u s i ng t h e di a l ectic m et h od a d v oc ated b y

Socrates an d Pl at o wa s partl y due to t h e si z e of t h eir c l asses .
B u t it m ust b e r em e m b e red th at th ey t au gh t wh at m os t you n g

m en wa nte d to k n o w h ow to get on i n t h e worl d s o th at perh aps , ,
th eir au die n c es were l a rger t h a n t h o s e of t h e p h i l oso ph er s wh o ,
were m ore i nd epe n de n t i n t h eir vie ws .
S ocrates c on n ed h i s t ea c h i n g to A th e ns a nd wa s cer ta i n l y a ,
7
we ll k no wn gu re -
H ow f a r h e wa s m i s u n de rs to od b y th e m a ny
.
victi ms of h is cross exam i n ati on is a di fcu l t q ue sti on T he -

.
c aricature Of A ri stoph an es a ppears to be a n u nrec ogn i sab l e

m on stro s ity a n d Socrates h i m s el f c om pl a i n s o f 8 ok a word
,
ta i ,
wh ic h i m pl ie s m i s re prese nt ati on 8
B u t h is i n ue n ce wa s n ever .
th el es s very great a s is prove d n ot o n l y b y t h e n u m erou s sc h oo l s

,
wh ic h owed th eir ori gi n to h i s tea c h i n g b ut a l s o b y th e attra cti on ,
h e ha d f or comm o npl a ce i ntellects suc h as th ose of C ri to a n d ,
Xeno ph on .
Th ih
e r c A ppare ntl y m o s t p h i l o so ph ers a f ter Socrate s req uire d f ees f ro m
th hi f th eir p u pi l s a l th ou gh it i s a di fcu l t que stion to decide i n all
e c e
p p il
,
u s
ca ses
.
9
I f th ey did it i mpl ies a d esire to h ea r t h em f or a m an
.
,
wi ll not p ay f or wh at h e does n ot want T h eir pu p i l s were .
u su all y th e cu ltured a n d ric h D io nys ius as k ed A ri stip pu s why .
ph i l osoph ers h au nted t h e h ou s e s of th e ric h a n d Pl ato s p upi l s

10
,

h ad a re pu tation f or th eir foppi s h dress 11

T h ere se em s to h ave .
Th l w e o b een n o attem pt to reac h th e l ower c l as se s wh ic h a ccordi ngl y

er ,
l d reta i n ed m a n
c a s s es a n
y o l d b e l ie f s l on g a fter t h e y h a d b e en di s c a rde d b y
p hil op h y
os
th e m ore cu lture d s ection o f th e ci ti z en s
.
12
A ri st otl e h i m s e l f .
di s ti n ctl y a frm s th at M o h ave n o i n uen ce wh atever up on

zcs 1 1 79 b
o i wo k \ O f
( )

E t . / .
P hi g
rea c A s a ge nera l ru l e ph i l osoph ic teac hi n g appe a l e d to t h e i nte ll ect
n
.
u n co m m on .
APPENDIX 16 3
o nly O f p rea c h i ng we h ea r l ittl e T h e C ynics a n d certai n

. .
St oic s a l one app e ar to h ave pra c tise d it a n d we h av e n o m ea n s

,
13
o f ga u gi ng t h e i n ue n ce of t h e C yn ic m oral serm on

.
T h e n u m b er of stude n t s was i n m a n y ca s es l arge

N e ar l y N m b f . u er o
i d m
a ll H ell as ca me over to t h e s ide of Stil po s ays D iogen es with
S n e s
,
rh et oric a l exa er i l to s upi l s ere so n u m er ous a n d

14
P w

gg a t on a .
p
i n ue nti a l t ha t h is en e my A th en aeus is at p ai n s to s h ow th a t th e
s tates m e n h e educa ted p ro ved th e m s e l ves tyra nn ic al
15
A rces i l a s
S o b a d E pic u rus
'
17
h ad n u m erou s p u pi l s 16
. T h eop h ra stu s .
tau gh t a s m a ny a s two t h ous an d 18

.
M any of th e p h i l os p h ers were m en of m agnetic person a lity P n l i ty

o , ers o a
who won th e r esp ect a n d s om eti mes t h e l ove of th eir f e ll ow

,
f
h
F
h
l
,
0
l o
e
p
'
citiz en s Xe nocrate s wa s h i ghl y estee m ed

.
19
T he re pute of .
A ri stotl e was so grea t t h at h e b ec am e tutor to A l exan der t h e

20
G re at . H i s p upi l T h eo ph rastus was a ec ti on atd y treated b y
th e A t h e n ian s 21
.
N owad ays th ere are xed curricu la i n the u niversitie s an d ,
wh e n t h e stude n t h as co m pl eted h is cours e h e usua ll y retur n s to

th e wor l d of a ff a irs f or h is l ife work N o dou bt m a n y G ree ks
-
.
d i d th e sa m e especi all y th ose wh o l e ft t h eir n ati v e c i ty to h ear a

'
fa m ous te a c h er B u t t h ere were o th ers wh o rem ai n ed l onger

.
,
th us givi ng t h eir m asters a n o pp ortu n ity o f e xerci s i ng all th e

i n ue nce of wh ic h th ey were c a pa bl e A ristotl e was Pl ato s .

p u pi l f or twe nty years 22

T h e p h i l osoph ic sc h oo l wa s o fte n a
.
sect al so . We k now from Plato th at th ere were som e wh o

conde m n ed th i s l ong devotion to p h i l osop h y 23
.
A f ter al l deducti on s f or exaggera tion a n d t h e gl am our o f th e G k ree
m
pas t it i s i mpossi bl e to rea d s ay D iogen es L a erti u s with o u t th e
g:
u
, , ,
c onviction th at th e ph i l os op h ers were h on oured m en i n wh ose :33: ,
l ives th eir fe ll ow citiz e ns to ok a dee p i ntere st M odern profes s ors p h

-
. so ers .
a n d sc h oo l m a ste rs u s u all si n k i nto u nre m e m b e re d graves b ut

y ,
th e G ree k p h i l osop h er bec am e a trea sured m em ory H i s h a b its .
o f l i f e were n otic ed ; hi s p u p i l s a n d writi n gs carefu ll y recorded .
A n ecd o tes c l u s tered th ic kl y a b out p h i l o s o ph ers n am es a sure

,
si gn of estee m a nd aff ecti on T h ey were c ertai n ly ridicu l e d b y

.
the c om ic p oets b u t t h is i n itsel f is n o p roof of disres p ect

, ,
rat h er th e reverse M uc h O f th is po pu l a ri ty was due to th e h i gh

.
p e r s o n a l C h a ra cter of th e ph i l os oph er s wh ic h cou l d n ot b e ,
u nn otice d i n th e ope n a i r l i f e o f a s m a ll G ree k ci t state B u t

y
- -
.
eve n wh e n a ll owa n ce f or t h i s h a s b ee n m a de th ere is sti ll n o d ou b t
tha t p h i l os op h y f ou n d a cordi a l we l com e i n G ree ce or a t l ea st ,
i n A th e n s f or the sa k e of i ts own v al ue
, .
NOTES TO APPENDIX
I . X en. M em A . ii . I .
2 . l
P a to A pol . 26 E .
3 . B i og L aert . . vi i . 1 80 .
4 . D i og L a ert . . x . 26 .
5 . l
P a to Paea r u s
2 75 D .
6 . Pl a to Prot 3 . 10 B .
7 X . en . M m A . i . I O K el s 7 6 del

I/ u
,
y v v a vept
'
m5 re 7 dp
wmdota s t Ano o m;d7 0pit s xe?

el s T our 1repu rdr ov s K a i r d. Kal r ,

xa l h om ey ( tel s p pa s 87 wh efa rou p kk oc a w a ea at

r st 0v .
8 . l
P ato A pol . 1 8 A - 19 A .
9 A r s t ppu s i s s a d to
. i i i h a ve b een the rs t S oc rat c to d em and i a m oney
paym en t, B og L aert i . . ii . 65 . G om p erz t hi nk s th at P ato l
h l w
s sc oo as
su
pported b y l
v o u nta ry c on tr ib u ti ons , Gr eek Tb i n er s ii .
pp . 2 7I 7 Z ll
, 2 2 . e er
h
s a ys t a t h i s i n stru cti on mu st h ave b een gratu i tou s , Pl ato p . 28 .
I o . D i og La ert ii 69 . . . .
I I . G om perz ii p 2 71 . . .
See R ou se Greek Voti v e O er z ngs p

'
12 . . 12 .
I 3 . G om p erz ii .
p . 1 66 .
I 4 . D i og L a ert . . ii . 1 13 .
I5 . At h en . xi .
5 08 , 5 09 .
I 6 . D i og . L a ert. iv 3 7 . .
I 7 D i og L a ert
. . . x . 22 .
18 . D i og . L a ert. v . 37 .
19 . S ee Z ll e er Pl a to p 5 5 9 .
20 . D i og . L a ert . v .
4 .
21 .
37 .
2 2. S ee Z ll e er A r i stotl e i .
pp 7, 8 . .
23 . l
P a to Gorgi a s 484 C f ll o .
, a n d s ee A da m on R ep ub l i c 487 C .
1 64
GR E E K M OR A L I TY
I L L U ST R AT E D FR O M
A E SCH YL US , S O PH O C L E S ,
A ND
E U R I PI D E S
I 65
A ESCH Y L US
[ Born 5 2 5 B C , d ed 4 5 6 i
S upp l z a n ts 4 9 2 (P)
'
Per sae 4 7 2 ; Pr omet/zeu s 4 6 8 ;

R
. . .
S ep tem 4 6 7 ; A g a m emn on , Clzoephor z E u m m a es 4 5 8

'
, , ef eren ces
. to
O xf ord text ] .
( A ) R E L I G I ON
Prov i dence : ( ) S upp l zces

7 ; 77 78 ; 9 1 9 2 ;

0 as s uran ce . 2 6, 2 , ,
1 00 ; 2 2 8 2
33 (
-
pu n is h m e n t i n t h e n e x t w or l d ) 3 3 3 3 6
; 4 ; 8 1 8 -
( Z e us protects t h e s u pp l i a n t ) 3 9 5 3 9 6 ( t h e ru l er
,
m u s t j ud g e
accordi ng to divi n e j ustice) 4 0 2 40 6 4 1 3 4 1 5 ( sa n ctuary sa cred - -
,
viol ati on of it pu n ish ed) 4 1 8 4 3 7 ( t h e wronger of th e supp l i ant -
pu nis h ed i n h i m sel f a n d h is h ouse) 4 78 4 79 5 8 2 5 9 9 ( Zeus b y ,

-
,
ma rri age wit h a m orta l f ou n ds a great ra ce ) 6 1 6 6 2 0 6 4 3 6 5 5

,
- -
6 7 1 6 73
-
7 77 9 (
0 0 h o n -
o u r to p a re n ts t h e t h ird of t h e g re a t
u n writte n l a ws ; 73 3 ; 1 0 4 7 1 0 4 9 ll Z nti ed wit h
) ( w i of-
eus ide
fate ) ; Per s a e 2 9 3 2 9 4 ( m en m ust b ea r p a in s se nt b y th e gods ) ;
,
5 5 5 1 6 ; 72 5 72 6 ( so m e god l ed Xerxes a stray) ; 74 0 74 1 ;

1 , , ,
7 4 4
-
75 ( 1 N e m esis ) 77 ( 2 G o d h a tes n o t t h e w ise ) 8 2 1 8 2 8 (
p s -
t
begets 611 77 a n d Z eus pu n is h es th e overween i ng) ; S op l em 6 9 77

-
,
-
st ro n er t ha n discip l ine ; 44 5 ; 5 1 4 5 2 0 ; 6 2
1 5 7; 226
( G o d g ) 5 ;
-
6 6 2 6 6 3 ; 72 0 ; Pr ometeu s 3 4 ; 1 8 8 1 8 9 ( Z eus k eeps j ustice to

, ,
h i m se l f i e h is wi ll deter m i n es ri gh t) ; 2 3 4 2 3 5 ( Zeus wis h ed to

, . .
,
destroy th e h u m a n ra ce a nd crea te a n oth er) ; 5 1 8 ( Zeus l ess

po werfu l th an fate) ; 5 5 1 5 5 2 (th e wi ll s of m orta l s distur b th e
,
h armony of Z eus ) ; 9 3 6 ( it i s wise to b ow to fa te ) ; 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 3

-
( t h e w ord of Z e us is a l w a ys acco m p l i s h ed ) ; 1 093

( P ro m et h eus
says h e su ffers u njustl y) ; A g a memnon 5 5 5 9 ( s om e god pu n is h es -
a ni ma l s wh ic h a re cru e l to ot h er a n i m a l s ) 6 8 71 1 60 1 6 7 3 74
- -
3 8 4 ( o ff e n ces a g a i nst S i m ; pu n is h ed ) ; 4 6 1 4 6 2 ; 6 9 9 70 8 74 9 ,
-
C / 5 (j stice pu is h es
'
77 7 2 -
8 1 ; 1 4 8 5 1 4 88 ; 1 5 6
-
4 ; /zo p
e zo rz 6 1 6 u n -
both on ea rth a n d i n h e ll ) 2 44 2 4 5 3 2 2 3 3 1 ( m urder wi ll out) ,

-
I 67
( bl oo
40 4 d c a ll s for bl ood ) truth f 5 5 9 ( p oll o
A u l ) ; 6 3 9 64 5 -
0
4 0
-
9 0 0 9 0 2
-
9 1 0 9 1 1 ( fa te ) 9
, ; 4 9 (j ustice d a u g h ter of Z eus ) ; 95 7
rri a e u n der t h e protectio of
m m ( m

9 58 E a e d e s 21
3 2 24 a g
-
n
h eaven ) ; 2 73 2 75 (p u n ish m ent i n h ell ) ; 3 3 9 3 4 0 ( murderers

-
,
pu n i sh ed i n h ell ) ; 4 6 5 (A p oll o a uth or of th e deed of Orestes ) ;

6 1 4 6 2 1 ( A p oll o dec l a res tru l y th e decrees of Zeus ) ; 9 4 9 9 5 5 ;
- -
f 7 (
r .0 p a n t h eis m ) 1 5 (
6 h e a ve n n ds a c a use to b ri n g a h ouse
to rui n ) ; 3 6 2 (fatal is m ) ; 3 9 5 4 6 4 ( G od n ot l ik e man ; G od is
N ature) ; 4 75 .
or anta goni s m S ( gy
E ptia
'
upp l zees 8 8
( )
o D o u b t 93 .
9 4 n
h era l d 0 67 0 1 ( ho/3 05 74011 (S m

,
3 9 3 1 0689 d f E et a v 0 138
p l

a r a s 7 01 a /
y p p
. 1
.
,
) ; p m ( p eus 0 d
y jp
e i ao v r ocp
p a S e t e 4 7 4
2 2 8 C a a n : 6
,
0 i} y p
GAO VT O S m rpo ew K ai Gat or 1 69 (Im a m
)3 5 3 1 53 2 /
'
/
,
8 013K
( e n e m y w i ll s a c k T h e b es 7 g6 A t s
) A g a m em n on 6
3 9 37 2 -
10 80 6 1 0 6 11 60 0 1; 39 0 d cs K a r a te

3 4x1 7 9 3, 00e 1 5 xp

1 # 1 ( ( v01 ! 0
6 8 013K f 35 ( P h oe b us deceitfu l ); 7 F t h e

r 0 .
4 6 o r .
Pr ometl zeu s see b el ow T h e do m i nan t attitude to wards Provi

.
den ce is u n s wervi ng b el ief .
I n A esc h yl us th e gods sti ll retain traces of th eir i mmoral

c h ara cter wh ic h ha d a roused th e disgust of Xe nop h an es B ut .
th ere is an evi den t desire on th e p art of th e poet to s h ow th at th e

s i n fu l n ess o f t h e gods actio n s is m ore app a re n t th a n rea l S ee

.
th e treatment of 10 b y Z eus a s tol d i n t h e Pr omel /eeu s an d
th e c h a ra cter of A poll o in t h e E u mem a es C f especi a ll y

.
.
A g a memnon 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 ( C a ss an dra a n d A po ll o ) a n d f r 3 5 0
-
, . .
T h ere is n o devi l in t h e A esc h yl e an th eo l ogy S i n b egets sin .
A g a memnon d 12v Ad a m
'
8
75 77 1 T o Ow-
e
y p py ov
[u n it
7 .
C f E u mema es 9 3 4, 9 3 5 Si n ru n s i n fa m i l ies ; t h e

'
-
r t K ret . .
curse upon a fam i l y works cri m e after cri m e, A g a memnon 1 1 8 8

1 1 93 ; 3 1 4 3 1 - 1 43
j ust
. A g Y et th e E ri n yes
a m em n o 46 2 4 0 ;
7 are ,
-
h e st d w order discip l i e mem des 5 0 8

'
5 8 59,
T y .a n f or l a a n d n E a , , ,
5 6 5 (a m ost i mporta n t pass age ) N everth el ess it is t h e si n n er .
h i m sel f who is to bla m e i n every case U pon h is own c h oice .
depen ds wh eth er th e curse wi ll ac t or n ot See th e di al ogue .
b et ween the fata l ist E teoc l es a n d th e c h orus S ep tem 68 6 70 8 c f ,

-
.
al so E u mem aes 5 5 0 5 5 2 8 t 6:
3
8 l

I
O

v s 76 os c w 0 6K
1( Ka
y p k a a
-
at t
B
2!
v oA os
I 9! n
av Op os 8 omror
I y I
y
a ar t w c a .

v
y vo r o e a e c .
A stri k i ng c h ara cteristic of A esc h yl us presen ta tion of Providen ce

i s t h e way i n wh ic h h e c on ceives t h e divi n e govern m e nt to deve l op .

A E SC H Y L U S 169

Th e Zeus of th e Promet/zea s is a you n g tyrant wh o has over
thrown a precedin g divi n e order Pr omet/zeus 3 5 2 0 1 2 1 5 73 6 ; ,

-
Furies co mp l i of t h e o er ods u mem des

9 4 2 ; 9 60 . T h e a n y u n g g E ,
1 62 73 ( see 72 1
,
1 778 779 ; a n d t h ey th e m se l ves c h an ge
, ,
fro m E rin yes (avengi ng spirits ) to E u men ides Se m nae ( k i n d or ,

august goddesses ) h avi ng th e fa mi l y ( ol xos ) u n der th eir protection
, ,
89 5 . I t is even h i nted th at t h e rei gn of Zeus m ay com e to a n en d ,
Pr omet/zeus 5 1 0 5 2 0 9 1 0 ; 9 4 0 ; 9 4 8 al th ou gh we do n ot k n ow
-
h ow t h e Pr omet/zeu s Un oom zd so l ved t h e difcu l ty I t s h ou l d be .
n oticed t h a t t h e h u ma n ra ce i s re a rded as a re l ic of a for m er era

g ,
u n t f or t h e reign of Zeus Pr omet/l eu s 2 3 3 2 3 5

, Pro m eth eus -
.
e nabl ed men to survive b y givin g th em m ateria l civi l is ation (r xva t

in c l udi ng divi n ati on 4 8 7 4 99 We do n ot h ear th at h e too k
-
.
th ou gh t f or t h eir m ora l we l fare A ccordi ng to H esi od . DV and .
.D 2 79 ) 8q was t h e gift of Zeus Su c h is th e h i n t th rown ou t b y

. .
A esc h yl us as to t h e ori gi n of p h ysica l evi l ; it is th e surviva l of a n

O l d order i nto a f res h era H e spiritu al ise d th e doctri n e b y i n
.
sisti ng on the discip li ne of pai n A ga memn on 2 5 0 A i m 8% 1 o p 3 1 ,

'
!
wa aoa w wcppovei v {m o ov e

memaes 5 2 1
'
em
pp vret . E u
'
O r/s t .
T h rou gh out A esc h yl us wor k s

t h ere is a n attempt to reduce th e

O lympic pa nth eon to order S ee e g E u mem aes 6 1 4 6 2 1 wh ere

-
. .
,
.
A po ll o says that h e i s m ere l y th e m outh piece of Zeus Bu t t h ere .
is n o m on oth eis m T h e View of A esc h yl us is th at of Xenoph a n es

.
,
T h ere is on e god grea test am ong gods an d m en (f r 2 3 D ie l s )

. .
T h e a bove ref ere n ces s h ow th at A esc h yl us be l ieved strongl y i n

pun ish m en t after death T h is was n ot a very p rom i nent f eature
.
of G reek rel ig ion an d its reiteration i n A esch yl u s m ay b e i n pa rt

,
due to t h e p oet s l ean i ng towards th e m ysteries C f A ri s toph

. . .
Fr ogs 8 86
A tari s r t opera -a o i v 5M " ci p va ,
g p mp
ei va f u e 7 6 v 01 3 1! fi tov
'
,
w t wv .
For Pyth agorea n is m s

see H eadl am S upp l zees p 6
'
, . .
With regard to th e envy of th e gods A esch yl us b el ieves that ,
it is n ot over prosperity b ut s i n itsel f wh ic h begets si n A ga memnon

-
, , ,
75 0 76 0 ; Per s ae 744 75 0 ; 8 2 0 8 2 2
- -
pro duces a h arvest of
-
Immortal i ty : ( a ) Pos i ti v e S upp l zees 4 1 6 ; Per s ae 5 9 8 f oll

'
. .
S ep tem 9 78 ; A g memnon a 1 5 2 8 ; 1 5 5 5 ; C/zoe p /zori 3 7 4 1 ; 8 8 ;

-
m m A dd to t h ese
'

1 4 2 - 1 49 6
; 47 4 88 ;5 00
-
5 9;
0 E u e a es
59 8 ; 6
7 7 -
.
th e p assages referred to a bove, wh ere pun i s h m ent af ter dea th i s

m e nti on ed .
( )
o N e g at i v e C l zoep /zo.rz 5 7(
1 a ver y dou b tfu l i n sta
'
n ce ) ;f r 2 55 . .
Sa nc t u ary ( a l ways respected ) S upp /l ees 8 4 ; 3 4 7 3 5 9 3 6 4 .

-
4 1 0 4 7 ; 47 4 5 ;
-
1 8 8 6-
1 6 ; 56 2 6 55 ; 8 93 ( t h e h er a l d tries to vio-
la te
s an ctu ary) ; S ep tem 78 foll E u mem des 6 4 fo ll 2 3 2 2 3 4
'
-
. . .
Val u e of ceremony Pers ae 6 1 0 6 2 2 C/zoep orz 84 foll

'
-
. .
m m 3 ( b l ood f s w i e w s h ed w a st in of
'
8
4 3 4 5
-
8 E u e d es 2 8 0 2 8 O n a -
a y a
m atricide) 44 7 4 5 2 -
.
Di vi nati on Pr omezlzeu s 4 84 5 0 0 ( certa i n ki nds of divi natio n

.

-
t h e gift of Prom eth eus ) ; A g a memnon 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 3 ; Clzoep lzorz 5 5 9

'
( p ll o trut h f u l ) ; 9 00 ; 1 0 2 9 ; E a mem a es 4 6 5 ; 5 9 4 ; 6 1 5 6 2 1 ;
'

A o -
S tem
p
e 2 4- 2 9 .
( )
B POL I T I CS A N D SOCI E TY
S upp l z ees 3 6 5 3 6 9 (r u l er m ust consu l t peop l e ) 3 9 7 40 1 (peop l e

- -
to b e con su lted ) Pers a e 5 9 1 5 9 4 ( disaster re la xes discip l in e ) -
S ep l em 1 3 8 (necessity of p atriotis m ) 6 6 2 6 7 ( Po l yn ices th e re be l

- -
I
a n e n e m y o f 85x77) 1 0 3 4, 1 0
35 ( A n ti g on e wi ll b ury Po l yn ices in
spite of th e proh i b ition State ver s u s fa m i ly) ; Pr omet/zeu s 2 2 6 2 2 7

,
( a tyra n t does n o t trust h is f rie nds

) A g a m em n on 5 4 0 5 4 1
( l ove of ,
cou ntry) ; E a mem a es 5 0 8 5 6 5 (n eed of discip l i n e jmjr o v tp xer o v

'

-
t o
B ov 74 51 6 B a wor ouj vov

'
v a s vr i u m To K i 9 6
-
w
-
9 e ros
p

t ue a t 9 a t 6
, y , p .
26 B m b 38 O f 86 8 6 6 ( evi l f ci vi l
-
5 53 0 ; i 60 01 s a 1 ! (1 O 1. k a
- -
stri fe ) 9 76 9 8 7 ( bl essi ng of u n ity)

-
.
Fri ends hi p S ep l em 5 9 7 6 1 4 (d a nger of evi l associ ates th e gods

.
-
m ay pu n is h hi m wh o associ ates with cri m i n a l s ) Pr ometizeu s 1 0 6 3

1 0 70 th e ch orus h ate a tr aitor a n d wi ll su ffer wit h Prom eth eus ) .
ofo a vn
L ox tal i oni s C/zoep /zorz 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 ( p S O )
'
. 1 w eZ v ,
a
A g a memnon I 5 6 4 (711 9 31 7 0v pga v r )

'
1 6 ! a .
Pi ty S upp l i ces 4 8 9 ( r ots cf w

.
y o p w a s a s o s ( p e
) ca t .
A ni mal s S upp li ers 2 2 6 ( dp eos Op s iv

. vc u (
Pr ow l /tea s 4 6 6 ; A ga memnon 4 8 5 9 (pity f or a n i m al s ; t h e gods -
a ve n ge t h e m
) 13 4 13 8
( s a m e a s precedi
-
n g) 1 4 0 1 45 ( sa m e a s -
precedi ng) ; E u men i a es 86 1 8 6 6 ( cock ghti ng)

-
.
A E SC H Y L U S 1 7I
Importance of f ami l y rel ati onshi ps . S pp li ces 8

u -
10 m
( arria ge
wi th ki n dred detesta bl e So p a ss i m ) ; Sep tem 6 8 1 6 8 2 (s i n of
.
,
s layi ng k in dred ) ; 1 0 3 4 1 0 3 7 ( A n ti gon e puts fa m il y b ef ore Sta te)

-
Pr omel /i eu s 3 9 ( T o o v yyevs r o 8 v6v) 2 9 1 (p owe r of kin s h ip) ; t et
85 5 Cli oep /zor i 1 3 9 (power of t h e m urdered f ath er to ra ise up a n

a ve n ger SO p a s s i m ) ; 5 0 0 5 0 9 (t h e fa m i l y m u s t n ot die ou t) ;
'
-
.
6 2 3 6 3 0 ( s i n of wif e s co n spiri ng agai n st h us b a nd ) 9 2 4 (po wer of

-
m oth er s curses ) ; 1 0 2 7 1 02 8 ( O restes j usti ed i n ki ll i n g C l ytem

-
n es tra b ecause s h e h a d m urdered h er h us b an d

,
-
) E u men i des 2 1 2
( i t is k i n s h ip w h ic h m a k es k i lli n g a si n fu l po ll utio n ) 5 4 5 ( h o n o u r
to pa ren ts : T oxwv o s 6 11,007 i a
8
i 867 ev6s Ec r Cf a u u) . .
O f

S upp l ices 70 7 70 9 y p
-
d r e d r wv O s r f ro
p k 7 68
v O
j O s a

v e
'
u L

A x s yyp n r
t a a
Le
[ y O T OT i o v
-
a t
p L

h o n o u r to p are n ts
t h e t h i r d
u n written 6 0 5 ( sta i n of k i ll i ng m e m b er of o n e s own

f a m il y) ; E u m e n ides to con tro l f a m i l y m atters 9 0 9 9 5 6 9 6 7 -

.
Women an d f ami l y l i f e S upp l i ces 3 3 8 ( ma rri age with ki n a

.
source of strength ) ; 1 0 3 4 1 0 3 4 (th e c h orus do n ot despise ,
marri age 86 r m
"
oi
pg ) ;

d A

, y p O
1/ au a l.
s yx w r mL m H S e
p t e 1 8
'
6 a 2 0 2 -
( w o m e n a n uis a n ce ; h a u h
g y t w h e n i n po w er a p l a g u e w h e n i n ,
terror) 2 3 2 ( wo m en s duty to rem ai n a t h om e i n si l en ce) 3 3 3 3 44

-
m iseries of wo m en wh e n captured i n war ; 3 6 3 3 6 8 ( m iserie s -
of wo m en captives) ; 1 0 3 1 (A n ti gon e prefers fa mi l y to Sta te ) ;

Pr omet/zea s 9 0 1 9 0 6 ( m a rri age wit h e q u al s b est ) ; 1 0 6 3 1 0 70
- -
h h h l ro m eth e u s ; A ga mem
( c orus of oc ea n n ym p s f a it fu to P )
non 4 8 3 4 8 7 ( wo m e n c kl e ) ; Caoep /zori 5 9 6 6 0 1 (pas sion of
- -
wom en l ea ds th e m to cri m e ) ; 6 6 5 66 7 ( it is n ecessa ry to use -
vei l ed l angu age b efore a wom a n ) ; 9 2 0 ( wom en l ustf u l sp ok en
b y C l yte m n estra ) E u men i des 6 5 7 6 6 6 ( th e f ath er th e rea l pa re n t ) ; -
73 7 ( m en superi o r to w o m e n ) .
Ch i l dren A g a memn on 2 1 6 2 4 7 ( c h i l d a n d fa th er ) 1 4 1 7 ( c h i l d
.
-
a n d m ot h er) Coep or i 5 0 0 5 0 9 ( i mporta n ce of c h i l dre n to k eep

-
alive th e fath er s n a m e ) ; 74 9 76 0 ( a ff ection o f n urse for c h i l d )

-
9 0 8-
93 0
( m ot h er a n d c h i l d ) E u men i des 9 0 9 .
Sl a v ery S ep tem 3 3 3 3 3 9 a n d 3 6 3 3 6 8 ( m iseries of wome n

.
- -
captives ) ; A gamemn on 1 0 4 0 1 0 4 6 (th e n ou vea u r i e/ze cruel to h is -
s laves ; s l aves i n fa m i l ies of h eredita ry wea lth kin dl y treated ) ;

1 0 84 C/zoep /zor i 75 8 4 ( n o bl e wo m en co mpell ed to co n ceal t h eir

-
t rue senti ments b ecause e nsl aved i n war) 73 4 76 5 ( aff ection of a -
n urse
) .
A esc h yl us see m s to h ave b een struck b y th e f acts of h eredity .
I n h is eyes t h e fam i l y is th e great i nstitution H en ce th e stress .
l aid upon t h e conti n uity of s i n th e h orror expressed at th e viol a ,
tion of n atura l ties th e fear of poll uti ng t h e race b y m arri age wit h
,
k i ndred and th e i nti mate relations b etween th e l ivi ng a n d th e

,
dead C a n it b e th at wh en A esch yl us wa s a t th e m ost i mpression

.
abl e age (th e c l osing years of th e si xth century) th e State had not ,
yet supersede d the fa m i l y as t h e most i mportant i n stitution ?
( )
D r a n INDIV I DUA L
M ateri a l g oods Pr omel /zeu s 4 3 6 4 7 1 ( th e gi ft of Pro meth eus ) ;
.
-
A g a memnon 2 5 0 ( discip l i n e of pa i n ) ; 75 0 75 6 (wea l th not th e -
prod u cer of s i n ) men i des 5 2 0

E u
( discip l i n e of p ai n) .
Ol d ag e . A g a memn on 72 75 -
.
S upp l i ces 2 2 7 ( 77 13 9 8 8w ya p ttw dxow a v dxow os

'
Chas ti ty .

77 017 089 o
i yvOs yvo w ( i v suicide r t h er t h m rri e
7 7 79 (

7 8 1
'
a a n a a g
-
wit h k i n ) 1 0 1 3 ( 7 8 O wtpp ovei v 7 Lp 13 0 a 7 08 ,3 501) '
C/zoep lzori '
7 1
( du ltery
a a sin ) . C h astity in A esc h yl us is c h ie y a fa m i l y
matter .
Tru th .
3 Pr omet/zeu s
3 ( Z eus does n ot l ie ) ; A
10g a 2, 1 03
013K 30 0 871 109 Ae a t u t 7 81

( # 3

41187
772677272072 6 2 0
f j ;f r 3 0 1 3 0 2 .
,
.
Sui ci de S upp /2a : 4 5 5 4 6 6 a n d 78 7 79 1 ( suicide co m mended

. .
- -
i n certai n circu m sta n ces ) .
Pes si mi s m . C/zoep ori 1 0 1 8.
Th e s oul an d moral i t y
Per s a e 76 7 (a man is bl essed wh o h as .
( b ves 2 06 89 0 13K i 0
) d j x np 4 ); p
ev, ( in ei i b wv 2 m m

, p 7 7 y p gp S e te 59 ,
2
5 93 a
y p 80 K ei v oi AX c i t a t 8
7 01 06 111 1! & A O K a 8L8 / .
/Os K a pn op ev os I D
)

gpb I 6 6 2, 663 63 8 A 7 m 0 vos A i m

'
e S p ]
wa pv p yo cs ) N otice th e con
' '
i qbp eo i v, 68

dx (i t!
eK et vov Ka . 7 7 y .
c ep ti on of m oral it in v a fter wa rds wo rk ed out b uripides

y o p j y E i .
N ecess i ty of di s ci p li n e awe E u meni des 5 2 5 ; 5 4 6 6 9 9 ( r fs , .
8
7 p
1 86 80 11( c 3 V8u < os ,3 p o7 13 v
.
B ea u ty of h eroi c pai n A ga memnon

. 1 3 04
( t a l Bs
et 7 01
K a7 0a vei v d

ts
X p
SO P H O C L E S
[ Born 4 9 6 B C A n tig one 2

44 44 1
-
; A j a x ; Oedipu s the K i ng ; T r ack i n i a n
h
. .
Women ; E lectra ; Pni l ocfetes 40 9 ; Oedipu s a t Col on u s , b rou g t ou t 4 0 1

R
.
ef erences to T eu b n er text a n d to N au ck f or f ra gm en ts .
]
( A ) R E L I G I ON
Provi dence : ( ) a Pos i ti v e . Aj ax 86 ; 1 1 8;

3 ; 45 5 , 45 6 ; 1 3 1-13
75 7 3 (
8 -
8 w r a t h of t h e g ods fa ll s upon t h e over proud ) 8 3 5 844 - -
( su mm o n s to t h e E ri n y es to wrea k ven gea n ce ) 9 5 0 1 03 6 1 03 9 -
1 130
( un w ritte n l a w) ; 1 3 9 0 ; E l ectr a 1 75 ; 1 0 6 2 1 0 6 5 ; 1 0 9 3 1 0 9 6 - -
u n written l aws ; Oea I I 1 5 1 f o ll ; 4 6 9 4 75 ; 8 6 3 8 71 ( u n writte n

( )

- -
. .
l aws ) ; 8 8 1 ; Oea C 2 75 2 8 1 3 71 (G od sen ds evi l upo n m en ) ;

. .
-
9 6 4, 9 5 (g
6 ods cr u e l ) 99
; 8 1 3 8 2
( A i m ; Ed i 6 8 00 9
7 v os p x ts /

ot a to

vdp o cs
); A n ti g o n e 1 2 7 1 2 8 6
; 3 9 ; 5 4 5 5 ;
,
8 8 6 0 4 6 0 5 6 8 3 ( 0 0,
2 ,
5
95 150 c oi v 6 anro s ( b v s ;
( u n written l a ws ; 8 5 6 i n h erita n ce
)

p p t
) 7 9 7 a
(
of si n ) ; 9 2 1 ( unwritten l aw) ; 9 5 1 ( fate) ; 1 1 0 3 1 1 0 4 ; 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 , ,
( un w ritte n l a w s ) ; T r ae /z i n i a e 3
1 0 1
3 1 ; 2 8 0 ; 1 2 6 4 1 2 7 8 P, /zi l oet ete s -
44 4 5 (
6 -
2 t h e g o d s spitefu l i n t h eir de a l i n g s w it h m e n
) 9 9 2 1 3 60 ,
1 61
3 ( cri m e b e g ets cri m e ) ; 1 4 4 1 1 444 ; f r 1 9 7 ( fa ta l is m )-
; 2 0 8 .
2 26 ; 8 0 9 ; 8 76 ; 8 79 .
( )
o D O T P/ i l f

ou b t ea 9
. 1 0 ; z oetetes . . 1 03 6 r . 1 03 .
Immortal i ty E lectr a 2 44 2 5 0
.
-
65 ydp 8 71 21/ y a 76 Ka i 01 38212 63 V

'
K et o er a t 7 d/\ a s,
02 8% I n) m i lt w
860 0vo dun cdvov s 85K a s,
"
-

370700 1 7 ( v i 01 3881 9
eta 0va 7 13 v

drroi w wv 7 e a .
3 K 6 ? x0908

3 5 5, 3 5 ( dou b t 3 );
'
63 m
6 01 40 0 3 44 4 4 6
; 4 5 9 46 3 ;
2 - -
.
8 3 7 ; 9 6 9 ; 1 0 66 ; Oea C ( i m p rt ce of b ri al ; 1 6 7 ;
)

1410 o a n
. . u 5
I 73
1 70 2 , A ntigon e 7 1 , 72 ( i mp ortan ce of b uria l ) ; 74, 75 ;

1 7 3
0
8 9 7, 8 9 8 P/zi l oetetes 1 44 3 , 1 4 44 (piety d oes n ot die wit h th e pi ous

m a n ) ; f r 75 3 ( O rp h is m ) ; 8 6 7
. .
San c t uary Oea C 2 2 9 2 3 6 ( c h orus wis h to drive away

-
. . .
O edip u s ) ; 6 3 4 ; 9 2 1 , 9 2 2 ; 1 2 8 5 .
C er emony E l ectr a 4 3 1 4 3 4 ( re l i gious purity) ; Oea T 1 3 2 1 3 6

- -
. . .
re l i i u s d el em en t) ; Oea C 1 5 5 1 6 9 (va l ue of cere m o n y) ; 4 6 5

( g o
-
. .
v l ue of cere m o n y) ; 6 A i
4 84 ( a 4 ; 5 95 1 0 3 ; n t g o n e 2 4 7 775
1 13 1 -
, .
Di vi n a t i on Oea T 3 1 6 foll ; 70 9 (dou b t) ;

Aj a x 75 8 78 3 .
-
. . .
95 2 95 3 (
,
dou b t ) ; 9 7 1 ( dou b t ) ; A n t ig o n e 1 0 3 5 1 0 3 9 ( dou b t ); -
5 (
I 0 5 d o u b t 7 8
[ VT L OV
yap
,
71 8v g b l t dp y p ov
LG
y v o
K s
) t v .
( )
B POL I TI CS A N D S OCI E TY
re ere n ces to co n te mporar

Aj a x 1 0 9 6- 1 1 1 8 ( f a nd 1 0 5 2 - 1 0 90
y
h i story S ee th e c h orus I 1 8 5 f oll ( wh ere th e m iseries of war .
a re d we l t upo n ) 1 13 2
( crue l ty to e n e m ies g ood ) 1 2 8 9 3 7
1 0 -
( b ir th m ay b e g oo d eve n w h e n n o n H e ll e n ic

) 13 50 t
(y ra n t -
c ann ot b e pi ous ) ; 1 3 5 6 1 3 5 7 ( appreci ation of worth i n enem ies) ,
Oed T 5 6 5 7 ( m en m ak e t h e Sta te ) ; 5 84 5 8 9 ( roya l ty n ot h appy) ;

. .
,
-
A n tigon e 1 8 2 2 1 0 ( th e Sta te m ust ta k e precede n ce over every ot h er

-
c l a i m ) ; 3 6 8 3 7 1 ; 6 5 8 6 80 ( necessity o f l aw a n d order ) ; 73 6 73 9
- - -
( peop l e a n d ru l er ) f r 5 28
( a l l b a r b a ri a n s g ree .dy) .
I s th e seco n d part of th e Aj a x ( 9 74 1 4 2 0 ) a p ol itica l a ll egory ? -
Fri ends hi p Aj a x 6 79 68 3 (a f rie n d m ay b eco m e an e n e m y

.
-
a n e n e m y a f rie n d ) (
1 2 6 7 gratitude co m m e n ded
) .
A ni ma l s E l ectr a 5 6 6 5 6 9 A n ti gone 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
.
- -
.
L ex ta l i oni s Oea C 2 2 9 2 3 6 ; 2 71 , 2 72 ; 1 1 9 1 ; f r 2 0 9

-
. . . . .
M ercy Oea C 1 2 6 7, 1 2 68 ; Tr a i ni n i ae 2 4 3 ( pity) ; 3 1 1 3 1 3

-
. . .
it
( P y)
C
( ) FA M I L Y
M arri age an d women . Aj ax 2 93 (y v va t

gl K OO /L O V m y?)

j p ) (g

( aet
5 8 0 b I AOI
E l ectra 770 ( 86 : v 7 8 7 f K 7 ew )
K 7 LO 7 O V
y j)
m
'
v .
( Spirit even i n wo men ) ; Oea T 1 0 78 ( wom en proud ) ;

1 2 43 .
Oea C 3 3 7 3 6 0 ( so m e wo m e n prove th e m se l ves b etter t h a n m en )

-
. .
S OP H OCL E S I 7S
44 5 44 9
-
3 6 8 A n tz
g on e 78 I1 8 0
5 (po wer of l ove) Tr a c/zi ni ae -
1 44 1 4 9
(-
l i f e O f wo m e n , m arri age b ri ngs ca re ) 4 4 1 4 4 8 p ower of
( -
l ove ) ; 5 4 5 ( wi fe ca nn ot h ave a riva l ) ; 8 1 8, 8 1 9 ( m oth erh o od ) ;

f r . 1 8 7 ( wo m e n a curse) ; 62 1 ( s a m e as precedi ng) ; 85 5 ( wh at is
K dvrp t s P
) .
l ove of ath er f or C h i l d ; E l ectr a

Chil dren .
( Aj ax f 5 5 5
4 8 2 -
)
53 2 533 (
,
l ove of m o t h er g re a ter t h a n t h a t of f a t h er ) 1 0 7 (
1 s trife
b etween sisters ) Oea T 1 4 5 9 1 4 6 2 ( b oys a n d girl s ) Oea C
. .
-

. .
1 102 1 1 1 1 (-
f a t h er a n d d a u h te r
g ) I 3 77
( h o n o u r to p a re n ts
)
A n tig on e 73 Tr ac/zi n i a e 1 0 6 5 ( h on our to pare nts ) 1 1 78
u r i 71
( o b edie n ce ) ;f r 6 2 3 ( np 2 8 es d K v
.
y p t
,
a a
Parents Aj a x 8 5 o ( A jax th in k s of h is m oth er s s orrow) ; Oea

. .
T 9 9 9 ( si gh t O f p are n ts dea r ) Oea C 1 1 8 9 1 1 9 1 (p aren t m ust

-
. . .
not retal iate on c h i l d ) ; 1 6 1 7 1 6 1 9 f r 6 1 ( h o nour to p arents ) -

. .
Sl a v ery T rac/zi n i a e 6 1 6 3 ( even a s l ave m a y b e n obl e ) 9 0 8

.
-
,
6 3 O t a ( i lk/V 6 V0 89 6A6 0
9 9 f
0 ; 6 0 ; 8 5 (
4 8 8 \ ov 6 p )
'
r .
p 0 / 09 ,
.
I f A esc h yl us i n sists upon th e sol id arity of th e fa m i l y Soph oc l es ,
insists up on f a m i l y l ove th e l ove of sister f or b roth er c h i l d f or

,
paren t b etroth ed for b etroth ed ( u n i que i n G ree k l iterature )

, .
( )
D T H E INDI V IDUA L
M ateri al g oods E l ectr a 3 0 8, 3 0 9 ( i n uen ce of circu m sta n ces
.
upon m oral ity) ; Oea C 8 80 (j u stice gives strengt h to a ca use ) ;

. .
A n tig one 2 9 5 2 9 9 ( m on e y th e cause of evi l ) ; f r 8 5 ; 2 6 0 ;

-
.
28 ; 535
3
Pes s i mi s m . Aj a x 1 24 1 26 -
; 0ea
. C 60 7 6 1 3 ; 1 2 1 1
.
- -
1 2 48 ( o l d
age a curse) f r . 85 9 863 ( O l d age ) 8 6 4 ( O l d age) .
Su i ci de . Aj ax 8 1 5 86 5 ; 06d 7 3 1 0 7 1 , 1 0 72 ; A n tigone 1 2 2 0
-
.
1 2 43 ; 1 2 82 T r ac/z i n i a e 8 9 9 9 4 6 ; ( i n n o n e of t h ese p l a ces is it

-
con dem n ed a m ora l o ff e n ce

as
) f r 4 4 8 , 8 6 6 . .
Nature . P/zi l ocl etes 9 0 2
( dr am a 8v0 6
X p 6 1a
,
'
7 9 1/
7 a r o 56150 11!
87 a ]! Au x( 6V 8708 )
a ja w 67 a )
-
oa et K
7 rr
p .
N ob il i t y .
( Aj ax (3 o l AX Ka k ui s

7 v Ka ltai s 7 e 0m]
K v t 7 8v e ev v l ue s i e to bl e b irt h
a
y xp j) w ; 1 0 9 4 ( a a s gn d n o
);
1 2 2 9 ( va l u e a ssi gn ed to b irt h ) ; Oea T 1 0 8 0 1 0 83 ( b irt h dis

-
. .
p a g )
ra ed P l zi l octetes 4 7
5 4 7 6 ( t h e n obl e l ove t h e
g oo d ) ;f r, 8 4 .
od re n o bl e ; 1 0 0 2 ( a ll m en of o n e n ature
( th e go a
) 5 3 ) .
Val u e of a we Aj a x 1 0 79 . .
Val u e of i ntell ect Aj a x 1 2 5 2 ( ti lt /Y o i cpovoii w es 6 Kpa 7 080 o

.
8 '
wa w a xo ; E l ectr a 1 0 2 3 ; Oea C 3 7 1 ( vii v 8 6K 06 6 v 7 ou K aif

)

. .
< > 6 vO
fp s ei o
A06 7 0 3v 7 02
7 9 w
(a /Vo w 6 c; K a m
-
p j) ; 85 4 ,
S el s hn ess commended . Aj ax 13 6 6, 13 67 E l ectr a 1 04 2
(oi l klt 60 7 w zr 0a X 7) OZ K T] ,Bltoiq v qbpet

uti l i tarian is m) ; A n ti gone
1 1 6 5 1 1 6 7 ( h edon i s m )
-
.
Cons ci ence . E l ectra 3 6 3 , 3 6 4 Oed C 5 4 7, 5 4 8 ( wh at is done

. .
in i gn oran ce is n ot s i n ) 97 9 7
4 8 -
( sa m e as precedi n
g) A n tig one
5 40 , 5 41 Tr a c/zi ni a e 4 1 0 ( y)
dut Pli i l octetes 123 4 ( t h e b ow
restored to Ph i l octetes ) 125 1 f r . 84 5 .
Oea T

Chas ti ty . E l ectr a 8
5 759
-
0 . . 1 40 3 -
1 40 8 .
O C ; T r a c/z i n zae 4 5 0 ; 4 5 3 ,
'

Ocd
'
Tru th . . T . 6
35 ; ea . . 1 127
4 5 4 ; P/zi l octetes 8 3 ; 1 09
( a l ie not al ways wr ong) ; f r 5 9 ; 76 ; .
77 ; 3 3 5 26 29
B ea u ty of moral i t y . A n tigone 72 f r . 2 96 ; 616 .
W ork . Fr 3 74 . .
EUR I PI DES
[ Bo rn 4 8 0 C d eBd 4 0 7 -
4 0 6 A l c e siti s 4 3 8 M edea 4 3 1 ; A n d r omac /
ze 4 3 1 4 2 1 -
li l
, . . . ,
H ippoly tu s 4 2 8 (P) ; H ec u b a 4 2 3 or ear er ; H er ac l i dae ear y ; S upp l i ces

I
; p g / i i i T i 8 4 1 2 ; H erc u l es Fu r en s b ef ore 4 1 6 ;
z n n a -
4 2 1 4 2 0 e a u r s 4 1
-
T r oa des 4 1 5 ; E l ectr a , H el en a P/zoen i ssa e, tra d t on a y as s g ned to 4 1 3 40 9

, ii ll i -
[ on n ot a f ter 4 1 2 ; Or es tes 4 0 8 ; I pnig en i a i n A u l i de, B acchae , a p peared

a f ter d ea t h
of E u r p d es ; Cy c l o i i
ps u ncerta n ; R hes us , p rob a b y s pur ou s i l i
R
.
eferen ces to T eu b ner text

] .
E U RIPI DES owi ng to pecu l iar,

re quires fu ll er treat di i cu l ti es ,
m ent th an can b e give n h ere T h e reader is re ferred to T/ze .
M ora l S ta n dp oi n t of E u r ip i des ( B la c k ie ) f ro m wh ic h are h ere ,
repri n t ed t h e con c l usion a n d t h e i nde x .
E uripides disca rded t h e popu l a r f a it h on mora l grou n ds a n d ,
cou l d see n o reason for supposi ng th at th ere wa s a divi n e

Pr oviden ce guidi ng h u man a ff a irs a n d work i ng out t h e m ora l
law T h e u nsee n p o wer t h at con tro l s t h e u n iverse ( 0150 0 9
. 6
i ymj ) is pro ba bl y n on m ora l B u t h e refused to i n fer th a t th e

otvo -
.
re s u l t m ust b e m ora l a n a rc h for w h a tever its ori in virtue is

y g , , ,
b ea utifu l I t is j ust po ssi bl e th at h e con ceived t h e seed of

.
m ora l ity i n t h e h u m a n to h ave be en p l anted b y G od an d

l eft to grow b ut t h e eviden ce does n o t warran t a con dent
,
verdict an d h e certa i n l y put n o faith i n th e s oi di sa n t i n terpreters

,
-
of t h e divi n e wi ll M ore pro b a bl y h e did n ot f ee l it necess ary to

.
l ook b eyon d th e h u ma n gbti o s itsel f f or th e ori gin of m ora l ideas
t .
(
Ma s deve l ops wit h ti m e an d traini ng an d h en ce th e true contra st
t
,
b etween trio s a n d v op os th e l atter b ei ng man i festation s of t h e

(
-
t
,
f orm er wh ic h b ecom e o b sol ete i n ti m e i n m uc h th e s a me way as ,
a c h i l d out rows t h e
g gar m e n ts w hi c h o n ce tted h is b od y A s .
n ecessa ry coro ll a ries E uripides in f erred
< 7 v voiis
( )
a t h a t t h e cu l tiv a ted h u m a n inte ll i gence ( pj ) is t h e ,
suprem e j udge i n t h e moral sp h ere .
( )
e th at h u m a n i n stitutio n s ou g h t to b e reg u la ted b y t h e
pri n cip l e th at th e h u man 060 s wh erever manifested 1
, ,
even in wom en an d s laves s h ou l d b e h onoured a nd ,
carefu lly cu l tiva ted .
(3 5 3 1) 1 77 N
r 78 GR E E K M O R A L I TY
I NDEX
(A ) R E LI G I ON A N D PR OV IDE N CE
[p Prov i den ce . Tlz e a s ter i sk denotes es eci a l

p i mpor ta nce ]
A lces ti s 3 9 , 4 0 ; 5 6 ; 9 6 2 9 84 ( p ) ; B acc/i a e 72 8 2 ; 2 0 0 2 0 9 ; - - -
221 22 -
2 2 8
5 ; 5 5 5 ; 8 4 7 8 6 1 ; 8 9 0 8 9 6 ; H ecu oa 1 6 3 , I 6 4 ; 4 8 8
- - -
.
(P) ; 9 5 (P) ;
*
79 9 8
95 9 6 0 1 2 H el en a 7 1 1
-
. 7 1 2 ;
75 9 7
, 6 0
( )
P ; E l ectra 1 90 1 7 ;
9 8
5 3 5.
8 4 ( P) ; 74 3 . 74 4 ; 9 7 1
-
;
1 1 69
( );
p 1 2 45 ; fl or a cl i da e 35 0, 35 1 ; 7 1 8, 7 9
1 ;H er cu l es Fu r cns
62 ; 212 ; 339 1 13
5 ( P) ; 1 2 43 ; 1 3 0 8- 1 3 1 0 ; 1 3 1 6 13 19 ;
-
( P)
S ure/i ces 1 *
I 3 4 0 9 ; 1 9 5 2 49 ; 3 0 1 3 03 ;13
5 0 4 5 5
0 - -
.
( P) ; 5 9 4 5 9 7
*
( P) ; 6-
1 0 6 1 3 ; 73 1 73 3 ; H er r
o / m : 95 2-
95 4
* - -
( O rp h is m ) ; 3 6 3 1 3 6 9 (p) ; I p /z i n A u l 1 0 3 4 ; 1 1 8 9 , 1 1 9 0 ;
1
* -
. .
*
f el l - i n T 3 8 0 3 9 I -
; 5 70 n it 9 75 9 78 ;
-
1 0 1 2-10 1 5 ;
f or 2 5 2 2 5 4 ; 3 3 -
1 -3 6 8 ; 3 70 43 6 8 76
1 5 23 -
15 2 7; 1 615 Or es tes 4 1 6 4 1 8 ; -
79 , 1 1 8 0 1 1
( P) ; 7 ( P) ; 4 6 9 4 71 ; 8 8 4 8 88 (P) ; f g m
"
Tr oa des 2 6, 2 -
r a m ts 1 49
( P) ; 1
( P) ;
5 0 ; (P) ; 5 7 (P) ; 2 8 8 ; 3 5 4 ( P) ; 3 5 5
2 09 2 24 25 6; 2
(P) ; 3 9 5 (P) ; 4 0 1 ( P) ; 4 75 ( Orph is m ) ; 4 78 483 ;

4 9 3 ; 5 0 8 (p ) ; 5 0 9 (p) ; 5 5 8 (p ) ; 75 7 ( th e l aw o f n ature n ot evi l ) ;
*
8 3 2 ( P) ; 8 9 3 (P) ; 9 0 4 ; 9 0 5 (P) ; 9 3 5 ; 9 4 2 ( P) ; 9 70 ( P) ; 9 8 I
( P) ;
*
I O O 7
B esides th e a b ove wh atever t h e gods sa y i n th e prol ogues
,

a nd den ou emen ts S h ou l d b e co n sidered i mporta n t

Di v i nati on H el en a
744 75 7 ; 9 1 9 9 2 3 ; 1 6 2 6 ; E l ectr a 3 9 9 ,
.
- -
4 00 ; 9 8 1 ; S upp l i ces 1 5 5 ; J p n i n A u l 9 5 6 ; f r 9 63 . . . .
S anctu ary .
*
H er acl i da e 1 0 1 1 0 4 ; 2 5 3 2 73 ; [ on I 3 1 2 I 3 1 9 ; - - -
fr .
Immortal i ty . A lcesti s 3 6 4 ; 3 8 1 ; 9 9 5 H ecu oa 4 2 2 ;

H el en a 10 14 1 4 2 1 ; E lectr a 6 8 2 6 8 4 ; H er a cl i da e 5 9 2 -
S upp l i ces 53 53
1 6-
; J p n i n A u l 1 2 5 0 1 2 5
. 2 ; T r oa d es 6 3 ;
2 .
-
fr 536 ; 537; 73 4 .
1
C f X en Al ene A i v
. . . .
2
For @5 05 a nd ow dymy s ee Tr oades 886

a nd fr .
90 2 .
E UR I P I D E S I 79
( )
13 POL I T I CS A N D SOC IE TY
A lces ti s 45 ( A
2 t h e n s ) ; A n d r om ac /
z e 1 7 3 1 76 ( ba r b a ri a n s ); -
( p rt ) 9 ( de m ocr c y)
*
44 5 4 5 3
-
S a a ; 6 9 7 0 2 -
a ; H ecu b a 1 2 3 1 2 9 -
*
2
54 57
-
2 H er acl i d a e 1 81, 1 82 9 0 1 -
9 3
0
*
S upp l i ces 1 8 7 1 90
-
5 3 53 2 2 9 2 4
37 3 6 8 0 -
2
4 9 f o ll ; f l ipp
.o tu s 4 8 6 4 8 9 (de m ag go ues ) ; I p /
z i n -
A u l . .
1 40 0 , 1 40 1
( b a r b ) ; [ o n 2 9, 3 0 2 6 2 6 2 1 6 33
-
( ty ra n n y a n d 1 03 8 M edea 1 19 121 4 6 1
4 6 3 (e xi l e ) ; 5 3 6 ( G reece a n d bar b ) 6 4 6
9 5 1
( l ove o f -
.
cou ntry) ; 8 2 4 8 4 5 * -
Or es tes 6 9 6 70 3 772
-
9 0 1 9 1 3 ( de-
m a o
g g ues ) ; 1 06
5 T r oa des
3 7 ( triotis m ) ; Pl i oen i ss ae 3 8 8 3 8 9
p
* *
2 0 7 209-
3 8 6 8 a , ,
( e xi l e ) ; 4 0 6 ( l ove of cou n try ; 5 1 2 5 1 6 ; f r

) 9 3 19
3
-
.
1 94
( d p dy p )
xov ; 6 0 8 r 6 2 8 *
8 79
(p atri o tis m ) ; 9 0 2 ( i vr d
p y p wv
) t 1 0 3 4
*
( cos m opo l ita n is m ) .
Fri ends hi p . A ndr omacli e 3 76 , H ercu l es Fu r .

57 59 ;
-
1 8
33 ; 4 51 2 ,
I 4 2 6 [
; p4i c i n0A u l
3 3 ; 4 8 ; [ p /z i n T 4 9 8 ; . . .
6 74 6 76 ; 6 84 6 8 6 ; [ on 73 0 ; Or es tes 73 5 ; 8 0 4 ; 8 0 6 ; 1 0 1 4 ,
- -
1 0 72 ; 1 1 5 , 1 1 5 6 ; f r 4 6 5 ; 8 9 4
101
5 ; 5 . .
erc e n e m ies H er acl i dae 9 6 6

) ( )
*
( M y to l ex ta l i on i s A nd r oma c/zc
4 3 7, 43 8 ; H ecu b a 8 44, 8 4 5 ; [ on 1 0 4 6, 1 047 ; M edea 8 0 7 8 1 0 ;

-
Or es tes 4 1 3 ; f r . 1 0 76 , 1 0 77 .
A ni mal s I f er cu l es F ur
. . 1 3 86
-
13 88 ( Verra ll Fou r Pl ay s of E .
p . f i ipp oly tu s 1 1 0- 1 1 2 ; 121 9; 1 2 40 ; [ on 1 79 ; 1 2 0 2- 1 2 0

5 .
( )
C FA M I L Y L IFE
( W : Wo men or ma rr i ed l if e c : Clz i l dr en .
]
A lces ti s 3 0 9 3 1 9 ( step m oth er) 4 1 5

-
( m ot h er h oo d ) ; 4 73 4 75
-
* -
( )
w ; 8 7 9 8 8 0 ( )
w ;
-
88 2 8 88 ( )
c ; A n dr om acl i e 1 73 1 8 0
-
( )
w ; 2 4 1 -
( ); 3 5
w 2-
3 54 ( ) ; 3 73
w ( )
w ; H ecu a 1 181, 1 1 82
( w) ; E l ectr a
93 1 493 3 ( );
W I O3 5
-
1 0 40
( );
W 1 05 1-1 0 53 ( );
W I O 72 - 1 0 7
5 ( );
W
1 0 9 7- 1 0 9 9
( )
w fer acl i dae 4 76 , 4 77 (w) H . er cu l es Fu r . 2 80 , 281
( ) c
; 5 74 5 78 -
6 3 4, 6 3 5 ( C ) ; S un /222: 41 ( );
W 294 ( );
W
( s da u gh ters ) ; H ipp oly tu s ( )

'
*
1 0 99 1 1 0 3
-
ons a nd 6 1 6 668 -
w 6 40
( ) 9
w ; 6 6 ( ) p
w ; I l z i n A u l 37 6 , 3 77 ( b rot.h ers ); 5 50 8 1 0 .
-
( b roth ers ) ; 9 1 7 ( moth erh ood ) ; 1 1 5 7 1 1 6 1 (w) 1 3 9 4 ( w) ; -
I p lz i n T 5 7 ( c ) ; 1 0 0 5 , 1 0 0 6 (w) ; 1 2 9 8 ( w) ; [ on 3 9 8 4 0 0 ( w) ;
. .
* -
( ); 5 ( ); ( ); 4 74 9
* *
472 -
49 1 c w M ede a 2 2 9
1 0 90 1 1 0
-
w 0 0 -
2 66 -
( );
w 35 ( ); ( ); ( )
* *
1 0 33 1 0 c 1
-
0 8 1 1 0 93 w 1 0 9 4 1 1 1
5 C ; 1 2-
0 6 -
1 2 1 0 ( c ; Pl zoen i s s a e 1 9 8 2 0 1 ( w ; 3 5 5 , 3 5 6 ( w a n d c ) ; 3 74, 3 75
) ) -
( b rot h ers ) ;f 3 ( ) ;
r 6 w 1 0 4 ( )
c . I I I ( h o n our to p a re n ts ) 3
; 1 8 *
) ( ); 3 ( ); 3 39 ( step c h i l dre ); 3
*
C ; 3 2 0 (W ; 3 2 1
( ) W 2 2 W n 6 0 -
( c h i l dre )
n a n d p are nts ; 4 0 5 4 0 6 4 6 6 4 6 7 4 9 6 4 9 7 4 99 5
,
0 0 , , , , , , ,
5 01 . 5 3 5 4 5 47 5 4
0 0 ,
8 5 49
, 6 73,
8 0 5 8 1.9 ( 2 11 w ); 48 ,
8 . ,
( h o n our to p are n ts ) ; 9 0 1
*
( ) 9 43 (
w h o n our to pare n ts ); 1 0 4 2
( )
w ; 1 0 43
( )
W
Sl av ery . A l ces ti s
; 6
; 7 9 77 ;, 1 9 4,
0 8 1 4 8
1 95
3 ; 9 , 2 1 0, 211
9 49 ; A n d r om ac l ze 6 8
5 59 ; 9 9 ;,
0 f l ecu oa 33 2 ,
-
333 ; H e l en a 72 8
73 1 ; E l ect r a 6 33 ; ( p k i n A u l 1 4 0 0 ,
1 4 0 1 ; [ on.8 54 .
8 7 ; 2 1 6 ; 5 1 5 ; 5 3 3 ; 82 8 ; 966
( )
D TH E INDI V IDUA L
Good b i rth A lces ti s 6 0 1 ; A n dr omac/ce 1 2 79 1 2 8 3 ; H ecu a
'
-
.
*
3 79 3 8 -
1 ; 59 2 6 0 2 ; E l ectr a ,
8
37 3 ; 3 7 39
-
6 o ; 55 0 . 55 ;
1 -
H er acl idae 2 9 7 3 0 1 ; [ on 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 ; f r 9 ; 2 2 ; 5 3 ; 5 4 ; 1 6 8 ;
- -
.
23 4; 33 1 ; 3 44 ; 8
3 7 ; 5 4; 5 9 ; 530 ; 53
1 2 1 ; 73 9 ; 9 6 6 ;
1 05 1 .
E xt ernal g oods . A lces ti s

; E l ectr a 3 7, 3 8 ; 3 6 2 , 3 6 3 ; 1 63 -
1 69
4 2 6 4 3 1 ; H er c ul es Fu r 3 0 3 , 3 0 4 ; 5 1 1 , 5 1 2 ; 78 0 ; M edea 5 6 1 ;
-
.
P/wem ss a e 40 5 ; 5 5 4 ; 5 9 7 3 f c 5 5 ;
'
9 6 ; I 43 ;
2 49 ; 2 5 0 ; 2 5 1 ; 3 2 6 ; 3 2 7 ; 3 2 8 ; 3 2 9 ; 44 1 ; 4 6 1 ; 6 4 2 ;
*
773 ; 8 1 0 ; 884
Pes s i mi sm . A l ces ti s 8 0 2 ; f l ecu oa 9 5 6 9 6 1 ; H elen a 2 9 8
J f ipp olytu s 1 1 1 0 ; M edea 1 9 ,
'
1 1 0 2- 5 f
1 96 ; 1 2 24 ; r . 2 87 ;
45 2 ; 6 96 ; 9 5 6
Ol d age . Su pp li ces 1 1 0 8- 1 1 1
3 ; f r .
5 79 ; 5 8 0 ; 6 3 8 ; 80 2 ;
1 065 .
Su i ci de . H el en a 6
9 , 97; 2 9 8- 3 0 2 H er cu l es Fu r en s 12 10
1212 ; T r oa des 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 4
-
.
B eau ty A ndr oma cl i e

. 20 7 ,
208 ; H el en a 3 0 4,
3 o
5 ;f r .
9 21 .
E UR I P I DES I 81
I I
I
( N/ 0 1 9 a v
'
0pco m my '
.
B a cclta e 3 1 4 , 3 1 5 ( wrpo vei v i n

a 895 , 8 9 6 ; H el en a
3 ( p

t e o y 81 6v 37

1 00 2, 1 0 0
a 7 E l ectr a 9 4 1 I pp olytu s 79 ,
8 0 ( C wcp ovei v i n i l/ 0700377 0 10
( tria l s, 6v o
'
Ores tes 1 2 6, 1 2 7
'
11!

1
3
I I '
0 9
My 6 1 K a K OV
,
0 (0
i t 76 Ka lkui s K GK T
np VO LS
) [ on 6 4 2 6 44
-
( 8 8

6 616 7 81! o l/i 0706 71 0 10 1
,
K dv 6116 0110 1 11 5

,
81
'
K a t ov ( f l /a t p .

8 v duos 7
)
6 5 1 9 0 da o 3 f

5 1 0
j 7ra i
p x 6
6 7
9 r . 1 68 ; 1 70 ; I 87 ; 3 44 ;
3 78 ; 6 2 0 ; 6 3 5 ; 8 0 7 ; 8 3 1 ; 9 12 ; 105 0 060 19 615 60 7 40 7 0 8

y vovs w a7
p )
ts .
P1 5 02 2
H ipp oly tu s 3 1 7; Or es tes 1 604 ; f r . 1 99 ; 2 1 1 ; 82 8 . Cf .

f r .
2 8 4 on a thl etics .
v os .
Tr oades 9 8 7, 9 88 (c h astity i n vo ii s ) ; f r . 2 1 1
55 2 1 007
( 0 v oii s

d
y p 60 7 1 12 6 v K dO T )
Q

Cf .
f r . 894 ( t h e 0 05 869 is a true
Pers onal v i rt u e . purity) ; H ipp o

E lectr a 5 0 , 5 1 2 56 ( m ora l .
ly tu s 1 0 2 ( m ora l puri ty) ; 3 1 6 , 3 1 7

( co n scie n ce ); 6 1 2
( o a t h );
I p it i n A u l 3 9 4 ( oath ) ; 1 0 0 5 ( oath ) ; M edea 4 3 9 44 0 ; Or es tes
'
-
. . .
3 95 3 9
, 6 *
( co n scie n ce ) ; 4 9 2
( virt u e beautifu l ); f r 1 1
( vir tue .
s h o wn in death ) 2 9 1 (tr u th ) 73 7 ( truth ) ; 1 0 1 7 (virtue b eautifu l );

2 99
*
6 0 9 ( ori gi n of evi l is i n m en )
*
.
I dl eness an d work . E l ectr a 8 0 , 8 1 f r .

3 7; 2 8
3 ; 23 9 ; 2 42 ;
39 6 ; 4 6 4 ; 4 77 ; 7 1 9
ADDENDUM
T h a t th e G reek sdid n ot regard h om icide as a s in is i ll u s

tra ted b y th e f a ct t h at h u m a n sa cri ce was n ot u nknown in
h istoric a l ti m e s See H erod otus vi i 1 9 7
. . .
I N DEX
D I
A O PT O N , 8 6 , 9 4 D u ty, trea tm en t of , by p hi l os op h ers ,
l
A d u tery, 8 7, 1 1 8 1 15 -1 1 8
i
A ff ec t on , b etween p arents a nd c hil
dren . 9 1 . 9 4-9 6 i
E du ca t on , S tate c ontro of , 5 8 , 5 9 l
i
i n m a rr ed f e, 8 6 , 8 7, 9 1 li of wom en , 8 5 , 8 7, 8 8, 8 9 , 9 5
i
A n m al s , r g ts of , 70 - 72 i h i
E nv ron m en t, n u en ce of , 1 1 , 1 2 , i
A r ctpa gta , 2 6 , 5 9 , 6 1 , 1 2 0
hi
A t e sm, 1 2 Et hi cs and m o ra i ty, l 1 0, 3 1, 1 00 ,
i
A tom s ts , v ews on po t cs , 5 2 i li i 1 10, 1 1 9, 15 4
Body, s ou l exa lt d e ov er, 1 2 9-1 3 1 , Fa m i l y a nd rel i gi on 86 ,
Pl a to s v i ews on 88 9 0

-
I 34 ,
A i s totl e s v i ews on 9 1 9 2

B ook s , 1 6 1 r , ,
v i ews of oth e
h h
B rot er ood of ma n , 6 1 , 6 8, 9 4 p h i l os oph ers r , 92
94
Ch ti ty 8 9 F ri ends i p , va u eh l a ttac h ed to, 63
C
as
hi ld h ren ,
,
t 95
11 ,
on ou r to
11
a ren s ,
i n th e p i oso p hl h ers , 6 3 - 70
p
l
ov e of 94
f
ex o s u re o
p 9 6
,
G o d, l ov e of , 2 0 , 30
C h i ti i ty
r s 4 an 68 94
,
1 2 0, 1 09 , n a tu re o f the p hil os op hi c, 7, 19, 2 7

ly
, , , ,
1 12 ,
3 4 11 ,
1 1 G od s of th e ea r G reek s , 3 ,
19,
C i ti h i p G k i w f 49
z en s ree v e o I S3
l
, ,
C om m u n ty i of i
w v es , 88 9 3 - not s u b ec t to j th e m ora l a w, 4 ,
C ons ci en c e, i dea o f , a m ong th e 15
3
G reek s , 1 09 , 1 10

G ood, S ocra tes v ew of , 1 5 i
A ri s tot e, 1 1 0 l l
P a to s a b s o u te, 1 9 , 2 1 , 5 7

l
l
P a to, 1 1 1 G oods , m a ter a , 1 2 8 I 3 4 i l -
i
d s pa ragement of , 1 3 3
D a em ons , 2 2 , 2 7
h
D au g ters , 9 5 H i
a pp n ess , en d of a c t on , i 128
h
D ea t , 7, 9 , 1 0 i l
A r s tot e s v ew of , 9 5 , 1 2 8

i
D o u t des , 5 , I 4 i
D em ocr tu s v ew of , 1 2 9

i
i
D u r s od e, 2 7

l
P a to s v ew of , 1 2 9 - 1 3 1

i
i
D u ty, dea of , a m ong th e G reek s , S oc ra tes v ew of , 1 2 9

i
1 12 - 1 14 H edon s m , 6 1 i
1 83
H
"
eroes , 2 2 011 11, 4
H on ou r to p arents , 9 5 l
O ra c e , 2 2
hi
O rp s m , 5 , 7, 10 , 19
li i
I mmorta ty, v ews on , 2 9
a m on l
g ear y G reek s , 7 I l a 186 pa 0 7 1a , '
1 20
i l
A r s tot e, 2 5 Paren ts , 9 4 9 6 -
i i
E u r p des , 8 , 9 l
Pe op on n es i a n Wa r 1 1, 1 7, 2 8 , 53,
hi
,
O rp s m a n d, 7, 8 63
l
P a to , 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 3 o Pers i a n Wa rs , 1 0 , 1 1
h
Pyt agoras , 6 Pess i m i s m , 1 3 4
S to cs , 2 7i hl h l
P i os op i c re ig i on , 6 , 10, 1 2, 1 4,
i
I m p ety, p ros ecu t ons f or, 1 2 i 9 9 3 I SS ,
2 1, 2 , 0, I
i i li
I n d v dua s m , 6 2 , 6 8 Ph i l ph y i
oso f ,
n u en c e o , 1 6 1-1 63
i i
I ns cr pt on s , s ee Prefa ce tti t d t w d
a
3 u e o ar s, 12 , 1 2 4, 1 63
i
to v ot v e O eri ngs , 6 , 1 7, 2 3 d p li ti
an 3 o cs , 1 2 1 -1 2
P l i ti
o i f 57
cs , s c en c e o ,
J i
u s t ce,i vi n e 4 1 d
1 1 4
P hi g 6 63
rea c n , I 2, 1
c h ara c teris ti c S ta te v i tu e
, , ,
r , 50
P id
rov II 5 en ce, , 2 2, 2 , 2 6 , 2 7, 2 9 ,
3 o
P i hm t
un s d l igi en an re on , 2 6
L a w, A t h i en an s an d, 5 3, 54 Pu ri ty, 9 0 , 1 18
n a tu ra l 5
, 2
or i gi n o f, 52 l
R e i g i on , a n d e t c s , hi 1 7, 2 28
w ri tten a n d u nwr tten , 5 1 , 5 5 i 5,
i
u nwr tten , 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 1 4
a nd m ora ty, 1 5 3 li
L li
ega ty a n d m ora ty, 5 6 5 8 li a nd
p os o
p y, 6 hil h
a c on tra c t,
L egen ds , 6, I 3, 1 9 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7, 2 8,
i n th e c om c poets , 3 2 3 5 i
5
L i e,
29: 30
G reek v i ew of i n th e f ou rt c en tu ry, 1 8 h
, 1 2 4, 12 5 i n th e o ra to rs , 2 3
ph i l os o
ph y d th an e, 1 2 6-128
ll i l
s o c a ed rev v a of , 1 7
Lif
-
d f
l
e, en
f I34
7 o , 2
i h l l l
R g t, ega a n d m ora , 5 7, 5 8
L
va ue o
o v e, a b s en c e of ,
,
b etween m an a nd
i h h i i
R g teou s ness , c a rac ter s t c S ta te
i
w f e, 8 7
v rtu e, 5 0 i
S a n cti on , m ora l , I 5 4, I 55
i
M a rr age, G reek v ew of, 8 5 , 8 6 i re l igi 3 ou s , , I 4, 22, 23 , 2 7
i i
E u r p des , 8 8
p i i m 6
Sce t c s , , 1 0 , 1 1
p ihlos o
p ers, 88 9 4 h -
Se lf l 6 9
ov e, -
i h i h
M g t i s r g t, 1 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 5 S i n, 2 4 , 1 1 0 , I I I
M onoga my, 89 l
S av ery, 9 8 1 00 -
hi
M o n o t e s m , 1 8, 2 9 , 3 0 h
S op i s ts , 1 2 , 1 5 4
M on u m en ts , 9 l l
S ou exa ted o ver b ody, 1 2 9 1 3 1 , -
13 4
li h
M ora ty, c a ra c ter s t c s of, 1 5 1 - 1 5 6 i i S ou rce of m ora i ty, I 5 6 l
a n d re
g on , 3 , 5 3li i I S tate, a n ecess a ry i ns ti tu ti on , 5 8
i
M ys ter es , 7, 1 6 , 1 9 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 c on tro l , 56
l i mi t s of ob ed en c e i to, 5 5, 56
i
O b ed en ce, m ts o f, 5 5 , 5 6 li i S u i ci de, 1 I5 , 13 4 -1
36
li i
O b ga t on, to m ora l a w, 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 l
Oju ol wa t s, 6 .
II
. 1 6 , 2 1 . 2 7. 2 8 . 2 9 . T ab e l O f res u lt s, 29
3 0 I SS T ea c hi ng, p ers ona l , 162

I NDEX 1 85
Vi rtu e, S ocra tes v i ew

Gl a m-r eg, 4 on, 14
T ra nsm grat i i on , 8, 1 9 , 2 0, 71 l
P a to s v i ew on , 2 0 ,

2 1, I 30
h l
T ru t fu n es s, 1 2 4 , 125 a nd h i
pp n es s , 1 2 9 , I 3 2
a
dec ay of , 1 2 6 as h i
arm on ou s d ev e o m en t,
p l 15 2
i i
Vot v e O ff er ngs , 6 , 1 7, 2 3
l h h
U ni v ers a b rot er ood , 6 o, 6 1 , 6 8
l
U ti i ta ri ani s m, S oc ra tes , 1 5 , 5 4 , 5 5 , Wom en , edu ca t on , i
8 5 , 8 7, 8 8, 8 9 , 9 5
63 and
p hil h
os op y, 9 0
l
P a to, I 9. 2 1 , 2 4, 65 , 97
A r s toti l e, 97 Z eu s in H om er a n d ear ly p oe ts , 4
M I R T he a b o ve does i
n ot c onta n referen ces to th e n otes or i n dexes .
TH E END

Greek Morality - W. Jones

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G RE E K M O RA L I TY

Glasgow D ub l in and B ombay

G R E E K ethics has been studied b y g en erations of scholars ,

an d the broad outlin es are b y this ti m e fam iliar g rou nd .

P erhaps it is onl y i n d etails that o u r kn owled g e wi ll be

averag e moral level m ay be g l ea n ed from philosophi c

chapter he discusses with g reat acuteness the testim on y

whi ch m ust be g ran ted before an in qui ry i nto that

warn in g . I t is e x tremel y d i i cu l t to form a correct idea

S uppo ses i n his reader certai n k nowled g e s y m pathies an d

m od es of thou g ht and feelin g H ow eas y it is to be

deceived o n these poi nts is fam iliar to every visitor to

forei g n ers b y au th ors o f di ff eren t nationalities Bu t there .

is no accou nt o f the Greeks b y an ou tsider u ntil R om an

times H erodotus and X enophon who lived for som e

time o u t o f Greece furn ish u s with an approach to a ,

stran ger s d escription and ran k accordin g l y amon g o u r

most valuable authorities The onl y evidence outside .

literatu re proper is afforded b y the inscri ptions which are ,

very useful to the historian o f Greek reli g ion S o the .

historian of Greek moralit y m ust tak e his authorities both ,

philosophi c an d non philosophic an d n ot on l y p a y atten -

tion to their statements bu t a l s o try to i n fer the modes ,

of thou ght and feelin g the y i m pl y This i s a d i f cult .

task and one in which appro x im ate success onl y is

possible I ts j ustication is that there is n o other m ethod

I n the present essay I have tried to let the G reek

authorities have been consulted .

C r i to, Pr otag or as , R ep u b l i c G if G rote H i s tory f

A rc h er H i nd , ed i ti ons of Pka edo, f

L . C a m pb e ll R el igi on in G r eek L l oyd A ge f

C ou l a nges L a C i te A n ti q u e . R ou s e Gr eek Voti v e Of er i ng s .

D en i s H i stoi r e des Tkeor i es et des I dees

G om p erz Gr eek Tki n ker s ( E ng .

R itter an d Prell er s H i s tori a P/zil os op k i a e Gr a eca e has

proved o f some help bu t nearl y al l the quotations cited i n

the notes are the res u l t o f a stud y o f Greek literatu re u nder

C hrist s edition in the c ase o f Pi ndar

been followed f or the sequen ce o f the Platoni c d ialog u es .

I had hoped to add fairl y complete i nde x es o f passa g es

i m portan t period This book i s onl y a sketch n ot a

treatise M an y poin ts I m ust reserve u ntil I have an

oppo rtu nity o f p u blishin g all my i nd e x es ; but I t ru st

I have to than k P ro f J Welton M r H J W ol s ten

holm e M r H P Cooke an d M r F G Bland ford f o r

k ind help an d g eneral criticism s and M r L eonard , .

W h i b l ey for criticism s o f the secon d chapter .

7 061 0 61rep eI 1rov mi x yoz ) ) 6 m m 6 m m / O cb l rwy

I is in correct to lim it f reli g ion to cults an d ritual Greek

reli g ion i n clud es besides these formal ceremonies every re l i gi ous

makes for ri g hteousness The reco g n ition o f this power

i s i mpli ed i n the com mon speech whi ch d esi g nated it ,

be u nderstood u nl ess an e ff ort be m ade to see how they

T h e fear and awe of d ivi ne power i n n ate i n the ,

hu m an heart will keep a m an i n the path of ord er an d

d isciplin e when other m otives are either m islead in g or

in eff ective The wil l o f God is on l y con ceivable as an

appeal But moral sanctions are essentiall y conservative

the reli g ious san ction is particularl y so I t con se rves .

what is g ood I t m a y also ten d to conserve blem ishes

and i mperfections H en ce cru de and barbarous moral

ideals when re g arded as the wi l l o f Heaven are em ended

with g reat di f cu lty an d som etimes on l y after a social or