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Course 311: Michaelmas Term 2005 Part III: Topics in Commutative Algebra
Course 311: Michaelmas Term 2005 Part III: Topics in Commutative Algebra
Course 311: Michaelmas Term 2005 Part III: Topics in Commutative Algebra
Contents
3 Topics in Commutative Algebra 2
3.1 Rings and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Quotient Rings and Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 The Characteristic of a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 Polynomial Rings in Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.6 Algebraic Sets and the Zariski Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.7 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.8 Noetherian Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.9 Noetherian Rings and Hilbert’s Basis Theorem . . . . . . . . . 18
3.10 The Structure of Algebraic Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.11 Maximal Ideals and Zorn’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.12 Prime Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.13 Affine Varieties and Irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.14 Radical Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1
3 Topics in Commutative Algebra
3.1 Rings and Fields
Definition A ring consists of a set R on which are defined operations of
addition and multiplication satisfying the following axioms:
• x+y = y+x for all elements x and y of R (i.e., addition is commutative);
• (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) for all elements x, y and z of R (i.e., addition
is associative);
• there exists an an element 0 of R (known as the zero element) with the
property that x + 0 = x for all elements x of R;
• given any element x of R, there exists an element −x of R with the
property that x + (−x) = 0;
• x(yz) = (xy)z for all elements x, y and z of R (i.e., multiplication is
associative);
• x(y + z) = xy + xz and (x + y)z = xz + yz for all elements x, y and z
of R (the Distributive Law ).
Lemma 3.2 Let R be a ring. Then (−x)y = −(xy) and x(−y) = −(xy) for
all elements x and y of R.
2
A ring R is said to be unital if it possesses a (necessarily unique) non-zero
multiplicative identity element 1 satisfying 1x = x = x1 for all x ∈ R.
3
Proof A field is a unital commutative ring. Let x and y be non-zero elements
of a field K. Then there exist elements x−1 and y −1 of K such that xx−1 = 1
and yy −1 = 1. Then xyy −1 x−1 = 1. It follows that xy 6= 0, since 0(y −1 x−1 ) =
0 and 1 6= 0.
3.2 Ideals
Definition Let R be a ring. A subset I of R is said to be an ideal of R if
0 ∈ I, a + b ∈ I, −a ∈ I, ra ∈ I and ar ∈ I for all a, b ∈ I and r ∈ R. An
ideal I of R is said to be a proper ideal of R if I 6= R.
Lemma 3.4 A unital commutative ring R is a field if and only if the only
ideals of R are {0} and R.
4
We denote by (f1 , f2 , . . . , fk ) the ideal of R generated by any finite subset
{f1 , f2 , . . . , fk } of R. We say that an ideal I of the ring R is finitely generated
if there exists a finite subset of I which generates the ideal I.
Proof Let I be the subset of R consisting of all these finite sums. If J is any
ideal of R which contains the set X then J must contain each of these finite
sums, and thus I ⊂ J. Let a and b be elements of I. It follows immediately
from the definition of I that 0 ∈ I, a + b ∈ I, −a ∈ I, and ra ∈ I for all
r ∈ R. Also ar = ra, since R is commutative, and thus ar ∈ I. Thus I
is an ideal of R. Moreover X ⊂ I, since the ring R is unital and x = 1x
for all x ∈ X. Thus I is the smallest ideal of R containing the set X, as
required.
Lemma 3.6 Every ideal of the ring Z of integers is generated by some non-
negative integer n.
Proof The zero ideal is of the required form with n = 0. Let I be some
non-zero ideal of Z. Then I contains at least one strictly positive integer
(since −m ∈ I for all m ∈ I). Let n be the smallest strictly positive integer
belonging to I. If j ∈ I then we can write j = qn + r for some integers q
and r with 0 ≤ r < n. Now r ∈ I, since r = j − qn, j ∈ I and qn ∈ I.
But 0 ≤ r < n, and n is by definition the smallest strictly positive integer
belonging to I. We conclude therefore that r = 0, and thus j = qn. This
shows that I = nZ, as required.
5
x, x0 , y and y 0 are elements of R satisfying I + x = I + x0 and I + y = I + y 0
then
(x + y) − (x0 + y 0 ) = (x − x0 ) + (y − y 0 ),
xy − x0 y 0 = xy − xy 0 + xy 0 − x0 y 0 = x(y − y 0 ) + (x − x0 )y 0 .
6
The verification of the following result is a straightforward exercise.
Proof Let p = charR. Clearly p 6= 1. Suppose that p > 1 and p = jk, where
j and k are positive integers. Then (j.1)(k.1) = (jk).1 = p.1 = 0. But R is
an integral domain. Therefore either j.1 = 0, or k.1 = 0. But if j.1 = 0 then
p divides j and therefore j = p. Similarly if k.1 = 0 then k = p. It follows
that p is a prime number, as required.
xi11 xi22 · · · xinn xj11 xj22 · · · xjnn = xi11 +j1 xi22 +j2 · · · xinn +jn .
7
A polynomial p in the independent indeterminates with coefficients in some
ring R is by definition a formal linear combination of the form
r1 m 1 + r2 m 2 + · · · + r k m k
where r1 , r2 , . . . , rk ∈ R and m1 , m2 , . . . , mk are monomials in x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
The coefficients r1 , r2 , . . . , rk of this polynomial are uniquely determined,
provided that the monomials m1 , m2 , . . . , mk are distinct. Such polynomials
are added and multiplied together in the obvious fashion. In particular
k
! l
! k X l
X X X
ri m i sj m0j = (ri sj )(mi m0j ),
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
where the product mi m0j of the monomials mi and m0j is defined as de-
scribed above. The set of all polynomials in the independent indeterminates
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn with coefficients in the ring R is itself a ring, which we denote
by R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ].
Example The polynomial 2x1 x32 −6x1 x2 x23 is the product of the polynomials
2x1 x2 and x22 − 3x23 in the ring Z[x1 , x2 , x3 ] of polynomials in x1 , x2 , x3 with
integer coefficients.
Lemma 3.10 Let R be an integral domain. Then the ring R[x] of polynomi-
als in the indeterminate x with coefficients in R is itself an integral domain,
and deg(pq) = deg p + deg q for all non-zero polynomials p, q ∈ R[x].
Proof The integral domain R is commutative, hence so is R[x]. Moreover
R[x] is unital, and the multiplicative identity element of R[x] is the constant
polynomial whose coefficient is the multiplicative identity element 1 of the
unital ring R.
Let p and q be polynomials in R[x], and let ak and bl be the leading
coefficients of p and q respectively, where k = deg p and l = deg q. Now
p(x)q(x) = ak bl xk+l + terms of lower degree.
Moreover ak bl 6= 0, since ak 6= 0, bl 6= 0, and the ring R of coefficients is an
integral domain. Thus if p 6= 0 and q 6= 0 then pq 6= 0, showing that R[x] is
an integral domain, and deg(pq) = k + l = deg p + deg q, as required.
Let p be a polynomial in the indeterminates x1 , x2 , . . . , xn with coefficients
in the ring R, where n > 1. By collecting together terms involving xjn for
each non-negative integer j, we can write the polynomial p in the form
k
X
p(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = pj (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 )xjn
j=0
8
where pj ∈ R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 ] for j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Now the right hand side
of the above identity can be viewed as a polynomial in the indeterminate xn
with coefficients p1 , p2 , . . . , pk in the ring R[x1 , . . . , xn−1 ]. Moreover the poly-
nomial p uniquely determines and is uniquely determined by the polynomi-
als p1 , p2 , . . . , pk . It follows from this that the rings R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] and
R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 ][xn ] are naturally isomorphic and can be identified with
one another. We can use the identification in order to prove results con-
cerning the structure of the polynomial ring R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] by induction
on the number n of independent indeterminates x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . For example,
the following result follows directly by induction on n, using Lemma 3.10.
9
Proof The inequality (p + q) ≤ max(deg p, deg q) is obvious. Also p(i) q (j) is
homogeneous of degree i + j for all i and j, since the product of a monomial
of degree i and a monomial of degree j is a monomial of degree i + j. The
inequality deg(pq) ≤ deg p + deg q follows immediately.
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. Let k = deg p and l =
deg q. Then the homogeneous component (pq)(k+l) of pq of degree k + l is
given by (pq)(k+l) = p(k) q (l) . But R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] is an integral domain (see
Lemma 3.11), and p(k) and q (l) are both non-zero. It follows that (pq)(k+l) 6= 0,
and thus deg(pq) = deg p + deg q, as required.
λ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = b1 x1 + b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn
10
for all (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ K n . Thus if λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk are linear functionals on
K n , and if c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are suitable constants belonging to the field K then
{(x1 , x2 . . . , xn ) ∈ An : λi (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = ci for i = 1, 2, . . . , k}
is an algebraic set in An . A set of this type is referred to as an affine subspace
of An . It is said to be of dimension n − k, provided that the linear functionals
λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk are linearly independent. It follows directly from elementary
linear algebra that, if we we identify affine n-space An with the vector space
K n , then a subset of An is an m-dimensional affine subspace if and only if it
is a translate of some m-dimensional vector subspace of K n (i.e., it is of the
form v + W where v is a point of An and W is some m-dimensional vector
subspace of K n ).
Lemma 3.13 Let V be an algebraic set in An , and let L be a one-dimen-
sional affine subspace of An . Then either L ⊂ V or else L ∩ V is a finite
set.
Proof The affine subspace L is a translate of a one-dimensional subspace
of K n , and therefore there exist vectors v and w in K n such that L =
{v + wt : t ∈ K} (on identifying n-dimensional affine space An with the
vector space K n ). Now we can write
V = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ An : f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0 for all f ∈ S},
where S is some subset of the polynomial ring K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ]. Now either
each polynomial belonging to S is zero throughout L, in which case L ⊂ V ,
or else there is some f ∈ S which is non-zero at some point of L. Define
g ∈ K[t] by the formula
g(t) = f (v1 + w1 t, v2 + w2 t, . . . , vn + wn t)
(where vi and wi denote the ith components of the vectors v and w for
i = 1, 2, . . . , n). Then g is a non-zero polynomial in the indeterminate t, and
therefore g has at most finitely many zeros. But g(t) = 0 whenever the point
v + wt of L lies in V . Therefore L ∩ V is finite, as required.
Example The sets
{(x, y) ∈ A2 (R) : y = sin x}
and
{(x, y) ∈ A2 (R) : x ≥ 0}
are not algebraic sets in A2 (R), since the line y = 0 is not contained in either
of these sets, yet the line intersects these sets at infinitely many points of the
set.
11
Given any subset S of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ], we denote by V (S) the algebraic
set in An defined by
Proof It follows from the observations above that V (S) ⊂ V (I(V (S))),
since Z ⊂ V (I(Z)) for all subsets Z of An . But also S ⊂ I(V (S)), and
hence V (I(V (S))) ⊂ V (S). Therefore V (I(V (S))) = V (S). An analogous
argument can be used to show that I(V (I(Z))) = I(Z) for all subsets Z of
An .
12
Proof (i) is immediate.P P
If
P µ ∈ Λ then
T Iµ ⊂ λ∈Λ Iλ , and therefore V λ∈Λ Iλ T⊂ V (Iµ ). Thus
V λ∈Λ Iλ ⊂ λ∈Λ V (Iλ ). Conversely if x is a point of λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) then
fP(x) = 0 for allTλ ∈ Λ and f ∈ P Iλ , andtherefore f (x) = T 0 for all f ∈
I
P λ
λ∈Λ . Thus λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) ⊂ V I
λ∈Λ λ . It follows that λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) =
V λ∈Λ Iλ . This proves (ii).
Let I and J be ideals of R. Then I ∩J ⊂ I, I ∩J ⊂ J and IJ ⊂ I ∩J, and
thus V (I) ⊂ V (I ∩ J), V (J) ⊂ V (I ∩ J) and V (I ∩ J) ⊂ V (IJ). Therefore
If x is a point of An which does not belong to V (I) ∪ V (J) then there exist
polynomials f ∈ I and g ∈ J such that f (x) 6= 0 and g(x) 6= 0. But
then f g ∈ IJ and f (x)g(x) 6= 0, and therefore x 6∈ V (IJ). Therefore
V (IJ) ⊂ V (I) ∪ V (J). We conclude that
Example Any finite subset of An is an algebraic set. This follows from the
fact that any point in An is an algebraic set, and any finite union of algebraic
sets is an algebraic set.
13
3.7 Modules
Definition Let R be a unital commutative ring. A set M is said to be a
module over R (or R-module) if
(i) given any x, y ∈ M and r ∈ R, there are well-defined elements x + y
and rx of M ,
(rs)x = r(sx), 1x = x
are satisfied for all x, y ∈ M and r, s ∈ R.
14
is a submodule of M satisfying L ⊂ ker ϕ, then ϕ induces a homomorphism
ϕ: M/L → N . This induced homomorphism is an isomorphism if and only if
L = ker ϕ and N = ϕ(M ).
r1 x 1 + r 2 x 2 + · · · + rk x k
for some r1 , r2 , . . . , rk ∈ R.
15
(i) (Ascending Chain Condition) if L1 ⊂ L2 ⊂ L3 ⊂ · · · is an ascending
chain of submodules of M then there exists an integer N such that
Ln = LN for all n ≥ N ;
16
is therefore finitely-generated. Also any submodule K of M/L is of the form
{L + x : x ∈ J} for some submodule J of M satisfying L ⊂ J. But J
is finitely-generated (since M is Noetherian). Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xk be a finite
generating set for J. Then
L + x1 , L + x2 , . . . , L + xk
L + x1 , L + x2 , . . . , L + xk .
{x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , y1 , y2 , . . . , ym }
ν(z) = r1 (L + x1 ) + r2 (L + x2 ) + · · · + rk (L + xk ) = L + r1 x1 + r2 x2 + · · · + rk xk .
But then z −(r1 x1 +r2 x2 +· · ·+rk xk ) ∈ J ∩L (since L = ker ν), and therefore
there exist s1 , s2 , . . . , sm such that
z − (r1 x1 + r2 x2 + · · · + rk xk ) = s1 y1 + s2 y2 + · · · + sm ym ,
and thus
k
X m
X
z= ri x i + si y i .
i=1 j=1
17
Proof The result follows easily by induction on k once it has been proved
in the case k = 2.
Let M1 and M2 be Noetherian R-modules. Then M1 ⊕{0} is a Noetherian
submodule of M1 ⊕ M2 isomorphic to M1 , and the quotient of M1 ⊕ M2 by
this submodule is a Noetherian R-module isomorphic to M2 . It follows from
Proposition 3.18 that M1 ⊕ M2 is Noetherian, as required.
18
(iii) (Finite Basis Condition) every ideal of R is finitely-generated.
r1 x 1 + r2 x 2 + · · · + rk x k .
x = r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · + rk ak
, where r1 , r2 , . . . , rk ∈ R, then
I + x = r1 (I + a1 ) + r2 (I + a2 ) + · · · + rk (I + ak ),
as required.
19
Hilbert showed that if R is a field or is the ring Z of integers, then every
ideal of R[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] is finitely-generated. The method that Hilbert used
to prove this result can be generalized to yield the following theorem.
Proof Let I be an ideal of R[x], and, for each non-negative integer n, let
In denote the subset of R consisting of those elements of R that occur as
leading coefficients of polynomials of degree n belonging to I, together with
the zero element of R. Then In is an ideal of R. Moreover In ⊂ In+1 , for if
p(x) is a polynomial of degree n belonging to I then xp(x) is a polynomial of
degree n+1 belonging to I which has the same leading coefficient. Thus I0 ⊂
I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · is an ascending chain of ideals of R. But the Noetherian ring
R satisfies the Ascending Chain Condition (see Proposition 3.20). Therefore
there exists some natural number m such that In = Im for all n ≥ m.
Now each ideal In is finitely-generated, hence, for each n ≤ m, we can
choose a finite set {an,1 , an,2 , . . . , an,kn } which generates In . Moreover each
generator an,i is the leading coefficient of some polynomial qn,i of degree n
belonging to I. Let J be the ideal of R[x] generated by the polynomials qn,i
for all 0 ≤ n ≤ m and 1 ≤ i ≤ kn . Then J is finitely-generated. We shall
show by induction on deg p that every polynomial p belonging to I must
belong to J, and thus I = J. Now if p ∈ I and deg p = 0 then p is a constant
polynomial whose value belongs to I0 (by definition of I0 ), and thus p is a
linear combination of the constant polynomials q0,i (since the values a0,i of
the constant polynomials q0,i generate I0 ), showing that p ∈ J. Thus the
result holds for all p ∈ I of degree 0.
Now suppose that p ∈ I is a polynomial of degree n and that the result
is true for all polynomials p in I of degree less than n. Consider first the
case when n ≤ m. Let b be the leading coefficient of p. Then there exist
c1 , c2 , . . . , ckn ∈ R such that
b = c1 an,1 + c2 an,2 + · · · + ckn an,kn ,
since an,1 , an,2 , . . . , an,kn generate the ideal In of R. Then
p(x) = c1 qn,1 (x) + c2 qn,2 (x) + · · · + ck qn,k (x) + r(x),
where r ∈ I and deg r < deg p. It follows from the induction hypothesis that
r ∈ J. But then p ∈ J. This proves the result for all polynomials p in I
satisfying deg p ≤ m.
Finally suppose that p ∈ I is a polynomial of degree n where n > m, and
that the result has been verified for all polynomials of degree less than n.
20
Then the leading coefficient b of p belongs to In . But In = Im , since n ≥ m.
As before, we see that there exist c1 , c2 , . . . , ckm ∈ R such that
p(x) = c1 xn−m qm,1 (x) + c2 xn−m qm,2 (x) + · · · + ck xn−m qm,k (x) + r(x),
where r ∈ I and deg r < deg p. It follows from the induction hypothesis that
r ∈ J. But then p ∈ J. This proves the result for all polynomials p in I
satisfying deg p > m. Therefore I = J, and thus I is finitely-generated, as
required.
Corollary 3.25 Let K be a field. Then every ideal of the polynomial ring
K[x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] is finitely-generated.
21
Proof The set V is an algebraic set, and therefore V = V (I) for some
ideal I of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ]. Moreover it follows from Corollary 3.25 that
I is generated by some finite set {f1 , f2 , . . . , fk } of polynomials. But then
V = V ({f1 , f2 , . . . , fk }), and thus V is of the required form.
V (f ) = {x ∈ An : f (x) = 0}.
Proof It follows from the definition of the Zariski topology that, for each
open set D belonging to C, therePexists an ideal ID of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] such
that D = An \ V (ID ). Let I = D∈C ID . Then
[ [ \
D = (An \ V (ID )) = An \ V (ID )
D∈C D∈C D∈C
X
= An \ V ID = An \ V (I)
D∈C
22
be expressed as a finite sum of elements taken from the ideals ID , and the
collection of all these elements constitutes a finite generating set for I which
is of the required form. Choose D1 , D2 , . . . , Dk ∈ C such that fi ∈ IDi for
i = 1, 2, . . . , k. Then
and thus
k
! k
[ X [
D = An − V (I) = An − V IDi = Di ,
D∈C
i=1 i=1
as required.
Proof Let I be a proper ideal of the unital commutative ring R. Then the
quotient ring R/I is unital and commutative. Moreover there is a one-to-
one correspondence between ideals L of R/I and ideals J of R satisfying
I ⊂ J ⊂ R: if J is any ideal of R satisfying I ⊂ J ⊂ R, and if L is the
corresponding ideal of R/I then I + x ∈ L if and only if x ∈ J. We deduce
that I is a maximal ideal of R if and only if the only ideals of R/I are the
zero ideal {I} and R/I itself. It follows from Lemma 3.4 that I is a maximal
ideal of R if and only if R/I is a field.
23
Definition Let S be a set. A partial order ≤ on S is a relation on S
satisfying the following conditions:—
Proof Let S be the set of all proper ideals J of R satisfying I ⊂ J. The set S
is non-empty, since I ∈ S, and is partially ordered by the inclusion relation ⊂.
We claim that there exists an upper bound for any totally ordered subset C
of S.
24
Let L be the union of all the ideals belonging to some totally ordered
subset C of S. We claim that L is itself a proper ideal of R. Let a and b be
elements of L. Then there exist proper ideals J1 and J2 belonging to C such
that a ∈ J1 and b ∈ J2 . Moreover either J1 ⊂ J2 or else J2 ⊂ J1 , since the
subset C of S is totally ordered. It follows that a + b belongs either to J1 or
else to J2 , and thus a + b ∈ L. Similarly −a ∈ L, ra ∈ L and ar ∈ L for
all r ∈ R. We conclude that L is an ideal of R. Moreover 1 6∈ L, since the
elements of C are proper ideals of R, and therefore 1 6∈ J for every J ∈ C. It
follows that L is a proper ideal of R satisfying I ⊂ L. Thus L ∈ S, and L is
an upper bound for C.
The conditions of Zorn’s Lemma are satisfied by the partially ordered
set S. Therefore S contains a maximal element M . This maximal element
is the required maximal ideal of R containing the ideal I.
Corollary 3.32 Every unital ring has at least one maximal ideal.
Proof Let I be a proper ideal of R. Suppose that I has the property that,
given any elements x and y of R satisfying xy ∈ I, either x ∈ I or y ∈ I.
Let J and K be ideals of R neither of which is a subset of the ideal I. Then
there exist elements x ∈ J and y ∈ K which do not belong to I. But then xy
belongs to JK but does not belong to I. Thus the ideal JK is not a subset
of I. This shows that the ideal I is prime.
Conversely, suppose that I is a prime ideal of R. Let x and y be elements
of R satisfying xy ∈ I, and let J and K be the ideals generated by x and y
respectively. Then
25
since R is unital and commutative (see Lemma 3.5). It follows easily that
JK = {rxy : r ∈ R}. Now xy ∈ I. It follows that JK ⊂ I. But I is prime.
Therefore either J ⊂ I or K ⊂ I, and thus either x ∈ I or y ∈ I.
(i) Z is irreducible,
26
(ii) the intersection of any two non-empty open sets in Z is non-empty,
Proof The topological space Z is irreducible if and only if the union of any
two proper closed subsets of Z is a proper subset of Z. Now the complement
of any proper closed set is a non-empty open set, and vica versa. Thus on
taking complements we see that Z is irreducible if and only if the intersection
of any two non-empty open subsets of Z is a non-empty subset of Z. This
shows the equivalence of (i) and (ii).
The equivalence of (ii) and (iii) follows from the fact that a subset of Z
is dense if and only if it has non-empty intersection with every non-empty
open set in Z.
Let A be a subset of Z. It follows directly from the definition of the
subspace topology on A that A is irreducible if and only if, given any closed
sets F1 and F2 such that A ⊂ F1 ∪ F2 then either A ⊂ F1 or A ⊂ F2 . Now if
F is any closed subset of Z then A ⊂ F if and only if A ⊂ F . It follows that
A is irreducible if and only if A is irreducible.
27
Proposition 3.39 A non-empty algebraic set V in An is irreducible (with
respect to the Zariski topology) if and only if the ideal I(V ) is a prime ideal
of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ].
Proof Suppose that the algebraic set V is irreducible. Let f and g be
polynomials in K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] with the property that f g ∈ I(V ). Then
V ⊂ V (f )∪V (g), since, given any point of V , one or other of the polynomials
f and g must be zero at that point. Let V1 = V ∩ V (f ) and V2 = V ∩ V (g).
Then V1 and V2 are algebraic subsets of V , and V = V1 ∪ V2 . Therefore either
V = V1 or V = V2 , since the irreducible algebraic set V cannot be expressed
as a union of two proper algebraic subsets. It follows that either f ∈ I(V )
or else g ∈ I(V ). Thus I(V ) is prime, by Lemma 3.33.
Conversely, suppose that V is reducible. Then there exist proper algebraic
subsets V1 and V2 of V such that V = V1 ∪V2 . It then follows from Lemma 3.38
that there exist polynomials f and g in K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] such that f (x) = 0
for all x ∈ V1 , g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ V2 , and neither f nor g belongs to I(V ).
But then f (x)g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ V , since V = V1 ∪V2 , and hence f g ∈ I(V ).
Thus the ideal I(V ) is not prime.
Definition An affine algebraic variety is an irreducible algebraic set in An .
Theorem 3.40 Every algebraic set in An can be expressed as a finite union
of affine algebraic varieties.
Proof Let C be the collection of all ideals I of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] with the
property that the corresponding algebraic set V (I) cannot be expressed as a
finite union of affine varieties. We claim that C cannot contain any maximal
element.
Let I be an ideal of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] belonging to C. Then the algebraic
set V (I) cannot itself be an affine variety, and therefore there must exist
proper algebraic subsets V1 and V2 of V such that V (I) = V1 ∪ V2 . Let
I1 = I(V1 ) and I2 = I(V2 ). Then I(V (I)) ⊂ I1 and I(V (I)) ⊂ I2 , since
V1 ⊂ V (I) and V2 ⊂ V (I). Also I ⊂ I(V (I)). It follows that I ⊂ I1 and
I ⊂ I2 . Moreover V (I1 ) = V1 and V (I2 ) = V2 , since V1 and V2 are algebraic
sets (see Lemma 3.14), and thus V (I1 ) 6= V (I) and V (I2 ) 6= V (I). It follows
that I 6= I1 and I 6= I2 . Thus I is a proper subset of both I1 and I2 .
Now V1 and V2 cannot both be finite unions of affine varieties, since V (I)
is not a finite union of affine varieties. Thus one or other of the ideals I1 and I2
must belong to the collection C. It follows that no ideal I belonging to C can
be maximal in C. But every non-empty collection of ideals of the Noetherian
ring K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] must have a maximal element (see Proposition 3.20).
Therefore C must be empty, and thus every algebraic set in An is a finite
union of affine varieties, as required.
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We shall show that every algebraic set in An has an essentially unique
representation as a finite union of affine varieties.
Proof The affine variety W is the union of the algebraic sets W ∩ Vi for
i = 1, 2, . . . , k. It follows from the irreducibility of W that the algebraic sets
W ∩ Vi cannot all be proper subsets of W . Hence W = W ∩ Vi for some i,
and hence W ⊂ Vi , as required.
σ: {1, 2, . . . , k} → {1, 2, . . . , m}
29
Proof Let I be a prime ideal. Suppose that x ∈ R satisfies xm ∈ I. If m = 1
then we are done. If not, then either x ∈ I or xm−1 ∈ I, since I is prime.
Thus it follows by induction on m that x ∈ I. Thus I is a radical ideal.
√
Lemma 3.44 Let I be an ideal of a unital commutative ring R, and let I
m
√ x of R with the property that x ∈ I√for some
denote the set of all elements
natural number m. Then I is a radical ideal of R. Moreover I = I if and
only if I is a radical ideal of R.
√
Proof Let x and y be elements of I. Then there exist natural numbers m
and n such that xm ∈ I and y n ∈ I. Now
m+n
X m + n
m+n
(x + y) = xi y m+n−i ,
i=0
i
30
Proof The ideal I(V (S)) of K[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] contains the set S. Therefore
√
I ⊂ I(V (S)), where I is the ideal generated by S. Moreover if f ∈ I then
f m ∈ I for some natural number m, and thus f m ∈ I(V (S)). But I(V (S))
is a radical ideal (see Lemma 3.45). Therefore f ∈ I(V (S)). Thus
√
S ⊂ I ⊂ I ⊂ I(V (S)).
It follows that
√
V (I(V (S))) ⊂ V ( I) ⊂ V (I) ⊂ V (S).
But√ V (I(V (S))) = V (S) (see Lemma 3.14). Therefore V (S) = V (I) =
V ( I), as required.
31