TH E

L E C TRI C R A I L W A Y

A S S IS TA N T P R O F E S S O R O F R A I L W A Y E L E C T R I C A L E N GI N E E E E E

ILL B O O K C O M PA N Y , IN C .

3 9 T H S TREET , N E W Y O R K
6 B O U V E R I E S T R E E T, L ONDON . E . C .

1915
 PR E FA C E

Fo r y e ars t he auth o r has fe lt t he n e e d of an ad e quat e

s e ve r a l

t e xt b o o k fo r i n structi o n o f adva n c e d stud e n ts taki n g e l e ct ri c

-

railway c o urs e s It was t o m e e t this n e e d that this v o lum e was

.

pr e par e d It is s o arr a n g e d that c e rtai n p o rti o n s may b e o mitt e d

.

with o ut a ffe cti n g t he c o n ti n uity as e ach chapt e r is a c o mpl e t e

,

u n it in its e lf .

S i n c e m o st stud e n ts tak e e l e ctric railway c o u r s e s aft e r havi n g

m e ch a ni cs a fu n dam e n tal k n o wl e dg e o f this subj e ct is assum e d
,
.

S imila r ly p o w e r pla n t a n d tra n smissi o n li n e w o rk a r e usually

,

ta ken as i n d e p e n d e n t c o urs e s a n d a re r e fe rr e d t o in this b o o k

,

o n ly as th e y di r e ctly a ffe ct t he mai n subj e ct C ar h o us e d e sig n .

a n d e quipm e n t a r e e n tir e ly o mitt e d fo r whil e o f prim e imp o r

, ,

ta n c e in e l e ct r ic railway Op e rati o n th e y a re t o pics o f limit e d

,

sc o p e which hav e n o di r e ct b e ari n g o n t he o th e r fact o rs which

make up a r ailway syst e m S uch p o i n ts a re v e r y fully c o v e r e d
.

in s o m e Of t he r e c e n t e l e ctrical ha n db o o ks .

Alth o ugh i n t e n d e d p r imarily as a t e xt b o o k it is b e li e v e d that

-
,

this v o lum e c on tai n s much matt e r o f i n t e r e st t o t he practisi n g

e n gi n e e r ,
si n c e it p u r p o s e s t o gi ve t he u n d e rlyi n g p r i n cipl e s o f
e l e ct r ic railway d e sig n a n d o p e rati o n It must h o w e v e r be
.
, ,

b o r n e in mi n d that n o att e mpt has b e e n mad e t o w r it e a ha n d

b o o k a n d that d e n it e gu r e s hav e b ee n give n o n ly wh e n m e c e s
,

sa r y t o mak e t he t e xt cl e a r .

I n c o n n e cti o n with a b o o k o f this charact e r t he auth o r c o n ,

sid e r s it e ss e n tial that fr e qu e n t r e fe re n c e be mad e t o t he cu rr e n t

t e ch n ical p re ss fo r sta n dard p r actic e an d r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n ts in
t he e ld . T he E le c t r ic R a ilw a y/ J ou r n a l is e sp e cially t o b e r e c o m
m e n d e d in this c o n n e cti o n .

It is imp o ssibl e t o giv e cr e dit fo r all t he sugg e sti o n s a n d or iti

c is m s which hav e aid e d t he auth o r in t he pr e parati o n o f this
.

b o o k T he s o urc e s o f mat e rial a r e giv e n s o far as p o ssibl e in

.
, ,

f o o t n o t e s Esp e cial tha n ks a re due P r o f A S R ich e y o f Wo r

. . . .
,

c e s t e r P o lyt e ch n ic I n stitut e fo r r e adi n g t h e ma n uscript a n d fo r

, ,

valuabl e sugg e sti o n s mad e by him ; an d M r E G Y o u n g o f t he . . .

,

U n iv e r sity o f Illi n o is fo r his aid in pre pari n g t he illus t rati o n s

,
.

URB A N A , I L LI N O I S , A . M . B .

A ugu s t , 1 9 1 5 .

3 1 3 776
 C O N T EN T S

C H AP TER I

I N T RO D U C T I ON
T T h e T ru n k Lin e R ai
.

Th e R e qui r e m ent s of p o r t a t
r an s io n l ro a d
R a i l wa y T h e C ab e Ral i l w a y T h e El e c t ri c S t re e t
R ail w a y S c o p e o f t h e El e c t ri c R ail w a y

C l a ss ic a t io n o f R a il w a y s M o t ive P o w e r s Th e S t e a m Lo c o
m o t i ve O t h e r M o t ive P o w e r s El e c t ri c S y s t e m s Ad van t a g e s
o f El e c t ri c Sy s t e m s T h e R ai l w a y P r o b l e m .

C H A P TER II

T HE MEC H ANIC S OF T R A C TI ON
l
.

Fu n d a m ent a l Prin c ipl e s Wo rk an d E n e rg y -

Ac c e e r a t io n

R o t at io n a l A c c e l e ra t io n To t al A c c e l e ra t in g Fo rc e T r ai n R e s is t
ance
J o u rn a l Fri c t io n Fl an g e F ri c t io n , R o ll in g an d O s c ill at o ry
i
R e s s t an c e s Air R e s is t a n c e M ot or an d G e arin g F ri c t io n
D et e rm in a t io n O f T rain R e sis t an c e T rain R e s is t an c e F o rm l
u ae

In c id e n t a l R e s is t a n c e s G a d e s Vi rt u al
r G ad e s
r Th e R u lin g
G rad e C u rv e s Win d S p e e d- Ti m e C u rv e
R e s is t an c e Th e
C o m p o n e n t s o f t h e S p e e d- T i m e C urv e Ac c e l e ra t io n C u rve
C o as t in g C urve B r ak in g C u rve C al c ul a t io n o f S p e e d T im -
e

C urv e s T o t a l Fo rc e fo r T rain O p e r at io n P l o t t in g S p e e d- T im e

C urve s P o w e r fo r T r a in M o ve m e n t .

C H A P TER III

MO T O R S FOR T RA C TI ON
Fu n c t io n s ofM o t o r P o w e rs El e c t ric Dis t ribut io n Sy s t e m s Cl as s i
i
c a t o n o f E l e c t ri c M o t o r s T o r q u e C h a r a c t e s t i c s S p e e d
r i

C harac t e ris t i c s Th e Dir e c t C urr e n t S e ri e s M o t o r V a r ia t io n o f

- -

S p e e d C h a ra c t e ris t ic V a ria t io n o f Sp e e d w i t h R e s is t an c e T o r q ue
C harac t e r is t ic V ariat io n o f Fi e l d St re n g t h L o s s e s in t h e Se rie s
M o t o r E fc ie n c y o f t h e S e rie s M o t o r Al t e rn at in g C u rre n t -

C o m m u t a t o r M o t o rs F r e q u e n c i e s O f S i n g l e P h a s e M o t o r s
-

V ari at o n s o f t h e Al t e rn at in g C urr e n t S e rie s M o t o r R e p u l s io n

i -

M o t o r C o m p e n s at e d R e p ul sio n M o t o r P e rfo rm an c e o f t he
Al t e rn a t ing C urre n t S e rie s M o t o r V ariat io n o f S in g l e P has e
- -

M o t o r C harac t e ris t i c s C o m m ut at io n in S in g l e Ph as e M o t o rs -

T h e P o lyp has e I n duc t io n M o t o r I n du c t io n M o t o r P e rf o rm an c e .

viii CON TE N TS

C H A P TER IV

R A I L WA Y M OTO R C ON S TRU C TI ON
M o t o r D eve l o p e n t Ea rly M o t o rs Arm at ure Co n s t ru c t io n
m

Arm at ur e S p e e d s Fie l d F ram e s M o d e m D ir e c t C u rr e n t R ail

w ay M o t o s r
Mo de Mot o
r n r F r a me s U s e o f I n t e r p o l e s M o d e rn
Ar m at ur e C o n s t ru c t i o n C o m m u t at o r C o n st ru c t io n M o t o r Lu
b ric at io n B e arin g H o u s in g s an d B e ari n g s V e n t il a t i o n o f M o t o rs
S i n l e P has e C o m m u t at o r M o t o r s I n du c t i o n M o t o r s
-
g .

C H A P TER V

C O N TR O L OF R A I L WA Y MOTOR S
N e e d fo r C o n t ro l Avai l ab l e M e t ho d s C h an g e o f P o t e
n t ia l

M e t h o ds o f P o t e n t ia l V a ri at io n C h an g e s In Arm at ur e an d Fi e l d
S t re n g t h C han g e s in N um b e r o f P o l e s an d in Fr e q ue n c y Pr ac

,

t i c al C o m b i i
n a t o n s o f C o n t r o l M t o d s R h e o s t at i c C o n t r o l
e h

Lim it at io n s o f R h e o s t at i c C o n t ro l S e ri e s Pa r all e l C o n t r o l Ty p e
-

K C o n t ro ll e rs T yp e L C o n t ro ll e r M ul t ipl e Un i t C o n t ro l
-

S p ragu e S y s t e m T yp e M C o n t ro l Un i t S wit c h C o n t ro l B rid ge

C o n n e c t io n Pn e um at i c ally O p e r at e d D r um C o n t r o l Jo n e s T yp e
C o n t I o l P r o p o rt i o n in g o f R e s s t an c e s G r ap h i c al M e t h o d o f

'

i
C al c u l a t in g R e sis t a n c e s Tim e fo r O p e r a t in g C o n t ro ll e r R e s is t
r
o s o f r R la i w a y S vi c e C o t o l o f S in gl e Ph as e M o t o s C o m
e r n r - r

b i n at io n S y s t e m s fo r S i n g l e P h as e an d Di r e c t C u r re n t C o n t ro l o f
T hre e P h as e M o t o rs C h an g e s in N u m b e r o f P o l e s C h a n g e s in
- -

F re qu e n c y C o n c a t e n at i o n o f I n duc t io n
M o t o rs Spl it P has e
-

C o n t r o l Sp e c ia l S y s t e m s Wa rd L e o n a r d S y s t e m P e rm u t at o r
-

C o t o l M e c h an i c al R e c t ie r M e r c ury V ap o r R e c t i e r
n r .

C H AP TER VI
P O WER R E Q U I RE M ENTS AN D E NERG Y C O N S U M P TI ON .

R e q u i r e m e n ts o f T r i p
a n O e r a i
t o n
r i
St a g t h L i n e S p e e d - Ti m e
C urve s Sp e e d T i m e C urve s w i t h El e c t ri c M o t o rs C u rr e n t
T i m e C u rve s P o w e r Ti m e C urve s Us e o f t h e C urre n t an d
-

Po w e r C urves M o t o r C ap ac it y H e at in g Lim it s C ha ra c t e r o f
R ai l w a y M o t o r L o a d M e t h o d s o f E qu at in g M o t o r L o a d H e a t
in g V alu e O f t h e C urr e n t D e t e rm in a t i o n o f Eff e c t ive C u r r e n t
f ro m I C urve D e t e rm in at i o n b y P o l ar M e t h o d Ave rag e M o t o r
2

P t t i al R at n g o f R ail w a y M o t o rs M o t o r C ap a c i t y a n d S e l e c
o e n i

t io n M o t o r S p e e d s an d G e a rin g Us e o f Fi e l d C o n t ro l M o t o rs
P ro p e r Num b e r o f M o t o rs Po w e r R e quir e d fo r Al t e rn at in g
C ur r e n t M o t o rs E n e rg y R e quir e d fo r T r ain O p e r a t io n K i n e t ic
En e rg y Us e o f S t r aig h t Lin e Sp e e dTim e C urve s E n e rg y C o n
s um p t io n w i t h E l e c t ri c M o t o r s E ff e c t o f G e ar R at i o o n E n e rg y

C o n s um p t io n M e t h o d o f C o m p a rin g En e rg y C o n s u m p t io n
Wat t H o u rs p e r T o n M il e Jn u e n c e o f T rain R e sis t a n c e o n
- -

E n e rg y C o n s u m pt io n Eff e c t o f L e n g t h o f R un o n E n e rg y In
 C O N T E N TS ix

PA G E

u e n c e of G ra d e s on En e rg y D is t r ib u t io n o f E n e rg y In p ut
En e rg y fo r A uxil iarie s R e g e n e r at io n o f E l e c t ri c E n e rg y Eff e c t s
o f R e g e n e r at i o n o n E q u ip m e n t .

C HAP T E R VI I
BRA K I NG O F EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y T RAI N S
I m p o r t an c e M e t h o ds Ava l ab l e fo r Re t ard at io n N e e d fo r
i

Po w e r B rak e s N at ur e O f B rak in g Ph e n o m e n a A dh e s i o n C o e f
l
c ie n t S d g i in F r ic t io n E ff e c t O f Di s t an c e o n S l i d in
g F ric t io n
C o m b in e d Eff e c t o f V a t o s r ia i n in F r i o
c t i n C o e f c ie n t D e t e rm in a
t io n o f C o r r e c t R e t ard at io n T ran s m i s s io n o f B rakin g Fo rc e s
Dis t ribu t io n o f Fo r c e s o n t h e C ar Dist rib ut io n o f F o r c e s o n t h e
T ru c k Eff e c t o f R o t at io n l I e t i a
a n r B a k e R i g gin g T ru c k
r

B rak e R igg in g Fo un dat io n B rak e R iggin g Aut o m a t i c S l a c k

j
A d us t e r M e t h o ds o f S u pply i n g B r a k in g F o r c e H an d B r a k e s
Air B ra k e s M e t h o ds o f C o m p r e s sin g t h e Ai r St r aig h t Air

Brak e s Au t o m at ic Air B rak e s El e c t r o p n e u m at ic B rak e C o m

b n e d St r aig h t a n d Au t o at c B ak e V u
i m i r ac u m B ak El e c t ric an d
r e

M agn et ic B rak e s N e w e ll M agn e t c B ak e M o m e n t um B rak e s

i r .

C HA PT E R V II I
C AR S AN D C A R EQ U I P M EN T
C l as s ic a t io n S t ru c t u r a l C l as s i ca
ti o n an d Dv l p
e e o m en t M at e
i l
r a s of C a r C o n s t r u c t io n F r am in g R o of Do o r Ar
F ar m in g
r an g e m e n t S e at in g Ar r an g e m e n t F a e C o ll e c t i o n T yp e s o f
'

P re p a ym e n t C ar s C e n t e r En t ran c e C ars N e ar Sid e C ar R ap id -

T r an s i t C ar s I n t e ru rb an C a rs Au xi l i ar y El e c t ri c D e vic e s C ar

Ligh t in g C ar H e at in g E l e c t ric H e at e rs C a r Wi rin g C o l

l e c t o rs C ar P ain t in g M is c e ll an e o us D e t ail s O f C ar E quip m e n t

Tru c k s an d R u n n in g G e a r S in gl e T ru c k C a r s S w ive l in g T ru c k s
M axim um T r a c t io n T ru c k s M o t o r S us p e n s io n s M o t o r Ge a rin g .

C HA P T E R IX
E L E C TR I C L O C O M O T IV E S
D e ve l o p m e n t Advan t ag e s o f M o t o r C ar T rain s Fi e l d o f t h e
-

E l e c t r ic L o c o m o t ive W h e e l C l a s s ic a t io n El e c t ri c L o c o m o t ive
-

T yp e s A ppl ic a t io n o f L o c o m o t ive T yp e s G e a re d an d G e a rl e ss
M o t o rs N um b e r a n d C o u pl in g o f D rive rs I n t e rc han g e ab il it y o f
Lo c o m o t ive s T r a c t o rs L o c o m o t ive E quip m e n t L o c o m o t ive
C o n t r o l C ho ic e o f L o c o m o t ive s .

C H AP T ER X
S E L F-PR O P E L L E D C AR S
Fie l d of Se lf P ro p e ll e d C
-
ars G as o lin e C ar s
G as -El e c t ri c C a rs
S t o rag e B at t e ry C ars C o m p aris o n of S e P ro p e ll e d C ars
lf -

G a s o lin e an d S p e c i a l L o c o m o t ive s .
 C ON TE N TS

C H A P TE R XI

E L E C TR I C R AI L WA Y T RA C K
T ra c k C o n s t ru c t io n T r ac k R ail s R ail
Jo in t s T ra c k C o n s t ru c
t io n o P v
n a e d S t re e t s S p i l
e c a F o rm s o f R a il Jo m t s C as t W e l d e d

Join t s Therm it We l d El e c t i c W e l d n g S p e c ial Wo rk
r i
.

C H A P TE R X II
THE D I S TR IB U TI N G C I R C UI T
Th e El e c t ri c R ailw ay C i r c u it Us e o f G r ap h i c a l T i m e - T ab el
Lim it in g D ro p M e t h o ds o f Fe e din g U s e o f B o o s t e rs -
R e qu ire
m ent s of t he C o n t a c t L n e Fo rm
i s o f C o n t ac t L in e T h e O ve r
h e ad T r o ll e y -
M e t ho ds of S us p e n din g T r o ll e y W ir e
C at e n a r y
p i M et o ds o f Su pp i g W i Us e o f S u pp o rt in g

S us e s on n h o r t n re s

B ri dg e s Siz e o f C o n t a c t C o n d uc t o r T h e Third R a il Ove r

Ru n n i n g Th i r d Ra i l U n d e r R u -
n n in g T h i r d R a i l Un d e r g r o u n d
C o n du i t S y s t e m s S u rf a c e C o n t ac t S y s t e m s T h e Re t u rn C ir c u it

U s e O f R ai l s a s a C o n d u c t o r T ra c k B o n d in R e si s t an c e o f t h e
g
R e t u r n C i r c uit R e a c t a n c e o f R ai l s D e f e c t s in t h e R e t u r n C ir
c ui t El e c t r o ly s is R e m e die s fo r E l e c t ro ly s is P o l a rit y o f t h e
Di re c t C u rre n t C i rc uit Al t e rn at in g C urr e n t s an d El e c t ro ly sis
-

Sp e c ial M e t h o d s o f F e e d in g .

C HAP T E R X II I
S UB S TATI O N S FO R E L E C TR I C R A IL WA Y S
His t o ri c a l Sk e t c h o f D eve l o p m e n t C o m pl e x Dis t ribut io n Sy s t e m s
T yp e s of
C o n v e rt e r s M o t o r G e n e r a t o r S e t s S y n c h r o n o u s

C o nve rt e rs T h e M o t o r C o n ve rt e r Th e P e rm ut at o r Th e M e r
-

c ury V ap o r R e c t ie r M e c h an i c al R e c t ie rs C o m p ari s o n o f

C o n ve r t e r s Sub s t at i o n E qu i p m e n t S t o r a g e B at t e ri e s in S ub
st at i o s C l ass e s o f Dis t ribut i o n S y s t e m s Lo c a t io n an d C a p ac it y
n

O f S ub s t at i o n s L o c at i o n o f C i t y S ub s t a t i o n s L o c a t i o n o f S u b

s t at io n s fo r I n t e ru rb an R o a ds E ff e c t o f P o t e n t i a l o n S ub s t a t io n

S p ac in g Al t e rn at ing C urr e n t Dis t rib u t i o n P o rt ab l e S ub s t a t io n s

- .

C HA P T E R X IV

T H E T RAN S M I S S I O N C I R C U I T
D eve l o p m ent T yp e s of T r an s m i ss io n C r c uit s N e e d fo r
i High
T e n s io n C h o i c e of P o t e n t ia l R e g u l at io n of t he T r an s m IS S Io n

L i n e M e c h an i c al Arr an g e m en t s of T r an s m i s s i o n Li n e s .

C H AP TER XV
P O WER G ENERATI O N
R e qu i r e m en t s C ap a c it y of t h P
e ow er Po w e r P l an t
S t at i o n
Lo c at io n H y d raulic Po w e r C ho ic e O f E q ui p m e n t P o w e r Pl an t

C o n s t ru c t i o n - Pur c h as e d P o w e r .
 C O N TE N T S

C H AP T E R XV I
/ S I GNA L S FOR E L E C TR I C R OA D S
Mt osO Di
.

Us e s o f Sig n al s K i s o S g n al s
n d f i e h d f s pl ay i n g I n d i

i
c at o s n S ig n a l I n d i c a t io n s M e t h o d s o f T r ai n S p a c i n g
Ti m e
I n t e rval O p e r at io n T rain O r d e r Dis p at c hin g T h e S p ac e In t e r
v al Te l e g r a p h i cB l o c k C o n t ro ll e d M an u al S y
Au t o m at i c
st e m

B lo c k Sig n als Wir e C irc uit S ig n al s C o n t in u o u s T r a c k C ir c u it

S ig n al s T ra c k C ir c u it s fo r El e c t
r ic R la i w a y s Si n g l e R a i l S y s

t em D o ub l e Rail Al t e rn at in g C ur re n t S y s t e
- m M e t h o ds o f O p
e at in g S e m a
r p h o es
r P e r m is s iv e O p e r a t io n P re l im in ar y Sig n al s
S i n al s fo r O p r a t io n in T w o D ir e c t i o n s C ab S i n al s T h e
g e g
Au t o m a t i c S t o p Au t o m a t ic T ai n C o n t o l I n t e r l o c k in g
r r .

C HAP T E R XV I I
S Y S TE M S FORE L E C TR I C R A IL WA Y O P ERATI ON
GOO V o l t D ir e c t C u rre n t S y s t e m Hig h -T e n s Io n Di ct C u
re r re n t

S ys t e m s Th r e e - P h as e S ys t e m Th e S in g l e P h as e Al t e rn a t in g
C u rr en t Sy st e m Fie l d of t he S yst e m s .

C HAPT E R XV I II
E NG I NEER I N G PRE LI MI NAR I E S
El e c t i c R a l w y L
r i a o c a t ion C it y R o ad s Fu t u r e R e q uire m e n t s
N um b e r of C r
a s S iz e an d T yp e o f C a r s S c h e d ul e an d M a x im u m

Sp e e ds I n t e rurb an R o a ds O p e rat in g E xp e n s e s Es t im at io n of

C o n s t ru c t i o n C o s t Ne t Re c e ip t s St e am R o a d E l e c t ri c a t i o n
C h o i c e o f Sys t e m .
 T H E E L E C T R I C R A IL W A Y

C HA P T E R I

I NTR O D UC T IO N

The Re quir e m e nt s of Tran sport at ion pr o bl e m of tra n s

.
T he

p o r t a t io n is o n e o f t h e gr e at e st in e n gi n e e ri n g ; in ma n y r e sp e cts
it is t he m o st p o t e n t fact o r in o ur m o d e r n civilizati o n
,
When.

c o mmu n iti e s w e r e small an d s e lf c o n tai n e d th e r e was littl e n e e d

-
,

fo r o th e r tha n l o cal s e r vic e As s o o n as it was f o u n d that a

.

c o mm u n ity c o uld p r o duc e m o r e o f a c o mm o dity tha n was n e e d e d

-

fo r l o cal c o n sumpti o n whil e at t he sam e tim e it lack e d in o th e r

,

n e c e ssiti e s an i n t e rcha n g e o f such pr o ducts was fo n d d e si r abl e

,

a n d e v e n n e c e ssa r y . W ith this traf c cam e a n e e d fo r pass e n g e r

t r a n sp o r tati o n , si n c e ag e n ts w e r e r e qui r e d t o atte n d t o t he
n e c e ssa r y t r a n sacti o n s d ue t o t he t r a fc d e v e l o p e d .

E v e r si n c e t he b e gi n n i n g o f hist o ry this in t e r cha n g e O f m e rcha n

dise h as b e e n o n e Of t he gr e at v o cati o n s o f ma n ki n d U n til .

ab o ut t he b e g i n n i n g o f t he n i n e t e e n th c e n tury t he trafc o n
la n d was ha n dl e d e x c lusiv e ly by a n imal p o w e r As t he r e sult .

o f e xp e r im e n ts mad e by a n umb e r o f i n v e stigat o rs in t h e r st

p o r ti o n o f t he last c e n tu r y m e cha n ical m e a n s o f t r a n sp o r tati o n

,

w e r e mad e availabl e T he m o tive p o w e r thus i n v e n t e d w as t he

.

ste am e n gi n e which was d e v e l o p e d i n t o t he p r o t o typ e Of its

,

m o d e r n f o r m wh e n S t e ph e n s o n s R o cke t was b uilt in 1 829

.

T he r e sults attai n e d as t he o utc o m e Of this i n v e n ti o n w e r e far

r e achi n g ; it e n ti r e ly r e v o luti o n i z e d all m e th o ds Of t r a n sp o r tati o n .

T he p r o bl e ms i n v o lv e d in r ailway s e r vic e ar e ma n y an d va r i e d .

Alth o ugh t r a n sp o r tati o n is o n e o f t he e a r li e st activiti e s o f m an

ki n d t he m o d e r n r ail r o ad r e ally had its b e gi n n i n g with t he us e
,

O f ste am as a m o tiv e p o w e r in t he e arly par t o f t he n i n e t e e n th

,

c e n tu r y Fr o m humbl e b e gi n n i n gs it s o o n d e v e l o p e d al o n g t w o
.
,

r adically di ff e r e n t li n e s : t h e mai n li n e o r -
tru n k railr o ad an d ,

t he str e e t railway o r tramway .
 Th e Trunk Lin e R ailr o ad T his
is usually c o n sid e r e d t o be a
.
-

li n e o f c o n sid erabl e l e n gth ha n dli n g trafc in la r g e u n its an d at

,

m o d e rat e o r high sp ee ds I n m o st cas e s t he tru n k railway has

.

b e e n built t o m e e t t he d e ma n d for a tra n sfe r o f c o mm o diti e s

fr o m p o i n t o f pr o ducti o n t o p o i n t o f c o n sumpti o n an d i n cid e n ,

tally t o ha n dl e t he pass e n g e r traf c o r igi n ati n g in its t e rrit o r y .

S uch a r o ad is o n e c o n n e cti n g a n umb e r o f citi e s o f larg e siz e ,

an d ha n dli n g all class e s o f f r e ight an d pass e n g e r s e r vic e On .

this typ e o f railway t he fr e ight busi n e ss is usually o f g r e at e r

imp o rta n c e tha n t he pass e n g e r t he latt e r Oft e n b e i n g ha n dl e d
,

m e r e ly as a n e c e ssa ry i n cid e n t t o o pe r ati o n .

Th e S tr e e t R ail w ay T he st r e e t railway has b e e n d e v e l o p e d

.

al o n g radical l y di ffe r e n t li n e s an d is a dir e ct r e sult Of t he gr o wth

O f c o mmu n iti e s At t he b e gi n n i n g o f t he n i n e te e n th c e n tury ,

.

t he ar e a o f t he larg e st o f citi e s was sufci e n tly small that pr a c

tically all r e sid e n ts c o ul d ha v e th e ir h o m e s withi n r e as o n abl e
walki n g dista n c e o f th e ir w o r k As t o w n s gr e w larg e r m o re .
,

rapid m e a n s o f tra n sp o rtati o n b e cam e imp e r ativ e t o pr e v e n t

u n n e c e ssary wast e o f tim e in g o i n g t o an d fr o m busi n e ss T he .

e arli e st s o luti o n o f t h e p r o bl e m w as t he u s e o f t h e o m n ibus ,

which i n c r e as e d slightly t he radius withi n which a w o r k e r c o uld

ch o o s e his h o m e F r o m this t o t he t r am c ar o r h o r s e car
.
- -

w as a sh o r t st e p t he di ff e r e n c e c o n sisti n g m e r e ly in adapti n g t h e
,

o m n ibus t o r u n o n a t r ack laid in t h e city str e e ts T he h o rs e .

r ailway w a s d e v e l o p e d fo r ab o ut 5 0 y e ars re ac hin g it s z e n ith ,

in t he e a r ly e ighti e s T he p o ssibl e i n cr e as e o f sch e dul e sp e e d

.
,

d e p e n di n g as it did o n t he physical capacity o f t he h o r s e r e ach e d ,

its maximum s o o n aft e r t he i n t r o ducti o n o f this typ e o f m o tiv e

p o w e r T his limitati o n b e cam e s o s e ri o us that m e cha n i c al
.

d e vic e s w e r e s o ught t o i n cr e as e t he p o ssibiliti e s o f t he st r eet

rail w ay S t e am gas o li n e c o mp r e ss e d air an d t he cabl e w e r e all
.
, ,

tri e d with va ryi n g d e g re e s o f succ e ss

,
.

Th e C ab l e R ailw ay
O f th e s e m o tiv e p o w e r s t he c abl e w as
.
,

t he o n ly o n e that gav e a n ythi n g lik e satisfact o r y s e rvic e I ntro .

d uc e d in 1 8 73 a n umb e r o f cabl e li n e s w e r e i n stall e d in t h e

,

succ e e di n g 2 0 y e a r s an d o p e r at e d with varyi n g d e gr e e s Of suc c e ss

,
.

T he sali e n t f e atu r e o f this syst e m w as a wi r e r o p e d r iv e n by a ,

st e am e n gi n e an d ru n n i n g t he e n ti r e l e n gth o f t he track in a
,

sl o tt e d c o n duit o f c o n cr e t e an d ir o n l o cat e d b e t w e e n t he r un ,
'

n i n g rails .P o w e r was tra n smitt e d t o t he c ar b y m e cha n i c al

clutch e s o r grips fast e n e d t o t he car b o dy an d e xt e n di n g ,
 I N TR OD UC T I ON 3

i n t o t he c o n duit t o e n gag e t he cabl e S ta r ti n g t he car c o n sist e d

.

in clutchi n g t he cabl e with t h e gri p an d in that w ay O btai n i n g ,

t he n e c e ssar y f o rc e t o m o v e t h e t r ai n It is e vid e n t that o n ly

.

o n e S p e e d w as p o ssibl e ; an d d ue t o t h e c o n st r ucti o n al f e atur e s

,

o f t he syst e m t h e v e l o city w as limit e d t o ab o ut 1 0 mil e s pe r hr

, .

T he starti n g c o n diti o n s w e r e als o bad E ith e r t h e trai n w o ul d

.

start with a j e rk o r e ls e t he g rip w o uld slid e al o n g t he cabl e

,

b e f o r e catchi n g h o ld o f it causi n g e xc e ssiv e w e a r C abl e s O f

, .

t h e si z e us e d w e r e e xp e n siv e an d w e r e ,subj e ct t o fr e qu e n t
b r e aks n e c e ssitati n g c o mpl e te shut d o w n s Of t he syst e m duri n g
,
-

r e pai r s
. O n acc o u n t o f t h e d e si g n t he c o st Of c o n st r ucti o n w as
,

alm o st pr o hibitiv e b e i n g o v e r
, p e r mil e O f t r ack O n ly .

t he m o st d e n s e ly p o pulat e d citi e s c o uld fur n ish su fci e n t traffi c

t o war r a n t t he i n stallati o n Of t he syst e m .

Th e El e c t ri c S tr e e t R ail w ay I n 1 8 84 t he rst practical

.
-

e l e c t r ic ra ilway in t he U n it e d S tat e s was put in O p e rati o n at

C l e v e la n d O hi o by E dward M B e n tl e y a n d W alt e r H K n ight

, ,
. . .

Alm o st imm e diat e ly aft e r war d a n umb e r o f o th e r e l e ctric r o ads

c o mm e n c e d ru n n i n g ; a n d it b e cam e appa r e n t at o n c e that t he
u s e o f e l e ct r icity fu r n ish e d a satisfact o r y s o luti o n Of t he pr o bl e m

Of givi n g r apid t r a n sit t o citi e s Its applicati o n sp r e ad quickly

.
,

u n til t o day it is t he o n ly p o w e r c o n sid e r e d fo r this class Of

s e rvi c e It has als o r e plac e d all t he o th e r m e th o ds o f o p e ra
.

ti o n which hav e b e e n t r i e d fr o m tim e t o tim e ; an d has pe r

m it t e d o f e xt e n si o n s an d f o r ms o f s e r vic e o ut o f t he qu e sti o n w ith

o th e r m o tiv e p o w e r s .

Th e I n t e rurb an R ailw ay
I n c o n n e cti o n with ma n y c ity
.

r ailway syst e ms ,
it was f o u n d p o ssibl e t o d e v e l o p a pr o tabl e
subu r ba n pass e n g e r busi n e ss usually s e r vi n g city w o rk e r s w ho
,

d e si r e d t o liv e in t he c o u n t ry a n d w e r e willi n g t o sp e n d a littl e

,

m o r e tim e in t r av e li n g tha n t he o r di n a ry city r e sid e n t I n .

ma n y cas e s this b r o u g ht t he e l e c t r ic r o ads i n t o activ e c o m

p e titi o n with par all e l st e am r o ads Alm o st with o ut e xc e pti o n
.

t he f o r m e r w e r e abl e t o ha n dl e this class o f t r a fc b e tt e r tha n

th e ir c o mp e tit o r s s o that t o day t he st e am r o a ds hav e b e e n pra c
,

ti c ally d r iv e n o ut o f t he subu r ba n busi n e ss .

T he succ e ss o f subu r ba n r o ads e n c o urag e d pr o m o t e rs t o

'

v e n tu r e fu r th e r i n t o t he st e am r a ilway e ld by buildi n g li n e s
b e tw e e n c e n t e rs o f busi n e ss fo r t he ha n dli n g o f pass e n g e r tra fc .

T h e s e i n t e rurba n r ailways hav e usually b e e n succ e ssful si n c e ,

th e i r r e lati o n s with t he city li n e s hav e e n abl e d th e m t o giv e

4 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

b e tt e r se rvrc e tha n t he st e am r o ads e v e n th o ugh th e ir sch e dul e

,

sp e e ds ar e o rdi n ar ily l o we r T h e s e r o ads hav e d e v e l o p e d a n

.

e n ti r e ly n e w class o f busi n e ss

a pass e n g e r tra f c b e tw e e n t he

r ural dist r icts a n d t h e citi e s F arm e r s hav e f o u n d it e asi e r t o

.

u s e t he e l e ctric pass e n g e r cars tha n t o d r iv e th e ir t e ams t o

t he t o w n s As a c o n s e qu e n c e th e y trav e l much m o r e than

.

th e y f o rm e rly did T his rural tra f c has in tur n c aus e d a d e ma n d

.

fo r a n e xpr e ss an d packag e f r e ight s e rvic e o n t he i n t e r urba n

li n e s S uch busi n e ss is usually quit e pr o tabl e t o t he rail
.

ways b e i n g ha n dl e d by t he r e gular pass e n g e r trai n s w ith littl e

,

e xtra c o st I n s o m e fe w cas e s t he g r o wth o f this busi n e ss

.
,

has b e e n S O g r e at th at it has b e e n f o u n d imp o ssibl e t o a c c o m m o

dat e it with t he pass e n ge r e quipm e n t ; an d r e gular fr e ight a n d
e xpr e ss trai n s ar e Op e r at e d e n tir e ly ap art fr o m t he pass e n g e r

busi n e ss .

S c o pe o f t h e El e c tric Ra il w ay D u r i n g its 3 0 y e ars o f s uc

.

c e ss ful d e v e l o pm e n t t he sc o p e o f t he e l e ctric railway has br o ad

,

e n e d mat e rially N o t c o n t e n t with city O p e rati o n al o n e t he

.
,

ma n ag e rs o f city r o ads hav e as j ust stat e d e xt e n d e d th e m t o

, ,

e mb r ac e subu r ba n a n d i n t e rurb an pass e n g e r s e rvic e T h e s e .

latt e r d e v e l o pm e n ts w e r e n o t mad e with o ut o pp o s iti o n fr o m t he

e stablish e d st e am li n e s with which th e y c o mp e t e d ; but with in

t he p ast fe w y e ars t h e st e am railways hav e r e ali z e d t he p o ssi

.

bilit ie s o f ut ilizi n g e l e ct r ic p o w e r o n th e ir o w n syst e ms fo r s e r v

in g t he sam e class o f t r a fc .

At t h e p r e s e n t tim e t he us e o f e l e ctricity fo r t he hauli n g o f

O

fre ight is quit e limit e d an d by far t he larg e r n umb e r o f e l e ct r ic

,

r o ads are e quipp e d fo r t he ha n dlin g o f pass e n g e r trai n s e x

c l u s iv e l y El e ctric fr e ight s e r vic e is
. h o w e v e r e xp a n di n g
, ,

r apidly an d it w ill n o t b e surprisi n g t o n d ma n y railr o ads us

,

in g e l e ctric p o w e r fo r this purp o s e withi n t he n e xt d e cad e

?
M a n y st e am r o ads hav e s e ri o usly c o n sid e r e d t he u se
e l e ctricity o n c e r tai n div i s i o n s a n d s e v e ral hav e al r e ady mad e
,

t he ch a n g e T he Op e r ati o n o f such li n e s as hav e b e e n e l e ctrically

.

e quipp e d has b e e n s o highly satisfact o ry as t o wa r ra n t t he

furth e r e x t e n si o n Of t he syst e m in p r act icall y all cas e s B y this .

it must n o t b e u n d e rst o o d that e l e ct r ic p o w e r is a u n iv e rsal

pa n ac e a as has b e e n assum e d by s o m e p e rs o n s ; but that wh e n
, ,

c o rr e ctly appli e d an d i n t e llige n tly us e d it may e ffe ct c e rtai n,

o p e r ati n g e c o n o mi e s which will mak e it d e sirabl e .

 I N TR OD UC TI ON

C l as s i cat ion of R ai l w ay s .
F or purp o s e s o f study railways ,

may be divid e d r o ughly i n t o th r e e mai n gr o ups :

1 . S t r eet r ail w ay s t r amw ay s
2 . S ub urb an a n d i nt eru rb an r ail w ay s .

3 . T r un k -
li n e ra ilw ay s .

T he r st gr o up c o n sists o f r o ads with light r o lli n g st o ck t he ,

o p e rati o n o f which i n v o lv e s ma n y st o ps a n d l o w sch e dul e sp e e ds .

S i n c e t h e dista n c e c o v e r e d by a car in a giv e n tim e is p r o p o r

t io n al t o t h e sch e dul e sp e e d it is n e c e ssary t o bri n g it f r o m
,

r e st t o a fai r ly high v e l o city in a sh o r t tim e an d t o st o p it ,

quic kly S uch a r un d e ma n ds high r at e s o f acc e l e rati o n T his

. .

class o f r o ad is e xclusiv e ly fo r pass e n ge r s e rvic e .

T he s e c o n d g r o up c o mp r is e s r o ads usi n g c o n sid e rably h e avi e r

r o lli n g st o ck tha n t he r st with f e w e r st o ps an d at high e r sp e e ds
,
.

O n ac c o u n t Of t he small e r n umb e r o f st o ps t he d e ma n ds o n t he
m o tiv e p o w e r are n o t s o s e v e r e as in t he r st class M a n y .

r o ads in this gr o up ha n dl e e xpr e ss an d light fr e i g ht s o m e Of ,

th e m Obtai n i n g a c o n sid e r abl e shar e o f t he t o tal r e ve n u e fr o m

T he thi r d gr o up is mad e up O f t he h e avi e st class e s Of s e rvic e ,

i n v o lvi n g b o th pass en g e r an d fr e ight busi n e ss T he pass e n g e r .

r u n s ar e in g e n e ral o f c o n sid e rabl e l e n gth an d at high sp e e ds .

O n such r o ads t he subu r ba n an d l o cal pass e n g e r busi n e ss al ,

th o ugh app e ari n g a larg e it e m t o t h e casual Obs e rv e r is a c o m ,

p a r a t iv e l y small p o rti o n o f t h e t o tal T h e n e t e a r n i

. n gs d e p en d
alm o st e n ti r e ly o n t he ha n dli n g o f h e avy fr e ight .

T he ab o v e classicati o n Of r ailways is by n o m e a n s abs o lut e .

A c o n sid e r abl e n umb e r o f suburba n r o ads will fall b e tw e e n t he

rst an d t he s e c o n d gr o ups t he car s b e i n g e ith e r t he sam e as
,

tho se fo r city li n e s o r slightly h e avi e r an d o p e r ati n g fr o m

, ,

t he c e n t e r o f a city i n t o its subu r bs S imilarly a n umb e r o f

.
,

in t e ru r ba n r o ads app r o ach v e r y n e ar ly t o t he third g r o up al ,

th o ugh th e ir r o lli n g st o ck an d sch e dul e s d o n o t j ustify c l as si c a

ti o n with it El e vat e d an d subway s e rvic e is in g e n e r al a
.

c o mp r o m i s e b e tw e e n t he r st an d t he s e c o n d gr o ups alth o ugh ,

n o t b e l o n g i n g t o e ith e r ; fo r it c o mbi ne s t h e r e quir e m e n ts o f a

c o n sid e rabl e n umb e r o f st o ps an d a high sch e dul e sp e e d T he .

r o lli n g st o ck is m o r e o v e r o f such a w e ight as t o j ustify its classi

c at io n in t he s e c o n d g r o up .
6 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

M ot ive P o w e r s . o t iv For railway s e r v

Th e S t e am Lo c o m e

ic e a n umb e r o f di ff e r e n t m o tiv e p o w e rs hav e b e e n sugg e st e d

, ,

an d s o m e o f th e m actually us e d A bri e f d e scripti o n o f th e m

.

will aid in u n d e rsta n di n g t he c o n diti o n s in t he m o tive p o w e r

e ld an d t he plac e t he e l e ct r ic syst e m has in it
, .

T he st e am l o c o m o tiv e has e xc e ll e n t char act e r istics fo r h e avy

railway s e rvic e It is u n iqu e am o n g m o tiv e p o w e rs in that it
.

c o mp r is e s in its e lf a c o mpl e t e
o f a l o c o m o tiv e d e p e n ds o n t w o mai n fact o rs : t h e

b o il e r an d t he siz e o f t he cyli n d e r s At sl o w sp ee ds t h e tractiv e.

,

e ff o rt is pr o duc e d by t h e maximum pr e ssur e O f t h e st e am agai n st

t he pist o n T his maximum pr e ssur e may b e mai n tai n e d

.

practically c o n sta n t s o l o n g as t he b o il e r is abl e t o supply st e am

50000

S pe e d , M
. P H
. .

FI G . l . i
C h a r a c t e r is t c s o f t yp ic al st e am lo co m ot ive s .

t o t he cyli n d e rs S i n c e t he n umb e r o f str o k e s an d h e n c e t he

.
,

qua n tity o f st e am us e d v ari e s dir e ctly with t he sp e e d a p o i n t

, ,

must b e r e ach e d wh e r e t he b o il e r ca n n o t k ee p up its pr e ssu r e

agai n st t he i n cr e asi n g d e ma n d fo r st e am T o r e ach high e r sp e e ds .

t he cut o ff must b e adva n c e d s o that t he am o u n t O f st e am tak e n

-
,

p er s t r o ke is r e duc e d T h e high e r t
. h e sp e e d t h e e arli e r mus t ,

b e t he cut O ff an d h e n c e t he l e ss t h e m e a n e ff e ctiv e pr e ssur e a n d

-
,

t he tractiv e e ff o rt T his is sh o w n grap hi cally in Fig 1 whi ch

.
.
,

giv e s a tra c tiv e e ff o rt sp e e d curv e o f a m o d e r n pass e n g e r e n gi n e

an d o f a m o d e r n fr e ight e n gin e In t he high sp e e d p o rti o n o f

.
-

t he curv e t he l o c o m o ti v e is vi r tually a c o n sta n t p o w e r machi n e ,

si n c e t he tractive e ff o rt v ari e s alm o st i n v e rs e ly as t he sp e e d .

 IN TR O D UC TI ON

T he p e r f o r ma n c e Of t h e cyli n d e r s is hamp e re d si n c e th e y r e ly ,

fo r th e i r st e am o n a b o il e r o f limit e d capacity T he b o il e r in .

tu r n is d e pen d e n t o n t he r e b o x an d t h e ability o f t he r e ma n
-

t o k e e p it p r o p e r ly suppli e d with fu e l O w i n g t o t he n e c e s sity

.

o f g e tti n g maximum capa c ity pe r u n it o f w e ight t h e p e r f o r ma n c e ,

is f o r c e d b e y o n d t h e m o st e fci e n t o p e r ati n g p o i n t T he d r aft .

is s o gr e at that a la r g e po r ti o n Of t he fu e l ( in cas e c o al is us e d ) is
th r o w n o ut Of t he sta c k in t he fo r m o f C i n d e r s T e sts sh o w that
'

app r o ximat e ly o n e t e n th o f t h e t o tal w e i g ht Of c o al r e d is dis

-

cha r g e d in this ma n n e r Alth o u g h it may b e p o ssibl e by t he

.
,

us e o f sp e c i al p r e c auti o n s t o o p e rat e t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e with

,

o u t sm o k e o r di r t , it is in g e n e r al imp r actical t o d o S O Si n ce

t he e n ti r e po w e r pla n t an d als o a supply o f fu e l an d wat e r

, ,

must b e haul e d in additi o n t o t he t r ai n th e r e is a disti n ct l o s s

$

o f e ffi ci e n cy d u e t o that caus e .

T he st e am l o c o m o tiv e i s m o st e f c i e n t wh e n built i n t he ~

la r g e r si z e s si n c e ma n y o f t he l o ss e s ar e n e a r ly c o n sta n t o r
, ,

i n c r e as e m o r e sl o wly tha n in p r o p o r ti o n t o t he W e ight T he .

limit is r e a c h e d o n ly by t he ability o f t he r e m a n t o ha n dl e t he
n e c e s sa r y am o u n t Of c o al I n s o m e r e c e n t l o c o m o tiv e s m e cha n
.

ical st o k e r s ar e us e d r e sulti n g in s o m e i n c r e as e in capacity o v er

,

ha n d r i n g I n t he small e st si z e s t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e is
.
,

d e c id e dly in e f ci e n t an d in ma n y r e sp e cts is n o t t he e xc e ll e n t
,

machi n e t hat has b e e n d e v el o p e d by t he d e sig n e r s Of m o d e rn

la r g e e n gi n e s .

O th e r M o tive P o w e rs
G as o li n e a n d o th e r fu e l o ils hav e
.

b e e n us e d in c o n n e cti o n with i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n e n gi n e s .

W hil e th e s e c o mbi n ati o n s ar e in c o mm o n with t he st e am

,

l o c o m o tiv e c o mpl e t e p o w e r pla n ts th e y ar e c o n sid e rably simpl e r

, , ,

a n d ar e l ight e r th a n it pe r u n it o f o utput T h e y als o o p e rat e

.

with but a small fracti o n o f t he sm o k e a n d di r t i n cid e n t t o t he

st e am l o c o m o tiv e T he i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n m o t o r is in
.

h e r e n t l y a c o n sta n t sp e e d machi n e an d sp e cial m e a n s must b e

-
,

e mpl o y e d t o r e duc e sp e e ds at sta r ti n g a n d fo r sl o w ru n n i n g In .

t he aut o m o bil e this is br o ught ab o ut by cha n g e s o f g e ari n g an d ,

variati o n s I n t he am o u n t o f cha r g e an d t he tim e Of its ig n iti o n .

At b e st th e s e m e th o ds giv e a n imp e r fe ct sp e e d c o n tr o l ; an d th e y
ar e n o t v e ry p r actical fo r h e avy t r ai n s e r vic e .

C o mp r e ss e d air an d st o r e d st e am hav e als o b e e n tri e d fo r

m o tiv e p o w e rs T he e n gi n e s ar e similar t o t he o rdi n a r y l o c o
.

m o tiv e st e am e n g i n e but ar e suppli e d fr o m ta n ks o n t he l o c o

,
8 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

m o t iv e c o n tai ni ng e ith er st e am o r air c o mpr e ss e d t o a high

p ressure O wi n g t o t he high st o rag e capacity n e c e ssary an d t o
.
,

t he l o w th e rm o dy n amic e f ci e n cy o f t he c o mpl e t e cycl e th e y ,

hav e n o t b e e n succ e ssful A fe w l o c o m o tiv e s O f th e s e type s

.

ar e us e d in mi n e s wh e r e t he r e o f t h e st e am l o c o m o ti v e w o uld

b e liabl e t o caus e e xpl o si o n s O f t he mi n e gas e s .

T he cabl e has alre ady b e e n m e n ti o n e d I t w as n e v e r suit e d

.

t o a n y class o f s e rvic e e xc e pt in c o n g e st e d city districts ; an d e v e n

th e r e its limitati o n s f o r c e d its r e tir e m e n t as s o o n as a b e tt e r
m o tiv e p o w e r was availabl e At t he pr e s e n t time t he o n ly r o ads
.

O p e rat e d by cabl e are in a fe w plac e s wh e r e t he grade s are s o

st e e p that s o m e f o r m o f p o sitiv e driv e is n e c e ssary .

El e c tric S y s te m s
Fo r railway s e rvic e th e r e is a v ailabl e a
.
,

n umb e r o f c o mbi n ati o n s Of m o t o rs a n d e l e ctric ci r cuits givi n g a n ,

alm o st u n limit e d e xibility an d e n abli n g t he e n gi n e e r t o ch oo s e

,

t he b e s t typ e o f e quipm e n t fo r e ach cas e I n fact this wid e

.
,

ra n g e o f ch o ic e is o n e O f t he fact o rs which has pr e v e n t e d e arli e r

c o n sid e rati o n o f e l e ctricati o n by st e am railr o a d ma n ag e rs w ho ,

a r e t o a c e rtai n e xt e n t awaiti n g t h e sta n dardizati o n O f o ne Or

a n o th e r o f t he p r i n cipal syst e ms o f e l e ct r ic O p e rati o n .

A lth o ugh practically e v e ry typ e o f e l e ctric m o t o r e v e r built

has b e e n us e d o r sugg e st e d fo r tracti o n at o n e tim e o r a n o th e r ,

th e r e ar e in use thr e e sy s t e ms wh ich h a v e driv e n o ut all o th e rs

fo r practical s e rvic e :

1 . T he di r e c t -c u rr ent s y s t em , usi ng s e r i e s wo u n d m o t o r s
-
.

2 . T he si n gl e p hase al t e r n at i n g c u rr e n t
- -
s y s t em us i n g
,

( ) S i n gl e
a -
p h a mmu t at o r mo t o rs o r
s e co ,

( b) Thre e p has e i n du c t i o n m o t o rs o pe r at e d t hr o ugh

-

a S p li t p h as e c o n v e r t e r
-
.

3 . T he t hr e e p has e al t e rn a t i n g c u rr e n t s y s t em us i n g
- -
,

t hr e e ph a s e i n d uc t i on m o t o r s
-
.

It is b e y o n d t he sc o p e o f t he pr e s e n t chapt e r t o pr e s e n t an
e xt e n d e d discussi o n a n d c o mpa r is o n o f t he di ff e r e n t e l e ct r ic

syst e ms T h e y will b e tak e n up par t by pa r t in lat e r chapt e rs

.
,

with a summa r y u n d e r S yst e ms o f El e ct r icati o n I n g e n e r al .
,

t he dir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o r and s o m e O f t he alt e r n ati n g

-

cu r r e n t c o mmutat o r m o t o r s p o ss e ss charact e ristics quit e

similar t o th o s e o f t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e e n gi n e with e v e n b e tt e r ,

p e rf o rma n c e at star ti n g ; whil e t he i n ducti o n m o t o r s Op e r at e at

substa n tially c o n sta n t sp e e d thr o ugh o ut th e i r w o rki n g r a n g e .

T he sp e e d O f e ach typ e may b e r e duc e d fo r star ti n g o r sl o w r u n

 I N TR O D UC T I ON 9

i
n ng by pur e ly e l e ctrical m e a n s thus o bviati n g t he ne c e ssity o f
,

cha n g e g e a r s as with t he i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n e n gi n e s T he

,
.

e fci e n cy o f e ach is high an d i n cludi n g all l o ss e s in g e n e r a

, ,

ti o n an d distributi o n is at l e ast as g o o d as that O f t he s t e am

,

l o c o m o tiv e .

O f t he th r e e syst e ms t h e di r e c t cu rr e n t has b e e n in use t he

,
-

l o n ge st tim e All O f t he e a rly e xp e r im e n ts w e r e mad e with

.

di r e ct cu r r e n t m o t o rs ; an d fo r ab o ut 2 0 y e a r s alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t
-

w a s n o t e v e n th o ught o f in c o n n e c ti o n w ith r ailway Op e r ati o n .

I t i s e vid e n t that t he dir e ct- cu rr e n t m o t o r havi ng pass e d thr o u g h ,

a l o n g stage Of e xp e r im e n tati on an d d e v e l o pm e n t has r e ach e d ,

t he hi g h e st stat e O f p e r f e cti o n at t he p r e s e n t tim e Al l railways .

o f t he r st class ( st r e e t railways ) ar e o p e rat e d by this syst e m ;

a n d in this ki n d o f s e rvic e it has r o v e d e mi n e n tly satisfact o r y

p .

W h e th e r it will mai n tai n its e xc e ll e n t r e putati o n in t he h e avi e r

class e s o f tracti o n r e mai n s t o b e pr o v e d .

Ad vant ag e s Of El e c t r i c S y s t e m s
AS c o mpar e d with o th e r
.
~

m o ti ve p o w e rs e l e ct r ic m o t o rs p o ss e ss a n umb e r O f mark e d
,

adva n tag e s T h e y may be e n um e r at e d as f o ll o ws :

.

(a) The he av y o ve rl o ads t h at m ay be imp o s e d on t he

l
e ect r c i mo t o r fo r a s ho r t t ime .

( b) T h e g r e at s t ar t i n g abili t y d ue t o t he e c o n o mi c a l d is t ri
but io n o f w e i ght .

(0 ) The abs e n c e o f r e c i p r o c at i n g p ar t s givi n g a u n ifo rm ,

t o r q ue .

( d) T he c l ea n li n e s s a n d n o i s e l e ss n e s s O f t hi s me t h o d o f
O p e r at i o n .

(6 ) The e as e an d e c o n o my o f c o n t r o l o f t he mo t o r s .

(f) T he hig h e f c i e n c y o f t he e l e c t ri c mo t o r an d dis t ribu

t i o n s y s t ems as a pp li e d t o t r ac t i o n ,
.

El e ctric m o t o rs o f t he typ e s us e d fo r tracti o n ar e capabl e O f ,

withsta n di n g h e avy o v e r l o ads In fact if pr o p e rly d e sig n e d fo r

.
,

it s c o n t in uo us capacity a m o t o r may b e l o ad e d u n til st o pp e d

,

with o ut harm t o it u n l e ss t h e o v e rl o ad b e t o o p r o l o n g e d T his

, .

char act e r istic is o f g r e at valu e wh e n th e r e is di f culty in starti n g

a t r ai n d ue t o an y caus e .

T he w e ight dist r ibuti o n Of e l e ctric m o tiv e p o w e r s is e xc e ll e n t

-
.

I n t he cas e o f m o t o r car s all o f t he t r ai n w e ight may b e mad e

,

availabl e fo r adh e si o n by placi n g a m o t o r o n e ach axl e T his

, .

maximum adh e si o n is s e ld o m d e ma n d e d ; alth o ugh fo r a n umb e r

o f r e as o n s si n gl e cars ar e Oft e n e quipp e d with f o ur m o t o rs In .
10 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

st e am l o c o m o tiv e s a c o n sid e r abl e pr o p o r ti o n o f t he t o tal w e ight

,

is in t he t e n d e r with its l o ad o f fu e l an d wat e r N o t o n ly is this

.

fe atu r e abs e n t in t he e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e but a la r ge r p o r ti o n o f

,

t h e w e ight O f t he l o c o m o tiv e pr o p e r may b e plac e d o n t he driv e r s .

T he e ff e ct o f this is that t h e e l e ct r ic e n gi n e s will be much t h e

light e r fo r t he sam e hauli n g p o w e r .

I n t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e t he t r activ e e ff o r t in o n e r e v o lut i o n

,

Of t he d r iv e r s vari e s o v e r a c o n sid e rabl e ra n g e d ue t o t he n o n

,

u n if o rm e ff o r t O f t he st e am du r i n g t he str o k e o f t he pist o n In .

s o m e cas e s this will caus e S lippi n g o f t h e wh e e ls b e f o r e t he av e rag e

valu e o f t h e maximum tractiv e e ff o rt is r e ach e d In t he e l e ctric .

l o co m o tiv e t h e t o r qu e may b e appli e d up t o t he slipp i n g p o i n t

o f t he wh e e ls with o ut difculty ,
si n c e d ue t o t he symm e t r ical
,

d e si g n o f t he m o t o r armature it giv e s t he sam e t o r qu e in an y

,

p o siti o n ; which is als o t r u e in th o s e machi n e s wh e r e t he f o r c e is

tra n smitt e d th r o ugh c r a n ks an d sid e r o ds if t he c r a n ks b e
-
,

qua r t e r e d as is t he usual p r actic e

,
.

T he cl e a n li n e ss o f e l e ct r ic m o t o rs ; as c o mpa r e d with st e am
e n gi n e s is u n qu e sti o n e d
,
. In fact ; this fe atur e is o n e o f th o s e
that hav e mad e rapid t r a n sit o n city str e e ts satisfact o ry an d is ,

t he o n e thi n g that has mad e subway a n d tu n n e l Op e r ati o n

p o ssibl e T he abs e n c e O f sm o k e dust an d ci n d e r s is a g r e at
.
,

argum e n t e sp e cially si n c e a m e asu r abl e n a n cial l o ss is in

,

v o lv e d in t h e di r t i n cid e n t t o st e am Op e rati o n T h e v i e w has b e e n

.

tak e n by t he c o urts that p e r s o n s livi n g al o n g t h e li n e o f a st e am

r o ad in a city c an r e c o v e r fo r damag e d u e t o th e s e c aus e s No is e .

may b e r e duc e d t o an alm o st n e gligibl e am o u n t by t he us e O f

pr o p e r ly mai n tai n e d e l e ctrical e quipm e n t s o m e thi n g imp o ssibl e
,

with st e am ; fo r t he sha r p blast o f t he e xhau st thr o ugh t he

n o zzl e is n e c e ss ary t o p r o vid e su fci e n t d r aft in t h e re b o x -
.

El e ct r ic m o t o r s o f t he va r i o us typ e s may b e c o n t r o ll e d by
e l e ct r ical m e a n s t o o p e r at e at va r i o us sp e e ds ; a n d t h e S p e e d may

b e r e duc e d t o z e r o fo r star ti n g o r c o upli n g pu r p o s e s Alth o ugh.

th e r e ar e s o m e l o s s e s i n cid e n t t o g r e atly r e duc e d sp e e ds which

do n o t app e a r with st e am l o c o m o tiv es th e y do n o t c o mpa r e
,

u n fav o r ably with l o ss e s in t he c o n tr o l o f o th e r m o tiv e p o w e r s .

T r acti o n m o t o rs a r e usually d e sig n e d n o t fo r high e f ci e n cy

, ,

but fo r r ugg e d n e ss an d r e liability C o mm e r cial machi n e s hav e

.

v e ry g o o d e fci e n ci e s h o w e v e r T he o v e r all e fci e n cy o f t he

,
.

c o mpl e t e e l e ct r ic syst e m will vary fr o m 5 0 pe r c e n t t o 75 pe r .

c e n t in o r di n a r y cas e s Alth o ugh at rst sight th e s e valu e s may

. .
 I N TR OD UC T I ON 11

app e a r l o w th e y are in r e ality e xc e ll e n t a n d b e tt e r tha n th o s e o f

, ,

o th e r m o tiv e p o w e r syst e ms e mpl o y e d in S imila r s e rvic e .

T he adva n tag e s e n um e rat e d ab o v e are m o st mark e d in t he

r st an d s e c o n d class e s O f r o ads ; but n e arly all of th e m ar e
applicabl e t o t he third class als o T h e y ar e lik e wis e gr e at e r in
.

t he cas e o f m o t o r car Op e r ati o n tha n wh e n t he p o w e r is c o n

c e n t rat e d in l o c o m o tiv e s th o ugh t he u s e o f t h e latt e r i n t r o duc e s
,

c e r tai n c o mp e n sati n g adva n tag e s which o ft e n m o r e tha n O ff s e t

t he d e t r im e n ts .

I n g e n e r al t he sup e r i o r ity o f e l e ct r ic p o w e r is gr e at e n o ugh t o

,

war ra n t its c o n sid e rati o n fo r a n y class o f railway s e r vic e ; an d

its us e is t he m o r e d e sir abl e alm o st in p r o p o r ti o n t o t he d e n sity o f

t he trafc e ith e r f r e ight o r pass e n g e r

,
.

Th e R ail w ay P ro b l e m I h a br o ad s e n s e t he railway has

.
,

much in c o mm o n with o th e r e n g i n e e r l n g w o r ks S p e akin g .

g e n e r ally what is d e sir e d is t o p e rf o rm c e rtai n fu n cti o n s fo r t he

,

b e n e t o f t he public at t he sam e tim e maki n g a r e as o n able

,

pr o t o n t he i n v e st e d capital I n attacki n g an y pr o bl e m o f
.

this cha r act e r it is n e c e ssar y t o c o n sid e r all phas e s o f it in

,

d e t e r mi n i n g wh e th e r a p r o j e ct is att r activ e fo r t he i n v e st o r .

T O d o this c e rtai n e n gi n e e ri n g p o i n ts must b e c o n sid e r e d in

,

d e ta il an d assumpti o n s mad e an d pr o v e d c o r r e ct I n t he
, .

f o ll o wi n g chapt e rs t he e n gi n e e ri n g m e th o ds ar e discuss e d s e pa
r at e l y ; but t he mai n o bj ect as giv e n in thi s pa r agraph m ust n o t
, ,

b e l o st sight o f .
 C H AP TE R II

TH E M EC HAN I C S O F TRAC TI O N

Fun dam en at l P rin c ipl e s fu n dam e n tal re l at ioh s g o v e r n

.
The

in g t he m o ti o n o f railway trai n s ar e d e r iv e d d ir e ctly fr o m t he

laws o f m o ti o n o f a n y mat e rial b o di e s Fo r c o n v e n i e n c e in .

calculati o n a n umb e r O f s e c o n dar y u n its hav e b e e n d e riv e d fo r

t he s o luti o n o f railway p r o bl e ms S i n c e th e s e u n its ar e alm o st
.

u n iv e rsally e mpl o y e d in t he lit e r atur e O f t he subj e ct , a b r i e f

r e vi e w O f th e ir d e rivati o n is d e sirabl e .

W o r k an d En e rgy
W h e n a mat e rial b o dy is m o v e d o v e r a
.

giv e n dista n c e m e cha n ical e n e rgy is e xp e n d e d a n d w o r k is

,

d o n e B y t he p r i n cipl e o f t he c o n s e rvati o n o f e n e r gy t he t w o
.
,

must b e e qual an d t he n um e rical m e asur e Of e ith e r is t he pr o duct

,

o f t he f o r c e e mpl o y e d i n t o t h e dista n c e o v e r which t h e b o dy

has m o v e d o r ,

W = Fs

wh e r e W is t he e n e rgy o r w o rk F is t he f o rc e e mpl o y e d
,

3 is t h e dista n c e o v e r wh ich t h e b o dy is m o v e d .

T he ab o v e e quati o n e xpr e ss e s t he po t en t ia l e n e r
If w e c o n sid e r a b o dy in m o ti o n e sp e cially if t he fo r c
,

abl e o n e t he e quati o n must b e mad e t o e xpr e ss

,

cha n g e s of dista n c e c o v e r e d o r ,

dW Eds

Fr o m equati o n ( 2 ) may be d e r iv e d t he t o tal e ne rgy

do ne ,
by t he i n t e gr ati o n ,

In rd e r t o apply e quati o n
o it is n e c e ssary t o
t he cha n g e in t h e d ista n c e c o v e r e d at e ach p o rti o n o f t he m o ti o n .

T his is m o st r e adily d o n e by m e a n s o f t he v e l o city which is t he ,

rat e o f cha ng e O f p o siti o n w ith r e sp e ct t o tim e o r ,

ds
dt
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TRA C TI ON 13

T his may als o be writt e n

wh e re v is t he v el o city an d t t he tim e , .

If w e use th is last v alu e in t he ab o ve e quati o n fo r ene rgy ,

dW d t

Fr o m l m e n ta r y m e cha n ics
e e we hav e
W A M0
2

wh e r e M is t he mass O f t he b o dy in m o ti o n .

A di ffe r e n tiati o n o f this last e quat io n ,

r e sp e ct
I) giv e s
,

dW M vdv ( 7)
Ac c e e rat io n
l . W e may n o w e quat e t he t w o e xpr e ssi o n s fo r
di ffe re n tial e n e rgy ( 5 ) a n d
,
or

F e dt ,
M vdv
w he n c e
d z)
F M
dt

g
i)
In thi se quati o n , ,
t he rat e of cha n g e of v e l o city with r e sp e ct
t
to t im e ,
is b e tt e r k n o w n as t he ac c e l e rati o n ,
a, or

F Ma (9 )
h o lds g o o d in an y syst e m o f n o tati o n In c o u n tri e s
(9 ) .

E n glish syst e m o f u n its is e mpl o y e d t he f o rc e F a n d ,

u al l y m e asur e d in p o u n ds an d acc e l e rati o n a ,

.

0 n d pe r s e c o n d S i n c e mass e s ar e usually e stimat e d

.

by gravity m e asur e it is cust o ma ry t o r e stat e e quati o n ( 9 ) as

-
,

(
a ( 1 0)
5
wh e r e G is t he w eight o f t he m o vi n g b o dy an d g t he
acc e l e rati o n
d ue t o g r avity I n t he E n glish syst e m
. t he g r avitati o n c o n

sta nt 9 has a valu e O f appr o ximat e ly wh e n c e
G
a
14 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

In equati on s ( 1 0a ) an d ( 1 0 b) acc e l e rati on a is e xpre ss e d in fe e t pe r

s e c o n d per s e c o n d an d f o r c e F a n d w e ight G in p o u n ds F o r
, , , , , .

use in railway pr o bl e ms th e s e u n its ar e i n c o n v e n i e n t t he sp e e ds ,

b e i n g m o r e r e adily d e t e r mi n e d in mil e s pe r h o ur an d t he acc e l e r a

ti o n s in mil e s pe r h o u r pe r s e c o n d ; an d t he w e ights ar e o f suc h
mag n itud e that th e y ar e b e tt e r e xp r e ss e d in t o n s (in t he U n it e d
S tat e s t he sh o rt t o n o f 2 000 lb is n o w u n iv e r sall y us e d ) . .

Fo rmul ae ( 1 0 a ) an d ( 1 0 b) must th e r e f o r e b e m o di e d fo r p r a e
tical us e A mil e c o n tai n s 52 8 0 f e e t an d an h o ur 60 X 60
.
,

360 0 s e c o n ds ; h e n c e a v e l o city o f 1 mil e p e r hr is e qual to

3 6 00
, .

ft pe r se c If w e e xp r e ss acc e l e rati o n s
. . in mil e s p e r h o ur
p e r s e c o n d by A th e n ,

1 4 6 7A
.

0 68 2 a
.

E mpl oyi n g T t o r e pr e s e n t we ight in sh o rt t o n s an d A , .

to
d e n o t e acc el e rati o n s in mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c as giv e n . .
,
in
e quati o n s ( 1 1 ) an d ( 1 1 a ) e quati o n ( 1 0 a ) b e c o m e s
,

32 2 F .

a 1 4 67 A
2 000 T
.

wh e n c e
A

or, s o lvi n g fo r F ,
F TA

or , in th e r w o rds a f o r c e o f
o ,
lb appli e d t o a b o dy w e ighi n g
.

1 t o n will pr o duc e in it an acc e l e rati o n o f 1 mil e pe r hr pe r .

se c . E quati o n s ( 1 2 ) an d ( 1 3 ) ar e t he o n e s usually e mpl o y e d

in discussi n g acc e l e rati o n o f railway trai n s .

R o t ati o n al Ac c e l e r ati o n B e sid e s t he r e ctilin e ar acc e l e rati o n

.
~

as d e t e r mi n e d ab o v e it is als o n e c e ssa r y t o impart t o t h e wh ee ls

, ,

axl e s g e ars an d m o t o r armatu r e s a m o ti o n Of r o tati o n T o

,
.

p r o duc e this r o tati o n al acc e l e r ati o n a n additi o n al am o u n t O f -

f o r c e must b e e mpl o y e d T his may b e d e t e r mi n e d as f o ll o ws

.

R e fe rr i n g t o Fig 2 c o n sid e r a particl e o f mass dM o f an y o f t he

.
, ,

r o tati n g p arts o f a car situat e d at a dista n c e p fr o m t he c e n t e r o f

,

r o tati o n If t he a n gular acc e l e rati o n o f t he r o tati n g part b e 9

.
,

t he ta n g e n tial acc e l e rati o n o f t he mass dM at an y i n sta n t will b e

 TH E M E C H AN I C S OF TRA C T I ON 15

p 0, an d , fr o m e quati o n t he f o r c e f 1 t o pr o duc e that acc e l e ra

ti o n is p OdM S i n c e t he f o rc e f l acts at a dista n c e p fr o m t he
.

c e n t e r o f r o tati o n its m o m e n t is
,

p dM X p p 0dM
2

T he t ot al m o m e n t of t he wh o l e ro tati n g mass is

f p edM K0
z

wh e r e K is t he m o m e n t Of i n e r tia Of t he b o dy ab o ut
r o ta t i o n It may als o b e e xpre ss e d by t he r e lati o n
.

( 1 5)
wh e r e k is t he r adius O f gyrati o n an d

r0 = a

w he re is t he r adius o f t he r o tati n g
r

pa r t c o n sid e r e d an d at its ta n g e n tial

,

acc e l e rati o n FI G . 2
. D e t e rm in at io n of
l l e rat io n
,

r o t a t io n a a c c e
He n c e
.

T o tal m o me n t le M
f-

Fo r a pai r o f o r di n ary cast i r o n c ar w h e e ls a n d axl e t he w e ight

k C 0

1 9 50 1b an d t he S ub s t I t ut I n g
0

I S a-p p r O X I m at e l y .
,
r ati o 7
7

1 9 50
f
2
l X a

Th i s giv e s t he f o r c e f 1 lb . p r o duc e a c o rr e sp o n di n g acc e l e rati o n

to
in f e e t pe r s e c o n d pe r s e c o n d T o t r a n sf o r m t he e q uati o n t o o ur
.
16 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

railway syst e m o f u n its it is o n ly n e c e ssary t o multiply by t he

,

c o n sta n t S i n c e th e r e ar e f o ur axl e s an d pairs o f wh e e ls o n

a n o r di n a r y car t h e valu e thus f o u n d sh o uld b e multipli e d by 4
, ,

maki n g t he c o mpl e t e e xp r e ssi o n fo r t he f o r c e t o p r o duc e a ng ular

acc e l e rati o n fo r a c ar with o ut e l e ct r ical e qu i pm e n t
f 4A 1 4 5 52 A .

W h e n m o t o r cars ar e c o n sid e r e d an addit io n al a , ,

f o rc e must b e e mpl o y e d b e sid e s that fo r an

wh e e ls an d axl e s It may be d e t e r mi n e d in t he sam e ma n n e r as
.

o utli n e d ab o v e
1
T he valu e s w ill vary with t he typ e a n d n umb e r
.

o f m o t o rs pe r car o r pe r l o c o m o tiv e T he f o ll o wi n g gur e s are

.

r e pr e s e n t ativ e o f A m e r ica n practic e :

2

P E R C ENT . OF T O TA L A C C E L ERATI NG F O R C E R E Q U I RE D FO R R O TATIN G

PARTS
Per c en t .

S t e am l o c o m o t ive an d t rain .

E le c t r i c l o c o m o t ive an d h e av y f re ig h t t r ain
E l e c t r i c l o c o m o t ive a n d hig h s p e e d p a s s e n g e r
- t rain . .

High s p e e d e l e c t ric m o t o r c ars

-

Lo w s p e e d e l e c t ri c m o t o r c ars

T o tal A c c e l e r ati n g F o r c e T he t o tal f o rc e r e quir e d to

duc e acc e l e rati o n b o th of t r a n slati o n an d r o tati o n is
TA 1 4 5 52A
.

F A (T

fo r a car with o ut e l e ct r ical e quipm e n t .

I n t he particular cas e o f a t o n car e quipp e d with f o ur

3 8 kw m o t o rs a n d g e ar e d fo r a S p e e d Of 5 0 mil e s pe r hr t he
.
, , ,

f o r c e r e quir e d fo r pr o duci n g r o tati o n al acc e l e r ati o n is pe r

c e n t Of that n e c e ssary fo r r e ctili n e ar maki n g t he t o tal f o rc e fo r
.
,

an acc e l e rati o n o f 1 mil e pe r hr pe r s e c e qual t o . X .

or lb pe r t o n
. .

I n g e n e r al a valu e of 1 00 lb pe r t o n may b e us e d with a

,
.

fair d e g r e e o f accuracy as t he t o tal f o rc e r e quir e d fo r u n it ao

c e l e r a t io n fo r e l e ctric m o t o r cars s o that e quati o n ( 1 9 ) m ay be

r e writt e n
F = 1 00 A ( 1 9 a)
1
S ee a ls o C ha pt er VI I I Eff e c t o f R o t at i o n a l I n e r t i a
,
.

2
S t a n dar d H a n dboo k fo r E l e c t ric a l E n gin eer s S e c 1 3 p a r 88 T hi rd ,
.
, .
,

Ed it io n .
 TH E M E C H A N I C S OF TR A C T I ON 17

which is wid e ly us e d in practic e wh e r e e xtr e m e accuracy is n o t

r eq uir e d I n this b o o k it will be us e d as a c o r r e ct appr o ximati o n
. .

T r ain R e s is tan c e
W h e n a t r ai n is in m o ti o n a n umb e r o f
.
,

fo r c e s are always at w o rk t e n di n g t o r e duc e its v e l o city S o m e .

o f th e m ar e always p r e s e n t ; o th e rs o ccu r o n ly u n d e r c e rtai n

c o n diti o n s It is th e r e f o r e n e c e ssary t o stat e j ust what is m e a n t

.

by t h e t e rm trai n r e sista n c e As o rdi n a r ily d e n e d it is .
,

u n d e r st o o d t o i n clud e th o s e f o rc e s which o pp o s e t he m o ti o n o f a
trai n wh e n ru n n i n g o n a st r ai ght l e v e l track at c o n sta n t sp e e d ,

an d in still air T his p o r ti o n o f t he trai n r e sista n c e which

.
,

is i nh e ren t t o O p e rati o n u n d e r t he stat e d c o n diti o n s may be ,

div id e d i n t o t he foll o wi n g c o mp o ne n ts
1 . Jo ur n alfr i c t i o n .

2 . R o lli n g r e s i s t an c e .

3 . Fl an ge fri c t i o n .

4 . O s c ill at o r y r e s i s t an c e s .

5 . Air r e si s t a n c e .

6 . Fri c t i o n o f m o t o r ge ar s an d be ari n gs (in mo t o r c ar s

o nl y ) .

T he ab o v e r e sista n c e s are always acti n g t o r e ta r d t he m o ti o n

Of a trai n wh e n O p e rati n g u n d e r t he c o n diti o n s stat e d I n addi .

tio n t o th e s e c o mp o n e n ts th e r e ar e o th e rs n o t i n h e r e n t t o t he
,

m o ti o n O f t he trai n its elf but which d e p e n d o n S p e cial c o n di ,

ti o n s o f O p e rati o n T h e y are : .

7 G r a de
. i
r e s s t an c e .

8 . C u rv e i
r e s s t an c e .

9 . W i nd i
re s s t an c e .

T hese additi o n al c o mp o n e n ts may fr e qu e n tly e xc e e d t he in

h e r e n t r e sista n c e in am o u n t ; an d in t he Op e r ati o n o f fr e ight
trai n s at sl o w sp e e ds th e y ar e usually t he m o r e imp o r ta n t T h e y .

m ay b e gr o up e d u n d e r t he h e ad in cid e n tal r e sista n c e s .

J urn al Fri c tio n Fr icti o n in t he j o ur n als o f o r di n ar y r olli n g

o
.

st o ck f o ll o ws t he laws o f b e ari n g fricti o n in g e n e ral A c o mm o n .

f o rm o f c ar b e a r i n g is sh o w n in Fig 3 which is a s e cti o n th r o ugh .

,

t he sta n da r d 5 X 9 in j o ur n al ad o pt e d by t he A m e r ica n El e ctric

.

R ailway E n gi n e e r in g A ss o ciati o n T he a x l e is e xt e n d e d t o f o r m .

t he j o u r n al J which r o tat e s in t he j o ur n al b e a r i n g o r
, , b r ass ,

B . Lubricati o n is p r o vid e d by placi n g a qua n tity o f o il s o ak e d -

w o ol wast e in t he o il c e llar C T his packin g carri e s o il f r o m ,

.

t he c e lla r t o t he j o ur n al by capillary attracti o n an d S O s e rv e s t o ,

2
18 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

lubricat e t he b e ari n g T he pri n cipl e o f lubricati o n in such a

.

b e ari n g d e p e n ds o n su fci e n t o il b e i n g d r aw n b e tw e e n t he
j o ur n al an d t he brass t o f o rm a lm o f lubrica n t s e parati n g t he
t w o m e tal su r fac e s W h e n this is d o n e t he fr icti o n is that o f
.
,

t he m o l e cul e s o f Oil agai n st on e a n o th e r which is c o mparativ e ly ,

small If fo r a n y r e as o n t he Oil lm
.
, ,

fric tio n o f t he lubrica n t is r e plac e d by rubbi n g fri cti o n

o n m e tal .T he f o rc e r e quir e d is th e n much i n cr e as e d
w o rk d o n e ap pe ars in t he b e ari n g as h e at If t he .

J , Jo u r n a l , B, b e a ri n gb r as s , W , w ed eg , C, 0 11 c e ll ar .

FI G . 3 ,

St an d ar d A E R E A . . . . . J o u rn a l an d B e a ri n g .

all o w e d t o c o n ti n u e fo r an y g r e at tim e t he t e mp eratur e is ,

rais e d t o a p o i n t wh e r e a n y o ily wast e in t he b e a r i n g c e llar

will catch r e a n d a ho t b o x r e sults W h e n a t r ai n is
,
-
.

sta n di n g still t he static p r e ssu r e o f t he b e ari n g o n t he j o u r n al

,

will squ e e z e all t he O il o ut fr o m b e tw e e n t he b e a r i n g surfac e s s o ,

that w h e n t he trai n is sta r t e d t he fr icti o n is quit e larg e As t he .

sp e e d i n c r e as e s o il is draw n i n t o t he b e ari n g an d t he fricti o n

, ,

re duc e d T he mi n imum r e sista n c e is r e ach e d at a sp e e d o f

.

ab o ut 3 0 mil e s pe r hr fo r an y giv e n t e mp e ratur e an d j o ur n al

.

p r e ssur e ; an d b e y o n d this p o i n t it b e c o m e s gr e at e r with ih

c r e as e d S p e e d .
 TH E M E C H A N I C S OF TRA C T I ON

Exp e rim e n ts hav e S h o w n that t he fr icti o n falls as t he pr e ssu r e

p e r u n it ar e a is i n cr e as e d withi n t he O rdi n ary ra n g e o f b e ari n g
,

p re ssur e s ; an d it als o g r o ws l e ss with ris e in t e mp e ratur e up t o

t he p o i n t wh e r e t he visc o sity has b e e n r e duc e d s o that t h e o il
l m ca n n o t b e mai n tai n e d T his is b e y o n d t he o rdi n ary ra n g e o f
.

w o r kin g t e mp e ratu r e s .

If t he Oil is t o o uid it will n o t hav e sufci e n t visc o sity t o f o rm

,

a l m ; an d if t o o thick n o t e n o ugh will be draw n i n t o t he b e ari n g

,

t o mak e t h e lm c o mpl e t e It is n e c e ssary t o hav e Oil o f t he

.

pr o p e r visc o sity if t he lubricati o n is t o be g o o d S i n c e t he .

visc o sity vari e s with t he t e mpe ratu r e a h e avi e r O il is n e e d e d in

,

s umm e r tha n in wi n t e r V ariati o n s in t he charact e r o f t h e o il

.

us e d will caus e g rea t e r di ff e re n c e s i n t he fr icti o n tha n an y o f t he

o th e r it e ms c o n sid e r e d an d h e n c e it is n o t p o ssibl e t o giv e abs o lut e
,

gu r e s fo r j o ur n al fricti o n u nl e ss t he charact e ristics O f t he l ubr i

ca n t us e d ar e k n o w n .

Fl an g e F r ic ti o n , R o l l in g an d O s c il l at or y R e s i s tan c e s T h e s e .

r e sista n c e s are s o i n t e rmi n gl e d that n o att e mpt t o s e parat e th e m

has b e e n s uc c e ssful T he caus e s pr o duci n g o n e O f th e m usually
.

gi v e s ri se t o t he o th e r s .

R o lli n g r e sista n c e is d ue t o s e v e ral thi n gs T he l o ad e d wh e e l

.

pr o duc e s a d e e cti o n o f t he r ail an d als o c o mpr e ss e s it s o that

, ,

in e ffe ct t he car is always climbi n g a small grad e T he b e n di n g

.

o f t h e r ail is augm e n t e d by d e e cti o n s an d c o mp r e ssi o n o f t he

ti e s an d t h e r o adb e d an d by yi e ldi n g at t he rail j o i n ts

,
.

Flan g e fricti o n is p r o duc e d by t he rubbi n g o f t h e wh e e l a n g e s

a g ai n st t h e rail h e ads T his var i e s with t he sp e e d o f t he trai n
.
,

c o n diti o n o f t he t r ucks shap e Of t he wh e e l an d t he rail an d o th e r

,

cause s ; a n d als o d e p e n ds t o s o m e e xt e n t o n t he tr ack c on st r ucti o n

an d m e th o ds Of susp e n si o n .

O scill a t o ry r e sistan c e s are quit e i n d e n it e If t he trai n sways

.

fr o m sid e t o sid e o f t he tra c k it is e vid e n t that a c e rtai n am o u n t

,

o f e n e r gy must b e abs o r b e d by such m o ti o n T h e y c an n o t be

.

d e t e r mi n e d s e p ar at e ly a n d are usually c o n sid e r e d t o b e th o s e

,

r e sista n c e s r e mai n i n g aft e r t he o th e r it e ms hav e b e e n ac c o u n t e d

fo r. T h e y are n e c e ssar ily cl o s e ly r e lat e d t o t he r o lli n g fri cti o n .

It is c e rtai n that th e y i n c r e as e r apidly with t he sp e e d si n c e t he ,

f o rc e o f impact var i e s as t he squar e o f t he v e l o city .

T he sum o f t he a n g e fricti o n r o lli n g an d o scillat o ry re ,

s is t an c e s mak e up a n o t i n c o n sid e rabl e p o rti o n o f t he t o tal trai n

,

r e sista n c e
. Alth o ugh t he ab o v e discussi o n w o uld i n dicat e th at
20 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

th e s e it e ms sh o uld i n cr e as e m or e rapidly tha n t he sp e e d th e y are ,

c o n sid e r e d by s o m e writ e r s t o v ar y dir e ctly with it .

Air R e s i s t an c e
In high sp e e d Op e rati o n t he air r e sista n c e i s
.
-

t he m o st imp o rta n t fact o r o f trai n r e sista n c e T his may be .

.

divid e d i n t o thr e e c o mp o n e n ts
1 . H e ad e n d r e s s t an c e i .

2 . Si d efr i c t i o n .

3 . R e ar s u c t i o n .

T he
h e ad e n d r e sista n c e is due t o t he displac e m e n t of
caus e d by t he passag e o f t he trai n thr o ugh it It is t he .

Mi le s pe r Ho ur Mil e s pe r Ho ur

FI G . 4 .
He ad e n d a ir r e s is t a n c e . FI G . 5 .
R e ar i
e n d a ir s u c t o n

pa r t of t he air r e sista n c e It d e p e n ds on t he pr oj e ct e d ar ea o f t he
.

fr o n t o f t he trai n t he shap e o f t he fr o n t an d t he sp e e d A
, , .

n umb e r o f t e sts ha v e b e e n mad e t o qua n titati v e ly d e t e rmi n e its

valu e Pr o mi n e n t am o n g th e s e ar e t he o n e s mad e by t he
.

El e ct r ic R ailway T e st C o mmissi o n f orm e d by t h e e l e ctric railway,

i n t e r e sts in c o n n e cti o n with t he Lo uisia n a P urchas e Exp o siti o n

in an d t he s o call e d B e rli n Z o ss en t e sts c o n duct e d in
- -
,

1
R ep or t of t he E l e c t r i c R ailw a y Tes t C o m m is s i o n , M c G raw Pub lish in g CO .
,

1 9 06 .
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TRA C T I ON 21

1 90 1 an d 19 02 0 3 by a c o mmitt e e w o r ki n g i n c o n j u n cti o n with t h e

G e rma n g o ve r n m e n t l
.

T he c o n clusi o n s o f b o th th e s e i n v e stigati o n s i n dicat e that t he

h e ad e n d air r e sista n c e vari e s as t he squar e O f t he sp e e d an d has ,

mat e rially di ffe r e n t valu e s fo r vari o us shap e s o f fr o n t e n d T he .

r e sults Obtai n e d by t he El e ct r ic R ailway T e st C o mmissi o n are

summa r iz e d in Fig 4 It app e ars that a w e dg e shap e d fr o n t
. .
-

o ff e r s much l e ss r e sista n c e tha n t he o rdi n ary f o rms us e d o n

e l e ctric cars .

T he r e ar sucti o n is quit e s imilar t o t he fr o n t en d r e sista n c e ,

b e i n g d ue t o lli n g t he partial vacuum fo rm e d by t he passag e o f

a t r ain w it h air at atm o sph e r ic pr e ssu r e It f o ll o ws t he sam e

laws but is l e ss in am o u n t tha n t he fr o n t e n d r e sista n c e V alu e s

, , .

o f r e ar sucti o n ar e sh o w n in Fig 5 It may b e n o t e d that t he . .

r e sista n c e o f t he parab o lic shap e d r e ar e n d is l e ss tha n that O f t he

w e dg e which at t he fr o n t e n d gi ve s t he l o w e st valu e
,
.

T he sid e fricti o n is caus e d by t he rubbi n g o f t he air agai n st

t he sid e s o f t he car It als o vari e s app r o ximat e ly as t he squa re
.

o f t he sp ee d a n d fo r a si n gl e car is ab o ut o n e t e n th t he sum o f
,
-

t h e fr o n t a n d r e ar r e sista n c e s .

M o to r an d G e arin g Fric tio n In t he cas e of e l e ctrically .

-

drive n ca r s th e r e is a c e rtai n l o ss due t o t he fricti o n o f t he m o t o r

,

armatur e b e ari n gs t he m o t o r axl e b e ari n gs an d in t he cas e o f

, , ,

g e ar e d m o t o rs o f t he g e ars T he m o t o r b e ari n g fricti o n is

,
.

o r di n a r ily i n clud e d in t h e l o ss e s o f t he m o t o r but that o f t he ,

axl e is o mitt e d It foll o ws t he g e n e r al laws o f fr icti o n as in that

.
,

o f t h e c a r j o ur n als T he g e ar fr icti o n is s o m e tim e s i n clud e d

.

in t h e m o t or l o ss e s an d in o th e r s must b e t ak e n with t he t r ai n
,

r e sista n c e T he l o ss i n curr e d in t he t r a n smissi o n o f p o w e r

.

thr o ugh a pair Of spur g e ars such as ar e c o m m o n ly us e d in

tra n sf e rr i n g t he t o rqu e fr o m t he armatu re shaft t o t he axl e ,

g e n e r ally ru n s b e tw e e n 3 pe r c e n t an d 9 pe r c e n t d e p e n di n g o n . .
,

t he pitch li n e sp e e d an d t he c o n diti o n o f t he t e e th New .

g e ars S h o w a high e r l o ss tha n th o s e which hav e w o r n e n o ugh

t o r e m o v e t he irr e gula r it ie s du e t o cutti n g T he l o ss agai n .

i n c re as e s c o n sid e rably aft e r t he t e e th hav e b e c o m e badly w o r n .

Fo r g e ars in g o o d c o n diti o n an d fo r m o d e r at e pitch li n e sp e e ds ,

t he l o ss is ab o ut 3 % pe r c e n t o f t he p o w e r tra n smitt e d . .

B e r lin Z os s en Elec t ri c Rai lw a y Te s t s of 1 9 0 2 0 3 M c G raw Pub l is hin g

1 -
,

CO .
, 1 90 5 .
 2 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

It sh o uld be n o t e d that t he l o ss e s in t he g e ars an d als o t he ,

m e cha n ical l o ss e s in t he m o t o rs whil e suppli e d e l e ctr ically

,

wh e n p o w e r is b e i n g draw n fr o m t he e l e ctric circu it must be ,

take n fr o m t he m o m e n tum o f t he trai n wh e n it is c o asti n g .

T his caus e s s o m e di ffe r e n c e in t he valu e s Of t r ai n r e sista n c e

in t he t w o cas e s . T he g e ar l o ss whil e t he t r ai n is c o asti n g is ho w ,

e v e r small si n c e t he p o w e r tra n smitt e d is o n ly sufci e n t t o d r iv e

, ,

t h e armatur e whil e ru n n i n g light I n cas e t he m o t o r s ar e u s e d

.

fo r an y f o rm o f dy n amic b r aki n g t he l o ss will o f c o urs e b e

,

la r g e r in pr o p o r ti o n t o t he p o w e r d r aw n fr o m th e m T he g e ar .

l o s s e s o ccur o n ly in cars an d l o c o m o tiv e s driv e n by m o t o rs

acti n g thr o ugh g e ar i n g b ei n g O f c o urs e e n t ir e ly abs e n t in t he
,

cas e o f g e arl e ss machi n e s .

D e te rm i n ati o n o f Train R e s i s tan c e A n umb e r o f m e th o ds

hav e b e e n e mpl o y e d fo r t he d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he r e sista n c e o f
cars an d t r ai n s t he practic e d e p e n di n g t o s o m e e xt e n t o n t he
,

m o tiv e p o w e r e mpl o y e d T he r e sista n c e o f st e am t r ai n s may

.

b e Obtai n e d by a n y o n e o f thr e e m e th o ds T he r st o f th e s e
.

is t o plac e a dy n am o m e t e r di r e ctly b e hi n d t he t e n d e r o f t he
l o c o m o tiv e a n d r e c o rd t he d r awba r pull T his pull if Obtai n e d
,
.
,

with u n if o r m c o n diti o n s as o utli n e d in t he d e n iti o n at t he

b e gi n n i n g o f t he discussi o n is a di r e ct m e asu r e O f t he r e sista n c e
,

fo r t he sp e e d at which t h e Obs e r vati o n is tak e n R e sults d e te r

.

mi n e d in this ma n n e r are i n accu r at e in that t he h e ad e n d r e

s is t a n c e is o mitt e d. I n t he cas e o f l o n g fr e ight t ra i n s o p e r ati n g
at r e lativ e ly sl o w sp ee ds this is u n imp o rta n t ; but w ith high
,

sp e e d pass e n g e r trai n s it may l e ad t o c o n sid e rabl e e rr o r In .

st e am l o c o m o tiv e w o rk t he i n accuracy is c o rr e ct e d by i n c lud

in g t he h e ad e n d r e sista n c e i n t he machi n e fr icti o n o f t he
l o c o m o tiv e If t e sts mad e in th is way ar e t o b e us e d fo r d e t e r
.

mi n i n g e l e ctric trai n r e sista n c e car e must b e tak e n in i n t e r p r e t

,

in g th e m .

T he s e c o n d m e th o d o f O btai n i n g t he r e sista n c e o f st e a m
t r ai n s c o n sists in taki n g i n dicat o r diagrams at va r i o us c o n sta n t
sp e e ds an d fr o m t he c y li n d e r p e rf o rma n c e d e t e r mi n i n g t he f o rc e
,

suppl ie d t o o v e r c o m e t r ai n r e sista n c e T his m e th o d is liabl e

.

t o all t h e d e fe cts e n c o u n t e r e d wh e n i n dicati n g st e am e n g i n e s

u n d e r t he disadva n tag e s i n h e r e n t t o r o ad t e sts an d als o i n tr o
,

duc e s an e rr o r by i n clud in g t he l o c o m o tiv e fr icti o n .

T he third m e th o d c o n sists in all o wi n g a t r ai n t o c o ast a n d ,

n di n g t he tim e re qui r e d t o r e tar d fr o m o n e giv e n sp e e d t o

 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TR A C T I O N 23

a n o th e r T his m e th o d w o uld app e ar t o be o f at l e ast as gr e at

.

accuracy as t he last alth o ugh it has n e v e r m e t with much fav o r

,

in t he e y e s o f st e am railr o ad m e n .

T he r e sista n c e Of e l e ct r ically e qu i pp e d t r ai n s may b e d e t e r

mi n e d r e adily by Op e rati n g at c o n sta n t sp e e d u n d e r t he p r o p e r
c o n diti o n s an d d e t e r mi n i n g t he i n put t o t he m o t o rs If t he
,
.

e fci e n cy o f t he m o t o r s b e d et e r mi n e d by a s e par at e t e st t he ,

c o rr e sp o n di n g o utput c an b e f o u n d at o n c e g ivi n g t he valu e o f ,

t he trai n r e sista n c e d i r e ctly T his m e th o d has m e t with t he

.

g re at e st fav o r o f l a t e y e a r s an d t he b e st an d m o st c o n sist e n t
,

r e sults hav e b e e n Obtai n e d by its u s e .

E v e r si n c e t he subj e ct Of t r ai n
Trai n R e s i s tan c e Fo rm ul a

r e sista n c e b e g a n t o b e u n d e r st o o d atte mpts hav e b e e n mad e t o

,

r e n d e r t he r e sults o f t e sts u n iv e r s a lly applicabl e by p r e s e n ti n g

th e m in t he f o r m o f e quati o n s i n v o lvi n g t he c o n sta n ts o f t he

e quip m e n t a n d t he sp e e d A la r g e n umb e r o f such f o r mul a h a v e
.

b e e n publish e d ; but th e ir g r e at div e r g e n c e w o uld i n dicat e e ith e r '

that th e y ar e i n accu r at e o r th a t th e y ar e i n applicabl e o v e r a

wid e r a n g e O f c o n diti o n s Of Op e r ati o n O f th e s e f o rmul ae th e r e .

a r e t w o disti n ct typ e s : th o s e a pplyi n g t o st e am t r ai n s whi c h ,

o mit h e ad e n d r e si s ta n c e a n d th o s e applyi n g t o e l e c t r ic t r ai n s
, ,

which i n clud e this it e m Alth o ugh t he r e sista n c e o f e ith e r

.

kin d Of trai n is e ss e n tially t he sam e fo r simil a r c o n diti o n s t he ,

ab o v e diffe r e n c e will caus e c o n s id e r abl e va r iati o n in t he t r ai n r e

s is t a n c e e quati o n .U n f o r t u n a t e ly i n v e stigat o r s d o n o t al w ay s
,

sp e cify t he c lass Of t r ai n s t o w hich th e i r f o r mul ae ar e applicabl e .

I n o bt a i n i n g a ra ti o n al f o r mul a fo r t r ai n r e sista n c e it is o bvi o u s ,

that s e v e r al Of t he c o mp o n e n ts c an be g r o up e d t o g e th e r A .

p o r ti o n is s e n sibly c o n sta n t at all sp e e ds a pa r t va r i e s as t he ,

sp e e d an d still a n o th e r as its squ ar e If th e re ar e fu n cti o n s o f

, .

high e r p o w e r s o f t he sp e e d th e y hav e n o t as y e t b e e n s e g r e gat e d

, ,

a n d th e y must b e quit e u n imp o r ta n t A r a ti o n al trai n r e sista n c e

.

f o r mula sh o uld th e n b e o f t he typ e

R = A + BV + CV
2
(20)
wh e r e R is t he r e s i sta n c e in p o u n ds p e r t o n V t he sp e e d Of t he ,

t r ai n in mil e s pe r h o ur an d A B an d C c o e fci e n ts d e t e r m in e d
, ,

e xp e r im e n tally .

A f o r mula o f t he s e mi rati o n al typ e has b e e n d e v e l o p e d by

-

M r A H Armstr o n g as f o ll o ws :
. . .
,

50
24 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

in which is t he r e sista n c e in lb pe r t o n
R .
,

T is t he w e ight o f t he t r ain in t o n s ,

V is t h e sp e e d o f t he tr ai n in mil e s pe r hr .
,

a is t he ar e a o f cr o ss s e cti o n o f t h e trai n in sq ft
-
. .
,

n is t h e n umb e r o f cars in t h e trai n .

T he rst t e rm r e p r e s e n ts larg e ly t he b e ar i n g fr icti o n t he ,

s e c o n d t he r o lli n g r e sista n c e a n g e fr icti o n an d a p o r ti o n o f t he

,

o scillat o ry r e sista n c e an d t he third t e rm t h e r e mai n d e r o f t h e

,

o scillat o ry r e sista n c e an d t h e air r e sista n c e T he last fac t o r .

o f t h e third t e rm is t o all o w fo r t h e sid e air fricti o n if th e r e b e

m o r e than o n e car in t he trai n T his f ormula has gi ve n fairly .

S pe e d , Mil e s pe r Ho ur

FI G . 6 .
T ra in r e s is t a n c e fo r c a rs o f d iff e r e n t w e ig h t s .

c o n sist e n t r e sults an d may be saf e ly us e d in pr e d e t e rmi n i n g t he

,

trai n r e sista n c e fo r o rdi n ary Am e rica n pass e n g e r r o lli n g st o ck .

In F ig 6 is sh o w n t he applicati o n o f Armst r o n g s e quati o n fo r

.

cars o f di ffe r e n t w e ights T he cur v e s ar e o f t he sam e g e n e ral

.

typ e an d diffe r o n ly in t h e rst an d thi r d t e r ms In Fig 7 is

,
. .

sh o w n a s e ri e s o f curv e s fo r t he r e sista n c e o f di ff e r e n t t r ai n s m ad e
up o f cars o f t he sam e w e ight T he l o w e r r e sista n c e p e r t o n as
.

t he n umb e r o f cars in t he t r ai n is i n c r e as e d is cl e arly sh o w n .

It sh o uld be n o t e d that n o n e o f t he f o r mul ae fo r trai n r e sista n c e

in t he f o rm o f e quati o n ( 2 0 ) mak e all o wa n c e fo r t h e starti n g
r e sista n c e T his will usually b e much gr e at e r tha n t he r e sista n c e
.

aft e r e v e n a v e ry l o w sp e e d has b e e n attai n e d o n acc o u n t o f t he ,

high b e a r i n g f r icti o n at sta r ti n g T his has al r e ady b e e n r e f e r r e d

.
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TR A C T I ON 25

t o, an dacc o u n ts fo r s o m e discr e pa n c i e s whi c h app e ar in t he

a pplicati o n o f t r ai n r e sista n c e e quati o n s .

It is m o r e difcult t o d e t e r mi n e t he r e sistan c e o f fr e i g ht trai n s

t ha n that o f pass e n g e r trai n s si n c e t h e fo r m e r ar e mad e up o f
,

40 50
S pe e d MP H . ,

FI G . 7. Train
-
r e s is t a n c e fo r d iff e r e n t n um b e rs o f c a rs .

wid e ly v aryi n g w e ight an d di ffe r e n t d e sig n T h e r e is .

m o r e ove r a di ffe r e n c e in r e sistan c e b e tw e e n that f o u n d fo r l o ad e d

cars an d fo r e mpti e s T he e xp e n s e o f maki n g up c o mpl e t e t r ai n s
.

15 20
S p ee d MP H
. . .

FI G . 8 .
F r e ig h t t r ain i
re s s t an c e .

of fre ight cars o f o n e w e ight an d typ e w o uld be gr e at ; an d t he c o st

w o uld n o t be j usti e d si n c e such trai n s ar e n o t t o b e f o u n d in
,

p r actic e A b e tt e r m e th o d is t o mak e t e sts o n o r di n a r y t r ai n s

.
-
26 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

o f an y mak e up an d bas e t h e r e sista n c e o n t he av e rag e car w e i g ht

-
, .

T he r e sult o f such a s e r i e s o f t e st s o n t r ai n s in r e g ula r s e r vic e is

sh o w n in Fig 8 which is fr o m r e sults o btai n e d by P r o f e s s o r
.
,

E dwa r d C S chmidt .
1
.

T h e s e curv e s w e r e tak e n with a dy n am o m e t e r car an d do n o t ,

i n cl ud e t he h e ad e n d r e sista n c e .

I n c i d e n tal R e s i s tan c e s Gr ad e s I n su r m o u n ti n g a

.

t r ai n has t o b e lift e d thr o ugh a d e n it e v e r tical dista n c e .

this a c e r tai n am o u n t o f f o r c e is r e qui r e d sufci e n t t o bal ,

t e n d e n cy o f t he t r ai n t o r u n d o w n t he grad e T h e m e asu r e o f t his .

is t he valu e o f t he gr adi e n t which may b e e xp r e ss e d e ith e r in ,

FI G . 9 .
-
D e t e rm in a t io n of g rad e r e s is t a n c e .

p e r c e n t ris e o r in fe e t r is e pe r mil e T he surv e y o r in lay i n g

.
,
.
,

o u t t h e track m e asur e s t he h o r iz o n tal dista n c e l ( Fig

,
a n d t he ,
.

v e r tical h e ight k If a t r ai n w e ighi n g T t o n s b e o n t he g r ad e

.
,

this w e ight may b e r e s o lv e d i n t o t w o c o mp o n e n ts N n o r mal t o t he ,

t r ack a n d F al o n g t he t r ack It is this latt e r f o rc e which must b e .

bala n c e d by t he f o r c e F t o k e e p t he t r ai n in e quilibrium T he

.

valu e o f t he f o r c e F is T s in a S i n c e N an d T are r e sp e ctiv e ly .

p e r p e n dicular t o t an d l a n d a n gl e s B C A a n d bca ar e right a n g l e s

, ,

t he t r ia n gl e s A B C a n d a bc ar e simila r a n d a n gl e B A C a n gl e ,

ba c .T h e r e f o re ,

F = T Sl n a = T

h
It is u s ually in c o n ve ni e n t to d e te r mi n e d i r e ctly ; but t he
t
h
t an ge n t of t he a n gl e a may be r e adi ly f o u n d Fo r o rd i n a r y
l
.
,

g r ad e s t he e r r o r is n e gligibl e in assumi n g t he si n e e qual t o t he

1
E D WAR D C . S C H M ID T,
F r e igh t T r ain R e s is t a n c e , B u l le t i n 4 3 , E n gi
n e e r in g E xp e r im ent S t a t io n , Un ive rs it y of Ill in o is .
 TH E M E C H A N I CS OF TR A C T I ON 7

ta n ge n t Fo r e xampl e t he e r r o r for a 4 pe r c e n t g r ad e which is

.
,
.
,

ab o ut t he p r actical limit is o n e f o u r th o f 1 pe r c e n t an d fo r a
,
-
.
,

1 0 pe r c e n t grad e o n e half o f 1 pe r c e n t
.
,
-
.

Fo r a ris e o f 1 ft pe r 1 00 an d a trai n w e ight of 1 t o n

.
, ,

F 2 000 X 20 lb .

Fo r a ri se of 1 ft .
p e r mil e ,
and a w e ight of 1 t on,

1
F 2 0 00 x 1h .
( 24 )
5 2 80

T he f o rc e n e c e ss ary t o mai n tai n m o ti o n o n a g r ad e is th e r e

fo re 2 0 lb pe r t o n fo r e ach pe r c e n t o f r is e o r
. lb pe r .
,
.

t o n fo r e ach f o o t pe r mil e If t he t r ai n is g o i n g d o w n t he grad e

.
,

t he f o rc e is in t he o pp o sit e di r e cti o n an d aids t he tractiv e e ff o r t ,

o f t h e m o tiv e p o w e r .

Virtua l G ra d e s
W h e n t he sp e e d o f a trai n is cha n gi n g it
.
,

may b e c o n sid e r e d that it is virtually o n a sl o p e wh o s e r e sista n c e

is e qual t o t he sum o f t he r e sista n c e o f t he actual g r ad e an d
that o f o n e which is e quival e n t in its e ffe ct t o t he acc e l e r ati o n .

A g r ad e o f this charact e r is call e d a vi r tual o r v e l o city
grad e a n d t he t o tal r e sista n c e o f a t r ai n o n it is always e qual t o
,

that o n t he actual gr ad e a n d t he r e sista n c e c o r r e sp o n di n g t o

t he f o rc e r e qui r e d fo r acc e l e r ati o n T he vi r tual gr ad e may .

b e e ith e r g r e at e r o r l e ss tha n t h e actual o ne d e p e n di n g o n wh e th e r ,

t he t r ai n sp e e d is i n c r e asi n g o r d ec r e asi n g ; o r in o th e r w o r ds , ,

wh e t h e r t he acc e l e r ati o n is p o sitiv e o r n e gativ e .

W h e n trai n s e sp e cially th o s e makin g i n fr e qu e n t st o ps such

, ,

as h e avy fr e i g ht t r ai n s ar e Op e r at e d o n r o ads havi n g a b r o ke n

,

p r o l e it is o ft e n p o ssibl e t o appr o ac h t he u p gr ad e s at high e r

,
-

s pe e ds tha n c an b e mai n tai n e d t o t he summit T he st o re d .

kin e tic e n e r gy will b e r e duc e d as t he asc e n t pr o g r e ss e s a n d b e ,

lib e rate d T his e n e r gy will aid in lifti n g t he t r ai n thus b e i n g

.
,

c o n v e r t e d i n t o p o t e n tial e n e r gy In e ffe ct t he r e sista n c e .

,

will b e l e ss tha n that d ue t o t he actual gr ad e ; a n d in d e t e r ,

mi n i n g t he w e i g ht o f t r ai n that c an b e haul e d by a giv e n l o c o

m o tiv e t he vi r tual gr ad e sh o uld p r e fe r ably b e use d It is th e n
,
.

imp o r ta n t t o n d t he valu e o f t he latt e r which may r e adily be ,

d o n e by c alculati n g t he lib e rat e d ki n e tic e n e r gy due t o t he

di ff e r e n c e in sp e e ds b e tw e e n that o f app r o ach an d at t he summit .

T he l e n g th o f t he g rad e b e i n g k n o w n t he av e ra g e v e l o city dur ,

28 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

in g asc e n t c an b e f o u n d a n d t he f o r c e e quival e n t t o t he c o n
,

v e r t e d e n e rgy d e t e rm in e d T his f o rc e subtr act e d fr o m t he r e

.
,

s is t a n c e o f t he actual g r ad e giv e s that c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t he

,

virtual g r ad e Fr o m this t he r e sista n c e in p o u n ds pe r t o n an d

.
,

t he e quival e n t r is e in f e e t pe r mil e o r in pe r c e n t may b e f o u n d .

di r e ctly by e quati o n s ( 2 3) o r It is e v id e n t that virtual

grad e s ar e always limit e d in l e n gth .

Th e R uli n g G ra d e
I n a n y giv e n s e cti o n o f track t he m axi
.
,

mum gradi e n t e n c o u n t e r e d is k n o w n as t he ruli n g gr ad e ,

wh e th e r it b e an actual o r a virtual o n e T he maximum l o ad .

which a giv e n m o tiv e p o w e r c an haul o n a c e rtai n d ivisi o n o f a

r o ad is d e t e r mi n e d by t he gr e at e st tractiv e e ff o rt it c an e x e r t o n
t h e ruli n g g r ad e I n g e n e ral ruli n g g r ad e s ar e n o t o f su ch g r e at
.
,

imp o rta n c e in t he cas e o f e l e ct r ic r o ads as in st e am r o ads S i n c e ,

t he e l e ct r ic m o t o rs c a n usually b e f o rc e d b e y o n d th e ir n o r m al
rati n g fo r a sh o rt tim e as in climb in g t h e rul in g gr ad e ; wh e re as
,

t he maximum o utput o f t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e is practically a

x e d qua n tity which ca n n o t be e xc e e d e d fo r e v e n a sh o rt
,

per i o d .

C ur ve s I n Am e rica n railway practic e it is cust o mary t o

.

rat e curv e s in d e gr e e s o f c e n t r al a n gl e subt e n d e d by a ch o r d o f

1 00 ft T his m e th o d f o ll o ws fr o m t he o r di n a r y p r o c e du r e in
.

layi n g o ut cur v e s with a t r a n sit At t he p o i n t o f cu r vatu r e A .

, ,

Fig 1 0 t he i n strum e n t is s e t up an d a n gl e s D A B F A C e t c
.
, , , ,
.
,

laid o ff e ach e qual t o o n e half t he d e gre e o f t he cu r v e
,
-
.

I n t he cas e o f a 1 curv e t h e a n gl e A OB is 1 an d D A B is

,

0 R e f e r ri n g t o Fig 1 0 if A B 1 00 ft
. th e n
,
.
,

AK a
Sin
AO 2

50
s in 0 30
AO

fr o m which A O 5 73 0 ft . In g e n e r al if D is
,
t he d e gr ee of t he
cu r v e an d r its radius
, ,

s in D

r 50 cs c D ( 2 60 )
A ppr o ximat e ly , t he radius fo r o rdi n ary curv e s may b e tak e n as
5 73 O
ft In curv e s o f large d e gr ee an d c o rr e sp o n d i n gly small
D
.
 TH E M E C H A N I C S OF TR A C T I ON 29

radius this assumpti o n l e ads t o c o n sid e rabl e e rr o r ; an d wh e n

layi n g th e m o ut ch o r ds o f 5 0 ft o r l e ss ar e us e d in plac e o f t he
.

1 0 0 ft which is e mpl o y e d fo r th o s e o f l o n g e r radius

. In str e e t .

wh e r e t he r adii are e xt r e m e ly S h o rt b e i n g fr o m ,

ft
. t he cu r v e s ar e o rdi n arily d e sig n at e d by t he
,

In such cas e s th e y ar e n o t usually laid o ut with

i n st r um e n ts ; but t he rails ar e shap e d an d ass e mbl e d by t he
ma n ufactu r e r b e f o r e shipm e n t a n d ar e i n stall e d as a c o mpl e t e

track is r e fe rr e d t o u n d e r t he g e n e ral t e rm sp e cial

FI G . 10 . M e t ho d
of l ay in g o ut ve s
c ur .

In high sp e e d railway w o rk an abrupt cha n g e o f dir e cti on fr o m

-

a ta n g e n t t o a circular curv e w o uld caus e difculty in o p e rati o n ,

a n d might e v e n mak e a t r ai n l e av e t he track T o o bviat e this.

difculty t he rst p o rti o n o f a curv e is s o m e f o rm o f spi r al which

make s an e asy t r a n siti o n fr o m t he ta n g e n t t o t he ci r cula r ar c .

A n umb e r o f such cu r v e s a re in us e a n d m e th o ds o f c o n structi o n

may b e f o u n d in an y g o o d ha n db o o k o n railway l o cati o n .

Si n c e a b o dy in m o ti o n t e n ds t o tra v e l in a straight li n e a ,

f o r c e must be i n tr o duc e d in o rd e r t o c aus e it t o cha n g e its dir e cti o n .

T he valu e o f this f o rc e d e p e n ds o n t he sp e e d an d w e ight o f t he

trai n an d t he am o u n t o f curvatur e ; it may be suppli e d by pr e s
30 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

sur e o f t he wh ee l a n g e s agai n st t he o ut e r rail o f t he track o r by

gravity In t h e latt e r cas e t he fo rc e is o btai n e d by l o cati n g t he
.

o ut e r rail o f t he track at a high e r l e v e l tha n t he i n n e r T his i s .

k n o w n as t he s u p er el eva t io n of t he ou t er r a il .

In F ig 1 1 c o n sid e r a car o f w e ight G

. M g o n a curv e o f radius
r t h e s up e r e l e vati o n o f t he o ut e r rail b e i n g such
,

mak e s an a n gl e d) with t he h o riz o n tal T he fo r c .

w e ight o f t he car will h aVe a t e n d e n cy t o pull t he tr

c en te r of t he cu r v e . T he c e n trifu g al f o rc e has a valu e

FI G . 11 . i fu g al e ffe c t
C e n t r of c ur ve s .

ex e r t e d in a h o riz o n tal dir e cti o n Fr o m t he gu re it may be s e e n

.

that t he r e sulta n t o f th e s e f o rc e s will be n o rmal t o t he track wh en

2
0

T9

It is e vid e n t fr o m t he ab o v e discussi o n that t he sup e r e l e v ati o n

o f a c urv e is c o r r e ct fo r o n e s pe e d a n d fo r that sp e e d o n ly
,
If t he .

v e l o city b e gr e at e r tha n this v alu e t he r e acti o n fr o m t he t r ack

,

will n o t supply all o f t he di r e ctiv e f o rc e r e quir e d ; t h e r e mai n d e r

must b e fur n ish e d by pr e ssur e o f t he a n g e s agai n st t he o ut e r
rail ; if l e ss tha n t he b ala n ci n g sp e e d t h e f o rc e suppli e d by t he ,

track r e acti o n will b e gr e at e r tha n n e c e ssary an d t he trai n will ,

fall t o wa r d t he i n n e r rail t he pr e ssu r e b e i n g tak e n by t he a n g e s

,

o f t h e i n n e r wh e e ls In e ith e r o f th e s e cas e s th e r e will b e an

.

am o u n t o f a n g e fr icti o n additi o n al t o that o ccu rr i n g o n straight

track .

S i n c e t he tracks o f o rdi n ary railr o ads must be us e d in c o mm o n

by fast an d by sl o w trai n s it is n o t p o ssibl e t o c o mp e n sat e t he
,

curv e s fo r all o f th e m A c o mpr o mis e is usually e ffe ct e d so that

.
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TR A C TI ON 31

t he sup e r e l e vati o n is t o o g r e at for t he fr e ight t r ai n s an d t o o small

fo r t h e pass e n g e r t r ai n s . T he g e n e r al r e sult will b e t o r e duc e t h e
r e sist a n c e o n curv e s fo r all o f th e m an d t o make O p e rati o n safe
,

at sp e e ds up t o t he maximum us e d T he pr o p e r ch o ic e o f a m e a n
.

v e l o city fo r which t h e c o mp e n sati o n sh o ul d b e calculat e d d e p e n ds

o n t h e r e lati o n b e tw e e n t h e sp e e ds o f di ffe r en t class e s o f trai n s

an d t h e r e lativ e n umb e rs Op e r at e d .

A c e r tai n am o u n t o f fr icti o n is als o p r e s e n t due t o swi n gi n g

t he t r ucks fr o m th e i r n o r mal p o siti o n u n d e r t he cars T he t o tal .

e ffe ct is t o i n c r e as e t h e t r ai n r e sista n c e Exp e rim e n ts i n dicat e

.

that t hi s i n c r e a s e in trai n r e sista n c e av e rag e s fr o m lb t o lb . .

p e r t o n p e r d e g r e e o f cu r vatur e .

W in d R e s is t an c e N atu r al wi n ds aff e ct t he O p e rati o n o f t r ai n s

by cha n gin g t he r e lativ e v e l o city o f t he trai n with r e sp e ct t o t he

air ,
an d h e n c e va r y t h e ai r r e sista n c e Fo r e xampl e a trai n
.
,

O p e r ati n g at 4 0 m il e s pe r hr agai n st a h e ad wi n d bl o wi n g at t he
.

rat e o f 2 0 mil e s pe r hr will hav e t h e sam e wi n d r e sista n c e as

.

th o ugh it w e r e m o vi n g thr o ugh still air at 60 mil e s pe r hr If .

Op er ati n g in t he o pp o sit e dir e cti o n with t he wi n d ) t h e e ffe ct

will be t he sam e as t he air r e sista n c e m e t by m o vi n g th r o u g h still
air a t 2 0 mil e s pe r hr Q uart e r i n g an d sid e wi n ds als o a ffe ct
.

t r ai n r e sista n c e by i n tr o duci n g additi o n al a n g e fricti o n t h e ,

wh e e ls b e i n g cr o wd e d agai n st t he rails o n t h e l e e ward sid e .

In g e n e ral th e s e r e sults a r e i n d e t e r mi n at e in am o u n t .

T h e S pe e d Tim e C urv e
I n o rd e r t o mak e a rati o n al c o m
.

paris o n o f trai n p e r fo r ma n c e u n d e r varyi n g c o n diti o n s o f O p e r a

ti o n it is n e c e ssa ry t o ad o pt s o m e sta n dard m e th o d o f r e p o r ti n g
r e sults T his n e e d h as l e d t o t h e us e o f a s e ri e s o f cu r v e s all
.
,

pl o tt e d with tim e as th e ir absciss ae T he o rdi n at e s o f this g r o up

.

o f cu r v e s may b e an y o f t h e fact o r s which vary with t h e tim e an d ,

i n clud e t he dista n c e c o v e r e d t he sp e e d t he acc e l e r ati o n t he

, , ,

t r activ e e ff o r t an d t he e l e ctrical qua n titi e s cu rr e n t e m f a n d

, ,
. . .

p o w e r O f t he m e cha n ical valu e s dista n c e is t he fu n dam e n tal

.
,

o n e ; in t h e e quati o n s at t h e b e gi n n i n g o f this chapt e r s o m e o f

th o s e which d e p e n d o n t he dista n c e are d e riv e d It is s ee n that .

v e l o city is t he r at e of cha n g e of dista n c e with r e sp e ct t o tim e o r ,

ds
dt

A cc e l e r ati o n is t he rat e of cha n g e of v e l o city with r e sp e ct to

tim e , or
32 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

Fr om t he r e lati o n s o f th e s e t w o e quati o n s it may b e s e e n that ac

c e l e r at io n is t h e s e c o n d d e rivati v e o f t he dista n c e with r e sp e ct t o

tim e , or

In c e rtai n pr o bl e m s i nv olvi ng e xc e ss i v e acc el e r ati o n

r e tardati o n it has b ee n f o u n d that a high rat e o f ch
,

v el o city c an be mai n tai n e d with o ut disc o mf o rt if it is

gradually T his bri n gs i n t o use t he rat e of ch ange of t
.

c e l e r at io n givi n g t he re lati o n
,

da d z
a d 3
s

dl dt 2
dl 3

In a similar ma n
ner , t he v el o city is t he rst i n t e gral of t he
acc e l e rati o n as ,

v f ad t

T he dista n c e is t he rst i n t e gral of t he v e l o city , an d t he s e c o nd

i n t e g r al o f t he acc e l e r ati o n .

s =
f vdt = f f a dt

T he u s e of
graphical m e th o ds fo r t he r e pr e s e n tat io n of tra i n
m o ti o n bri n gs in th e s e r e lati o n s an d t he p e rf o rma n c e may be
,

sh o w n by m e a n s o f t he dista n c e time sp e e d tim e o r ac c e l e ra

, ,

ti o n tim e curv e s as d e sir e d If a dista n c e time cu rve be dif

,
.

fe re n t iat e d with r e sp e ct t o tim e t he r st di ffe r e n tial curv e will

,
.

be that b e tw e e n sp e e d an d tim e a n d t he s e c o n d di ff e r e n tial

,

cu r v e that b e tw e e n acc e l e rati o n an d time S imilarly t h e rst .

,

i n t e gral cu r v e o f t he acc e l e r ati o n tim e cur ve is t he sp e e d tim e

curv e an d t e s e c o n d i n t e gral cu r v e t e dista n c e tim e cu r v e

,
h h .

If a n y o n e o f t he th r e e curv e s b e pl o tt e d it is a simpl e matt er ,

t o d e r iv e t h e o th e r t w o S in c e t he ar e a e n cl o s e d b e tw e e n a
.

cur v e an d its axis o f absciss a is a m e asu r e o f t he i n t e gr al a ,

fai rly d e n it e id e a o f that valu e may b e f o u n d by i n sp e cti on .

I n lik e ma n n e r t he sl o p e o f a curv e is a m e asur e o f its d e rivativ e

, ,

a n d t h e g e n e ral f o rm o f t h e di ff e r e n tial curv e may b e a ppr o x i

mat e d Fo r this r e as o n m o r e i n f o rmati o n c an b e o btai n e d

.
,

by t e us e o t he sp e e d tim e cur v e tha n by e mpl o yi n g e ith e r

h f

t he dista n c e tim e curv e o r t he acc e l e rati o n tim e curv e fo r d e pict

in g t he m o ti o n o f a t r ai n .
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TR A C T I ON 33

C o m po n e n t s of t h e S pe e d T im di n ary railway

e C urv e.
In or

Op e r ati o n a t r ai n star ts fr o m r e st an d its sp e e d is i n c r e ase d

, ,

w ith a rapid acc e l e r ati o n which will usually fall o ff as t he ,

sp e e d is i n c r e as e d u n til t he trai n o p e r at e s at c o n sta n t sp e e d

,
.

T he t r ai n may th e n b e all o w e d t o c o ast with o ut t he us e o f

p o w e r afte r which it is st o pp e d rapidly by applicati o n o f t he
,

b r ake s .

Ac c e l e rat i o n C urv e I n o rd e r t o p r o duc e m o ti o n a c e r tai n

.
,

f o r c e must b e us e d which c an b e calculat e d qua n titativ e ly if

,

t he w e ight o f t he t r ai n a n d t h e r e qui r e d acc e l e r ati o n ar e k n o w n ;

o r t he acc e l e rati o n c an be d e t e r mi n e d if t he f o r c e a n d t he
trai n w e ight ar e giv e n T he m e th o d o f calculati o n is that
( .

i n dicat e d by e quati o n s ( 1 2 ) an d If t he f o r c e r e mai n s

c o n sta n t t he trai n will b e acc e l e r at e d at a u n if o r m rat e ; but if
,

t he f o rc e is variabl e t he acc e l e r ati o n will uctuat e c o rr e sp o n d

,

in gl y. If t he law o f var iati o n o f t he acc e l e rati n g f o rc e (t r activ e

e ff o r t ) c a n b e stat e d in t h e f o rm o f a n e quati o n th e n t he r e sulti n g ,

acc e l e r ati o n an d t he sp e e d at a n y i n sta n t c a n b e d e t e rmi n e d

a n alytically O rdi n ar ily t he r e lati o n b e tw e e n tractiv e e ffo r t
.
,

a n d tim e is s o i n t r icat e that n o e xac t e xp r e ssi o n fo r it c a n b e

f o u n d In an y cas e it is t o o c o mpl e x fo r e asy math e matical

.

a n alysis R e c o u r s e is usually had t o a g r aphical m e th o d o f

.

t r e atm e n t which facilitat e s t he calculati o n mat e r ially

, .

A s t he sp ee d o f t he t r ai n i n c r e as e s t he t r ai n r e sista n c e b e ,

c o m e s gr e at e r whil e at t he sam e tim e t he t r activ e e ffo r t as

, ,

suppli e d by n e a rly all m o tiv e p o w e r s dimi n ish e s A sp e e d will ,

.

b e r e ach e d wh e r e t he t r ai n r e sist a n c e will hav e i n cr e as e d t o a

p o i n t wh e r e it j ust e quals t he t r activ e e ffo r t It is e vide n t .

that th e r e c a n th e n b e n o furth e r acc e l e rati o n an d that t he ,

sp e e d must b e c o m e c o n sta n t at this limitin g valu e T his is .

o ft e n r e f e rr e d t o as t he bala n ci n g sp e e d It is always t he .

sam e fo r c o n sta n t c o n diti o n s but va r i e s with t he gr ad e a n d t he

,

o th e r i n cid e n tal r e s ista n c e s which may o ccur T he trai n will .

c o n ti n u e t o r un at this sp e e d u n til t he c o n diti o n s cha n ge o r u n til ,

p o w e r is cut o ff .

C o as tin g C urv e Wh e n n o p o w e r is suppli e d t o t he m o vi n g

.

t r ai n it will c o n ti n u e in m o ti o n but w ill b e r e ta r d e d at a r at e

, ,

which d e p e n ds o n t he valu e o f t he trai n r e sista n c e T his r e .

t ar d at io n b e c o m e s l e ss as t he sp e e d d e c r e as e s si n c e t h e t r ai n ,

r e s ista n c e dimi n ish e s w ith r e ducti o n in sp e e d In cas e t he trai n .

is o n a d o w n g r ad e which gi ve s a f o r c e g r e at e n o ugh t o e qual o r

3
34 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

e xc e e d t he t r ai n r e sista n c e t he t r ain w ill c o ast at c o n sta n t o r e v e n

,
l

i n c r e asi n g sp e e d .

Brak i n g C urv e
T o st o p a t r ai n by all o wi n g it t o c o ast t o a
.

sta n dstill w o uld b e imp r actical an d in s o m e cas e s imp o ssibl e ;

,

h e n c e a r e tardi n g f o r c e additi o n al t o t he trai n r e sista n c e must be

i n t r o duc e d t o c aus e m o r e r apid st o ppi n g T his f o rc e is o r di n ar ily
.

suppli e d by s o m e f o r m o f brak e In o rdi n a r y r ailway p r a ctic e

.

t he f o r c e suppli e d is d ue t o t he fr icti o n o f m e tallic S h o e s p r e ssi n g

agai n st t he tr e ads o f t he wh e e ls alth o ugh o th e r m e th o ds are
,

s o m e tim e s e mpl o y e d A discussi o n o f this t o pic is giv e n in

.
,

C hapt e r V I I .

T he dy n amic r e lati o n s whil e b r aki n g ar e pr e cis e ly t he sam e as

th o s e e xisti n g du rin g acc e l e rati o n e xc e pt that t h e mai n f o rc e is
,

r e v e rs e d in dir e cti o n T he acc e l e rati o n is th e r e f o r e n e gativ e

. .

Its valu e may b e d e t e rmi n e d qua n titativ e ly by t he ap plic a

ti o n o f t he sam e e quati o n s as us e d fo r a c o n sid e r ati o n o f ac
c e l e r at io n car e b e i n g tak e n that t he al g e b r aic sig n s ar e c o rr e ctly
,

i n te r p r e t e d .

C al c ul at i o n o f S pe e d T i m e C urv e s T he p r o bl e m o f pl o tti n g

.

t he sp e e d tim e curv e fr o m giv e n data is o n e which is c o n sta n tly

r e cu rr i n g in railway w o r k ; an d it is d e si r abl e t o hav e at ha n d a

simpl e an d accu r at e m e a n s o f maki n g t he d e t e r mi n ati o n An .

i n sp e cti o n o f e quati o n s ( 2 8 ) t o (3 2 ) giv e s t he basis o f t h e m e th o d

availabl e fo r maki n g t he c alcu lati o n .

T he m o st c o n v e n i e n t way o f d e t e r mi n i n g t he g r aphical r e pr e
s e n t at io n o f t h e sp e e d tim e r e lati o n is t o l o cat e p o i n ts o n a sh e e t

o f c o Or d in a t e pap e r fo r a n umb e r o f v alu e s lyi n g al o n g t he curv e ,

th e s e p o i n ts b e i n g tak e n su f ci e n tly cl o s e t o g e th e r t o giv e t he

r e qui r e d accu r acy a n d t he curv e pl o tt e d thr o ugh th e m
,
T he .

c l o s e r th e y a r e tak e n t o g e th e r t he m o r e ac cu r at e is t he c ur v e
,
.

T h e data giv e n in t he stat e m e n t o f t he p r o bl e m usually ar e t he

t r a c tiv e e ff o r t an d t he sp e e d t o which it c o rr e sp o n ds In o th e r .

w o r ds t h e i n f o r mati o n is that d e r iv e d fr o m t he charact e ristic

,

cu r v e o f t h e m o tiv e p o w e r such as t he c urv e o f t he s e ri e s railway

,

m o t o r Fig 1 9 Fr o m e quati o n s
,
. .
( 1 9 ) o r ( l 9 a) t h e acc e l e r a
ti o n p r o duc e d by t h e m o t o r tractiv e e ff o r t may b e f o u n d at o n c e .

T his giv e s us t he sp e e d an d t he c o r r e sp o n di n g valu e o f ac c e l e r a

ti o n fr o m which t he tim e must b e calculat e d T he m e a n s o f
,
.

d o i n g this is t o us e t he r e lati o n
 TH E M E C HA N I C S OF TRA C T I ON 5

( 2 8a )

T his
sh o ws at o n c e that th e r e is n o e asy way of g e tti n g t h e
summati o n o f t he tim e i n cr e m e n ts fo r a giv e n r un si n c e it is n o t ,

p o ssibl e t o hav e a simpl e e quati o n e xpr e ssi n g t he r e lati on b e tw e e n

sp e e d an d t r activ e e ff o rt o f t he m o tiv e p o w e r T he t o tal e laps e d .

tim e fr o m an y r e fe r e n c e p o i n t must b e t he summati o n o f a larg e

n umb e r o f i n cr e m e n ts ; an d t he r e sult o btai n e d d e p e n ds t o a
accuracy o f t he m e th o d e mpl o y e d fo r de
t he succ e ssiv e tim e i n cr e m e n ts An y graphical .

pl o tti n g sp ee d tim e curv e s thus c o n sists o f appr o xi

t he v alu e o f tim e c o rr e sp o n di n g t o a d e n it e acc e l e rati o n .

FI G . 12 .
D e t e rm in a t i o n of t im e in c r e m ent s .

I n t his gu re t h e in c r e m ent s dy an d dx a r e as s u m e d t o b e in n l
i t e s im a .

M r C O M ail l o ux has
. . .
l
re s o lv e d t he p r o bl e m i n t o t he f o ll o w
dy
in g f o rm G iv e n t he or di n at e ; y an d t he sl o p e of t he curv e
,
dx
at p o i n t of a cur v e t o n d t he abscissa at c or r e sp o n di n g t o
an y , , ,

t he o rdi n at e o r t he dista n c e o f t he o rdi n at e fr o m t he Y axis
,
-
.

T w cas e s e xist t he rst wh e r e t he S l o p e is p o sitiv e c o mp r isi n g

o ,

all acc e l e rati o n cu r v e s ; an d t he s e c o n d wh e r e t he S l o p e is n e gativ e ,

which i n clud e s all r e ta r dati o n curve s In t he f o rm e r cas e t he .

curv e s are usually c o n cav e t o t he X axis an d in t he latt e r may b e -

,

e ith e r c o n cav e o r c o n v e x t o it .

I n Fig 1 2 t h e curv e O EF r e pre s e n ts an y p o rti o n o f a sp e e d tim e

.
-

1
O . O . MA I L L O UX ,
No t es on t h e Pl o t t in g o f Sp ee d T i m e C urv e s ,
Tr a n s ac t ion s A . I . E E . .
, Vol . XIX ,
p 9 84
. Th e f o ll o w in g d i s c u s s io n
is b as e d on th i s p ape r .
36 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

curv e wit h a p o sitiv e sl o p e an acc e l e r ati o n cur v e ) C o n sid e r .

l i n e s draw n ta n g e n t t o t he curv e at vari o us p o i n ts as a b c d ef , , ,

.

'
Als o tak e t w o o rdi n at e s g an d y which ar e v e ry cl o s e t o g e th e r , ,

an d whi ch may b e assum e d t o i n clud e t he p o r ti o n o f t he sp e e d

tim e curv e at t he p o i n t o f ta n g e n cy E o f t he li n e ed Th e , ,
.

diffe r e n c e b e tw een th e s e is dy an d w e m ay writ e ,

dy a
y

T he c o rr e sp o n di n g diffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t he absciss a ,

dx = x x

In rd e r that t he t w o o rdi n at e s may b e c o n sid e r e d t o be at t he

o .

sam e p o i n t o f ta n g e n cy E t he dista n c e b e tw e e n th e m m ust b e

, ,

in n i t e ly small .

T he applicati on o f similar tria n gl e s t o Fig 1 2 giv e s t he r e lat i o n .

0 de
c a: dx

which e xpr es s e s t he w ell k n o w n fact that t he ordi n at e g at

-

t he p o i n t o f ta n g e n cy divid e d by t he sub ta n g e n t ex is a
,
-
,

m e asur e o f t he di ffe r e n tial at that p o i n t F r o m this r e lati o n t h e .

v alu e of c an be d e t e r mi n e d .

T heassumpti o n that has b ee n mad e that t he i n cr e m e n t o f ,

o r di n at e dy is i n n it e simal mak e s it o f n o v alu e in t he pl o tti n g

, , , ,

o f cu r v e s Fo r o rdi n ary purp o s e s it must b e i n cr e as e d t o s o m e

.

n it e valu e T his mak e s n e c e ssary a r e stat e m e n t o f e qua

.
-

ti o n s (33 ) an d ( 34 ) as f o ll o ws ( s e e Fig 1 3 ) .

ct r -
Ar

= A
V y
y

in which Ag is t he i n cr e m e n t o f o rdi n at e which c o rr e sp o n ds

t o t he i n cr e m e n t o f absc i ssa A x .

T he e ss e n tial diffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t he i nn it e simal an d t he

n it e stat e m e n ts as giv e n in e quati o n s ( 33 ) an d
,
a n d ( 3 6)

an d is that whil e in t he f o rm e r cas e t he o rdi n at e s ar e

tak e n s o cl o s e t o g e th e r that th e r e is n o app r e ciabl e di ff e r e n c e i n
t he valu e s of
3? wh e th e r m e asur e d by t he ta n g e n t at t he point
of t hecurv e hav in g t he o r di n at e y ,
or that with t he o r di n at e
T his is sh o w n in F ig 1 3

y , it may n o t h o ld tru e in t he latt e r . .
,
 TH E M E C H A N I C S OF TRA C T I ON 37

which is pu r p o s e ly e xa g g e r at e d . At t he p oint E , t he di ffe r e n tial

dy

dx

It may thus be s e e n that t he di ffe r e n tial c o e fci e n t ca n n o t b e

r e p r e s e n t e d by a n y si n gl e valu e wh e n t he i n c r e m e n t o f o r di n at e
is la r g e e no ugh that a mat e r ial cha n ge in t he m pe o f t he cu r v e
is i n clud e d .

The c o rr e ct valu e o f t he di ff e r e n ti al c o e fci e n t will in g e n e r al , ,

c o rr e sp o n d t o s o m e i n t e rm e diat e p o i n t such as D D r awi n g ,

.

FI G . 13 .
P ra c t i c a l m e t ho d fo r i
e s t m a t in g ac c e e r a t l i
In t his gu re t he s p eed in c r e m ent Ag , an d t he c orr e s p on d in g t im e in c r e m e nt Ax , ar e
n t v lu p
. ,

t afk e n as i e a es . C om ar e w it h F i g . 12 .

t he li n e gh parall e l t o t he ta n g e n t g h thr o ugh this p o i n t ,
t he
diffe r e n tial t r ia n gl e EF H is p ro duc e d which is similar t o ,
t he
di ffe r e n tial t r ia n gl e c o r r e sp o n di n g t o t he p o i n t D We . c an

A0
A 51:

wh e r e 330 , g o, c o o r di n at e s o f t he p o i n t D
ar e t he .

A n i n sp e ct i o n o f t h e t r ia n gl e s E m I EF H a n d E n J sh o ws t he ,

di ff e r e n c e in t he ma g n itud e o f Act as o bt a i n e d wh e n usi n g t he

valu e s o f diffe r e n tial c o rr e sp o n di n g t o x 90 0 an d x r e sp e ctiv ely , ,
.

In a maj o rity o f cu r v e s t he p o i n t D is app r o x imat e ly midway

,

b e twe e n E an d F W h e n y a n d y ar e tak e n sufci e n tly cl o s e

.

38 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

t o g e th e r t he e rr o r mad e by assumi n g this c o n diti on t o be tru e

,

b e c o m e s n e gligibl e T he v alu e o f t he d iffe r e n tial may th e n be

.

tak e n as that c o rr e sp o n di ng t o t he a ve rag e p oi nt b e tw ee n th o s e

o f y an d y s o that
,

'
T he cl o s e r t he v alu e s of y an d y ar e take n t o g e th e r t he small e r ,

will be t he e rr o r i n tr o duc e d by maki n g this appr o ximati on .

To tal F orc e fo r Train O pe rat io n A study o f t he fo re go m g

.
-

paragraphs i n dicat e s that a n umb e r o f f o rc e s ar e always pre s

e nt , which go v e r n t he t o tal am o u n t o f p o w e r which must be
supplie d t o t he m o v i n g trai n If a trai n is m o vi n g at c o n sta n t
.

spe e d thr o ugh still air o n a straight l e v e l t r ack t he o n ly f o rc e ,

r e quir e d is that t o o v e rc o m e t he n o r mal trai n r e sista n c e ; but

if it is o n a grad e o r o n a curv e o r in t he p r e s e n c e o f a n atural
, ,

wi n d a variati o n in t he fo rc e b e c o m e s n e c e ssary if t he trai n is

,

t o mai n tai n its sp e e d If t he sp e e d o f t he t r ain is cha n gi n g still

'

.
,

o th e r f o r c e s act .

T he laws o f m o ti o n S h o w that t he r e sulta n t o f all f o rc e s act

in g o n a b o dy is th e ir alg e braic o r v e ct o r sum S i n c e all t he.

f o rc e s which c o n c e r n t he m o v e m e n t o f trai n s act parall e l t o

t he track t he alg e braic sum giv e s a c o rr e ct r e pr e s e n tati o n o f
,

t he t o tal . U si n g t he f o ll o wi n g n o tati o n
R f o rc e fo r o v e rc o mi n g trai n r e sista n c e ,

G f o rc e fo r o v e rc o mi n g ( up ) grad e s ,

C f o rc e fo r o v e rc o mi n g curv e s ,

P f o rc e fo r pr o duci n g ( p o sitiv e ) acc e l e rati o n ,

F t o tal f o rc e t o b e suppli e d by t he m o ti v e p o w e r

,

w e may th e n stat e as an e quati o n t he val ue o f t o tal f o rc e

F = R i G + C i P (Q )
In this stat e m e n t t he valu e o f P must be take n t o i n clud e b o th
fo rc e fo r li n e ar an d fo r r o tati o n al acc e l e rati o n T he valu e o f C .

is p o siti ve o n up grad e s si n c e it acts as a re sista n c e o r O pp o s e s

, ,

t he f o rc e F ; o n d o w n grad e s it is n e gati v e T he val ii e o f P

.

is p o sitiv e wh e n t he sp e e d is i n c r e asi n g wh e n t he acc e l e ra

ti o n is p o sitiv e ) an d b e c o m e s n e gativ e wh e n t he sp e e d is de
,

cr e asi n g fr o m an y caus e In o th e r w o rds t he ki n e tic e n e rgy

.
,

i n cre as e s dir e ctly with t he ( squar e o f) sp e e d .

At t he e n d o f e v e r y practical r un it is n e c e ssary t o bri n g t he

,

trai n t o r e st by t he applicati o n o f an e xt e r n al r e ta r di n g f o rc e .
 TH E M E C H A N I CS OF TR A C T I ON 9

T his ph e n o m e n o n is k n o w n as braki n g an d will be tak en up in ,

d e tail in a lat e r chapt e r T he n e c e ssary valu e o f braki n g f o r c e

.

may h o w e ve r b e d e t e r mi n e d by an e quati o n similar t o t he o n e

, ,

ab o v e U si n g t he sam e n o tati o n an d calli n g t he e xt e r n al brak

.
,

in g f o rc e B w e hav e , ,

R G C + P ( 3)
4

It is t o b e n o t e d that t he si g n s o f R G an d C ar e r e v e r s e d ; ,

du r i n g r e tar dati o n th e s e r e sista n c e s hast e n t h e cha n g e o f v e l o city .

P is always p o sitiv e i e t he cha n g e in m o ti o n is always in t he

,
. .
,

sam e dir e cti o n as t he r e ta r di n g f o rc e in n o r mal b r aki n g ,

.

Pl o t t in g S pe e d Tim e C ur v e s

T he r e lati o n s o utli n e d ab o v e
giv e a practical m e th o d o f pl o tti n g sp e e d tim e cu r v e s T he
.

a rr a n g e m e n t i n v o lvi n g t he l e ast c o mplicati o n is t o mak e an

a n alytical calculati o n o f t he tim e i n c r e m e n ts (Ax) assumi n g ,

sp e e d i n cr e m e n ts (Ag) sufci e n tly cl o s e t o g e th e r t o ke e p t he

e r r o r withi n t he r e qui r e d limits T he accu r acy will d e p e n d o n .

t he c o n diti o n s o f t h e i n dividual pr o bl e m s o that n o d e n it e ,

limits fo r t he sp e e d i n cr e m e n ts c an b e stat e d It must be r e .

m e mb e r e d that t he calculati o n s ar e s o m e what t e di o us a n d n e e d ,

c o n sid e r abl e ca r e t o p r e v e n t i n ac c u r acy S i n c e t h e t i m e i n c r e

, .

m e n ts must b e add e d t o g e th e r t o giv e t h e t o tal tim e t he e rr o r s ,

a r e lik e ly t o b e cumulativ e a n d ca n n o t b e e xp e ct e d t o a n n ul o n e
,

a n o th e r .

In t he p ractical calculati o n t he tractiv e e ff o r t cu r v e o f t he ,

m o t o r is us ed t o ge t t he valu e s o f acc e l e r ati o n c o rr e sp o n di n g t o

v ari o us spe e ds F r o m this t he av e r ag e acc e l e rati o n du r i n g t he
.

I n cr e m e n t is f o u n d an d fr o m it t he tim e i n c r e m e n t
, T he t o tal .

e laps e d tim e is o btai n e d by addi n g t o g e th e r th e s e latt e r .

T o r e duc e t he lab o r i n cid e n t t o a lar g e n umb e r o f such calcula

ti o n s s e v e r al m e th o ds hav e b e e n adva n c e d t o d e t e r mi n e t he
,

spe e d tim e curv e g r aphically O f th e s e t he o n e m o st us e d is that

.
,

p r o p o s e d by M aill o ux l
In his m e th o d t h e t r activ e e ff o r t o f t he
.

m o t o r is r e plac e d by t he acc e l e r a ti o n which it will p r o duc e o n t he

giv e n e quipm e n t an d is pl o tt e d agai n st sp e e d as s h o w n in Fig 1 4
, ,
. .

T his is t e rm e d t h e gr o ss ac c e l e rati o n T he n e t acc e l e r ati o n .
,

which is t he o n e actually p r o duc e d o n t he t r ai n is d e t e rmi n e d by ,

subtr acti n g t he e quival e n t n e gativ e acc e l e rati o n d ue t o t he t r ai n

r e sista n c e T his is t he r e sult o n straight l e v e l t r ack W h e n
. .

1
C O MA ILL O UX
. .

N o t e s o n t h e P l o t t in g o f Sp e e d Tim e C u rve s
, ,

Tr an s ac t io n s A I E E V o l X I X p 9 8 4
. . . .
,
.
,
.
40 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

g r ad e s are e n c o u n t e r e d a c o n stan t f o rc e is i n t r o duc e d am o u n ti ng

, ,

t o 2 0 lb pe r t o n fo r e ach pe r c e n t o f grad e
. It is e vid e n t that
. .

t he o rdi n at e o f t he n e t acc e l e r ati o n curv e will be in c r e ase d o r

'

dimi n ish e d by t he c o r r e sp o n di n g am o u n t as sh o w n by t he ,

gu r e s at t he ri g ht o f t he char t .

l o w e ri n g t he bas e li n e t o t he
g r ad e C urv e s may b e simil
.

e ffe ct is always O pp o s e d t o t h e

H avi n g d e t e rmi n e d t he acc e l e rati o n at an y

fr o m a chart similar t o Fig 1 4 t he c o r r e sp o n di n g ti
.
,

may be f o u n d fr o m e quati o n ( 2 8a ) which may be ,

At = Av

10 20
S
p e ed Mi les pe r Ho ur

FIG . 14 .
C h a r t l i
o f a c c e e rat o n s .

1
T his no rmally In v o lv e s t he calculati o n of ; but if a
C
pl o tt e d b e tw e e n n atural n umb e rs an d th e ir r e cipr o cal s t he ,

valu e s o f a may b e tak e n fr o m t he c h art o f acc e l e rati o n s with

divid e r s o r by o th e r c o n v e n i e n t m e th o ds an d t he c o rre sp o n di n g
, ,

l
r e sult fo r re ad fr o m t he r e cipr o cal chart If t he sp e e d i n cr e
z
.

m e n t is u n ity it is e vid e n t that

,
t he tim e will b e gi v e n dir e ctly
 TH E M E C H A N I C S OF TR A C T I ON 41

by this m e th o d If it is d e sir e d t o use o th e r sp e e d i n cr e m e n ts a

.
,

se r i e s o f cu r v e s may be draw n b e tw ee n n atural n umb e rs a n d o n e

half o ne t e n th twic e t e n tim e s e t c t he actual valu e s o f r e cip
,
-
, , ,
.
,

r o c al s . W ith such a char t t he d e t e r mi n ati o n o f t he sp e e d time

curv e is r e lativ e ly quit e simpl e an d t he d e tail e d calculati o n s ar e

,

all disp e n s e d with It is e vid e n t that a n e w cu r v e o f acc e l e r a

-
.

ti o n s m ust be mad e fo r e ach di ff e r e n t m o t o r o r fo r t he sam e m o t o r ,

with diff e r e n t e quipm e n ts ; whil e t he chart o f r e cip r o cals is e qually

as e s .

P o w e r fo r Tr ain M o ve m e n t H avi n g d e t e rmi n e d t he f o r c e

nec e ssary fo r trai n pr o pulsi o n as in e quati o n ,
it is e asy t o
calculat e t he p o w e r r e qui r e d at an y i n sta n t if t he sp e e d be
k n0 w n T his is in h o r s e p o w e r
.
, ,

F 2)
55 0
(4 4 )

wh e re F is t he t o tal tractiv e e ffo rt in p o u n ds an d v t he sp e e d ,

in fe e t per s e c o n d If t he sp e e d is stat e d in mil e s pe r h o ur V t he

.
, ,

52 8 0 F V
60 X

To e xpr e ss t he p o we r in kil o watts , we ha v e

F 2)
( 5)
4

wh e r e F is in p o u n ds an d v in fe e t p e r se con d . U si n g sp e e d in
m il e s pe r h o ur this r e duc e s
, to
5 28 0 F V
KW
00 x
 C H A P TE R I II

M O TO R S F O R TRAC TI O N

Fun c t ion s of M o t ive P o w e r s A n y m o tiv e p o w e r fo r railway

s e rvic e has t wo d e n it e fu n cti o n s

1 . To l
a c c e era t e a t r ai nfr o m r e s t .

2 . To mai n t ai n it in mo t i o n at a pr e de t e rmi n e d S p e e d .

T he se fu n cti o n s may be p e r f o rm e d by alm o st an y f o rm o f

e l e ctric m o t o r n o w k n o w n ; but a fe w typ e s p o ss e ss i n h e r e n t

charact e ristics s o much b e tt e r suit e d t o t he purp o s e tha n t h e

o th e rs that th e y ar e us e d alm o st e xclusiv e ly .

El e c tric D is t rib utio n S y s t e m s El e ctrical apparatus I s usu

ally o p e rat e d o n o n e o f t w o w e ll de ne d syst e ms : t he c o n sta nt
-

curr e n t o r t he c o n sta n t p o t e n tial Alth o ugh it is n ot im

-
.

po ssibl e t o O p e rat e m o t o rs o n a m o vi n g v e hicl e fr o m a c o n sta n t

curr e n t supply t he difculti e s ar e so gr e at that aft e r a few
,

trials it has b e e n e n ti r e ly aba n d o n e d fo r this s e rvic e T he .

c o n sta n t p o t e n tial syst e m o n t he o th e r ha n d r e adily l e n ds it

-
, ,

s e lf t o t he pu r p o s e o f distributi n g e n e rgy in larg e o r small

am o u n ts an d is e sp e cially adapt e d for s e rvi n g m o vm g cars o r

,

l o c o m o ti v e s Its use has b e e n s o v e ry suc c e ssful that at t he

.

p r e s e n t tim e it is t he o n ly syst e m o f dist r ibuti o n e mpl o y e d

o n e l e ct r ic railways T he e n tir e discussi o n o f e l e ctrical e quip
.

m e n t in this b o o k will be c o n n e d t o a c o n sid e rati o n o f c o n sta n t

p o t e n tial syst e ms .

T he syst e ms fo r supply o f e l e ct r ical e n e r gy may b e fu r th e r

classi e d acc o rdi n g t o t he ki n d o f curr e n t : alt e r n ati n g o r dir e ct .

W ith t he latt e r th e r e c an b e but o n e variati o n in t he c o n diti o n s

o f t he supply t he li n e pr e ssur e T he f o rm e r may b e o f any
.

c o mm e rcial p o t e n tial fr e qu e n cy o r phas e ; fo r railway s e rvic e

,

a c o mparativ e ly limit e d n umb e r o f p o t e n tials an d fre q ue n

ci e s hav e b e e n sta n dardiz e d an d t he thr e e phas e a n d si n gl e
,
-

phas e syst e ms ar e us e d e xclusiv e ly wh e n alt e r n ati n g curr e n t is

e mpl o y e d .

C la s s i at io n o f El e c tri c M o t o r s El e ctric m o t o rs o f all

42
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 43

typ e s may b e classi e d e ith e r acc o r di ng t o t he ki n d of circuit

hich th e y may be o p e rat e d o r t o th e ir i n h e re n t char
,

I n t he f o rm e r classicati o n t h e n atu r al divisi on s ,

ar e alt e r n ati n g cur r e n t a n d dir e ct curr e n t T he m o st im .

pes o f m o t o rs a r e list e d b e l o w .

OP ER AT I ON A L TE R NAT ING -C U RR E NT C I R C U I T S

P o lyp hase (t hr e e p hase ) -

S y n c hr o n o us
A s y n c h r o n o us
In duc t i o n
S q ui rr e l c age-

Wo u n d se c o n d ar y W o un d se c o n dar y
C o m mu t at o r C ommu t at o r
Se r i e s Vari ous t y pe s
Pl ai n
C o mp e n s at e d
C o n duc t ive
In d uct iv e

M OTO R S FOR O P ER AT I ON ON D I R E C T -C U RR E NT C I R C U I T S

S e ri e s
Shun t
C o m p o un d
C umul at ive w i n di n g
D i ff e r e n t i al w i n di n g .

T he pri n cipal charact e r istics o f t he vari o us typ e s o f m o t o r s

ar e th o s e o f t o rqu e an d sp e e d O f t he t wo it is much m o re
.
,

us e ful t o classify th e m as r e gards t he latt e r I n this tabl e o n ly .

t w o sp e e d classicati o n s ar e giv e n : c o n sta n t a n d variabl e .

S e v e ral o f t he m o t o rs may hav e p e r f o r ma n c e which is i n t e r

m e diate b e tw e e n tru e c o n sta n t sp e e d an d what is k n o w n as

v ar iabl e sp ee d S uch typ e s hav e e ith e r b e e n o mitt e d o r
.

i n clu de d with o n e o r t he o th e r class .

C L A S S IFI C AT I ON AS R E G A R D S S P E E D C H A R A C TE R I S T I C S :

C o n s t an t s p ee d V ari able S p e e d
Shun t d ir ec t c ur r e n t S e r i e s dir e c t c urre n t
S yn c hron o us S e r i e s al t ern at i n g c urre n t
I nduc t ion R e p ul sio n
D iff e r en t i al C umul at ive c omp o un d
44 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

C o n sid e rrst t he t w o p r i n cipal typ e s o f di r e ct curre n t m o t o r s -

,

t he shu n t w o u n d an d t he s e ri e s w o u n d machi n e s
-
T he e n ti r e
-
.

di ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m li e s in t he c o n n e cti o n s o f t he e ld
win di n gs in t he f o rm e r t he e ld b e i n g c o n n e ct e d in s e r i e s with
,

t he armatur e an d in parall e l with it in t he latt e r typ e

, T he .

shu n t m o t o r havi n g its e ld e xcit e d by a wi n di n g c o n n e ct e d

,

t o t he supply circuit i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he armatur e has a e ld ,

o f s e n sibly c o n sta n t mag n e ti c str e n gth ; whil e in t h e s e ri e s machi n e

t he e ld str e n gth is dir e ctly d e p e n d e n t o n t he curr e n t d r aw n

thr o ugh t he armatur e .

In an y e l e ctric m o t o r t he t o r qu e
T o r q ue C hara c t e ris tic s .
,

de ve l o p e d by t he armatur e is pr o p o rti o n al t o t he pr o duct o f t he

10 0 15 0 200
Curre n t , Am pe re s .

FI G . 15 .
C h ara c t e r is t i c c ur ve s o f s hu n t m o t o r .

e ld ux t he n umb e r an d arr a n ge m e n t o f c o n duct o r s

,

armatur e an d t he curr e n t thr o ugh th e m In t he cas e o f a m o to r

,
.

havi n g a c o n sta n t e ld st r e n gth t he t o rqu e is di r e ctly pr O ,

po rti o n al t o t he a r matur e curr e n t si n c e fo r an y particular d e sign

,

t he n umb e r o f a r matur e c o n duct o rs is x e d T his is sub .

s t an t iall y t he c o n diti o n which e xists in t he shu n t m o t o r Al .

th o ugh th e r e is a small r e ducti o n o f e ld ux with i n c r e as e o f

armatur e curr e n t t he e ld str e n gth may b e c o n sid e r e d s e n sibly
,

c o n sta n t h e n c e a curve draw n b e tw e e n a r matu r e cu r r e n t an d

,

t o rqu e will b e practically a s t r aight li n e as sh o w n in Fig 1 5 ,

. .
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C TI ON 5

C o n sid e r a m o t o r wh o se e ld cu r r e n t is p r o p o rti o n al t o its

'

ar matur e cu rr e n t t he p e rm e ability o f t he mag n e tic circuit r e

,

Th e e ld ux is th e n dir e ctly pr o p o rti o n al

rre m t an d t he t o rqu e d e p e n di n g as it d o e s o n,

t he pr o duct o f t h e e ld ux an d t he a r matu r e curr e n t va r i e s as ,

t he s quar e o f t he la t t e r (s e e curv e A Fig S uch a re l at io n

,
.

w o uld e xist in t he cas e o f a s e r i e s m o t o r with an u n satu r at e d

magn e tic circuit Pr actically it is n o t attai n able due t o
.
, ,

var iati o n s in t he p e rm e ability o f ma gn e tic mat e rials with chan ge s

in mag n e ti z i n g fo rc e .

50 IOO 150
C ur r e nt Am e re s
,
p
FI G . 16 . C h a r a c t e r is t i c
-
c ur ve s i
of s e r es m ot or.

In t he last e xampl e if t he ar e a o f t he magn e tic circuit b e r e

,

s t r ic t e d t he e ld will b e c o m e
,
saturat e d with large valu e s o f

c u rr e n t
. As o rdi n arily us e d t he t e rm saturati o n d o e s n o t
,

imply that th e r e is n o gai n in ux with i n c r e as e o f magn e tizi n g

cu r r e n t E v e n th o ugh t he mag n e tic mat e r ial w e r e i n capabl e o f
.

ca r r yi n g an y furth e r i n ducti o n tha n a c e rtai n maximum valu e ,

t he ux w o uld vary with t he mag n e ti z i n g cur r e n t at t he sam e

r at e as it w o uld with a mag n e tic ci r cuit c o mp o s e d wh o lly o f air .

T his c o n diti o n is far b e y o n d an y mag n e tic d e n siti e s us e d in

46 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

practic e S i n c e h o w e v e r t he cha n ge in ux is no t pr o po rti o n al

.
, ,

t o t he variati o n o f e ld cur r e n t t h e t o rqu e wi ll b e l e ss tha n in t he

,

case o f t he u n saturat e d m o t o r Th e t o r qu e curr e n t curv e will

.
'

thus l ie b e tw e e n t h o s e fo r t he shu n t m o t o r an d t he u n saturat e d

s e ri e s m o t o r ( curv e B Fig ,
.

S pe e d C h arac t e r is ti c s
The c o u n t e r e m f o f a dir e ct curr e n t
. . . .
-

m o t o r is pr o p o rti o n al t o t h e pr o duct o f e ld ux t h e ,

arra n ge m e n t o f c o n duct o rs o n t he armatur e an d its sp e e d ; ,

10 0 15 0 200
C u r re n t Am p ere s
, .

FI G . 17 .
C om p ar is o n o f s e r ie s a n d s h un t m o t o rs .

t he latt e r vari e s dir e ctly with t he c o u n t e r e m f a n d . . .

with t he e ld ux S i n c e t he fall o f p o t e n tial d ue t o r e sista n c e

.

o f t he m o t o r wi n di n gs is a c o mparativ e l y small am o u n t t he ,

c o u n t e r e m f t o be d e v e l o p e d is n e a r ly c o n sta n t an d it f o ll o ws
. . . ,

that t he sp e e d o f a m o t o r with a c o n sta n t e ld str e n gth vari e s

but littl e with t he armatur e curr e n t . This is practically t he case
o f t he S hu n t m t
o o r t h e dr o p i
,
n sp e e d fr o m n o l o ad t o full l o ad
b e i n g quit e small in a w e ll d e sign e d machi n e ( Fig - .

In a m t
o o r wh o s e e ld str e n gth is pr o p o r t i o n al t o t h e armatur e

curr e n t such as t he hyp o th e tical u n saturat e d s e ri e s m o t o r t he
,

,
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 47

spe e d must fall in i n v e r s e pr o p o rti o n t o t he armatur e curre n t fo r ,

it vari e s i n v e rs e ly with t he e ld ux T he sp e e d cur ve o f such a

.

machi n e is an e quilat e ral hype rb o la as sh o w n at A Fig 1 6 Fo r , , . .

t he p r actical s e r i e s m o t o r with saturat e d e ld t he d e cr e as e o f

, ,

spe e d with l o ad is l e ss rapid (B Fig ,
It will h o w e v e r fall
.
, ,

muc h m o r e tha n is t he cas e with t he shu n t m o t o r o f e qual

rati n g .

Fr o m t he pr e c e di n g discussi o n it may be n o t e d that fo r valu e s

o f cu rr e n t b e l o w full l o ad t h e shu n t m o t o r g iv e s m o r e t o rqu e

e amp e r e tha n t h e s e r i e s m o t o r whil e ab o v e this p o i n t t he c o n

p r ,

dit io n s ar e r e ve rs e d . Wh e r e a l ar ge a m o un t o f t o rqu e is n e e d e d
at r e duc e d sp e e ds as in t he case o f starti n g a trai n t he s e ri e s
, ,

m o t o r giv e s a c e rtai n tractiv e e ffort with l e ss l o ad o n t he li n e

tha n t he shu n t m o t o r If t he S hu n t m o t o r an d t he s e ri e s m o t o r
.

ar e o f e qual capacity t he fo rm e r will b e abl e t o acc e l e r at e t h e

,

t r ai n at t he maximum rat e practically up t o its full sp e e d ; but

this is c o n sid e r ably l o w e r tha n t he maximum sp e e d o f t he c o r
r e sp o n di n g s e r i e s machi n e In cas e a c o mparis o n is d e si r e d o n t he
.

basis o f m o t o r s havi n g t he sam e bala n ci n g o r fr e e ru n n i n g -

spe e d th e y will be as sh o w n in Fig 1 7 He r e t he s e ri e s m o t o r is

,
. .

t he sam e as in t he p r e ce di n g c o mpa r is o n but t he charact e ristics ,

o f t he shu n t m o t o r ar e cha n g e d by g e a r i n g o r o th e r wis e t o

, ,

i n cre as e t he sp e e d with o ut cha n gi n g t he h o rs e p o w e r o utput .

T he t o r qu e is c o r r e sp o n di n gly l o w e r e d It will b e s e e n at o n c e
.

that this shu n t m o t o r ca n n o t p o ssibly giv e t he sam e acc e l e r ati n g

t o r qu e as t he s e r i e s m o t o r with o ut imp o si n g an e xc e ssiv e o v e rl o ad
o n t he f o r m e r ; a n d t he t o rqu e c o r r e sp o n di n g t o a giv e n valu e o f

curr e n t is much l e ss tha n fo r t he s e r i e s m o t o r T he shu n t m o t o r .

has o n e adva n tag e in that it c an acc e l e r at e t he t r ai n at t he

,

maxim um rat e up t o practicall y full sp e e d T his pa r tially but

. .
,

n o t wh o lly c o mp e n sat e s fo r t he l o w e r acc el e rati o n si n c e t he

, ,

s e ri e s m o t o r c an o n ly p r o duc e its max imum t o rqu e up t o ab o ut

half sp e e d T his adva n tag e is slight as may b e s e e n fr o m
.
,

F ig 1 8 which sh o ws sp e e d t im e curv e s pr o duc e d by t he applica

.
,

ti o n t o t he sta r ti n g o f a particular t r ai n o f e ach o f t he th r e e

m t rs c o sid e e d T he sp e e d tim e curv e s ar e bas e d o n t he ap
o o n r .

plicati o n o f a maximum valu e o f o n e an d o n e half tim e s full -

l o ad curr e n t duri n g t he acc e l e rati o n p e r i o d T he s e r ie s m o t o r .

giv e s t he high e st acc el e rati o n but this falls o ff fr o m ab o ut half

,

spe e d u p t o full sp e e d which is r e ach e d o n ly aft e r a l o n g tim e

,
.

T he shu n t m o t o rs o n t h e o th e r ha n d giv e maximum acc e l e r a

, ,
48 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

ti o n u n til t he full ru n n i n g sp e e d is r e ach e d aft e r which t he ,

sp e e d is c o n sta n t .

T he adva n tag e o f t he s e r i e s m o t o r is gr e at e st wh e re t he run is

r e lativ e ly sh o rt I n ma n y railways e sp e cially th o s e o f t he rst
.
,

a n d s e c o n d class e s me n ti o n e d in C hapt e r I t he m o t o rs ar e n o t ,

all o w e d t o ac c e l e r at e up t o t he p o i n t wh e r e full sp e e d is attai n e d ,

but t he car is st o pp e d aft e r a r e lativ e ly sh o rt p e r i o d o f o p e r ati o n .

W ith l o n g ru n s t he tim e sp e n t in acc e l e rati o n is c o mparativ e ly

,

u n imp o rta n t an d a l o w e r rat e is p e rmissibl e F o r this latt e r

, .

s e rvic e t he shun t m o t o r w o uld hav e t he ad v a n tag e o f Op e r ati n g

at p r actically c o n sta n t sp e e d u n d e r all c o n diti o n s o f track T he .

LOO 40

IO

Tim e, 6 e c o nd5

FI G . 18 .
C om p arat ive s p e e d t im-
e c ur ve s i
w t h ser ies an d s h un t m o t o rs .

adva n tag e s o f t he s e ri e s typ e o f m o t o r s o far o utw e igh th o s e o f

t he shu n t that up t o t he pr e s e n t tim e t he latt e r ha s n o t b e e n
,

s e ri o usly c o n sid e r e d fo r tracti o n Its c o u n t e rpart fo r alt e r n ati n g

.

curr e n t O p e rati o n t he p o lyphase i n ducti o n m o t o r has n o t o nly

, ,

r e c e i v e d fa v o rabl e att e n ti o n but is actually us e d in a lar ge

,

n umb e r o f e quipm e n ts o p e r ati n g in E u r o p e T his succ e ss is .

par tly due t o t he fact that it is t he m o st rugg e d an d e i c ie n t typ e

o f alt e r n ati n g curr e n t m o t o r y e t d e sig n e d
- .

Th e D ir e c C urr e n S e r e s M o t o
t t - i r T h e dir e ct curr e n t s e r i e s
.
-

m o t o r has b e e n us e d for tracti o n e v e r si n c e t he r st p r actical

e l e ctric r o ads w e r e built O th e r typ e s o f m o t o r hav e b e e n us e d
.

fr o m tim e t o tim e but n o n e has t he e xc e ll e n t o perati n g charac

,

t er is t ic s o f t he s e ri e s machine S i n c e ab o ut 9 7 pe r c e n t o f all t he
. .
 M O TOR S F OR TRA C T I ON 49

l ctric railway mil e ag e in t he U n it e d S tat e s is o p e rat e d with

e e

dir e ct curr e n t s e r i e s m o t o r s a car e ful study o f th e i r char act e r istics

-
,

is n e c e ssa r y .

T he g e n e ral p e r f o rma n c e o f this typ e o f mo t o r has al r e ady b e e n

discuss e d b r i e y T he salie n t charact e r istics ar e a t o rqu e which
.

in c r eas e s with t he l o ad at a rat e g r e at e r tha n t he rst p o w e r o f t he

curr e n t an d a sp e e d which falls o ff r a pidly with it e sp e cially at

, ,

t he small e r l o ads T h e s e curv e s may b e s e e n in F ig 1 9 which

. .
,

giv e s t he p e r fo rma n c e o f a 56 kw ( 1 hr rat in g) railway m o t o r

. . .

140 35

120 30

100 25 100

20 5 20

10 0 150
Cur re nt ,
Am pe res .

FI G . 19 .
C u rv e s fo r t yp i c a l i
s e r e s ra i lw a y m ot o r.

Variat io n of S pe e d C harac t e ri s t i c
must b e n o t e d that . It
-

alth o ugh t he s e r i e s m o t o r is usually r e fe rr e d t o as a variabl e

sp e e d machi n e th e r e is fo r a n y giv e n valu e o f t o r qu e a c o r
,

r e sp o n di n g d e n it e sp e e d at which t he m o t o r will o p e rat e ; s o th at ,

if t he tractiv e e ffo rt is c o n sta n t t he m o t o r will run at o n e x e d

,

sp e e d If it is n e c e ssary that a t r ai n b e pr o p e ll e d at var yi n g

.

S p e e ds wh e n t he t r ack ali g n m e n t is u n if o r m s o m e m e a n s must b e ,

i n t r o duc e d i n t o t he e quipm e n t by which t he m o t o r sp e e d will b e

alt e re d t o suit t he c o n diti o n s O n e p o ssibl e m e th o d o f d o i n g this
.
50 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

is by cha n gi n g t he g e ar rati o T his m e a n s is actually e m .

in t he gas o li n e aut o m o bil e It is n o t h o w e ve r n e c e ssary .

, ,

such a m e th o d with t he s e ri e s m o t o r S in Ce a variati o n ,

e m f suppli e d t he m o t o r will c aus e a cha n g e

. . .

giv e n tractiv e e ffo rt .

T he sp e e d charact e r istic may be r e adily alt e r e d by v aryi n g t he .

p o t e n tial at t he m o t o r t e rmi n als ; this may be acc o mplish e d

dir e ctly by cha n gi n g t he e m f suppli e d t he m o t o r o r by placi n g . . .
,

r e sista n c e in s e r i e s with it D e tails o f m e th o ds fo r s e curi n g th e s e .

r e sults will b e tak e n up in C hapt e r V .

T he c o u n t e r e m f d e v e l o p e d by a dir e ct curr e n t m o t o r
. . .
-

o p e rati n g o n a c o n sta n t p o t e n tial circuit must be e qual t o t he -

imp r e ss e d e m f l e ss t he I R dr o p in t he wi n di n gs S i n c e t he
. . . .

r e sista n c e o f a w e ll d e sig n e d m o t o r is quit e l o w t he I R dr o p

-
,

will b e but a small p o rti o n o f t he impr e ss e d p o t e n tial ; it is ra r e l y

m o r e tha n o n e t e n th o f this valu e e v e n at h e avy l o ads T he
-
.

c o u n t e r e m f must th e r e f o r e b e n e arly c o n sta n t Its v al u e

. . . .

d e p e n ds o n t w o fact o rs : t he sp e e d o f t he a r matur e an d t he ,

e ld ux F o r t he e m f d e v e l o p e d in an y c o n duct o r vari e s
. . . .

dire ctly as t he ux d e n sity t he sp e e d t he l e n gth o f t he c o n , ,

duct o r a n d its arra n g e m e n t with r e sp e ct t o t he e ld an d t he

,

dir e cti o n o f m o ti o n W h e r e s e v e r al c o n duct o rs ar e c o n n e ct e d

.

t o g e th e r t he e m f als o d e p e n ds o n t he n umb e r o f th e m an d
,
. . .

th e i r a r ra n g e m e n t In t he cas e o f a n a r matur e th e s e fact o r s are

.

x e d fo r a particular d e sig n an d may b e i n clud e d in a g e n e ral ,

c o n sta n t W e may th e r e fo r e writ e

.

E.

wh e r e E is t he c o u n t e r ( o r dir e ct ) e m f d e v e l o p e d by an arma
, . . .

tur e k is a c o n sta n t d e p e n di n g o n t he d e sig n o f t he wi n di n g <I>

, ,

is t he e ld ux cut by t he c o n du ct o r s a n d n is t he sp e e d o f r e vo l u
ti o n T his e quati o n may als o b e writt e n
.

n :

or, in th e r w o rds t he sp e e d o f a m o t o r vari e s dir e ctly with

o ,

t he c o u n t e r e m f an d i n v e rs e ly with t he e ld ux
. . . .

S i n c e t he c o u n t e r E may be r e pr e s e n t e d in t e rms o f
'

t he im pr e ss e d p o t e n t ial o r ,

E Ir
 M O TOR S F O R TR A C T I ON 1

wh e re E is t he impre ss e d I t he armatur e curr e n t an d r ,

t he r e sista n c e thr o ugh which that curr e n t has t o p as s e quati o n ,

( 1 a ) may b e r e writt e n

E Ir

10 0 15 0 20 0
C u r r e mt , Am pe re s

20 .

Sp e e d c ur ve s fo r i
ser es m o t or w th i r e duc e d p o t e n t ial s .

C o n sid e r d e n it e valu e o f curr e n t I 1 I n t he s e ri e s m o t o r

an y ,
.

this d e t e rmi n e s b o th t he I R d r o p an d t he e ld ux (I) Fo r ,

.

vari o us valu e s o f appli e d E 1 E 2 t he sp e e d may be f o u n d

, ,

by dire ct pr o p o rti o n .

722 E2 1 27 '

T his latte r e xpr e ssi o n ( 4 a ) may be c o n v e n i e n tly us e d fo r

d e t e rmi n i n g t he sp e e d o f t he m o t o r wh e n a n y p o t e n tial o th e r
52 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

tha n normal is impr e ss e d o n its te r mi n als T he c ur ve s o f .

S pe e d fo r t he 56 kw m o t o r sh o w n i n Fig 1 9 ar e r e draw n i n Fig

. . .

2 0 at o n e half p o t e n tial ( 2 50 v o lts ) a n d at o n e f o urth p o t e n tial

-

( 1 2 5 v o lts ) It .may b e s e e n f r o m th e s e curv e s that t h e spe e d

is slightly l e ss tha n half its n o rmal v alu e wh e n t he p o t e n tial is

r e duc e d t o o n e half an d s o m e what l e ss tha n o n e f o ur th t he
-
,
-

n o rmal valu e wh e n t he p o t e n tial is r e duc e d t o o n

is b e caus e t he I R dr o p is a larg e r pr o p o rti o n o f t he t o tal

,

t he impr e ss e d e m f . . .

100 150 20 0 2 50
Am pe r e s
FI G . 21 S
. pe ed c ur ve fo r i
s er es m ot o r w it h e x t e rn a l i
r e s s t an c e .

Variat ion of S pe e d with R e s is t an c e th e r m e th o d o f .

T he o

cha n gi n g t he sp e e d by v ariati o n in p o t e n tial is by t he i n s e rti o n

o f r e sista n c e in s e ri e s with t h e m o t o r Its acti o n may b e d e t e r
.

mi n e d by applicati o n o f t he m e th o d o f e quati o n as sh o w n by
t he f o ll o wi n g r e lati o n
E1 I I (R T)

E1 11 7
'

wh e r e n 1 is t he n o rmal sp ee d at curr e n t I 1 t he sp ee d with an ,

e xt e r n al r e sista n c e R i n tr o duc e d i n t o t he circuit a n d t he o th e r ,

valu e s as b e f o r e In Fig 2 1 is S h o w n t he sp e e d cur ve fo r t he

. .

m o t o r o f Fig 1 9 with a n e xt e r n al r e sista n c e o f f o ur tim e s t he m o t o r

.
 M O TOR S FOR TRA C T I ON 3

r e sista n c e add e d in s e ri e s w ith it It may be n o t e d that t he e ffe ct

.

o f this add e d r e sista n c e is quit e small at light l o ads ; but at

h e avy l o ads t he sp e e d is r e duc e d u n til t he m o t o r is b r o ught t o a

sta n dstill In o rd e r t o o btai n t he sam e sp e e d r e ducti o n at light
.

l o ads t he e xt e r n al r e sista n c e w o uld n e e d t o b e c o n sid e r ably

g r e at e r .

T o r q ue C harac t e ris ti c It is als o n e c e ssar y t o d e t e r mi n e

.
-

t he e ff e ct o f t he ab o v e cha n g e s o n t he t o r qu e cha r act e ristic o f

t he m o t o r
. T he p r o ducti o n o f t o rqu e d e p e n ds o n t he fu n da
.

m e n tal pri n cipl e that a c o n duct o r car r yi n g a curr e n t t e n ds t o b e

push e d sid e wis e o ut o f a n y mag n e tic e ld in which it is situat e d .

T he v alu e o f this push vari e s di r e ctly with t he curr e n t with ,

t he ux d e n sity a n d with t he l e n gth o f t he armatur e c o n

,

duc t o r s an d th e ir n umb e r an d a r ra n g e m e n t Fo r an y par .

t ic ul ar m o t o r th e y ar e p e r ma n e n tly arra n g e d s o that w e hav e ,

D = k<I>I

wh e r e D is t he t o rqu e pr o duc e d by t he m o t o r k t he wi n di n g c o n ,

sta n t I) t he e ld ux an d I t he curr e n t thr o ugh armatur e a n d

,
(
,

e ld It may b e s e e n at o n c e that fo r a giv e n valu e o f curr e n t

.
,

t he t o rqu e o f t h e s e r i e s m o t o r is x e d si n c e t he a r matu r e curr e n t

,

als o d e t e rmi n e s t he e ld stre n gth C ha n g e s in p o t e n tial ha v e.

n o e ffe ct o n t he t o r qu e charact e ristic o f t h e s e ri e s m o t o r an d ,

o n ly s e r v e t o vary t he sp ee d at which a n y t o rqu e is pr o duc e d

1
.

Variat io n o f Fie l d S tr e n gt h I n c e rtai n cas e s it may b e f o u n d

.
-

d e sirabl e t o vary t he e ld str e n gth o f t he s e ri e s m o t o r S i n c e .

t he e ld a n d armatur e d r aw th e ir cu r r e n t thr o ugh t h e sam e

s e r i e s circuit it is n e c e ssar y t o div e rt a p o r ti o n o f it fr o m t he
,

e ld wi n di n g o r t o actually r e duc e t he n umb e r o f tu r n s o n t he

c o ils ,
in o rd e r t o dimi n ish t he ux Eith e r o f th e s e m e th o ds
.

may b e us e d in p r actic e as is e xplai n e d in C hapt e r V T he

,
.

t w o m e th o ds hav e t he sam e e ffe ct o n t he cha r act e r istic

p e rf o rma n c e .

R e f e r r i n g t o e quati o n ( 1 a ) it may b e s e e n that t he sp e e d o f a

,

m o t o r var i e s i n v e r s e ly with t he e ld ux T his latt e r d e p e n ds .

o n t he e ld cu r r e n t ; but t he r e lati o n is n o t a dir e ct o n e T he .

mag ne tic circuit is mad e up o f a n umb e r o f mat e r ials with

1 A sm a ll l o s s e s an d in t he m agn e t i c re l at io n s w ill c aus e a s l ight
c h an g e in
diff e re n c e in t h e t o r q ue p ro du c e d un de r d iff e re n t c o n d it i o n s b u t t h e s e ,

c han g e s a re s o s m all a s t o h ave l i t t l e e ff e c t o n t he ge n e ral f o r m an d va lu e

o f t he t o r q ue c h arac t e r is t ic .
54 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

di ff e r e n t mag n e tic charact e ristics an d wid e ly varyi n g are a of

cr o ss s e cti o n s o that t he ux d e n siti e s ar e quit e di ffe r e n t in
-
, ,

v ari o us parts o f t he circuit T he ability o f a mat e rial t o carry

.

ux d e p e n ds o n its p e rme ability an d this v ari e s wid e ly with ,

.

di ffe r e n t v alu e s o f mag n e tizi n g f o rc e an d with t he physical an d

ch emical c o mp o siti o n o f t he mat e r ial T o d e t e rmi n e t he r e .

lati o n b e tw e e n t he mag n e tizi n g f o rc e an d t he ux

it w o uld n e c e ssitat e taki n g t he saturati o n curv e o f t
I n t he s e ri e s m o t o r h o w e v e r th e r e is a m e th o d fo r
, ,

rel at ive v alu e s o f ux fr o m t he p e rf o rma n c e cur v e s .

10 0 150
CUrre nt , Am peres .

FI G . 22 .
Fl ux c ur ve fo r s e rie s m o t o r .

q p x
T h e t o r u e ( o r a p r o i m at e ly t h e t r ac t i v e e ff o r t ) p e r am p ere is a dir e c t m e a s ur e o f t he
l
e d u x in t h e s e r ies m o t o r .

( )
6 giv e s t he r e lati o n b e tw ee n t o rqu e ux an d curr e n t If ,
.

t he t o rqu e an d curr e n t ar e k no w n ( as fo r e xampl e th e y ar e ,

gi ve n in t he curv e s o f Fig 19 ) a r e sult may be o btai n e d p r o

.

p o rti o n al t o t he v alu e s o f ux

A cur v e pl o tt e d b e tw e e n t o rqu e pe r amp e r e an d amp e r e s ( Fig .

2 2 ) will th e n r e pr e s e n t t he variati o n in ux with m ag n e t iz m g

 M O TOR S F OR TRA C TI ON 55

f or c e T his r e lati o n o nly h olds tru e in t he cas e o f m o t o rs wh o se

.

e ld curr e n t i s t he sam e as o r vari e s dir e ctly with t he l o ad

curr e n t If t he e ld ux o f a m o t o r r e mai n c o n sta n t as in t he
.
'

shu n t m o t o r t he t o rqu e vari e s dire ctly with t he l o ad curr e n t

, ,

acc o rdi n g t o e quati o n

T o d e t e rmi n e t he p e r f o r ma n c e o f a m o t o r wh o s e e ld str e n gth
has be e n cha n g e d fr o m t he n o rmal valu e t he t o rqu e sh o uld be ,

t ake n c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t he n o rmal e ld st r e n gth an d its varia ,

ti o n f o u n d fr o m t he rat io o f valu e s o f e ld ux If t he armature .

cu rr e n t is t he sam e in b o th cas e s t he t o rqu e will b e in dire ct

,

( 8)

wh er e D 1 an d D2 ar e val u e s o f t o rqu e c orr e sp o n di n g to no rmal

e ld ux (P
1 an d cha n ge d e ld ux (Pg r e sp e ctiv e ly . W e may

I2
<>

(P
I

Si n ce ly t he r e lativ e valu e s o f ux ar e n e e d e d th e y may

on , be
fo u nd fr o m t he val u e s o f t o rqu e pe r amp e r e as i n dicat e d , in

T he ct o n t he sp e e d o f w e ak e n i n g t he e ld may b e s e en
e ff e

fr o m e quati o n T he sp e e d will vary i n v e r s e ly with t he ux ,

s o that fo r a d e c r e as e in ux t h e sp e e d will b e c o rr e sp o n di n gly

g r e at e r If n l b e t he sp e e d with n o rmal e ld ux an d n z t he
.
,

sp e e d with cha n g e d e ld ux th e n w e hav e ,

(9 )

wh e r e n l an d 71 2 are t he valu e s o f sp e e d c o r r e sp o n di n g t o n o r m al
e ld ux <I> 1 an d cha n ge d e ld ux <I> 2 r e sp e ctive ly Fr o m this w e .

may writ e

As with t he t o r qu e o nly r e lativ e valu e s o f t he ux which may b e

, ,

f o u n d fr o m e quati o n ar e n e e d e d fo r t he s o luti o n o f t h e

e quati o n .

T he e ff e ct on t he charact e ristic cu r v e s o f t he s e r i e s m o t o r o f
r e duci n g t he e ld amp e r e tur n s t o o n e half t he n o r mal v alu e is
-

sh o w n in Fig 2 3 It sh o uld b e n o t e d that alth o u g h t he mag n e t o

. .
56 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

m o tiv e f o rc e has b e e n r e duc e d t o o n e half t he ux is n o t l o w e r e d

-
,

in a n ythi n g lik e t he sam e pr o p o rti o n an d t he curv e s a r e n o t s o ,

wid e ly di ffe r e n t as might b e a nticip at e d .

R e ducti o n o f e ld amp e re tu r n s w as us e d fo r c o n tr o lli n g t h e

p e rf o rma n c e o f s e ri e s m o t o r s int he e arly days o f e l e ctric railways ,

but w as aba n d o n e d o n acc o u n t o f t he i n cr e as e d t e n d e n cy t o

sparki n g with t he w e ak e ld M o d e r n d e sig n s o f railway.

m o t o r s usi n g i n t e rp o l e c o n st r ucti o n hav e mad e p o ssibl e a r e t ur n

, ,
r

t o t he e arly m e th o d o f c o n t r o l It is e sp e cially adva n tage ous fo r

.

100 150
Curre nt ,
Am peres .

FI G . 23 .
C h arac t e ris t i c c u rv e s o f s e r e s m o t o r i w it h h a lf e ld .

tr ai n s which hav e t o o p e r at e at sl o w sch e dul e sp e e d with rapid

acc e l e rati o n fo r a p o r ti o n o f t he r un an d fo r t he r e mai n d e r ,

o p e rat e at high sch e dul e sp e e d with fe w s t e ps .

Lo s s e s in t h e S e r i e s M o t o r T he l o ss e s which o ccur in t he
.

s e ri e s m o t o r whil e o f t he sam e cha r act e r as fo r an y e l e ctric

,

machi n e di ff e r in that t he sp e e d an d t he ux d e n sity b o th v ary

,

with t he armatur e curr e n t N o n e o f t he l o ss e s ar e c o n sta n t

. ,

but all cha n g e with t he l o ad T h e y may b e classi e d as .

f o ll o ws :
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 57

R e si st an c e l o ss e s ( c o pp e r l o sse s )
A r m at u r e I R 2

Fi e l d I R2

C o mp e n s at i n g ( i n t e r p o le ) w i n din g
B ru sh l o ss
I ron lo sse s
Hy s t e re sis
E d dy c urr e n t s
M e c han i c al l o s se s
B e ar i n g f r i c t i o n
B r u s h fr i c t i o n
Wi n dage .

C o pp e r l o ss b e i n g t he pr o duct o f t he curr e n t squar e d an d t he

,

r e sista n c e is r e a dily f o u n d fo r t he s e ri e s m o t o r T he wi n di n g s
,
.

b e i n g all in s e ri e s t he t o tal r e sista n c e o f t he m o t o r may be tak e n

,

and t h e e n tir e l o ss calculat e d at o n c e T he o n ly pr e cauti o n is t o

.

r e m e mb e r that wh e n t he e ld is w e ak e n e d e ith e r by r e duci n g t he

n umb e r o f tu r n s o r by shu n ti n g t he wi n di n g t he r e sista n c e is
, ,

B rush l o ss is a fu n cti o n o f t he curr e n t th r o ugh t he b r ush an d

t he d r o p o f p o t e n tial in it an d in t he c o n tac t b e tw e e n it an d t he
c o mmutat o r T his dr o p is lar g e ly i n d e p e n d en t o f t he cu r r e n t
.
,

b e i n g a d e n it e am o u n t at n o l o ad an d i n c r e asi n g at a l o w e r rat e
tha n in p r o p o r ti o n th e r e t o T he l o ss may b e d e t e r mi n e d with
.

vari o us d e gr e e s o f ac curacy by t he applicati o n o f e mpi r ical fo r

mul a t o b e fo u n d in e l e ctrical ha n db o o ks .

Ir o n l o ss c o n sists o f t w o disti n ct c o mp o n e n ts : hyst e r e sis l o ss an d

e ddy cu r r e n ts T he f o rm e r var i e s appr o ximat e ly as t he
.

p o w e r o f t he ux d e n sity an d dir e ctly as t he fr e qu e n cy ; t he

,

latt e r as t he squar e o f t he ux d e n sity an d as t he squar e o f t he

spe e d S i n c e t he sp e e d d e cr e as e s as t he curr e n t an d ux in
.

cr e as e t he variati o n o f ir o n l o ss with l o ad is quite i n v o lv e d It

, .

is usually d e t e rmi n e d for di ffe r e n t curr e n t valu e s at vari o us

p o te n tials as sh o w n in F ig 2 4 O rdi n a rily t he d e t e r mi n ati o n o f
,
. .

ir o n l o ss is mad e e xp e rim e n tally an d it is n o t r e adily p o ssibl e t o

,

fo r mulat e an e quati o n e xpr e ssi n g t he th e o r e tical c o n diti o n s o f its

var iati o n .

T he m e cha n ical l o ss e s d e p e n d o n ly o n t he sp e e d o f t he machi n e .

B rush fricti o n vari e s dir e ctly as t he sp e e d an d b e ari n g fricti o n ,

an d wi n dag e as a p o w e r o f t h e sp e e d b e tw e e n t he rst an d

se c o n d T h e ir s e parati o n is difcult an d is n o t o rdi n a r ily

.
,
58 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

att e mpt e d T he t o tal v alu e o f th e s e l o ss e s is quit e small u n l e ss

.

t he armatur e is sp e cially c o n struct e d t o circulat e air thr o ugh

t he wi n di n gs fo r c o o li n g .

E c ie n c y of t h e S e rie s M o t or In an y machi n e t he e f.
,

c ie n c y is t he rati o o f o utput t o i n put It may als o b e stat e d .

as t he rati o of o utput t o o utput plus l o ss e s o r t he rati o o f in ,

put mi n us l o ss e s t o i n put He n c e if an y t w o o f t h e qua n ti t ie s

.

2 00 3 00 400 500
Volt s .

FI G . 24 .
-
I ro n l o s s c ur ve s fo r i
s er es m o t o r .

o utput i n put l o sse s o r e fci e n cy b e gi ve n t he o th e r t w o

, , ,
.

b e f o u n d by a simpl e calculati o n .

T he e fci e n cy o f t he s e ri e s m o t o r may b e d e t e rmi n e d by an y

o f t he m e th o ds o utli n e d in t he last pa ragraph In t e sti n g .

s e ri e s m o t o rs it is difcult an d s o m e what u n satisfact o ry t o l o ad

,

th e m with a pr o n y brak e as is n e c e ssary t o d e t e rmi n e e fci e n cy

,

by t he i n put o utput m e th o d O rdi n a r ily t he s e parat e l o sse s

.

are o btai n e d
,
a n d t he p e r fo r ma n c e fo u n d th e re fr o m Fo r .

m e th o ds o f calculati n g e fci e n cy fr o m l o ss e s r e fe r e n c e may b e ,

mad e t o an y t e xt b o o k o n e l e ct r ical t e sti n g

- .

Al t e rn atin g C urr e n t C o m m uta to r M o tor s

- Fo r
ma n y ye ars .

att e mpts w e r e mad e t o pr o duc e mo t o rs which w o uld O pe rate

 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON

satisfact o rily o n si n gl e phas e circuits an d have charact e ristics

-
,

suitable fo r railway purp o s e s W h e n t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t

.
-

syst e m o f tra n smissi o n was rst br o ught o ut m o t o rs w e r e ,

d e sig n e d which w e r e practically t he sam e as t he dir e ct curr e n t -

s e r i e s m o t o r N o n e o f th e m was succ e ssful si n c e an i n c o rr e ct

.
,

u n d e rsta n di n g o f t he n ature o f i r o n l o ss le d t o t he us e o f a s o lid

ir o n structur e fo r carr yi n g t he alt e r n ati n g ma g n e tic ux In .

1 9 0 2 a n e w typ e o f si n gl e phas e m o t o r w a s a n n o u n c e d which ,

r h r
w as t he e xact c o u n t e r pa t o f t e di e ct cu rr e n t s e r i e s m o t o r ,

m o di e d fo r us e o n alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t by ha vi n g a n umb e r o f

spe cial fe atu r e s In o rd e r t o u n d e rs t a n d t he Op e r ati o n o f this
.

type o f m o t o r it will b e w e ll t o trac e its d e v e l o pm e n t fr o m t he

,

dir e ct cu rr e n t machi n e
-
.

C o n sid e r a m o t o r Op e rati n g o n dir e ct curr e n t t he e ld a n d ,

armature b e i n g in s e ri e s If fo r an y re as o n t he curr e n t thr o ugh

.
, ,

t he m o t o r is r e v e rs e d th e r e will b e n o p e rma n e n t r e sult what

,

e v e r o n t he O pe r ati o n T his c an b e r e p e at e d as o ft e n as d e sir e d

.
,

pro vide d it is n o t d o n e m o r e tha n a fe w time s a mi n ut e In .

cas e an att e mpt is mad e t o r e ve rs e t he m o t o r t o o fr e qu e n tl y ,

se ve r al e ffe cts ar e t o b e o bs e rv e d : ( 1 ) t he am o u n t o f cur r e n t

that c a n b e f o rc e d thr o ugh its c i r cuits will b e r e duc e d o wi n g ,

t o t he i n ducta n c e o f t h e e ld wi n di n g s ; ( 2 ) d ue t o this i n ducta n c e ,

t he curr e n t will lag b e hi n d t he e l e ctr o m o tiv e f o rc e ; (3 ) t he ir o n

in t he mag n e tic ci r cuit will h e at up o n acc o u n t o f t he hyst e r e sis
a n d e ddy curr e n ts caus e d by t he va r iabl e ux ; (4 ) th e r e will b e

s e ve r e sparkin g at t he c o mmutat o r .

It is p o ssibl e t o re duc e t he ir o n l o ss t o a r e as o n abl e am o u n t

by usi n g a g o o d grad e o f e l e ctrical st e e l an d by lami n ati o n o f
t he me tal . This is o n e o f t he rst r e qui r e m e n ts o f an y g o o d
alt e r n ati n g curr e n t m o t o r The i n ducta n c e o f t he e ld c a n be
- .

le ss e n e d by cutti n g d o w n t he n umb e r o f e ld tu r n s A c o n .

s ide r abl e r e ducti o n may b e mad e in t h e e ld a mp e r e tur n s

with o ut a gr e at dimi n uti o n in t he ux si n c e in m o d e r n dir e ct,

curr e n t m o t o rs t he i r o n is w o r ke d at a hi g h d e gr e e o f saturati o n
( s e e F ig . T his will r e duc e t h e i n du c ta n c e o f t h e e ld wi n d

in g an d h e n c e dimi n ish t he l ag o f t he m o t o r curr e n t

, T he .

p o w e r fact o r c an b e still furth e r imp r o ve d by t he i n s e rti o n in t he

circuit o f c o mp e n sati n g c o ils o f t he ge n e r al n atur e o f a n i n te r
,

p o l e wi n di n g with a n umb e r o f amp e r e tur n s sufci e n t t o n e u

,

t r aliz e t he mag n e t o m o tive fo rc e o f t he armatur e This will .

b o th t e n d t o le s s e n t he r e acta n c e a n d t o imp r o v e c o mmutati o n .

60 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

T he us e of th e s e d e vic e s will in s o m e cas e s pr o duc e a m o t o r

which may Op e rat e o n fr e qu e n ci e s up t o ab o ut 2 5 cycl e s In .

ge n e ral h o w e v e r additi o n al m e a n s must be tak e n t o r e duc e

, ,

t h e sparki n g t o a p o i n t wh e r e it is n o t o bj e cti o n abl e .

R e fe r e n c e t o Fig 2 5 will sh o w t he r e as o n s fo r t he e xc e ssiv e

.

sparki n g o f t he si n gl e phase m o t o r C o n side r an armatur e r o

-
.

tati n g in t he e ld p ro duc e d by cur r e n t draw n fr o m t he li n e thr o ugh

t he e ld wi n di n g Wh e th e r t he ux be c o n sta n t o r n o t th e r e
.
,

will b e an e m f d e v e l o p e d in t he armatur e its maximum v alu e

. . .
,

p e r tu r n b e i n g i n duc e d in t he c o n duct o rs di r e ctly u n d e r t h e p o l e s .

The maximum t o tal app e ars

at t he brush e s B B If t he ,
.

ux b e v aryi n g in valu e
alt e r n ati n g) th e r e will be an
e m f . pr o duc e d d ue t o t he
. .

cha n ge in ux which will ,

ha v e its maximum pe r tur n

in t he c o n duct o rs b e tw e e n
t he p o l e s an d its t o tal maxi
,

m um at t he brush e s A A ,
.

It may be s e e n that th e s e
t wo ar e e n tir e ly i n d e

p e n d e n t t he fo rm e r which
, ,

we may call t he sp e e d
d e p e n di n g o n t he
m e cha n ical rat e o f cutti n g t he
ux with t he armatu re c o n
d uc t o r s , d ue t o t he sp e e d o f
r o tati o n ; whil e t h e latt er
FI G 2 5
. .

S i n g l e p h as e s e r i e s m o t o r
- .
,

which may b e te rme d t he

tra n sfo rm e r d e p e n ds o n t he rat e o f cha n ge o f t he e ld
ux c aus e d by t he cyclic v a r iati o n in t he magn e tiz in g cu rr e n t .

T o o p e rat e as a n o rmal s e ri e s m o t o r t he sp e ed e m f is t he o n e
,
. . .

which must b e c o mmutat e d an d t he tra n sf o rm e r e m f must

,
. . .

b e e n ti r e ly disr e gard e d . T he b r ush e s sh o uld th e r e f o r e b e

plac e d in t he p o siti o n s B B It is e vid e n t that t he tu r n s which
,
.

ar e sh o rt circuit e d by t he brush e s ar e t he v e ry o n e s which are

-

g e n e rati n g t he maximum e m f d ue t o tra n sf o rm e r acti o n

. . .
,

a n d th e r e is a t e n d e n cy t o wa r d s e v e r e sparki n g e v e n wh e n t he ,

dist o rti o n o f t he e ld d ue t o t he c r o ss amp e r e t ur n s o f t he

armatur e has b e e n e n tire ly r e m o v e d by a suitabl e i n t e r p o l e o r
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 61

c o mp e n sati n g wi n di n g R e duci n g t he n umb e r o f armatur e

.

tu r n s pe r c o mmutat o r bar will dimi n ish t he cu rr e n t in t he

sh o r t ci r cuit but n o t as a rul e t o a satisfact o r y valu e An
-
, .

additi on al me th o d which has b e e n e mpl o y e d by o n e o f t he larg e

ma n ufactur e rs in this c o u n t r y is t o i n t r o duc e b e tw e e n e ach
c o mmutat o r bar an d t he armatur e wi n di n g a x e d r e sista n c e ,

o f pr o p e r am o u n t sufci e n t t o limit t he curr e n t in t he sh o rt

,

circuit e d c o il t o a safe v alu e T he acti o n o f such r e sista n c e m ay

.

b e s e en i n Fig 2 6 It will b e n o tic e d that o n ly th o s e r e sista n c e

. .

l e ads which c o n n e ct t o t he c o ils u n d e r g o i n g c o mmutati o n are

in circuit a n d that t he o n e s car r yi n g curr e n t are in parall e l
,

with e ach o th e r s o that if t he b r ush c o v e rs s e v e ral bars t he

, ,

r e sista n c e i n s e rt e d in t he path o f t he mai n curr e n t c an b e in

Res l eads

FI G . 26 .

Us e i
o f re s s t a n c e l e ad s in i l p h as e
s ng e- m ot o r .

c o n sid e rabl e an d y e t t he r e si sta n c e in t he l o cal sh o rt circuit may

,
-

be sufci e n t t o r e duc e t he spar k i n g mat e rially T he pr o p e r .

p r o p o rti o n i n g o f th e s e r e sista n c e l e ads is a qu e sti o n o f c o n

s ide r ab l e imp o rta n c e in maki n g a succ e ssful si n gl e phas e m o t o r -

o f t he s e ri e s typ e .

Fr e q ue n c ie s for S in gl e P h as e M o t o r s
- T he g e n e ral th e o ry o f .

t he si n gl e phas e s e r i e s m o t o r as d e v e l o p e d ab o v e w o uld i n di
-
, ,

cat e that its p e rf o r ma n c e will b e b e tt e r t he l o w e r t he fr e qu e n cy .

T his l e ads t o t he l o gical c o n clusi o n that t he b e st n umb e r o f

cycl e s is z e r o o r in o th e r w o rds that t he p e rf o ma n c e o f t h e
, ,

ma c hi n e is b e st o n di r e ct curr e n t W hil e this is n o t strictly .

tru e it d o e s apply t o a c e rtai n e xt e n t ; an d it is p o ssibl e t o Op e r at e

,

t he sam e m o t o r b o th o n alt e r n ati n g an d di r e ct curr e n t circuits -

.

T he hi g h e st fr e qu e n cy which c an b e us e d fo r a particular machi n e

d e p e n ds o n t he r e acta n c e o f t he wi n di n gs t he ir o n l o ss e s an d , ,

t he c o mmutati o n Al l th e s e qua n titi e s va r y as fu n cti o n s o f

.
 2 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

t he n umb e r o f cycl e s C o mm e rcial d e sig n s o f si n gl e phas e

.
-

s e r i e s m o t o rs ha v e b e e n mad e t o o p e rat e o n circuits up t o 25

cycl e s pe r s e c o n d ; but t he limitati o n s make it e xc e e di n gly dif cult
t o pr o duc e m o t o r s o f this typ e fo r high e r fr e qu e n ci e s Wh e n .

d e sig n e d fo r o p e rati o n o n a 2 5 cycl e ci r cuit t he s e ri e s m o t o r

-
,

will w e igh fr o m 1 0 pe r c e n t t o 2 5 pe r c e n t m o r e tha n a machi n e

. .

o f e qual r ati n g fo r di r e ct cu r r e n t .

T he auxiliary e quipm e n t such as t r a n sf o rm e rs an d r e gulat o rs

, ,

sh o ws an i n cr e as e o f capacity at t he high e r fr e qu e n ci e s T his .

t e n ds t o o ffs e t t he gain s mad e in t he m o t o r p e rf o rma n c e wh e n

t h e n umb e r o f cycl e s is r e duc e d M a n ufactu r e rs o f si n gl e
.

phas e e quipm e n t c o n sid e r that t he b e st c o mpr o mis e is t he us e

o f 1 5 t o 1 7 cycl e s which giv e s a marke d i n cr e as e in m o t o r
,

capacity o v e r that at 2 5 cycl e s whil e at t he sam e tim e t he ,

auxilia r y e quipm e n t is n o t e xc e ssiv e ly h e avy T he e l e ct rical .

p e r f o r ma n c e o f t he s e r i e s m o t o r at this l o w e r fr e qu e n cy is
c o n sid e r ably imp r o v e d .

W hil e t he r e ducti o n in fr e qu e n cy is e n tir e ly b e n e cial t o

t he s e ri e s m o t o r t he e ffe ct o n t he r e pulsi o n m o t o r is n o t so g o o d
,
.

AS is sh o w n in t he fo l l o w m g p aragraphs m o t o rs o f t he r e pulsi o n ,

typ e hav e s o m e o f t he cha r act e r istics o f t he tra n sf o rm e r an d a ,

r e ducti o n in fr e qu e n cy th e r e f o r e t e n ds t o in c r e as e t he w e ight .

s o m e what T he c o mmutati o n is als o b e tt e r at high fr e qu e n ci e s

.
,

si n c e t he sp e e d e m f is disr e gard e d t o a c o n sid e rabl e e xt e n t

. . .

an d t h e tra n sf o r m e r e m f c o mmutat e d T he g e n e ral char

. . . .

ac t e r is t ic s o f t h e r e pulsi o n m o t o r ar e n o t h o w e v e r s o g o o d fo r
, ,

tracti o n as th o s e o f t he s e ri e s typ e .

Var iat i o n s o f t h e Alt e rn at in g C ur r e n t S e rie s M o t or

- D ue t o
.

t he i n ductiv e e ff e cts o f alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n ts t he arra n g e m e n t o f ,

circuits in t he si n gl e phas e m o t o r is o p e n t o c o n sid e rabl e varia

-

ti o n with o ut i n t e r fe r i n g with t he p e r f o rma n c e t o an y mark e d

e xt e n t . Le avi n g o ut o f c o n sid e rati o n t he plai n s e ri e s m o t o r ,

c o n sisti n g o f o n ly an a r mature an d a s e t o f e ld c o ils an d which ,

is n o t an Op e rativ e succ e ss w e c an hav e thre e di ff e r e n t typ e s

,

o f se rie s m o t o r .

Fig 2 7 sh o ws t he o rdi n ary typ e o f s e ri e s m o t o r d e scrib e d

.
,

ab o v e which is c o mm o n ly k n o w n as t he c o n ductiv e ly c o m
,

p e n s at e d typ e . I n this as i n t h e,
dir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t or

with i n t e r p o l e s all t he w in di n gs ar e in s e rie s

,
.

S i n c e t he armatu r e wi n di n g is a s o urc e o f mag n e tic ux t he ,

curr e n t fo r t he c o mp e n sati n g c o ils may b e o btai n e d by tra n s

 M O TO RS F OR TR A C T I ON 63

f o r m e r acti o n fr o m this ux with o ut c o n n e cti o n t o t he mai n ,

circuit S uch a m o t o r k n o w n as t he i n ductiv e ly c o m pe n
.
,

sat e d typ e is sh o w n d iagrammatically in Fig 2 8

, . .

com p e n s at e d FI G 2 8 I n du c t ive ly c o m p e n
. .

m ot or . s at e d s in g l e -p h as e s e ri e s m o t o r .

p e ns at in g
m I n t h is m a c h in e t h e c o m e ns a t in p g
s e ri es It i W ll g
Win din is s h o rt -c ir c uit e d , t h e c ur r e n t
b p b
.

n dir e c t c ur r e n t in it e in g r o d uc e d y in d u c t io n
f
.

r o m t h e a r m a t ur e .

st e p furth e r an d l e t t he armature ux ,

ati n g c o il an d t he mai n e ld as sh o w n in ,

ch illustrat e s t he in ducti o n s e r ie s m o t o r Of t he .

th re e typ e s , t he f o rm e r t w o are us e d in practic e t he c o n ductive ly ,

FI G . 29 . I
n d u c t io n s e rie s m ot o r . FI G . 30 .
At k in s o n re p u ls io n
m ot o r .

In t h is m a c h in e b ot l
h t h e e d an d t he c o m Thi is e e c t r ic a
s m a c hin e l
t he r e lly
p e ns a t i n g w in d g
in ar e s h o r t -C Ir c ui t e d t h e c ur v e r s e o f t he I d u c t i o n s er i e s m o t o r
n
b g f b g
, ,

r e nt in t h e m ein i n d uc e d r o m t h e ar m a t h e ar m a t ur e ei n s h o r t -c ir c uit e d a n d
t ur e , w hi c h i s l
c o n n e c t e d t o t he i n e t hs o t he r W g
i n di n s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e
l
.

m e .

c o mp e n sat e d m o t o r n di n g its us e pri n cipally wh e re it is n e ces

sary t o O p e rat e t he same machi ne o n b o th alt e r n ati n g an d dir e ct
curr e n t .
64 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

R e pul s i o nM o t or As it is p o ssibl e t o mak e e ith e r c o il o f a

.
-

tra n sf o r m e r t he primary s o t he c o n n e ct io n s o f t he in d ucti o n ,

s e r ie s m o t o r may b e r e v e rs e d t o make t he e ld an d c o mp e n sati n g

wi n di n gs t he primary an d t he armature t he s e c o n dary circuit , ,
.

I n this f o r m sh o w n in Fig 3 0 t he machi n e is k n o w n as t he

,
.
,

A tki n s o n r e pulsi o n m o t o r It may als o be c o n sid e r e d as a .

d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he plai n r e pulsi o n m o t o r which is sh o w n in F ig , .

31 . I n t he latt e r typ e u s e is mad e o f t he tra n sf o rm e r

which is e n t ir e ly disr e gard e d in t he s e r ie s m o t o r T he brush e s .

ar e plac e d at a n a n gl e with t he e ld s o as t o utiliz e p o rt io n s o f ,

b o th t he tra n sf o rm e r e m f a n d o f t he sp e e d e m f in o rd e r t o . . . . . .

o btai n variabl e sp e e d charact e ristics T he .

r e pulsi o n m o t o r has a gr e at adva n tage

o v e r t h e s e ri e s m o t o r in that t he primary , ,

b e i n g t he stati o n ary m e mbe r c an b e c o n ,

n e c t e d t o t he supply circuit with o ut m o v

abl e c o n tacts as wh e n t he curr e n t mus t ,

b e l e d thr o ugh a c o mmutat o r ; t he primary

c an th e r e f o re b e w o u n d fo r r e lativ e ly
high p o t e n tials I t is als o p o ssibl e si n c e .
,

t he c o ils g e n e rati n g t he maximum tra n s - v

f o rm e r e m f are n o t sh o r t c ircuit e d t o . . .
-
,

Fm 3 1 P l ain r e p u l s io n Op e rat e it o n s o m e what h igh e r fr e qu e n ci e s

, .

m Ot o r
tha n with t he s e r i e s m o t o r At starti n g

T hi d iff f m t h
.

s t
e rs ro e m o or
sh wo i F ig 3 0 i t h t t h
n n t he sh o rt circuit curr e n t is l o w e r tha n in
n a e -

x it i g
.
.

com t g dth
ensa in an e e c n
w m g
'

n b i d F t he s e ri e s m o t o r an d t he n e c e ssity o f
s ar e com ne or
buh ,
.

th ta thr e as o n e r s s
e ar e
d t gl w it h t h us m g r e s i sta n c e l e ads much l e ss s o that
gigg
e a an an e e
l ,
.

by care ful d e si g n th e y may be o m i tt e d .

B ut in g e n e ral t he charact e rist ics o f t he r e pulsi o n m o t o r ar e n o t

s o w e ll suit e d fo r railway w o rk as ar e th o s e o f t h e s e rie s m o t o r ,

a n d it n e v e r has b e c o m e p o pular fo r this class o f s e r vic e .

C o m pe n s at e d R e pul s io n M o t o r A m o dicati o n o f t he .
-

r e p ulsi o n m o t o r k n o w n as t he c o mp e n sat e d re p ulsi o n m o t o r o r

, ,

t e Lat o ur Wi n t e r E ichb e rg m o t o r
h has b e e n d e ve l o p e d t o ,

o bta in t h e ad v a n tag e s o f b o th t he s e ri e s a n d t he r e p ulsi o n type s .

has t w o s e parat e s e ts o f brush e s o n e s e t

'

T his m o t o r ( Fig .
,

sh o rt circuit e d t he o th e r c o nn e ct e d in s e ri e s with t he e ld In
-
,
.

this way it c o mbi n e s t he charact e ristics o f b o th t he s e r i e s a n d t he

r e pulsi o n typ e s It has b ee n us e d t o s o me e xt e n t in el e c t r i c a
.

ti o n w o rk in E ur o p e , but has n o t b ee n appli e d in t he U n it e d

S tat e s .
 M O TO R S F OR TR A C TI ON 5

P e rfo rm an c e of the Al t e m M o to rat in g -C urr e n t S e rie s .

Re fe rr i n g t o t he v e ct o r diagr am o f t he in t he s e ri e s
m o t o r Fig 3 3 it may b e s e e n that t he t o tal p o t e n tial at t he
,
.
,

m o t o r t e rmi n als is divid e d i n t o th r e e c o mp o n e n ts : t he dr o p OB

acr o ss t he e ld t he dr o p B D acr o ss t he armatu r e a n d t he sp e e d
, ,

e m f DE
. . . Fo r an y giv e n cu rr e n t valu e , t he t w o dr o ps ar e c o n sta n t
.
,

n o matt e r what t he sp ee d
1
If t he m o t o r .

is at a sta n dstill th e s e dr o ps will c o n sti ,

tut e t he e n tir e p o t e n tial OD at t he m o t o r

t e r mi n als As t he sp e e d o f t he m o t o r is
.

i n c r e as e d t o giv e a c o u n t e r e m f D E , it . . .

must b e acc o mpa n i e d by a n i n cr e as e in

t he t e rmi nal p o t e n tial as giv e n by t he ,

v e ct o r OE S i n c e t he sp e e d e m f must
. . . .

be in phas e with t he cu r r e n t whil e t he ,

a r matu r e a n d e ld dr o ps ar e always ah e ad
o f it it may b e s e e n that an i n c r e as e o f FI G 3 2 C o m p e n s at e d
, -
. .

sp e e d W i ll i mpr o v e t he p o w e r fact o r o f r e p u ls io n m o t o r .

t he m o t o r B y k ee pi n g t he r e acta n c e s in h T hi 1 1 1 b i th s 11 3 9 1 11 9 c om n es e
f th
.
t t c ar a c e ris ics o e s e ri e s
t F g 2 7 w it h t h f
t he Ci r cui t d o w n t o r e as o n abl e valu e s t he t h
m o or, i .
, os e o
p ul t Fig 3 1 , e re sm m o or , . .

n or m al o p e r at i n g p o w e r fact o r o f t he m o t o r

may be mad e v e r y satisfact o ry ; that is it c an be mad e as g o o d ,

as o r b e tt e r tha n t he p o w e r fact o r o f i n ducti o n m o t o r s o f S imil ar

FI G . 33
. E . m . f . l i
a n d c u rr e n t r e a t o n s in s n i l p h as e
g e - s e r ie s m o t o r .

T he charact e r istics
a typical S i n gl e phas e s e r i e s m o t o r are
of

S h o w n i n F ig 3 4 T he sp e e d cu r v e is m o r e d r o ppi n g tha n with

. .

t he di re ct cu rr e n t-s e r i e s m o t o r d u e t o t h e l o w e r satu r ati o n

,
o f t he

mag n e tic ci r cuit F o r t he sam e r e as o n t he tractiv e e ffo rt

.

1
The a r m at u r e an d e l d d ro p s p ro du c t o f t h e
are e ac h e qu a l t o t he
c u rre n t b y t h e i m p e d an c e o f t h e c ir c uit S in c e t h e f r e q ue n c y is c o n s t a n t
. ,

t he r e a c t a n c e s a r e p ra c t c a
i lly c o n s t a n t in a n y p a r t ic u l ar m a c h i n e T h ey .

w ill b e c han ge d s l igh t ly b y va ria t io n s in ir o n l o s s a t d i ffe re n t s p e e d s .

5
66 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

appr o ximat e s m o r e n e a r ly t he parab o lic f o rm tha n in t he c o m

m e r c ial di r e ct cu r r e n t s e ri e s m o t o r
- T he p o w e r fact o r app r o ac he s .

u n ity at z e r o cur r e n t a n d d e cr e as e s fr o m this valu e alm o st uni

,

f o r mly in pr o p o r ti o n t o t he l o ad .

120 60

1 00 50

20 10

200 4 00 600 80 0 10 00
:

Curre n t , Am pe re s .

FI G . 34 .
C h ar a c t e r is t i c s o f s in g e - l p h as e i
ser es m o t o r .

N ot e t h at t he s p eed c ur v e is m o re p g
d r o o in t h a n fo r t h e n o r m a l d ir e c t - c ur r e n t s e r ie s
m o t o r , o n a c c o un t of t he l o w er g
s a t ur a t io n in t h e m a n e t i c e d l .

Variati o n of M o to r C har ac te r i s ti c s
S i n gl e P h as e- T h e cha r ac .

t e ris t ic s o f t he alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t s e rie s m o t o r may b e var i e d

-

in much t he sam e ma n n e r as with t he dir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o r - .

T he thr e e m e th o ds which may b e us e d ar e

1 . V ari at i o n o f t e rmi n al p o t e n t i al .

2 . I n s e r t i o n o f s e ri e s r e sis t a n c e .

3 . V a r i at i o n o f e l d s t r e n g t h i n d e p e n d e n t l y of

a rmat ur e s t r e n g t h .

T he r st m e th o d is m o r e r e adily applicabl e tha n with t he dir e ct

cu r r e n t m o t o r si n c e alt e r n ati n g
,
o f a n y d e sir e d val u e may

b e s e cu r e d w ith t h e ai d o f a stati o n ary t r a n sf o rm e r T he e as e i n .

o btai n i n g cha n g e o f m o t o r p o t e n tial mak e s t h e o th e r m e th o ds o f

c o n t r o l u n n e c e ssa r y T he u s e o f s e r i e s r e sista n c e is u n e c o
.

n o m ic al a n d p e r sists with dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs o n ly as a matt e r

,
-

o f n e c e ssity T he var iati o n o f e ld ux in t he alt e r n ati n g

.
 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 67

cu r r e n t m o t o r is u n d e sirabl e sin c e t o mak e a g o o d c o mm e rcial

,

machi n e t he ux has t o b e cut d o w n n o rmally t o a mi nimum an d ,

furth e r r e ducti o n is u n wis e .

Wh e n t he t e r mi n al e m f is l o w e r e d it is e vid e n t that t he
. . .
,

p o w e r fact o r w ill b e r e duc e d si n c e t he quadratur e c o mp o n e n t,

o f p o t e n t ial r e mai n s ab o ut c o n sta n t whil e that in phas e is ,

dimi n ish e d due t o t he l e ss e n e d sp e e d AS with t he di r e ct

,
.

cu rr e n t s e r i e s m o t o r a r e ducti o n in p o t e n tial d o e s n o t cha n g e t he

,

t o r q u e t o a n y g r e at d e gr e e Si n c e t he p o t e n tial in a n alt e r n ati n g

.

cu rr e n t circuit may b e var i e d at will e ith e r by m e a n s o f a stati o n

ary t r a n sf o r m e r with a n umb e r o f taps o n t he s e c o n da r y o r by ,

a t r a n sf o r m e r with a r o tatabl e s e c o n da r y ( i n ducti o n r e gulat o r )

it i s e asy t o o btai n a wid e va r iati o n in p o t e n tial with o ut t he n e e d

fo r r e c o n n e ct in g t he m o t o r s as in a s e ri e s parall e l c o mbi n ati o n
,
-
,

a n d with o ut t h e l o ss i n h e r e n t t o t he u s e o f r e sista n c e in t he

a r matu r e c ircuit .

C o m m u t atio n in S in gl e P ha s e M o to r s
-
A c o mpa r is o n o f t he .

ci r cuits o f t he s e r i e s an d t he r e pulsi o n m o t o rs mak e s it e vid e n t

t hat t he s e ri e s m o t o r has its brush e s plac e d in such a p o s iti o n
that t he t r a n sfo r m e r e m f is sh o r t circuit e d at starti n g ; whil e
. . .
-

t he r e pulsi o n m o t o r sh o rt ci r cuits t he sp e e d e m f -
T he r e . . .

pulsi o n m o t o r sh o uld the r e f o r e hav e b e tt e r c o mmutati o n wh e n

star ti n g whil e t he p e rf o r ma n c e o f t he s e rie s m o t o r in this r e sp e ct
,

will be sup e ri o r at sp e e ds ab o v e sy n chr o n ism At sy n ch r o n o us .

spe e d t he e m f d e v e l o p e d by tra n sf o rm e r acti o n is e qual t o that

. . .

p r o duc e d by t he c o n duct o rs o f t he armatur e cutt i n g t he e ld

ux s o that t he p o t e n t ial is u n if o r m at all p o i n ts a r o u n d t he
,

c o mmutat o r At this S p e e d t he sparki n g will be t he sam e n o

.

matt e r wh e r e t he br ush e s ar e plac e d The vari o us m e th o ds us e d .

fo r imp r o v in g t he c o mmutati o n mak e t he s e ri e s m o t o r sat is

fact o r y at sta r ti n g ; but s o far t he r e pulsi o n m o t o r has n o t giv e n
g o o d r e sults as r e ga r ds spa r kin g at sp e e ds much ab o v e sy n ch r o
n ism . S i n c e t he p o w e r fact o r o f t h e s e rie s m o t o r is b e tt e r as t he
sp e e d i n cr e as e s it has a c o n sid e rabl e adva n tag e in p e r f o rma n c e
,

fo r high sp e e d w o r k
-
.

Th e P o ly ph a s e I n d uc ti o n M o to r T he p o lyphas e i n ducti o n
.

m o t o r is s o w e ll k n o w n an d it s cha r act e r istics hav e b e e n s o fully

,

d e s c r ib e d t hat n o g e n e ral t r e atm e n t will b e e n t e re d in t o h e r e

,
.

It is sufci e n t t o u n d e r sta n d that t he m o t o r p o ss e ss e s p e rf o rma n c e

cha r act e r ist ics similar t o th o s e o f t he shu n t m o t o r as sh o w n in ,

Fig 3 5
. . If t he machi n e is w e ll d e sig ne d t he dro p in sp e e d fr o m ,
68 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

no l o ad to full l o ad is but a small am o u n t rar e ly o v e r 5 per c e n t ,

.

T he n o rmal sp e e d t o rqu e cu r v e o f such a m o t o r is giv e n a
N o tch It will b e n o tic e d that t he e ff o rt availabl e at start
in g is c o n sid e rably l e ss tha n t he maximum ru n n i n g t o rqu e It .

may furth e r be sh o w n that t o pr o duc e this starti n g t o r qu e

r e quire s a re lativ e ly lar g e cu r r e n t a n d at a l o w p o w e r fact o r
, .

If t he s e c o n dary r e sista n c e o f t he m o t o r b e gr e at e r a curv e ,

such as N o tch 6 may b e o btai n e d He r e t he sta r ti n g t o r qu e .

is i n cr e as e d ; but in o r d e r t o acc o mplish th is r e sult t he e fci e n cy ,

o v e r t he e n tir e w o rki n g ra n g e has t o b e sacric e d By c on .

s id e r abl y i n cr e asi n g t he s e c o n dary r e sista n c e as by t he us e o f ,

2 50
To r q ue , Po un ds of On e Fo ot Ra d ius .

FI G . 35 .

C h ar a c t e ris t i c s of p o lyp h as e in duc t i o n m ot o r .

e xt e r n al r e sist o rs t he star ti n g t o rqu e may be i n cr e as e d t o t he

,

m ax imum p o ssibl e valu e as at N o tch ,
or if it be d e si r e d ,

t o r e duc e t he starti n g cu r r e n t fu r th e r an d t he maximum t o rqu e ,

is n o t n e e d e d at start in g addit io n al re sista n c e will giv e curv e s

,

such as N o tch e s 1 2 e t c In all o f th e s e case s h o w e ve r t he

, ,
.
, ,

e fci e n cy is v e ry mu ch r e duc e d b e i n g in n o cas e as g r e at as t he

,

sp ee d in pe r c e n t o f sy n chr o n ism
. It is e vid e n t the n that t o
.
, ,

g e t e f ci e n t Op e rati o n t h e r e sist
,
an c e must b e i n s e rt e d o n ly

duri n g t he starti n g p e ri o d it b e i n g g r adually cut o ut o f t he

,

ci r cuit as t he sp e e d i n cr e as e s u n til t he m o t o r is Op e rati n g with

,

S h o rt circuit e d s e c o n dary
-
W ith this c o n ne ct io n t he m o t o r will
.

o p e rat e at practically c o n sta n t sp e e d .

 M O TOR S F OR TR A C T I ON 69

An o th e r m e th o d o f r e duci n g t he sp e e d at starti n g is t o l o w e r
t he p o t e n tial appli e d t o t he t e r mi n als S i n c e t h e m o t o r r e c e iv e s
.

its mag n e tizi n g cu rr e n t an d t h e w o rki n g cu r r e n t in t he sam e

wi n di n g an y r e ducti o n o f t he p o t e n tial will d e c r e as e t he e ld
,

str en gth as w e ll as t h e l o ad cu rr e n t In n o rmal i n ducti o n m o t o r s

.
,

t h e e ld i r o n is practically u n satu r at e d s o that t h e ux is l e ss e n e d

,

n e a r ly in p r o p o rti o n t o t h e r e ducti o n o f p o t e n tial .T h e d e c r e as e

in primar y p o t e n tial caus e s a similar r e ducti o n in t h e s e c o n da r y
i n duc e d s o that t h e s e c o n dary cu r r e n t is l e ss e n e d It .

fo ll o ws that t h e t o rqu e pr o duc e d at an y giv e n valu e o f l o ad

cu rr e n t var i e s as t he squar e o f t he appli e d p o t e n tial W h e n t h e .

primary p o t e n tial is r e duc e d t he p o w e r fact o r an d t he e fci e n cy

ar e als o l o w e r e d , s o that t he p e r f o rma n c e is p o o r A furth e r
.

e ff e ct d ue t o t h e la r g e r pr o p o rti o n o f l o ss e s in t h e m o t o r is that
, ,

t he h e ati n g at an y giv e n p r imary cur r e n t is i n cr e as e d a n d t he

capacity o f t he m o t o r r e duc e d If t he i n ducti o n m o t o r is us e d
.

fo r starti n g h e avy t r ai n s this m e th o d o f sp e e d c o n tr o l is n o t t o b e

,

r e c o mm e n d e d ; an d in a n y cas e it is far i n fe ri o r t o t h e r st m e th o d ,

by i n s e rti o n o f r e sista n c e in t h e s e c o n dar y c ircuit .

T he i n ducti o n m o t o r i n h e r e n tly must Op e r at e at a sp e e d

s o m e what b e l o w sy n ch r o n ism ; an d w e hav e s e e n that t he n o rmal
cur v e d o e s n o t fall far b e l o w this valu e It is p o ssibl e t o cha n g e
.

t he sp e e d o f t h e m o t o r if t h e sy n ch r o n o us sp e e d c an b e c ha n g e d ;
an d this c an b e d o n e with o ut a n y gr e at sac r ic e o f p o w e r fact o r

o r e fci e n cy .T h e r e ar e t w o m e th o ds by which t h e sy n ch r o n o us
sp e e d may b e alt e r e d : by va r iati o n o f t h e fr e qu e n cy an d by a ,

cha n g e in t he n umb e r o f p o l e s o n t he p r imary a n d s e c o n dar y N o .

var iati o n in fr e qu e n cy c an b e e xp e ct e d in t he supply ci r cuit s o ,

a n y cha n g e m ad e must b e in t he c o n tr o l o f t h e m o t o r T his is .

usually d o n e by cascad e c o n tr o l or c o n cat e n ati o n in ,

which t h e s e c o n dary cu r r e n t fr o m o n e i n ducti o n m o t o r is fe d

i n t o t he primar y o f a n o th e r m o t o r t he t w o b e i n g m e cha n ically
,

c o n n e ct e d t o g e th e r s o that th e y mu s t r un at t he sam e sp e e d .

T his will b e d e scrib e d m o r e in d e tail in c o n n e cti o n with m e th o ds

o f c o n tro l .

T h e n umb e r o f p o l e s o n an i n ducti o n m o t o r may b e cha n g ed

much m o r e r e adily tha n o n a dir e ct curr e n t m o t o r si n c e t he e ld
-
,

is usually c o n st r uct e d with a distribut e d wi n di n g . T he i n clusi o n

o f m o r e o r l e ss c o ils in a gr o up mak e s it p o ssibl e t o r e c o n n e ct t h e
-

wi n di n g t o giv e t w o o r m o r e s e ts o f p o l e s with t he sam e e ld

c o ils T o g e t m o r e tha n t w o s e ts o f p o l e s with t h e sam e c o ils
.
70 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

c o mplic at e s t he wi n di n g t o a n e xt e n t wh e r e it is n o t p r actical ;
s o fo r such c as e s t h e p r imary a n d s e c o n dary pa r ts o f t h e m o t o r

ar e e ach suppli e d with t w o o r m o r e s e parat e wi n di n gs in cas e ,

m o re tha n t w o sp e e ds in t he rati o o f ar e d e si r e d T his .

m e th o d o f sp e e d c o n t r o l has b e e n w o rk e d satisfact o r ily in a c o n

s id e r abl e n umb e r o f E u r o p e a n l o c o m o ti v e s ; but is t o o c umb e r

s o m e fo r u s e with i n dividual m o t o r cars e sp e cially wh e r e tr ai n

,

o p e r ati o n is d e sirabl e o n t h e multipl e u n it syst e m

-
.

In d uc t io n M o t or P e rfo rm an c e U n d e r n o r mal c o n diti o n s

.
,

t he e fci e n cy o f t he i n ducti o n m o t o r c a n b e mad e at l e ast as high

as that o f t he b e st dir e ct cu r r e n t s e ri e s m o t o r s an d with a s o m e
,

what small e r w e ight pe r u n it o f o utput The e fci e n cy is s o m e

.

what b e tt e r tha n that o f t h e si n gle phas e s e ri e s m o t o r b e i n g ab o ut

-
,

e qual t o t h e e fci e n cy o f t h e dir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o r

-
T he .

p o w e r fact o r is at l e ast as l o w as o r o ft e n l o w e r tha n that o f t he

, ,

si n gl e phas e m o t o rs s o that t h e li n e curr e n t r e qui r e d is e qual t o

-
,

o r s o m e what gr e at e r tha n that r e quir e d fo r t h e s er i e s m o t o r .

F u r th e r tha n this it m ust b e r e m e mb e r e d that t he i n du c ti o n

,

m o t o r o p e rat e s o n ly o n a p o lyphas e circuit s o that at l e ast t w o

,

tr o ll e y wi r e s ar e n e c e ssa r y us i n g t he track fo r t he third c o n

,

duct o r If it is p o ssibl e t o i n stall a r o tati n g phas e cha n g e r o n

.

t h e l o c o m o tiv e p o lyphas e m o t o r s may b e us e d o n a S i n gl e phas e

,
-

supply syst e m T his is actually b e i n g d o n e o n o n e A m e rica n

.

railr o ad at t he pr e s e n t tim e .
 C HA P T E R I V

RA ILW AY M O TO R C O N S TR U C T IO N

M o to r D e v e l opm e n t Alth o ugh t he r st e xp e r im e n tal e l e ctric

.

railway w as built in 1 8 35 an d vari o us i n v e n t o r s w e r e fr o m tim e

,

t o tim e d e v e l o pi n g m o d e l e l e ctric l o c o m o tiv e s it was n o t u n til

,

t he y e ar 1 8 79 that a n ythi n g r e s e mbli n g a p r actical e l e ct r ic

r o ad Was p r o duc e d Fr o m that tim e t he impr o v e m e n t w as
.

r apid; an d it was o n ly a c o mpa r ativ e ly fe w y e a r s u n til t he

e ss e n tials o f t he m o d e r n e l e ct r ic railway had b e e n i n v e n t e d a n d

T he m o t o r s us e d du r i n g t he rst o r e xp e r im e n tal p e r i o d ,

f r o m 1 8 35 t o 1 8 79 w e r e m e r e t o ys an d had n o p r actical Op e rati n g

, ,

valu e In t he latt e r y e a r t he gr e at e n gi n e e r i n g rm o f S i e m e n s
.
,

a n d H al s k e e xhibit e d an e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e d e sig n e d t o draw a

light t r ai n o f pa s s e n g e r cars T his trai n w as display e d at t he

.

'

B e r li n e xp o siti o n
. It mark e d t he cha n g e fr o m a s c ie n t i c t o y
t o a p r actical m e a n s o f t r ai n p r o pulsi o n T he S i e m e n s l o c o
.

m o tiv e was e qu i pp e d with a si n gl e stati o n ar y typ e m o t o r ,

m o u n t e d o n t he platfo r m an d b e lt e d t o t he axl e
,
.

In t he n e xt fe w y e a r s a lar g e n umb e r o f i n v e n t o r s b o th in ,

A m e r ica an d in E ur o p e pr o duc e d e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e s an d

,

m o t o r ca r s which we r e m o r e o r l e ss succ e ssful In all o f t he .

e a r li e r typ e s t h e m o t o r s w e r e t h e o r di n a r y stati o n ary machi n e s ,

usually appli e d t o t he w o r k with o ut a n y cha n g e what e v e r In .

s o m e cas e s e v e n ar c light g e n er at o rs w e r e us e d as m o t o r s It
-
.

must be u n d e r st o o d that t he e quipm e n t in th e s e e ar ly r o ads was

e xc e e di n gly crud e . T his was n o t su r prisi n g si n c e t he applica
,

ti o n o f e l e ct r ic a l machi n e ry in g e n e r al had j ust b e gu n an d ,

practically n o n e o f t he p r e s e n t th e o r y had b e e n d e v e l o p e d .

Ear ly M o t o r s In t he e ar ly e l e ct r ic r ailways in this c o u n t ry

t he p r actic e m e n ti o n e d in t he r st r o ad ( that o f t h e S i e m e n s
a n d H al s k e rm ) o f usi n g a m o t o r plac e d o n t he platf o rm o f

t he car o r l o c o m o tiv e w as adh e r e d t o T his was alm o st n e c e ssa r y

.
,

si n c e t he p e r fo rma n c e o f t he m o t o rs w as s o p o o r t hat it w as
abs o lut e ly e ss e n tial t o ke e p a cl o s e watch o n t he m o t o r o p erati o n ,

71
72 TH E EL EC TR I C R A IL WA Y

e sp e cially o f t he c o mmutat o r an d brush e s It w as c o n sid e r e d .

t he b e st practic e t o shift t he brush e s t o giv e g o o d c o mmutati o n ;

a n d if t he car was r e v e rs e d a c o n sid e rabl e brush displac e m e n t
,

was call e d fo r .

With t he r o ad i n stall e d in R ichm o n d in 18 8 8 by Fra n k J , .

S pragu e c am e t he r e c o g n iti o n that t he railway m o t o r is a sp e cial

pi e c e o f machi n e r y an d sh o uld b e d e sig n e d t o p e rf o r m its w o r k
,

in t he b e st p o ssibl e ma n n e r In this i n stallati o n t he m o t o r s

.

w e r e hu n g o n t he car axl e s an d w e r e i n acc e ssibl e fr o m t he o o r

,

o f t he car fo r c o n sta n t i n sp e cti o n an d adj ustm e n t S i n c e th e s e .

m o t o rs w e r e d e sig n e d t o b e r e v e rsibl e it w as n e c e ssary t o plac e ,

t he brush e s in t he n e utral p o siti o n maki n g n o all o wa n c e fo r ,

shifti n g th e m t o o btai n g o o d c o mmutati o n T his practic e h as .

FI G . 36 .

S p rag u e m ot o r .

T hi s p
is t h e t y e o f m o t o r w hic h w as u s e d O n t he R ic h m o
nd ro nd
in 1 8 88 . Se v era l d iff er en t
f orm s w e r e u s e d , b ut t h e g
e n e ra a l pp
e ar a n c e o f al l w as qu t e i l
S i m i ar .

p e rsist e d t o t he pr e s e n t tim e an d t he d e sig n o f m o d e r n m o t o rs

,

has always b e e n mad e with this f e atur e as a n e c e ssary d e tail .

T eh e arly m o t o rs w e r e all bip o lar f o ll o wi n g t h e stati ,

o n ary
practic e o f that tim e It was n o t u n til ab o ut t e n y e ars aft e r t he
.

rst e l e ctric railways w e r e o p e rat e d that it w as c o n sid e r e d m o re

c
e ono mical to u s e multip o lar d e sig n s i n o rd e r t o g e t b ,
e tt e r
dist r ibuti o n o f t he activ e mat e rial an d t o o btai n impr o v e d pe r
f o r m an c e W e
.
h n it was f o u n d p o ssibl e t o build multip o l ar r ail
w ay m t
o o rs an att
,
e mpt was mad e t o u s e a c o mparativ e ly larg e

n umb er of p l
o e s T his a. r ra n g e m e n t w a s als o aba n d o n e d in

fav o r o f m o t o rs with fo ur p o l e s which n umb e r has b e c o m e sta n dard

,

fo r all dir e ct curr e n t railway m o t o rs o f t he o rdi n ary typ e s

- .

T he rst railway m o t o rs b e i n g a dir e,

ct adaptati o n o f t h e

stati o n ary typ e s w e r e e n tir e ly o p e n W hil e this typ e o f ma

,
.

chi n e h ad b e tt e r faciliti e s fo r g e tti n g rid o f t he h e at g e n e r at e d by

l ss s
t h e o e , t he e xp o sur e o f a n O p e n m o t o r u n d e r a car t o all ,
 R A IL WA Y M O TOR C ON S TR UC T I ON 73

s o rts o f di r t mud and wat e r le d t o gr o u n di n g o f t he i n sulati on

, , , ,

pitti n g o f t he c o mmutat o r s an d rapid d e structi o n o f t he b e ar

,

i n gs T he l o gical r e m e dy w as t o t o tally e n cl o s e t he w o rki n g

.

parts o f t he m o t o r e xt e n di n g t he e ld fr am e t o mak e a casi n g

,

ar o u n d t he e ld an d a r matu r e T he r st att e mpts o f this s o r t

.

did n o t aim at t o tal e n cl o su re o f t he w o r ki n g pa r ts W hil e .

t he partial e n cl o si n g did s o m e g o o d th e r e was still di f culty ,

fr o m spl ashi n g w at e r an d dust T he succ e ssiv e d e si g n s w e n t.

fu r th e r u n til n o o p e n i n g s what e v e r t o t he i n t e r i o r o f t he m o t o r
,

w e r e l e ft A cc e ss t o t he c o mmutat o r w as had by m e a n s o f a
. .

han d h o l e with r e m o vabl e c o v e r ; but si n c e by that tim e t he

-

c o mmutati o n had b e e n impr o v e d t o a p o i n t wh e r e c o n sta n t

i n spe cti o n was u n n e c e ssa r y this caus e d n o disadva n tage
, .

Ar m at ur e C o n s t ruc tio n
T he e arly a r matu r e s w e r e o f t he
.

sm o o th c o r e ha n d w o u n d drum typ e u sually wit h o n e tur n pe r

, ,

c o mmutat o r bar w ith e ith e r a lap o r a r in g wi n di n g S uch a

,
.

c o n st r ucti o n r e qui r e s as ma n y brush arms as t he m o t o r h as

p o l e s It was f o u n d that by t he us e o f t he t w o ci r cuit wav e wi n d
.
-

in g but t w o brush ar ms w e r e r e quir e d irr e sp e ctiv e o f t h e n umb e r o f

,

p o l e s o n t he m o t o r T h is w as a n imp o rta n t impr o v e m e n t

.
,

si n c e it b e cam e p o ssibl e t o plac e b o th b r ush ar ms o n t h e upp e r

pa r t o f t he c o mmutat o r wh e r e th e y c o uld b e e asily i n sp e ct e d
,

thr o ugh t he ha n d h o l e B e tt e r k n o wl e dg e o f t he ph e n o m e n a o f
-
.

c o mmutati o n l e d t o t he u s e o f sl o tt e d c o r e s fo r t he armatur e s .

T his was m o r e o f an adva n c e tha n may app e ar at rst fo r t he ,

h e avy t o r qu e r e quir e d at star t in g had t he e ffe ct o f st r ipp in g

t he w i n di n gs O ff t h e sm o o th c o r e s With t he sl o tt e d typ e t he
.
,

wire s had a s o lid wall o f ir o n agai n st wh ich t o e x e rt t he push .

T he k n o wl e dg e o f c o mmutati o n als o mad e it p o ssibl e t o win d

t he a r matur e s with m o r e tha n o n e tu r n p e r c o mmutat o r bar ,

thus makin g a ch e ap e r an d m or e rigid c o n structi o n an d facilit a ,

ti n g r e pai r s .

T h e s e cha n g e s in armatur e c o n st r ucti o n w e r e c o i n c id e n t

with impr o v e m e n ts in t he brush e s an d brush riggi n g T he .

e arly machi n e s us e d brush e s o f l e af C o pp e r such as ar e s o m e ,

tim e s e mpl o y e d at t he p r e s e n t tim e o n e l e ctr o lytic m achi n e s .

T he us e o f brush e s o f this typ e with in h e r e n tly l o w r e sista n c e

, ,

mad e a small n umb e r o f tur n s b e tw e e n bars n e c e ss ary t o pr e v e n t

e xc e ssiv e sp ar ki n g I n t he hist o ry o f t he R ichm o n d r o ad
. ,

br ush e s of so lid br o n z e w e re us e d at o n e p e ri o d R e plac e m e n t .

74 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

of all th e s e typ e s of brush with th o s e o f carb o n mad e p o ssibl e

t he cha n g e s in armatur e d e sig n n o t e d ab o v e .

Ar m at ur e S pe e d s I n n e arly all o f t he pi o n ee r d e sig n s o f

railway m o t o rs t he armatur e s w e r e o f lar ge diam e t e r
, T his .

c o n structi o n was ad o pt e d t o ge t t h e n e c e ssary high p e riph e r al

sp e e d with o ut ha vi n g an e xt r e m e ly gr e at a n gular v e l o city .

Ev e n with t he larg e armatur e s t h e sp e e ds w e r e e xc e ssiv e in

ma n y i n sta n c e s T he u se o f multip o lar m o t o rs mad e p o ssibl e a
.

l o we r p e r iph e r al sp e e d an d at t he sam e tim e a r e duct io n in

, , ,

sp e e d o f r o tatio n T his e ffe ct was aid e d by l e n gth e n i n g t he

.

c o r e s o m e what parall e l t o t he shaft T he lar g e diam e t e r arma .

ture e sp e cially wh e n r o tati n g at a high sp e e d p o ss e ss ed a

, ,

g r e at d e al o f in e r tia W e ha v e alr e ady s e e n that t he i n e rtia

.

o f t h e r o tati n g par ts o f t he e quipm e n t is a c o mparativ e ly im

p o r ta n t part o f t he t o tal for a m o vi n g car T he st ill large r .

am o u n t o f i n e r t ia caus e d t he c o n sumpti o n o f additi o n al e n e r gy ,

a n d c o n sid e rabl e e xt r a brak e w e ar b e sid e s i n cr e asi n g t he tim e

,

fo r st o p pi n g t h e car s .

I n m o st o f t he e a rly m o t o rs t he armatur e sp ee d s w e r e s o
,

high that si n gl e r e ducti o n g e ars c o uld n o t b e us e d an d it w as

-
,

n e c e ssary t o hav e back g e ar e d o r d o ubl e r e ducti o n m o t o rs

- -
.

T his caus e d a n e xtra l o ss an d an add e d c o mplicati o n that did

,

n ot s e e m wa rr a n t e d T he sl o w e r armatur e sp e e ds o btai n e d
.

in t he lat e r d e sig n s br o ught at t he sam e tim e t he sin gl e r e duct io n -

g e a r in g which has p e r sist e d t o t he pr e s e n t tim e e xc e pt fo r

c e r tai n larg e l o c o m o tiv e m o t o r s .

F i e l d Fr am e s M o t o r s o f t he o l d h o r s e sh o e typ e w e r e alm o st
i n va r iably mad e with e ld y o k e s o f wr o ught i r on W hil e this .

mat e r ial has e xc e ll e n t e l e ctrical p r o p e r ti e s it is e n ti r e ly t o o ,

e xp e n siv e fo r use o n a la r g e scal e as in r ailway m o t o rs T he

,
.

alt e r n ativ e mat e rial which was d e v e l o p e d in t h e e ar ly hist o ry o f

e l e ct r ic m o t o r s is cast i r o n T his is much ch e ap e r but r e quire s
.
,

app r o ximat e ly twic e t he w e ight fo r t he sam e e ld str e n gt h .

O n t he o th e r ha n d it l e n ds its e lf b e tt e r t o t he t o tally e n cl o s e d
,

d e sig n s which w e r e c o mi n g i n t o v o gu e at t he tim e it w as i n tr o

d uc e d . C ast i r o n in its tu r n w as f o u n d t o o h e avy an d in s o m e
, , ,

cas e s n ot st r o n g e n o ugh It was gradually sup e rs e d e d by cast

.

st e e l which has b e e n t he acc e pt e d mat e rial fo r railway m o t o r

,

f r am e s fo r o v e r ft e e n y e ars C ast st e e l is m o r e e xp e n siv e pe r

.

u n it o f w e ight tha n cast i r o n ; but its sup e ri o r mag n e tic pr o p e rti e s

 R A IL WA Y M O TOR C ON S TR UC T I ON 75

all o w t he ma n ufactur e o f a fram e w e ighi n g ab o ut half that fo r a

cast ir o n o n e an d at appr o ximat e ly t he sam e c o st
-
, .

If th e re is a sufci e n t d e ma n d fo r m o t o rs o f a c e rtai n typ e it is ,

p o ssibl e that cast st e e l may in its tu r n be sup e rs e d e d by fram e s

o f r o ll e d an d pr e ss e d Op e n h e arth st e e l
-
Alth o u g h t he rst c o st
.

o f a pr e ss e d st e e l fram e is e xc e e di n gly high t he ma n ufactu r e o f

-
,

lar g e qua n titi e s o f a c e r tai n si n gl e d e sig n will mak e it an activ e

c o mp e tit o r o f t he cast st e e l O n e d e sig n has alr e ady b e e n mad e
.

usi n g pr e ss e d st e e l an d which is sup e ri o r in ma n y ways t o t he

,

o rdi n a r y typ e o f cast st e e l m o t o r

-
.

T h e cha n g e s o utli n e d ab o v e mark t he d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he rail

w ay m o t o r fr o m a crud e d e vic e up o n which littl e r e lia n c e c o uld
,

be pl ac e d t o o n e that c an b e us e d with o ut difculty an d will

, ,

p e r for m its w o r k satisfact o r ily u n d e r t he s e v e r e c o n diti o n s o f

s e r vic e i n h e r e n t t o railway Op e rati o n T he st r uctural d e v e l o p
.

m e n t o utli n e d w as carri e d al o n g with an impr o ve m e n t o f c o n

structi o n d e tails b o th e l e ct r ical an d m e cha n ical T he r e sult is .

a n i n cr e as e in e fci e n cy f r o m quit e l o w v alu e s t o fairly high o n e s

,

o v e r t h e e n ti r e o p e rati n g r a n g e In a railway syst e m e fci e n cy

.
,

o f t he tracti o n m o t o r is but a small it e m ; but t h e savi n g in c o st

d ue t o t he i n cr e as e in e f ci e n cy is w o rth c o n sid e rabl e t o t he

rai lw ay o p e r at o r si n c e it has c o m e with o th e r impr o v e m e n ts o f a
,

d e si r abl e n atur e .

M o d e rn D ir e c t C urre nt R ailw ay M o t o r s T he d e v e l o pm e n t
- .

w e hav e j ust trac e d has b e e n e n tir e ly in t he dir e ct cu rr e n t s e ri e s -

m o t o r T he g r e at e r part o f it t o o k plac e p r i o r t o t he y e ar 1 8 93 ;
.

si n c e that tim e t he cha n g e s hav e b e e n m o r e in t he n atur e of mi n o r

re n e m e n ts t ha n in radical d e v e l o pm e n ts .

M o d e rn M o t or Fr am e s T he fram e s o f m o d e r n m o t o rs are
mad e o f cast st e e l an d i n clud e t he mag n e tic ci r cuit o f t he e ld
, ,

with t he pr o t e cti n g casi n g T h e r e ar e t w o typ e s o f fr ame in

.

g e n e r al use s olid an d split T he split fram e s ar e t he e arli e r

.

d e v e l o pm e n t It was fo r m e rly t he u n iv e rsal p r actic e t o i n sp e ct

.

t he m o t o rs with o ut r e m o vi n g th e m fr o m t he car axl e s T his .

is d o n e in o n e o f t w o ways T he m o t o r is split in a h o riz o n tal

.

pla n e thr o ugh t he shaft in such a man n e r that t he l o w e r half

c an b e d r o pp e d d o w n thus p e rmitti n g i n sp e cti o n fr o m a pit
,

be n e ath t he t r ack ; o r e ls e t he upp e r half c an b e r a i s e d all o wi n g ,

i n sp e cti o n o n t he s h Op o o r aft e r t he truck has b e e n r un o ut

fr o m u n d e r t he car T his latt e r m e th o d w as us e d only on a fe w
.
76 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y
,

of t he larg e st syst e ms t he f o r m e r b e i n g much m o r e wid e ly

,

e mpl o y e d .

With t he r e n e m e n ts which hav e b e e n mad e in m o d e r n m o t o r s ,

t he n e e d fo r i n sp e cti o n has dimi n ish e d s o that it is p o ssibl e t o ,

mak e a far gr e at e r mil e ag e b e tw e e n o ve rh aul in g s o f t he m o t o r s

tha n pr e vi o usly T his has mad e p o ssibl e t h e use o f m o t o r s with
.

s o lid fram e s t he armatur e s b e i n g r e m o v e d fr o m t he e n d T his

,
.

latt e r c o n structi o n is m o r e rigid an d s o m e what ch e ap e r ; but it

mak e s it imp o ssibl e t o r e m o v e an armatu r e u n l e ss t he e n tir e
m o t o r is r st tak e n o ff t h e truck T o d e t e r mi n e t he cl e ar a n c e .

b e tw e e n t he armatur e a n d p o l e s it is cust o mary t o hav e small ,

ha n d h o l e s fo r i n sp e cti o n in -

t he l o w e r p o rti o n o f t he
m o t o r cas e .

T he ch o ic e o f s o lid o r split
fr am e s d e p e n ds lar g e ly o n
t he sh o p e quipm e n t avail
abl e fo r ha n dli n g t he m o t o r s :
In s o m e small S h o ps it is
quit e difcult t o r e m o v e an d
t h e armatur es f
Fm M o d e r n d ir e c t c u r r e n t r a i l
37
. .
-

w ay m o t o r . s o l i d fr am e m o t o rs ; but in s-

m i ss : Maint ai ns; t ann in t h e larg e r sh o ps e sp e cially ,

a ft t h
er t h
e m ob or asv df
een re m o th e
th o s e e quipp e d with cra n e s
ro m e e ar
xl g d th g
.

Th ,
e a e e a r an e t h w
e ar c as e a r e n o s o n .

t he e mpl o ym e n t o f th i s typ e
has pr o v e d e n ti r e ly s ais fa c t o r y ; an d th e ir us e s e e ms t o b e g r o w
in g at t he pr e s e n t tim e .

I n t he r st d e sig n s o f railway m o t o rs t he p o l e s w e r e mad e ,

i n t e gral with t he mai n h o rs e sh o e f o r gi n gs fo r t he e ld T his w as .

fairly succ ssful si c e a high grad e mag n e tic mat e rial o f pr a c

e n ,

tically u n if o rm p e rm e ability w as us e d T he r st machi n e s with .

cast ir o n fram e s had t he p o l e s cast in t he fram e s T his d e si g n

-
.

w as n o t succ e ssful si n c e n e ith e r t he c o n tr o l o v e r t h e quality o f

,

t he m e tal n o r t he dim e n si o n s o f t he p o l e s was c o mpl e t e

,
In a ,
.

fe w typ e s an att e mpt was mad e t o c o rr e ct this tr o ubl e b y build

,
-

in g up p o l e s o f lami n at e d st e e l an d casti n g th e m i n t o t h e m e t er
,

fram e W hil e this was an impr o v e m e n t it did n o t m e e t all t h e

.
,

d e ma n ds o f a satisfact o r y p o l e structur e I n all m o d e r n m o t o rs .

t he p o l e s ar e mad e o f st e e l lami n ati o n s built up an d r iv e t e d ,

t o g e th e r T h e y ar e fast e n e d i n t o t he e ld fram e with b o lts a n d

.
,
 R A I L WA Y M O T O R C ON S T R U C T I ON 7

ar e s o d e sig n e d that th e y may b e r e m o v e d with o ut taki n g t he

a r matu r e o ut o f t he cas e .

T he us e o f t he lami n at e d p o l e mak e s it p o ssibl e t o sh a p e t h e

p o l e tips t o aid c o mmutati o n an d th e y c an b e p r o p e rly spac e d
,

in t he fr am e t o e n sur e c o rr e ct alig n m e n t T his fe atu r e alth o ugh .

,

p e r haps n o t fully appr e ciat e d is o n e o f t he fact o r s in t he spl e n did

,

p e r fo r ma n c e o f m o d e r n di r e ct cu rr e n t m o t o r s -
.

U s e o f In t e rpo l e s
Withi n t he past fe w y e a r s t he us e o f
.

i n t e r p o l e s has b e c o m e quit e g e n e ral O f all typ e s o f c o mmutat o r

.

e l e ct r ic m o t o rs t h e s e ri e s ma c hi n e has t h e l e ast i n h e r e n t t e n d e n c y
,

t o spa r k si n c e t he e ld str e n gth aut o matically i n c r e as e s W ith t he

,

ar matur e cu r r e n t T he sud .

d e n an d h e avy o v e rl o ads h o w ,

e v e r mak e t h e v e r y b e st c o m
,

mutati o n a n e c e ssity fo r c o n
t in ue d succ e ssful Op e r ati o n .

In all cas e s wh e r e c o n sta n t

att e n t io n ca n n o t b e giv e n t h e
c o mmutat o r t he d e st r uctiv e
,

r e sults o f spar kin g ar e cumula

tiv e ; a n d e v e n th o ugh t h e
spa r ki n g o f w e ll d e sig n e d n o n
-

i n t e rp o l e railway m o t o r s was
f o rm e rly C o n s I de r e d n e gl i g i bl e FI G 38 Arran g e m e n t o f in t e rp o l e s
, . . .

t he w e ar o f b o th c o mmutat o r Th i p l d th i t p l
e m a n b o es , a, an e n er o es ,
h v w di g w h h pl d i
,

a e m w it h n s ic ar e ac e n s eries
a n d b I l I S he S I S
'
C o n s I d e r ab l e th t U ll y t h ld W d g
e ar m a ur e s ua e m ai n e in in
v d t h g th d t
. .

is re f
ers e t t o c an e e ir e c ion o ro a ion

T h e us e O f i n t e r p o l e s has r e
.

d uc e d sparkin g t o a p o i n t wh e r e it is p r actically abs e n t ; an d

with its d e c r e as e a gr e at g ai n has b e e n r e ali z e d in t he life o f
c o mmutat o r s an d brush e s .

In f o rm t he i n t e r p o l e s ar e p r actically t he sam e as th o s e fo r
stati o n ar y di r e ct curr e n t machi n e r y T he tu r n s are s o far as
-
.
,

p o ssibl e c o n c e n t r at e d n e ar t he armature su r fac e t o i n cr e as e

, ,

th e ir e ffe ctiv e n e ss T he supp o rti n g c o r e s ar e o f st e e l b o lt e d i n t o

.
,

t he e ld f r am e b e tw e e n t he mai n p o l e s T he i n t e r p o l e c o ils are . .

c o n n e ct e d di r e ctly in s e ri e s with t he a r matur e an d e ld wi n di n gs ,

a n d a r e a rr a n g e d s o that th e y may b e r e v e rs e d al o n g with t h e

a r matur e in o r d e r that t he cu r r e n t th r o ugh t he c o mmutati n g

,

c o ils may b e in t he pr o p e r dir e cti o n t o assist t he c o mmutati o n

a n d n o t hi n d e r it .
78 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

M od ern Arm at ur e C o n s t ruc t i o n T he armatur e s of m o d e r n .

m o t o r s ar e i n variably o f t he sl o tt e d drum typ e an d ar e w o u n d ,

with t w o c o mpl e t e c o ils pe r sl o t T he e arly armatu r e s o f this .

class w e r e d e sig n e d with a c o mparativ e ly la r g e n umb e r o f small

sl o ts e ach with o n e o r t w o Si n gl e c o ils in it T his p r ac tic e caus e s
,
.

w e ak n a r r o w t e e th an d is wast e ful o f spac e si n c e t h e maj o r c o il

, , ,

i n sulati o n must n e c e ssar ily b e o f a d e n it e thick n e ss wh e th e r

o n e o r a n umb e r o f s e parat e c o ils ar e ass e mbl e d t o g e th e r I n ci .

d e n tally t he c o st o f pu n chi n g t he ir o n with a larg e n umb e r o f

t e e th is g r e at e r an d t he c o mmutati o n is p o o r e r M o d e r n
,
.

practic e is t o i n clud e fr o m thr e e t o v e si n gl e c o ils in e ach c o m

p l e t e c o il s o that
, t h e t o tal n umb e r o f sl o ts is c o n sid e r ably l e ss th a n
in t he e arly armatu r e s e v e n th o u g h t he n umb e r o f c o mmutat o r
,

bars has b e e n i n cr e as e d .

In s o m e m o t o r s t he a r matur e p un c hin g s ar e ass e mbl e d

dir e ctly o n t he shaft an d in o th e r s th e y ar e m o u n t e d o n a spid e r
,

o f cast ir o n In t he larg e r machi n e s t he us e o f t he spid e r is

.

u n iv e rsal Its e mpl o ym e n t d e p e n ds o n t he am o u n t o f ir o n whi ch

.

n e e ds t o b e l e ft b ack o f t h e t e e th fo r car r yi n g t he ux an d o n t h e ,

a rr a n g e m e n ts mad e fo r v e n tilati o n .

'
Ar matu r e wi n di n gs o f di r e ct cu r r e n t railway m o t o r s ar e al m o st
-

i n variably o f t h e t w o circuit typ e T he us e o f t w o circuit wi n d

-
.
-

i n gs as has alr e ady b e e n stat e d r e sults in t he n e e d fo r o n ly t w o

, ,

b r ush arms n o matt e r h o w man y p o l e s t he m o t o r has O n t he

,
.

o th e r ha n d if t he cu r r e n t cap acity is lar g e a brush ar m c an

, ,
-

b e suppli e d fo r e ach p o l e o f t h e m o t o r thus maki n g p o ssibl e a ,

sh o rt c o mmutat o r T he maximum curr e n ts t o b e ha n dl e d with

.

dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs ar e usually w e ll withi n t he limits o f t he

-

t w o circuit wi n di n g
-
.

Ar matur e c o ils ar e mad e o f wir e o n ly in t he small siz e s Fo r .

t he larg e r m o t o r s st r ap w o u n d c o ils ar e t h e u n iv e rsal p r actic e

,
-
.

T he st r ap giv e s a b e tt e r spac e fact o r t he pr o p o rti o n o f t he

-

sl o t o ccupi e d by c o pp e r is g r e at e r an d that tak e n up by i n sula ,

ti o n is l e ss G e n e r ally t he i n dividual armatur e c o ils ar e w o u n d

.
,

c o mpl e t e in o n e pi e c e ; but in s o m e typ e s t he c o ils are se p arat e d i n t o

t w o parts a n d ar e c o n n e ct e d t o g e th e r at t he back e n d o f t h e
,

a r matu r e T his mak e s r e plac e m e n t o f damag e d c o ils e asi e r but

.
,

i n c r e as e s t he n umb e r o f s o ld e r e d j o i n ts .

C o m m utat or C o n s tr uc ti on M o d e r n c o mmutat o rs are g e ne r

.

ally built o f r o ll e d o r dr o p f o r g e d c o pp e r U n if o rmity o f t he

-
.

surfac e has much t o do with l o n g life o f t he c o mmutat o r a n d

 R A IL WA Y M O TOR C ON S TR UC T I ON 79

brush e s in s e rvic e An o th e r fact o r is t he mat e rial e mpl o y e d

.

fo r i n sulat io n b e tw e e n bars Alth o ugh a n umb e r o f mat e r ials

.

hav e b e e n us e d t he o nl y o ne wh ich has b e e n satisfact o ry is

,

mica At t he pr e s e n t tim e it is e xc e e di n gly d ifcult t o o btai n

.

mica of u n if o rm quality an d in c o n s e qu e n c e t he p r acti c e has

,

b e e n ad o pt e d o f usin g in sulati o n built up fr o m small sh e e ts o f

this mat e r ial h e l d t o g e th e r with s o m e f o r m o f bi n d e r su c h as ,

sh e llac T o g e t g o o d s e rvic e fr o m a c o mmut a t o r t he i n sula

.
,

ti o n an d t he c o pp e r must w e ar d o w n at t he sam e r at e If t he .

mica is t o o s o ft it will w e ar aw ay fast e r tha n t he c o pp e r a n d

, ,

l e av e l o w sp o ts at t he e dg e s o f t he ba r s O n t he c o n t r ar y if.
,

t he mica is t o o ha r d it will n o t w e ar away as rapidly as t h e

,

c o pp e r T he r e sult will b e that t he b r ush e s will hav e a t e n d

.

e n cy t o j ump away fr o m t h e surfac e o f t h e c o mmutat o r causi n g ,

spark in g an d ash in g which will c o n duc e t o furth e r pitt in g an d

w e arin g d o w n o f t he c o pp e r u n til tu r n i n g is n e c e ssa r y Pr ac
,
.

t ically all t he mica which is availabl e fo r c o mmutat o r i n sula

t io n at t he pr e s e n t day is hard e r tha n t he c o pp e r su r fac e givi n g ,

t he latt e r e ffe ct . T he r e m e dy fo r th is is t he p r actic e which is ,

b e i n g quit e g e n e r ally ad o pt e d o f u n d e rcutt in g t he mica o r
, ,

r e m o vi n g it t o a d e pth o f ab o ut % 6 in b e l o w t he su r f a c e . .

T his pe r mits t he brush e s t o b e a r e v e n ly o n t he c o mmutat o r ,

a n d al o ws u n if o r m w e ar o f t he c o pp e r
l W ith t he ai d o f c o m
.

mutat in g p o l e s an d u n d e r cut mi c a t he c o mmutati o n o f m o d e r n

m o t o rs is w e ll n igh p e r fe ct
- .

M o to r Lub ric ati o n It is in t he m e cha ni cal pa r ts o f t he

.

m o t o r that t he m o st rad ical cha n g e s ha v e b e e n mad e si n c e

t he b e gi n n i n gs o f e l e ctric railway o p e rati o n In t he e a r ly .

machi n e s lub r icati o n was c o mm o n ly e ffe ct e d with g r e a s e

,
.

G r e as e as a lub r ica n t is th e o r e t ically i n e fci e n t si n c e it r e ,

quir e s t he b e a r i n g t o o v e r h e at b e f o r e acti n g It has b e e n r e .

plac e d by t he us e o f o il carri e d t o t he r o tati n g par t by capill ar y

,

att r acti o n thr o ugh t he m e dium o f w o o l wast e which r ubs ,

agai n st t he shaft an d thus e n sur e s a c o n sta n t supply o f o il u n d e r

,

all c o n diti o n s B o th armature b e a r i n gs an d axl e b e ari n gs are

.

lub r icat e d in t he sam e ma n n e r .

B e ari n g H o us i n gs an d B e arin g s A s t he e arly m o t o r s w e r e

o f t h e o p e n typ e th e r e was littl e difculty in r e m o v in g t he
,

armatur e s fo r in sp e cti o n o r fo r r e pai r W h e n t he e n cl o s e d

.

m o t o rs b e cam e sta n dard pr o visio n fo r r e m o vi n g t he armatu r e s

,

w as mad e by splitti n g t he fram e s as al r e ady e xplai n e d ,

With .
80 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

t he m o d e r n s o lid fram e m o t o rs t he armature s must b e r e m o ve d

-
,

fr o m t he e n ds o f t he casi n g T o do this t he o p e n i n g in t he .
,

e n d o f t he fram e must b e at l e as t as larg e as t he diam e t e r o f

t he a r matu r e T he ac c e pt e d m e th o d o f cl o si n g th is o p e n in g
.

is t o u se a b e ari n g brack e t tur n e d t o t a b o r e d h o l e in t he ,

fram e an d c o n tai n i n g t he b e ari n g an d b e a r i n g h o usi n g t o

, ,

g e th e r with t he o il r e c e ptacl e T he sam e typ e o f e n d b r ack e t .

has b e e n ad o pt e d with spl it fram e m o t o rs o n acc o u n t o f t he -

,

rigid supp o rt it gi v e s t he b e ari n g an d its e xc e ll e n t arra n g e m e n t ,

fo r o ili n g .

T he b e ari n gs pr o p e r ar e mad e o f brass o r br o n z e with t h e ,

w e a r i n g surfac e o f babbitt m e tal T his c o n structi o n is g o o d .

,

si n c e t he us e o f a s o ft m e tal r e duc e s t he fricti o n t o a mi n imum

u n d e r n o rmal c o n ditio n s ; a n d if a n ythi n g happ e n s t o m e lt o ut
t he babbitt t he br o n z e its e lf fur n ish e s a g o o d b e arin g t o r u n o n
,

u n ti l t he m o t o r c an b e r e m o v e d fr o m t he car at t he e n d o f t he
trip With o ut such a saf e guard t he m e lt in g o f t he babbitt
.

w o uld caus e t he armatur e t o st r ik e t he p o l e fac e s r e sulti n g in ,

damag e t o t he wi n di n g an d p o ssibly d e structi o n o f t he c o r e

its e lf .

V e n t il at io n o f M o to r s
T he o ld e st railway m o t o rs b e i n g
.
,

Op e n w e r e v e n tilat e d e n tir e ly by n atural circulat io n o f t he sur

,

Fi G . 39 .
M e t ho d of f o r c e d v e n t il a t i o n .

T he a ir l g
is c ir c u a t e d t h r o u h t h e m o t o r c as e by ff
m e an s o i d
a n s c ar r e on t he a r m a t ur e A
b bt g g
.

n um er g _

p
o f o t h e r a rr a n e m e n t s o f a i r - a t h s a r e i n us e t o o ai n a p as s a e o f air t h ro u h t he
m o t or c as e .

r o u n di n g air W ith t he adv e n t o f t he e n cl o s e d m o t o r a di ffe r e n t

.
,

c o n d it io n was c o n fr o n t e d T he o utsid e air n o l o n ge r h ad.

acc e ss t o t he a r matur e c o mmutat o r a n d e l d c o ils ; but all t he

,

h e at g e n e rat e d had t o b e tra n sf e rr e d t o t he fram e a n d dissipat e d

fr o m t he o utsid e su r fac e o f t he cas e T he r e sult was that t he .

capacity o f a m o t o r o f giv e n w e ight was much small e r tha n in

 R A IL WA Y M O TOR C ON S TR UC T I ON 81

t he cas e o f t he c o rr e sp o n di n g o p e n mach in e B ut it has b e e n .

fo u n d n e c e ssary o n acc o u n t o f t he bad e ffe cts o f dust an d

,

m o istur e t o k e e p t he m o t o r s alm o st c o mpl e t e ly e n cl o s e d A

, .

n umb e r o f y e a r s ag o a n att e mpt was mad e t o f o r c e air i n t o

t he m o t o r by m e a n s o f ducts l e adi n g t o t h e fr o n t o f t he c ar .

T his was n o t e n ti r e ly succ e ssful ; but it l e d t h e way t o t he us e

o f fa n s o n th e m o t o r a r matur e by m e a n s o f which a ci r culati o n
,

is e stablish e d draw in g air in fr o m t he o utsid e a n d passi n g it

, ,

th r o ugh t he m o t o r n ally discha r gi n g it agai n B y this m e th o d

,
.
,

sh o w n in Fig 3 9 t he t e mp e ratur e o f t he m o t o r may b e r e duc e d

.
. ,

mat e r ially fo r t he sam e l o ad o r t he rati n g o f a giv e n m o t o r may

,

be i n cr e as e d . T he r e sult is t o light e n t he e quipm e n t .

I n t h e larg e l o c o m o tiv e m o t o rs such v e n tilati o n w o uld n o t

b e sufci e n t e sp e cially s in c e t he gr e at e st g e n e rati o n o f h e at
,

o ccu r s wh e n st arti n g At this tim e t he e fci e n cy o f an y fan

.

dr iv e n by t he armatur e is l e ast a n d t he c o o li n g e ffe ct small , ,

si n c e t he sp e e d is l o w T O giv e an ad e quat e supply o f c o o li n g

.

a ir t o such m o t o r s th e y ar e p r o vid e d w ith v e n tilati n g ducts

, ,

t he air b e in g fu r n ish e d fr o m a n i n d e p e n d e n t m o t o r d riv e n bl o w e r -

l o c a t e d in t he cab .

S i n gl e P ha s e C o m m utato r M o to r s
-
I n t he c as e o f si n gl e.

phas e m o t o rs t he e ld flux is alt e r n atin g A s o lid e ld structu re

,
.

is i n adm issibl e an d it is n e c e ssary t o pr o v id e a c o mpl e t e lami

,

n at e d c o r e fo r t h e mag n e tic ux T his l e ads t o a quit e di ffe r e n t

.

a rr a n g e m e n t fr o m that o f t he sta n dard di r e ct curr e n t m o t o rs -

.

T he e ld is built up o f a s e t o f pu n c hin gs which ar e h e ld r igidly ,

in a fram e o f cast st e e l that als o s e r v e s as t he e n cl o si n g cas e o f

t he m o to r . T he p o l e s ar e mad e i n t e gral w ith t he c o r e fo r it is ,

imp o ssibl e t o r e m o v e th e m o n acc o u n t o f t he c o mp e n sati n g

T he eld c o ils o f alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t s e r i e s m o t o r s are n o t

-

e ss e n ti ally di ff e r e n t f r o m th o s e o f di r e ct cur r e n t m o t o r s e xc e pt
-
,

that th e y hav e l e ss tu r n s T he c o mp e n sati n g w in di n gs i n st e ad

.
,

o f b e i n g c o n c e n trat e d as in t he dir e ct cur re n t i n t e rp o l e s are

,
-
,

distribut e d o v e r n e ar ly t he e n tir e p o l e fac e B y this m e a n s t he -

.

n e utrali z i n g amp e r e tur n s ar e plac e d v e r y n e ar t h e armatur e

c o n duct o rs wh o s e i n ducta n c e it is d e sir e d t o Opp o s e an d th e i r .

e ffe ctiv e n e ss is i n c r e as e d .

O n acc o u n t o f t h e c o mp e n sati n g win d in g it is n o t p o ss ibl e t o ,

split t he fram e ; an d si n c e t he maj o rity o f sin gl e phas e m o t o rs

,
-

ar e o f c o mparativ e ly la r g e r at in g a n d ar e us e d o n r o ads with

,

6
82 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

ad e quat e s hO p e quipm e n t th e r e is n o t a gr e at d e ma n d fo r that

,

c o n struct io n I n m o st m o d e r n mach in e s t he e xt e r n al app e ar

.
,

a n c e is n o t e ss e n t ially di ffe r e n t fr o m that o f dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs -

o f similar capacity .

T he armatur e s o f alt e r n ati n g curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o rs ar e v e ry

-

n e arly t h e sam e as th o s e fo r dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs t h e pri n cipal -

,

appar e n t d iffe r e n c e b e i n g t he gr e at e r n umb e r o f c o mmutat o r

bars o n t he f o rm e r In t he typ e ma n ufactur e d in t he U n it e d
.

S tat e s t h e r e is a d iffe r e n c e n o t r e adily d isc e r n ibl e d ue t o t he

, , ,

i n t e rp o siti o n o f r e sista n c e l e ads b e tw e e n t he arm atur e c o ils an d

t he c o mmutat o r T h e s e l e ads are plac e d in t he b o tt o m s of t he
.

sl o ts in t he small e r siz e s o f m o t o rs ; an d in t he lar ger o n e s

FI G . 40 . I n t e r io r o f s in g l e p h as e s e ri e s m o t o r
- -
.

l f
T h e p o e ac es ar e s l t t e d a n d h av e t h e c o n d u t o r s o f t h e c o m p n
o c t in g
e sa w in d in g em
b
,

ed d e d i n t he m
.

plac e d in t he c o r e in s e parat e sl o ts l o cat e d b e n e ath t he path

o f t he ux T his m e th o d o f c o n structi o n mak e s r e pairs an d
.

r e plac e m e n ts c o mparativ ely e asy .

I n disti n cti o n t o t he dir e ct curr e n t armatur e s th o s e o f s in gl e

-
,

phas e m o t o rs ar e o rdi n ar ily lap w o u n d S i n c e th e r e is a p o ssi .

b il it y o f u n e v e n distr ibuti o n o f t he mag n e t ic ux d ue t o in ,

e qual it ie s in t h e air gap it is cust o mary t o sup ply th e m with

,

bala n ci n g r in gs such as ar e us e d o n larg e g e n e rat o rs T he us e .

o f th e s e r i n gs p e rmits e qual izi n g curr e n ts t o o w in t he arm atur e,

thus c o mp e n sati n g fo r v ariat io n s in t he mag n e tic str e n gth o f

di ffe r e n t p o l e s .

T he u s e o f lap w o u n d armatur e s mak e s o bl igat o r y t he us e o f as

-

ma n y brush arms as th e r e ar e p o l e s In o rd e r t o impr o v e t he .

p e rf o rma n c e o f t he m o t o rs th e r e is a t e n d e n cy t o i n cr e as e t he
,
 R A IL WA Y M O TOR C ON S TR UC T I ON 83

n umb e r o f p o l e s which r e qui r e s a n additi o n al n umb e r o f brush

,

a r ms Fo r th is r e as o n it is s o m e what m o r e difcult t o m ai n tai n

.

t he brush e s o n si n gl e phas e m o t o rs
-
.

N o n e o f t h e pur e ly m e cha n ical parts o f t he alt e r n ati n gcurr e n t

s e ri e s m o t o r s ar e e ss e n tially di ffe r e n t in an y particular fr o m th o s e
o f di r e ct cu r r e n t m o t o r s
-
I n fact t he e xt e r n al app e a r a n c e is
.
,

n e a r ly id e n tical fort h e t w o typ e s o f machi n e s S i n c e t he alt e r n at .

in g cu rr e n t m o t o rs ar e us e d t o a c o n sid e r abl e e xt e n t o n larg e

-

l o c o m o tiv e s t he d e sig n o f i n div idual u n its may l e ad t o a mat e rial

,

d iffe re n c e in app e a r a n c e .

In duc ti o n M o to r s T he d e sig n o f i n ducti o n m o t o rs fo r r ailway

s e rvic e calls fo r m o r e radical d e partu r e s fr o m t he o r di n ary dir e ct

curr e n t d e s ig n s tha n is t he cas e with t he s e r i e s m o t o r T he e ld .

o r p r ima r y wi n di n g is usually plac e d o n t h e stat o r ; but it must b e

dist r ibute d an d r e s e mbl e s an armature wi n di n g T h is calls fo r a

,
.

di ffe r e n t typ e o f c o n structi o n T he e n cl o s in g fram e h o w e v e r

.
, ,

may be mad e t o r e s e mbl e that o f t he dir e ct cur r e n t m o t o r quit e -

cl o s e ly an d t he m e cha n ical parts may b e t he sam e

, , .

T he s e c o n da r y is g e n e r ally mad e t he r o t o r ; an d fo r t he f o rms ,

o r di n ar ily us e d in tracti o n w o r k t he wi n di n g is o f t he d e n it e
,

typ e similar t o that o f t he p r ima r y T h e r e is th is e ss e n tial

,
.

diffe r e n c e : n o c o mmutat o r is r e qui r e d an d t he e n ds o f t he wi n d

,

i n gs ar e br o ught o ut t o c o ll e ct o r ri n gs th r o ugh which t he cu rr e n t

,

is l e d t o t he r e sist o r s by m e a n s o f brush e s T he s e c o n dary has .

n o c o n n e cti o n what e v e r with t h e supply circuit a n d c an b e ,

w o u n d fo r an y c o n v e n i e n t p o t e n tial T he s e c o n da r y wi n di n gs
.

are n e arly always mad e th r e e phas e si n c e this all o ws o f t he

-
,

mi n im um n umb e r o f ri n gs a n d b r ush e s .

T h e l o cati o n o f t he c o ll e ct o r ri n gs is a matt e r o f s o m e imp o r

ta n c e If t he siz e o f t he m o t o r is n o t e xc e ssiv e t he r i n gs c an be
.
,

l o c at e d in sid e t he fram e in a p o siti o n s im ilar t o that o f t he c o m

,

mutat o r in a s e r i e s m o t o r If t he capacity o f t he m o t o r is larg e

.
,

it may b e difcult t o n d r o o m fo r t he c o ll e ct o r I n s o m e .

d e sig n s it is m o u n t e d in sid e t he spid e r ; in at l e ast o n e t he l e ads ,

fr o m t he wi n di n g ar e tak e n thr o ugh t he b e arin g in a d uct b o re d

in t he shaft t he c o ll e ct o r b e i n g plac e d o utsid e t he c r a n k
,
W hil e .

this may b e c o n sid e r e d an e xt r e m e d e sig n it was n e c e ssitat e d by ,

t he d e ma n ds mad e o n t he m o t o r fo r spac e .
 C H AP TE R V

C O N TR O L O F RAILW AY M O TO R S

N e e d fo r C o n t ro l
.l ctric m o t o r o f an y typ e W ith it s
If an e e ,

armatur e at r e st w e r e c o n n e ct e d dir e ctly t o t he li n e an e xc e ssiv e

, ,

curr e n t w o uld o w limit e d o n ly by t he imp e da n c e o f t he m o t o r

,

a n d t h e supply circuit I n cas e t he pr o t e ctiv e d e vic e s fail e d

.

t o o p e n t he ci r cuit t he t o rqu e pr o duc e d w o uld in g e n e ral be so

,

gr e at as t o slip t he drivi n g wh e els ; o r fail in g t o d o that t o start , ,

t h e trai n with a s e v e r e j e rk S i n c e a fai rly u n if o rm ac c e l e rati o n

.

o f m o d e rat e am o u n t is d e si r abl e s o m e f o rm o f c o n t r o l which

,

l imits t he t o rqu e t o a pr o p e r valu e i s an abs o lut e e ss e n tial t o

satisfact o ry O p e rat io n .

Ava il ab l e M e th o d s
T h e r e ar e t w o g e n e ral m e th o ds fo r
.

Obtain i n g t he d e sirabl e cha n g e s in charact e ristics which are ,

appl icabl e t o n e arly all typ e s o f e l e ctric m o t o rs

1 . V ari at i o ns in p o t e n t i al .

2 . C han ges in r e l at iv e s t r e n gt h o f ar mat ur e an d el d .

Fo rc e rtai n typ e s o f alt e r n ati n g curr e n t m o t o rs t he c h ar ac t e ris

-
,

t ics may b e va r i e d by t he f o ll o wi n g additi o n al m e th o ds :

3 . C han g es in t h e mb er nu of po les .

4 . C han ge s in fr e q u e n c y .

C h an ge of P o t e n t i al f ct of cha n g e s in t he t e r m i n al
.
T he e f e

p o t e n tial is diff e r e n t with v ari o us typ e s o f m o t o rs I n t he cas e o f .

c o n sta n t e ld machi n e s such as t he dir e ct curr e n t shu n t
,
-

m o t o r o r t h e alt e r ati n gcurr e n t i n ducti o n m o t o r a cha n g e o f

, ,

p o t e n tial at t he t e r m in als varie s t he e ld o r m ag n e tizi n g curr e n t

a n d h e n c e aff e cts t h e e ld ux T he variati o n in t he ux c o r
.

r e sp o n di n g t o a giv e n cha n g e in t he t e rmi n al e m f d e p e n ds o n t he . . .

cha r act e r ist ic o f t he mag n e tic ci r cu it ; an d in g e n e r al is diffe r e n t

fo r in dividual machi n e s If t he mag n e t ic circuit is practically
.

u n satu r at e d as in m o st alt e r n ati n g curr e n t i n ducti o n m o t o r s

,
-
,

t he t o rqu e p r o duc e d by a giv e n curr e n t va r i e s app r o ximat e ly as

t he squar e o f t he e m f . I n this typ e o f m o t o r a r e ducti o n in t he
. .

t e r mi n al p o t e n tial has a c o mparat iv e ly small e ffe ct o n t he sp e e d ,

84
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O TOR S 85

that b ei n g d e t e rmi n e d pri n cipall y by t he fr e qu e n cy o f t he supply

circu it .

I n t he d ir e ct cur r e n t shu n t m o t o r a cha n g e o f p o t e n t ial w ill

-
,

_
n o t hav e quit e s o much e ffe ct o n t h e t o rqu e as in t he i n ducti o n

m o t o r s in c e t he e ld is n o rmally saturat e d t o s o m e e xt e n t ; but

,

t he cha n g e in t o rqu e will b e c o n sid e rably gr e at e r tha n in d ir e ct

o t i n t t h appli d p o t n tial At t he sam e tim e t he sp e e d
p pr O r
p o e e e .

will b e va r ie d s o m e what by a cha n ge in e m f T h e s e e ffe cts . . .

may be o bviat e d by plac in g t he e ld w in di n g in a s e parat e

circuit an d k e e p in g it c o n n e ct e d t o a s o urc e o f c o n sta n t
p o t e n tial T he e ld ux will th e n r e main c o n sta n t an d t he
.
,

t o rqu e w ill b e t he sam e fo r an y v alu e o f t e rmi n al e m f T he . . .

sp e e d will v a ry p r actically in pr o p o r ti o n t o t he appli e d p o t e n tial .

In t he s e ri e s m o t o r a cha n g e in t he t e rmi n al e m f has n o

,
. . .

e ffe ct o n t he e ld ux fo r a giv e n curr e n t ; but t he S p e e d will

vary n e arly in pr o p o rti o n t o t he e m f appli e d t o t he t e rmi n als . . .

( s e e C hapt e r I II ) .

M e th o d s o f P o t e n ti al Variat i o n T he p o ssibl e m e th o ds by
.

which t he p o t e n tial may b e vari e d in r ailway m o t o r c o n tr o l

1 . C han ge of e m . . f . su pplie d t he mo t o r .

2 . C ombin at i o n s o f m o t ors s e r i e s an d p ar all e l ) .

3 . I n se r t i o n o f i
res s t an c e in m o t o r c i rc ui t s .

C ha n gi n g t he suppli e d t he m o t o r is difcult o f a o
e m . . f .

c o m pl is hm e n t in o rdi n ary dir e ct cur r e n t e quipm e n ts si n c e -

,

s o m e f o rm o f r o tati n g apparatus is n e c e ssary t o pr o duc e t he

d e sir e d r e sult Alth o ugh this m e th o d has b e e n sugg e st e d in
.

o n e typ e o f c o n tr o l it has n e v e r b e e n i n tr o duc e d p r actically

,
.

F o r alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t m o t o r s cha n g e s in p o t e n tial may b e

-
,

e asily ac c o mplish e d by taki n g taps fr o m a tra n sf o rm e r o r a n

aut o tra n sfo r m e r t o giv e t he d e sir e d valu e s

-
.

A simpl e a n d e fci e n t m e a n s o f varyi n g t he e m f appli e d at . . .

t he m o t o r t e rmi n als is availabl e wh e n an e quipm e n t c o n sists o f

t w o o r m o r e m o t o r s by placi n g th e m e ith e r in s e r i e s o r in parall e l
,

with o n e a n o th e r T w o m o t o r e quipm e n ts c a n thus b e a r r a n g e d

.
-

t o take full p o t e n tial a n d half p o t e n tial at th e ir t e r mi n als ; th r e e

m o t o r e quipm e n ts (if such w e r e us e d ) c o uld hav e full p o t e n t ial a n d
o n e thi r d p o t e n tial ; an d f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n ts full o n e half a n d
- -
,
-

o n e quart e r p o t e n tial
-
T his m e th o d o f r e duci n g t he pr e ssur e is
.

u s e d in n e a r ly all dir e ct cu rr e n t e quipm e n ts W h e n this m e th o d

- .

o f r e duci n g p o t e n tial is us e d it is n e c e ssa r y that all t he m o t o rs in,

86 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

t he c o mbi n at io n hav e id e n tical charact e ristics si n c e o th e rwise ,

th e y will n o t divid e t he li n e e m f e qually wh e n in s e ri e s o r t he

. . .
,

curr e n t e qually wh e n in p arall e l N o tr o ubl e s o f this s o rt are

.

t o b e a n ticipa t e d fr o m m o d e r n m o t o rs as r e c e iv e d fr o m t he
ma n ufactur e r pr o vid e d o n ly machi n e s o f t he sam e typ e an d
,

rati n g ar e us e d t o g e th e r In cas e m o t o rs have b e e n r e pair e d

.

by u n skill e d w o r km e n it may b e n e c e ssary t o t e st th e m in

,

o rd e r t o b e sur e that t he p e rfo rma n c e has n o t b e e n cha n g e d If .

th e s e pre cauti o n s b e tak e n t he m o t o rs will divi de t he pr e ssur e

,

e qually am o n g th e ms e lv e s at al l l o ads wh e n in s e r i e s see F i

( g .

S i n c e t he curr e n t tak e n by m o t o rs in s e ri e s is t h e sam e t he l o ad ,

imp o s e d o n th e m must in that cas e b e e qual T he o n ly c o n .

diti o n which c an th e n caus e tr o ubl e

is that o n e m o t o r may r e v o lv e faste r
tha n t he o th e r d ue t o slippi n g o f t he
,

wh e e ls W h e n this happ e n s t he
.
,

m o t o r wh o s e d r ivi n g wh e e ls ar e slip
pi n g will d e v e l o p a gr e at e r c o u n t e r
e m f tha n t he o th e r which will th e n
. . .
,

t e n d t o r un at a r e duc e d S p e e d u n til ,

it n ally st o ps t he r st m o t o r r e vo l v
,

in g with but a small l o ad d ue t o t he

slidi n g fr i cti o n o f t he wh e e l o n t he rail .

To o v e rc o m e this di fculty t he m o t o rs
must be st o pp e d an d t he rail sa n d e d .

W ith di r e ct curr e n t m o t o r s t he
-
,

i n s e rti o n o f s e ri e s r e sista n c e has a

similar e ffe ct t o a fo rc e d r e ducti o n o f p o t e n tial Si n c e such an .

add e d r e sista n c e i n c r e as e s t he I R dr o p t he am o u n t o f r e du e
,

ti o n in pr e ssur e at t he m o t o r t e rmi n als va r i e s dir e ctly w t ih

t he curr e n t . A r e sista n c e which will r e duc e t h e t e r m i n al po
t e n t ial o f a m o t o r t o a l o w v al ue w it h a h e avy cu r r e n t will hav e
'

but littl e e ff e ct o n it at light l o ads ( se e Fig T he e ff e ct

.

o f s e r i e s r e sista n c e is quit e di ffe r e n t in t he vari o us typ e s o f di r e ct

curr e n t m o t o rs In t he s e ri e s m o t o r it s e rv e s m e r e ly t o r e duc e
.

t he pr e ssur e at t he armatur e t e rmi n als with o ut aff e cti n g t he ,

e ld str e n gth fo r a gi ve n armatur e curr e n t ; but in t he shu n t

m o t o r it r e duc e s t he e ld curr e n t as w e ll T he r e sult in this
, .

cas e is similar t o that alr e ady n o t e d fo r fo rc e d cha n g e s in m o t o r

p o t e n ti als ; an d if it is d e sir e d t o c o n tr o l t he shu n t m o t o r in
,

this ma nn e r t he r e sista n c e sh o uld b e plac e d in t he a r ma

,
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O T ORS 87

tu r e circuit al o ne ,
t he eld b e i n g p e rma ne ntly c o nn e ct e d t o t he

A r e ducti o n in t he p o t e n tial supplie d an i n ducti o n m o t o r

a ffec ts it in much t he sam e way as with t he shu n t m o t o r Si n c e .

t he armatu r e s o f s e v e ral machi n e s ca n n o t be plac e d in s e r i e s as ,

with di r e ct cur r e n t shu n t m o t o rs this m e th o d o f c o ntr o l has

-
,

but little ap pli cati o n .

C han g e s in Arm a tur e an d Fie l d S tr e n g th

Si n c e t he t o r qu e .

o f a m o t o r d e p e n ds o n t he pr o duct o f e ld flux an d armatu r e

c urr e n t a cha n ge in t he ux will

,

caus e a p r o p o rti o n al variati o n in

t he t o r que fo r a c o n sta n t valu e
o f armatur e c urr e n t u Lik e wis e ,

si n c e t he sp e e d d e p e n ds dir e ctly
on t he c oun t e r e m f an d in
. . .

ve r s e l y o n t h e e ld ux a cha n ge ,

in flux at an y valu e o f armatu r e

curr e n t will cause an i n v e rse
e ff e ct on t he sp e e d In t he .
es/n c c
shu n t m o t o r t he e ld str e n gth
may be r e adily vari e d by i n se rt
in g r e sista n c e in s e r i e s with t he
e ld wi n di n gs ; but in t he s eri e s FI G 4 2 Fie l d w e ak e n in g b y
. .

m o t o r it is l e ss e asy t o make t he d ive r t in g r e s is t o r .

hi t
cha n ge T h e r e are f o ur m e th o ds b g zb flfd t
.
e n
t bl p d d m u es m uc e
which may be e mpl o y e d t o va r y '

t he e ld str e n gth in s e ri e s m o t o rs as f o ll o ws ,

1 . Pl ac i n g re si s t an c e in para llel wi t h t he e l d w i n di n g .

2 . S ho r t c i r c ui t i n g p o r t i o n s o f t he el d w i n di n g
-
.

3 . C ut t i n g o ut o f c i r c ui t p o rt i o n s o f t he e l d w i n di n g .

4 . Pl a c i n g halve s o f t he e l d c o il s in s e ri es an d in p ar al l e l .

Of th e se me th o ds t he r st sh o w n diagrammatically in Fig 42
, ,
.
,

w as us e d in t he e arly days o f e l e ct r ic railways It was s o o n .

aba n d o n e d o n acc o u n t o f t he s e v e r e sparki n g o ccasi o n e d with

t he w e ake n e d e ld In t he m o t o r s o f that p e ri o d t he pr o bl e m
.

o f c o mmutati o n was n o t u n d e r st o o d s o w e ll as it is at t he pr e s e n t

tim e an d t he margi n o f eld str e n gth was n o t gr e at e n o ugh t o

,

p e rmit this practic e With m o d e r n m o t o rs e quipp e d with

. .
,

i n t e rp o l e s t he c o mmutati o n is s o much b e tt e r that a c e r tai n

,

am o u n t o f e ld w e ake n i n g is pe r missibl e with o ut an y tr o ubl e

 88 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

fr o m spa rki n g F urth e r in t he d e sig n s arran g e d fo r this m e th o d

.
,

o f c o n tro l t he flux with t he full e ld in circuit is c o n sid e rably

,

gr e at e r tha n fo r t he o rdi n ary m o t o r n o t ar ra n g e d fo r e l d

w e ake n i n g .

T he us e o f a r e sista n c e in parall e l with t he e ld is ,

Op e n t o s e v e ral o bj e cti o n s It plac e s a n o n i n ductiv e

.
-

t he curr e n t in parall e l with a highly i n ductive o n e If .

is sudd e n ly vari e d t he r e sulti n g cha n ge in c u r r e n t

,

be practically all mad e thr o ugh t he r e sista n o

i n ductiv e e ffe ct o f t he e ld wi n di n g The .

ward gradually build up in t he e ld

FIG . 43 .
Fi e l d w e ak e n in g b y s h o rt FI G . 44 .
F e i ld w a e k e n in g by
c i r c u it in g t u rn s
.

. c ut t ing o ut t u rn s .

T hi s m et ho d an d t ha t s ho w n in F ig 4 3
g l l l
.

ar e in e n er a us e w her e e d cont o
r
m o t o rs ar e em pl y e d
o T he r e d u c t io n i n
b ll y f
.

t he num er o f t ur ns is u s u a ro m 20 t o
30 per c ent .

u n til c o n sid e rabl e damage has b e e n d o n e d ue t o spa r ki n g o r

as hi n g at t he c o mmutat o r u n d e r t he ab n o rmal c o n diti o n s .

T he s e c o n d m e th o d is t o be pr e fe r re d t o t he rst In this as .
,

sh o w n in Fig 4 3 all t he curr e n t must pass th r o ugh t he eld

.
,

wi n di n g n o matt e r what m o m e n tary v ariati o n s in curr e n t st r e n gth

,

th e r e may be T his is a marke d ad v a ntage o ve r t he us e o f par

.

all e l r e sista n c e .

T he third m e th o d illustrat e d in Fig 44 is e l e ctrically t he sam e

,
.
,

as t he s e c o n d an d gi ve s pr e cis e ly t he same r e sults T he o n ly

,
.

di ffe r e n c e is that t he p o rti o n o f t he wi n di n g n o t in us e is e n tir e ly

o ut o ut i n st e ad o f b e i n g m e r e ly sh o rt circuit e d
,
-
.
 C ON TR OL OF R A I L WA Y M O TOR S

In t he fo u r th m e tho d Fig 4 5 t he tur n s which are r e m o v e d

,
.
,

fr o m t he ci rcuit in t he s e c o n d an d third m e th o ds ar e c o n n e ct e d ,

in pa r all e l with t he o th e r po rti o n Of t he wi n di n g T his ar r a n g e .

m e n t will o n ly all o w o f t w o c o mbi n ati o n s with full an d half ,

amp e r e tu r n s It h as t he adva n tage o v e r t he s e c o n d an d thi r d

.

m e th o ds o f l o adi n g all parts o f t he e ld wi n di n g e qually .

The e fci e n ci e s o f t h e r st thr e e c o n n e cti o ns ar e id e n tical if ,

t h e am o u n t o f e ld w e ake n i n g i s t h e sam e C o n sid e r t he e ld

.

stre n gth r e duc e d t o o n e h alf its n o r mal

-

val u e by e ach m e th o d In t he r st this

.

will be acc o mpli s h e d by placi n g a r e s ist o r

in parall e l with t h e e ld wh o s e r e sista n c e
is e qual t o th a t o f t he e ld wi n di n g T he .

t o tal r e sista n c e o f t he c o mbi n ati o n is o n e

half that o f t he e ld al o n e an d t he am ,

pe r e tur n s in t he e ld c o ils o n e half t he -

n o rmal v a lu e fo r t h e sam e a r matur e c ur

re n t . With t he s e c o n d o r thi r d m e th o ds
o f c o n n e cti o n t he r e sista n c e is r e duc e d t o
,

o n e half t he n o rmal valu e si n c e o n e half o f

-
,
-

t he wi n di n g is r e m o v e d fr o m t h e ci r cuit .

T he e fc i e n c y o f e i th e r c o n n e ct i o n i s th e r e
FI G 45 Field
,
.

fo r e t he sam e as fo r t he r st In t he w e ak e n in g b y pl ac in g
,
.

f o u r th c o n n e cti o n it is gr e at e r si n c e wh e n
,
e l d ? in Pa r a ll e l
,

pg liizb lg fgy t d tl i;
ll l e l ls l s uf
t he t w o halve s o f t he e ld a r e c o n n e ct e d in a r ci i
l g l m t ar er ocom o e m O ors '
parall e l t he r e sista n c e o f t he c o mbi n ati o n is
,

but o n e qua r t e r t he n o r mal valu e In an y o f t he f o ur m e th o ds o f

-
.

c o n n e cti o n t he amp e r e tur n s o n t he e ld will b e t he sam e if t he

, ,

pa r all e l r e sista n c e is e qual t o that o f t he e ld if o n e half o f t he ,

-

e ld tur n s ar e sh o r t ci r cuit e d o r cut o ut o f t he ci r cuit o r if t he

-
,

halve s o f t h e wi n di n g ar e c o n n e ct e d in p arall e l i n st e ad o f in s e r i e s .

T he o n e t o b e us e d in an y pa r ticula r cas e d e p e n ds o n t he si z e o f
t he m o t o r an d t he c o n diti o n s o f o p e rati o n F o r small machi n e s
.
,

e ith e r t he s e c o n d o r thi r d m e th o d o f c o n n e cti o n may b e us e d t o

adva n tage Fo r la r g e l o c o m o tive m o t o r s t he additi o n al c o m

.
,

plicati o n o f t he wi n di n g an d c o n n e cti o n s in t he f o u r th m e th o d is
wa rr a n t e d o n ac c o u n t o f t he lo w e r l o s s an d t he small e r h e ati n g .

C ha n g e s in N um b e r o f P o l e s , a n d in Fr e q u e n c y T h e s e .

m e th o ds o f c o n tr o l ar e o n ly applicabl e t o i n ducti on m o t o r s .

T h e y will be c o n sid e r e d in d e tail in c o n n e cti o n with t he c o n

t r o l o f m o t o r s o f this typ e .
90 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

Pra c t ic al C o m bin a tion s of M e t h o d s In t he prac t ic al

C o n t r ol .
-

c o n tr o l o f railway m o t o rs o n e o r m o r e o f t he m e th o ds o utli n e d in
,

t he pr e c e di n g paragr aphs may be us e d t o giv e t h e pr o p e r varia

ti o n in charact e ristics d e sir e d The simpl e st m e th o d is t o c o n
.

tr o l t he p o t e n tial ; fo r alt e r n ati n g curr e n t this may b e r e adil y

-

d o n e with t he aid o f a tra n sfo r m e r Fo r di r e ct curr e n t n o simpl e

.
, ,

a n d at t h e sam e tim e e f ci e n t m e th o d is availabl e,

Fo r small
.

e quipm e n ts ,
o r th o s e which ar e i n fr e qu e n tly start e d t h e plai n
,

rh e o static m e th o d is t he simple st an d m o st rugg e d c o mbi n ati o n

that c a n b e us e d T he chi e f disad v a n tag e li e s in t he wast e o f
.

e n e r gy in t h e r e sist o rs .The m e th o d in m o st g e n e ral us e is a

c o mbi n ati o n o f t he rh e o static c o n tr o l with cha n g e s in arra n ge
m e n t o f t he m o t o rs placi n g th e m in s e ri e s an d in paralle l S i n c e
, .

the r e ar e s e v e r al m e th o ds o f ac c o mplishi n g t he r e sults s o ught ,

th e y will be take n up m o r e in d e tail in t he succ e e di n g paragraphs .

R h e o s ta ti c C o n tr o l
. T he simpl e s t w ay o f c o n tr o lli n g t he pe r a

fo rm an c e o f o n e o r m o re s e r i e s m o t o rs is by t he rh e o static m e th o d .

R e sista n c e is plac e d in s e ri e s with t he m o t o r o r m o t o rs t he v alu e,

b e i n g d e t e rmi n e d by t he curr e n t d e sir e d thr o ugh t he m o t o r at

sta r ti n g T aps ar e take n fr o m t he r e sist o r s at c e rtai n po i n ts
.
,

s o that t he r e sista n c e may b e vari e d fr o m t he maximum valu e t o

z e r o in a xe d n umb e r o f st e ps T he pr o p o rti o n i n g o f t he re s is
.

ta n c e valu e s is d o n e in t h e sam e way as fo r s e ri e s pa rall e l c o n tr o l

-

l e rs an d may b e d e t e rmi n e d as in t he e xampl e u n d e r that

,

h e adi n g I t must b e r e m e mb e r e d that si n c e th e r e is usually

.

o n ly o n e m o t o r , t he full li n e p o t e n tial will b e impr e ss e d o n t he

m o t o r ci r c uit at t he start an d t he v alu e s of re sista n c e must
,

be d e t e r mi n e d ac c o rdi n gly .

A n umb e r o f practic al c o n tr o ll e rs ha v e b e e n d e sig n e d usi n g t he

rh e o static p r i n cipl e . All o f t he e arly o n e s w e r e o f this typ e t he ,

se ri e s pa r all e l c o n n e cti o n n o t b e i n g wid e ly ad o pt e d at rst Th e

- .

b e st k no w n m o d e r n c o n tr o lle rs o f this ki n d are t he T ype R which ,

are s o ld by t h e l e adi n g e l e ctrical ma n ufactur e rs in this c o u n try .

A n umb e r o f siz e s ar e built t he mai n di e re n c e b e i n g in t he

,

capacity o f t he m o t o rs which c an be ha n dl e d A c o n tr o ll e r o f this

.

typ e c o n sists e ss e n tially o f a r o tatabl e drum carryi n g a n umbe r o f

c o pp e r s e gm en ts arra n g e d t o m ak e t h e pr o p e r s e qu e n c e o f c o n

n e c t io n s . A s e t o f n ge rs c o nn e ct e d t o t he v ari o us e xt e r n al
,

c i r cuits , ar e b r o ught t o b e ar o n t he s e gm e n t s as t h e drum is

r e v o lv e d b e ne ath th e m .
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O TORS 91

The d e v e l o pm e n t a r h e o static c o n tr o lle r k n o w n as t he typ e

of ,

1 7 is sh o w n in Fi T his c o n t r o ll e r is suit e d fo r us e with

R , g 46 . .

o n e 4 0 kw m o t o r The o p e rati o n may b e r e adily trac e d fr o m t he

. .

diagram t he maximum r e sista n c e b e i n g c o n n e c t e d in s e ri e s o n t he

,

rst p o i n t an d cut o ut in st e ps u n til t he m o t o r is w o rkin g o n t he

full li n e p o t e n tial With this typ e o f c on tr o lle r as with an y
.
,

rh e o static c o n tr o l th e r e is but o n e ru n n i n g p o i n t that wh e r e t he

, ,

m o t o r is c o n n e ct e d di r e ctly t o t he li n e O n that p o i n t all t he .

r e si sta n c e is sho rt circuit e d an d t he l o ss in t he c o n tr o ll e r is simply

-
,

that of an y cl o s e d s w itch .

FI G . 46 .
D eve l o p m en t o f t yp e R c o n t ro ll e r .

T hi fs or m o f c on t ro ll er is us e d p i ip l l y f r t h
r nc a to l e c o n ro o f s in gl e m o t o rs fo r m in in g an d
i n d us t r i a lw k or . It is s e ld om em pl y d f
o e lw y
or rai a c ar s .

R h e o static c o n tr o lle rs are als o mad e fo r O p e rati on with s e v

e ral m o t o rs p e rma n e n tly c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s o r in parall e l ; a n d
,

in s o m e o th e rs o f this typ e p r o visi o n is mad e fo r c o n n e cti n g m o t o rs

,

in se ri e s o r in parall e l by m e a n s o f a c o mmutati n g switch l o cat e d

in t he sam e cas e an d s o m e ti m e s o n t he sam e shaft with t he
,

re v e r si n g drum .

Lim ita t i on s o f Rh e o s tatic C o n tr ol

C o nt r o ll e rs o f t he rh e o .

static typ e whil e th e y are o f t he gr e at e st simplicity an d ar e

, ,

e xtr e m e ly rugg e d ar e limit e d in th e ir p r e s e n t applicati o n alm o st

,

e n tir e ly t o mi n i n g l o c o m o tiv e s Practically n o n e ar e us e d o n .

e l e ct ric railways o f a n y d e sc r ipti on havi n g b e e n sup e rs e d e d ,

e n tir e ly by s e r i e s parall e l c o n tr o ll e r s T he r e as o n fo r this is

- .
92 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

f o u n d in th e ir lo w e fci e n cy o f O p e rati o n D uri n g t he p e ri o d .

whil e r e sista n c e is c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s with a m o t o r o r a s e t o f

m o t o rs a p o rti o n o f t he e l e ctrical i n put is b e i n g c o n sum e d in t he
,

800 4 00

60 0 300

4 00 200

T im e
,
Se c o n d s
0

FI G . 47 -
En e rg y l o s sw i t h i
rh e o s t a t c c o n t r o l .

The s h ad e d a r e a r e p r es en t s t he e n er gy w as t e d in r e s is t a n c e I t is n e ar ly o n e -h a lf of t he
p ut l ll b gt f ll po
.

en t i r e i n w hi e t h e c o n t r o er 18 e in ur n e d t o t he u -o h sit i o n

800 400

Ti m e , S e co nds

FI G . 48 .
En e r
g y l o s s w i t h s e r i e s p a r a ll e l c-
o n t ro l .

I n t his c ont ro l
t he w as t e d e n er gy i b t s u h lf o n e- g t i th h
a as rea as n e r e o s t at ic c o nt ro l
A pp x ro i m at e ly f
o n e - o ur t h t h e in u p t h ws o n in

F ig 4 7 h b . v d
as een s a e .

r e sist o r s T he i n put t o t he m o t o r s is th e r e fo r e l e ss tha n t he

.

i n put t o t he t r ai n by t he am o u n t c o n sum e d in t he wi r i n g an d in
t he r e sist o rs Fo r sh o rt ru n s this may am o u n t t o a v e r y c o n s id
.

e r a bl e part Of t he t o tal i n put if rh e o static c o n tr o ll e rs ar e us e d .

 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 93

In Fig 4 7 is sh o w n a cu r v e b e tw e e n p o w e r i n put a n d tim e fo r a

.

c e rtai n r un usi n g f o ur m o t o r s in pa r alle l with rh e o static c o n tr o l

,
.

T he shad e d ar e a is a m e asur e o f t he e n e r gy us e d in t he r e sist o r s .

T his shad e d p o rti o n r e pr e s e n ts app r o ximat e ly o n e half t he t o tal -

i n put dur i n g t h e pe r i o d whil e t he c o n tr o lle r is b e i n g tur n e d t o t he

T he same m o t o r s may b e c o n n e ct e d in gr o ups o f t w o in paralle l ,

a n d Op e rat e d with a s e r i e s pa r all e l c o n tr o l t o g iv e t h e sam e -

acc e le r ati o n In Fig 4 8 is sh o w n t he cu r ve o f i n put fo r this fo r m

. .

o f c o n tr o l T he shad e d ar e a r e pr e s e n ti n g t he l o ss is o n ly o n e
.
, ,

800 400 40

400 200 20

200 100 IO

30
m e , S e c o nd s

FI G . 49 .
E n e rg y lo s s w it h i
s e r e s , s e r ie s - p arall e l c o n t ro l .

T he e n e r y g sa vi g v
n o er t he i
s er es - p ll l
ar a e c o n t ro li s m uc h l ess t ha n t h a t of t he l at t er o ve r
t he r h e o s t at i c . F o r t hi s r e as o n i t ha s no t a v y Wi d
er
.

e a ppl i c at i o n fo r l gh t
i r ai lw y a s er vi c e.

half as large as in Fig 4 7 T his savi n g am o u n ts t o o n e fo u r th o f

. .
-

t he t o tal e n e rgy i n put duri n g t he tim e o f O p e r ati n g t he c o n tr o ll e r ,

an d is a c o n sid e r abl e p o rti o n o f t he e n tir e i n put fo r t he r un .

F o ll o wi n g t he sam e li n e o f a r gum e n t it may be s e e n that a ,

co n t r o ll e r c an b e a r ra n ge d t o put all f o u r m o t o rs in s e r i e s r e c o n ,
-

n e ot th e m in s e r i e s parall e l at t he p r o p e r tim e an d n ally plac e

-
,

the m in full pa r alle l T he p o w e r cu r v e fo r such a c o n tr o l is

.

sho w n i n Fig 4 9 It may b e n o t e d th a t t he savin g in e n e rgy

. .

is ab o ut o n e half o f that l o st in t he s e ri e s c o n n e cti o n o f t he si n gl e

s e r i e s paralle l c o n tr o l an d o n e e ighth o f t he l o ss by t he rh e o static
-
,
-

m e th o d It is o n ly o n e sixt e e n th o f t he i n put du r i n g t he ao
.
-

c e l e r a t io n p e ri o d an d a much small e r p o r ti o n o f t he e n ti r e
,

e n e r gy i n put fo r t he r u n While an y savi n g o f e n e r gy is a goo d

.
94 TH E EL E C TR I C R A I L WA Y

thi n g t he r e sulti n g c o mplicati on o f t he c o n tr o lle r is s o gre at that

,

it usually o ve rbala n c e s t he gai n The sa vin g i n cid e n t t o t he .

s e ri e s paralle l o ve r t he rh e o static c o n tr ol is so much large r that

-

t he c o mplicati on is th e r e by j usti e d .

An o th e r adva n tag e may be gai n e d by t he us e o f s e ri e s parall e l -

c o n t r o l With t he r h e o static m e th o d th e r e i s o n ly o n e e fci e n t

.
,

o p e rati n g p o i n t that b e i n g t he p o siti o n with all r e sista n c e cut

,

o ut o f circuit Fo r r e duc e d sp e e ds it is n e c e ssary t o wast e a

.

large am o un t o f t he i n put in t he r e sist o rs B y t he us e o f si n gle .

s e ri e s paralle l c o n t r o l a s e c o n d e fci e n t O p e rati n g spe e d b e c o m e s

-
,

availabl e wh e n t he m o t o r s are c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s T he e fci e n cy .

o f t he m o t o rs o n half p o t e n tial is slightly l e ss tha n u n d e r n o rmal

-

c o n diti o n s but it is quit e high c o mpar e d with t he e fci e n cy wh e n

,

half sp e e d is o btai n e d by rh e o static c o n tr o l Eve n with o ut t he

-
.

sa vi n g in e n e rgy du r i n g ac c e l e rati o n t he c o mplicati o n o f t he c o n ,

tr o l is j usti e d t o o btai n t he s e c o n d O p e rati n g p o i n t which giv e s ,

appr o ximat e ly half t he full sp e e d .

B y t he us e o f t he s e r i e s s e ri e s paralle l c o n t r o l a n additi o n al
,
-
,

o p e rati n g sp e e d o f ab o ut o n e f o urth t he n o rmal may b e o btai n e d

-
.

T his is n o t n e e d e d in o rdi n a r y car Op e rati o n ; but in t he cas e Of

l o c o m o tiv e s which must do a c e rtai n am o u n t o f switchi n g an d
sl o w sp e e d yar d w o rk t he e xtra e fci e n t sp e e d will j ustify t he
-
,

add e d c o mplicati o n It is o n ly us e d o n a fe w o f t he large r l o c o

.
-
e

m o tiv e s which are d e sign e d fo r n o rmal high sp e e ds G e n e rally .

spe aki n g all o f t he c o n tr o ll e rs fo r dir e ct cur r e n t s e ri e s m o t o rs ar e

,
-

o f t he si n gl e s e ri e s parall e l typ e e ith e r with t w o m o t o r o r f o ur

-
,
-

m o t o r e quipm e n ts .

S e ri e s P a ra ll e l C o n tr o l P ractic ally all d ir e ct curr e n t railway
.
-

m o t o r e quipm e n ts c o n sist o f t w o o r multipl e s o f t w o s e ri e s , ,

m o t o rs c o n t r o ll e d by t he s e ri e s parall e l m e th o d The b asic

,
-
.

pri n cipl e Of this c o n tr o l is as has alr e ady b e e n stat e d t o rst put

, ,

t he t w o m o t o rs in s e r i e s with r e sista n c e n e xt t o cut it o ut Of t he ,

ci r cui t in a fe w st e ps th e n t o cha n g e t he c o n n e cti o n s t o parall e l

,

with a c e rtai n am o u n t o f r e sista n c e an d n ally t o cut it o ut agai n ,

in st e ps In s o m e typ e s o f s e ri e s parall e l c o n t r o l t h e ad di ti o n al
.
-
,

f e atur e is i n clud e d o f r e duci n g t he e ld tu r n s o n t he paralle l c o n

n e c t io n aft e r t h e e xt e r n al r e sista n c e is sh o rt ci r c uit e d -
.

T he mai n di ffe r e n c e s in t he arra n g e m e n ts o f s e ri e s paralle l -

c o n tr o ll e r s are o ccasi o n e d by t he m e th o ds o f cha n gi n g fr o m t he

s e ri e s t o t he paralle l c o n n e cti o n It may be e asily se e n that t he
.

cha n ge fr o m s e ri e s t o parall e l c an be mad e by o n e o f t w o m e th o ds

 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O T OR S 95

to o e p n t h e m o t o r circuits e n tir e ly whil e r

e c o n n e cti n g o r t o ,

sho rt ci r cuit o n e o f t he m o t o rs S mall platfo rm o r ha n d
- .

c o n tr o lle rs ar e usually o f t he latt e r typ e an d ar e mad e in va r i o us ,

si z e s as r e quir e d by e quipm e n ts o f di ffe r e n t capacity

,
.

Ty pe K C o n t r o l l e r s T he b e st k n o w n s e ri e s parall e l c o n t r o l

- -
.

le r s in Am e rica ar e t he T yp e K T his typ e (s e e Fig 50
. .
,

which r e p r e s e n ts t he K l l c o n t r o ll e r ) c o n sists o f a d r um ca r r yi n g

a n umb e r o f c o pp e r s e gm e n ts t he c o n n e cti o n s t o t he ci r cuits

,

be i n g mad e thr o ugh c o r r e sp o n di n g stati o n ary n ge r s which p r e ss

agai n st t he s e gm e n ts as t he d r um
is r o tat e d b e n e a th th e m T he .

ge n e r al a r ra n g e m e n t is quit e simi
l ar t o that o f t he Typ e R rh e o
static c o n t r o l l e r s The small .

d r um at t he right is fo r t he pur
p o se o f r e ve rsi n g t he di r e cti o n o f
r o tati o n o f t he m o t o r s this b e i n g ,

acc o mplish e d by i n t e rcha n gi n g

e ith e r t he e ld o r t he armatu r e

c o n n e cti o n s To pre v e n t t he d e
.

structi o n o f t he s e gme n ts an d
n ge rs by a r ci n g wh e n b r e aki n g
t he ci r cuits t he w e ll k n o w n acti o n
,
-

o f t he mag n e tic e ld o n a n arc is

e mpl o y e d in t he 8 0 c al l e d

mag
- F IG 5 0 T yp e K l l c o n t r o ll e r
. .
-
.

T h t yp K t ll v ye w id l y e c on ro e rs ar e er e
n e tic bl o w o ut -
A c o il ca r ryi n g
. d i A i f th
us e t l f f i ly
n m er ca or e c o n ro o a r

t he mai n m o t o r cu rr e n t is w o u n d i fi d i fff t i iiy iff t fl ii itii

i i rr no s e '
ra
n o c ca s r i
th f f t ll is orm o c on ro er
o n an i r o n c o r e fast e n e d t o t h e
.

cast ir o n back o f t he c o n tr o lle r c as e which thus b e c o me s o n e

-
,

p o le o f an e l e ctr o mag n e t The o th e r p o l e is o f such a shap e that

.

t he ux pr o duc e d must pass ac r o ss t he plac e s wh e r e a r ci n g will

o ccu r a n d t e n d t o br e ak t he arc b e fo r e it has damag e d t he c o n
,

tacts S i n c e t he fr o n t c o v e r o f t he c o n t r o ll e r is o f sh e e t ir o n a
.
,

c e r tai n am o u n t o f ux pass e s th r o ugh it i n st e ad o f ac r o ss t he

c o n tacts r e duci n g t he e fci e n cy o f t he m a g n e tic bl o w o ut by as
,
-

much as o n e half -
.

T he c o n tacts o n t he r e ve rse drum ar e n o t mad e sufci e n tly

h e avy t o stan d arci n g an d th e y are n o t pr o t e ct e d by a mag n e tic
,

bl o w o ut
-
It is h e n c e n e c e ssary t o pr e ve n t t he r e ve rs e drum
.

be i n g thro wn while curr e n t is passi n g th r o ugh t he c o n tacts .

T his is acc o mplish e d by i n t e r l o cki n g t he t w o d r ums t o g e th e r

96 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

by a do g which pr e v e n ts m o ti o n o f t he r e v e rs e l e v e r
,

e xc e pt w h e n t he mai n c o n tr o ll e r ha n dl e is in t he o ff p o siti o n .

Si n c e it is i n advisabl e fo r t he m o t o r ma n t o l e ave his car in such

c o n diti o n that th e r e is an y p o ssibility o f i rr e sp o ns ibl e p e r s o n s
O p e rati n g t he c o n tr o ll e r an i n t e rl o ck is a rr a n ge d s o that t he
,

r e v e rs e l e v e r ca n no t b e r e m o v e d e xc e pt wh e n t he d r um is in t he

o ff p o siti o n i e midway b e tw e e n t he fo rward an d re
,
. .
,

ve rse p o siti o n s Wh e n t he r e v e r s e l e v e r is r e m o v e d a n o th e r
.
,

i n t e rl o ck will p r e v e n t t he r o tati o n o f t he mai n drum ; h e n c e t he

roun d

FI G . 51
D ev e l o p m ent of T yp e K -l o c o n t ro ll e r .

T he T yp ll
e K c o n t r o e r s ar e m ad e in a n um b er ofd iff e r e n t m o d e l s : T h e o n e s h o w n is
b
s u it a l e f o r t h e c o n t r o l f
O two s e r ie s m ot ors f p p ll y
T h e d if e r e n c e i s r i n c i a i n t h e n um ber
p b v
.

o f r e s is t a n c e s t e s , a n d i n t h e n um er o f m o t o r s w hi c h m ay b e c o n n e c t e d t o t he r e e r s e
d r um .

re ve r s e drum ca n n o t be imp r o p e r ly o p e r at e d u n d e r a n y c o n di
ti o n s that may aris e .

I n cas e o f e m e rg e n ci e s it may b e n e c e ssa r y t o Op e r at e t he car

with o n ly o n e m o t o r o r pair o f m o t o rs S witch e s are pr o vid e d .

( n e ar t h e bas e o f t h e c o n tr o ll e r ) t o c ut o ut o f t he circuit e ith e r one .

W h e n o n e o f t he m o t o rs is o ut o f t he circuit the r e is n o o bj e ct in ,

tu r n i n g t he c o n tr o ll e r drum b e y o n d full s e ri e s si n c e that p o siti o n ,

will plac e t he m o t o r o n t he li n e with o ut r e sista n c e The swit ch e s .

fo r cutti n g o u t t he m o t o rs ar e pr o vid e d with i n t e rl o cks pr e v e n ti n g

 C O N TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 7

t he drum f r o m b e i n g tur n e d be y o n d t he last s e r i e s n o tch w h e n

e ith e r switch is cl o s e d .

A d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he K l o c o n t r o ll e r is sh o w n in Fig 5 1

. .

F r o m this diag r am t he s e qu e n c e o f c o n n e cti o n s may b e cl e a r ly

t r ac e d T h e p o i n ts whi ch ar e suitabl e fo r c o n ti n u o us Op e r ati o n
.

a r e d e s i g n at e d as ru n n i n g p o i n ts It is o bvi o us that it w o uld be
.

u n wis e t o Op e r at e c o n ti n u o usly with e xt e r n al r e sista n c e in t he c ir

cuit o n acc o u n t o f t he r e ducti o n in e fci e n cy M o r e o ve r t he .
,

r e sist o r s ar e n o t d e sig n e d t o ca rr y t he m o t o r cu rr e n t fo r m o r e
tha n a fe w mi n ut e s w ith o ut o v e r h e ati n g .

Wh e n it is d e si r e d t o us e a c o n t r o ll e r o f this typ e with an

e q ui pm e n t o f f o ur m o t o rs t he mai n drum is e xactly simila r t o
,

that o f a t w o m o t o r c o n t r o ll e r
-
The m o t o r s ar e p e rma n e n tly ar
.

ra n ge d in gr o ups o f t w o ; a n d t he o n ly di ffe r e n c e in t he c o n t r o ll e r
is t he e xt e n si o n o f t he r e v e rse d r um t o pr o vid e additi o n al c o n
tacts fo r t he eld an d a r matu r e ci r cuits o f t he fo u r m o t o r s G e n .

e r al l y t he t w o machi n e s o f a g r o up ar e plac e d in pa r all e l ; but if

,

t he e quipm e n t c o n sists Of f o u r 60 0 v o lt m o t o r s t o b e o p e r at e d o n a
-

1 2 0 0 v o lt circuit t he pai r s will b e a r r a n ge d in s e r i e s

-
, O n s o me .

r o ads wh e r e a p o r ti o n o f t he li n e is at 1 2 00 v o lts an d a n o th e r
,

p o r ti o n at 60 0 v o lts t he m o t o r c o n n e cti o n s may b e cha n g e d by

,

a n i n d e p e n d e n t switch which is i n t e rl o cke d with t he c o n tr o lle r

,

t o p r e v e n t imp r o p e r Op e r ati o n .

Type L C on t r o l l e r Th e
. T yp e L
-
c o n tr o lle r which was ,

fo rm e r ly much us e d fo r t he h e avi e r e quipm e n ts is simila r in its ,

g e n e r al m e cha n ical d e sig n t o t he T yp e K T he m ai n di ff e r e n c e is .

in t he m e th o d o f cha n gi n g f r o m t he s e ri e s t o t he parall e l c o n n e c
ti o n which is acc o mplish e d by Op e n i n g t he m o t o r circuits while
,

maki n g t he cha n ge as sh o w n in Fig 5 2 This typ e o f c o n tr o ll e r

,
. .

has b e e n p r actically sup e r se d e d by vari o us fo rms o f s o call e d -

multipl e u n it c o n t r o l
-
.

A fe w y e a r s ago c o n sid e r abl e t r o ubl e was e xp e ri e n c e d o n a o

,
'

c o u n t o f c o n tr o ll e r s b e i n g us e d fo r han dlin g h e avi e r cu r r e n ts tha n

the y w e r e d e si g n e d fo r This s o m e tim e s r e sult e d in t he c o n tacts
.

b e i n g c o mpl e t e ly bu r n e d o ut o r at l e ast r e n d e r e d us e l e ss t e mp o
,

r ar il y .T his b e cam e s o s e ri o us that t he l e adi n g m a n ufactur e rs

ha ve plac e d o n t he mar ke t an imp r o v e m e n t in p r o vidi n g an auto
matic switch fo r cl o si n g an d Op e n i n g t he mai n circuit s o that
t he c o n tr o ll e r d r um is r e li e v e d o f this duty T his switch is .

o p e r at e d e l e ctrically fr o m t h e mai n c o n t r o ll e r but is m e cha n ic ,

ally i n d e p e n d e n t o f it usually b e i n g plac e d b e n e ath t he car

, .
98 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

So me of t he
rdi n ary typ e s o f platfo rm c o n tr o ll e r hav e b ee n
o

m o di e d by b e i n g pr o vid e d with an auxilia r y trip o n t he mai n

drum which pr e ve n ts t he c o n tact o r fr o m cl o si n g u n til t he o p e rat
,

in g ha n dle has b e e n tur n e d t o t h e rst n o tch aft e r which t he ,

circuit o p e rati n g t he switch is cl o s e d This pr e v e n ts bur n i n g o f .

t he n g e r s o n cl o si n g t he mai n circuit W h e n t he d r um is tur n e d .

backwa r d t o cut o ff t he curr e n t t he O p e rati n g ci r c uit is Op e n e d ,

b e fo r e t he drum has b e e n r e tur n e d t o t he o ff p o siti o n s o th at in ,

this c as e t he arc is als o take n by t he c o n tact o r Th is syst e m may .

b e furth e r d e v e l o p e d by usi n g t he swit ch u n d e r t he car as a n

auxiliary circuit br e ake r wh o s e trippi n g c Oil is in t he tr o lle y cir
,

cuit an d wh o s e j aws ar e in t he Op e rati n g circuit o f t he c o n tact o r

,
.

S e r ie s Pa ra ll el

W
AC aw k
Circ a if p en )
O
w .
ar

FI G . 52 .

C i rc uit s of L T yp e C o n t ro ll e r .

T hi
s c o n t ro ll er w as f o r m er ly m uc h us ed fo r l g e q u ip
ar e m ent s , b ut h as now b p
een s u er s e d e d
by t h v
e ari o u s fo rm s o f m u lt ipl e-u n it c o n t ro l , as s ho w n i n F ig s . 53 and 54 .

It c an be s e t t o o p e n at an y d e sir e d valu e o f cur r e n t withi n its

Op e r ati n g li m its W h e n t he curr e n t r e ach e s this v alu e t he
.
,

trippi n g c o il b r e aks t he Op e r ati n g circuit thus Op e n i n g t he mai n ,

c o n tacts .

M ul t ipl e Un it C o n tro l W h e n it is d e sir e d t o o p e rat e a n umb e r

- .

o f ca r s in a trai n th e r e ar e t w o ge n e ral m e th o ds o f p r o c e du r e
,
.

T he car s may b e l e ft with o ut e l e ctrical e quipm e n t an d t he p o w e r ,

c o n c e n t r at e d in a l o c o m o tiv e ; o r e ach car o r as ma n y Of th e m as ,

r e quir e d may b e e quipp e d with e l e ctric m o t o rs an d c o n tr o ll e r s

,
.

T h e r e ar e ma n y argum e n t s agai n st t h e use o f l o c o m o tiv e s in this

typ e o f s e rvic e an d in ge n e ral t he use o f m o t o r cars is pr e fe rr e d
,
.

T he suc c e ssful O p e r ati o n o f a t r ai n o f m o t o r cars d e pe n ds t o a

gr e at e x t e n t o n havi n g t he m o t o rs divid e t h e w o r k e qually .
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O TOR S

To do this t he c o n tr o lle rs must all be m o ve d at t he same rat e .

T his ca n n o t be d o n e satisfact o rily by havi n g a m o t o rma n o n e ach

car si n c e it is practically o ut o f t he qu e sti o n t o have th e m s y n
,

c hr o n iz e th e ir m o v e m e n ts F urth e r this w o uld i n cr e as e t he c o st

.
,

o f platfo rm lab o r t o a pr o hibitiv e am o u n t .

T he id e al syst e m is o n e in which all t he m o t o r cars ar e c o n t r o ll e d

by o n e m o t o r man w ho c an be l o c at e d at an y c o n v e n i e n t p o siti o n
,

o n t he trai n as at t he fr o n t Of t he l e adi n g car wh e th e r that b e a

, ,

m o t o r car o r a t r aile r In additi o n it is d e sirabl e t o b e abl e t o

.
,

cha n ge t he n umb e r o f cars in a t r ai n at will d e p e n di n g o n t he ,

am o u n t o f t r a fc Al l th e s e adva n tag e s may be o btai n e d with

.

an y o n e o f t he fo rms o f multipl e u n it c o n tr o l n o w in us e o n t he
-

la r ge e le ctric r o ads in all parts o f t he c o u n try .

S pr agu e S y s t e m The e arli e st m e th o d o f c o n tr o l o f t he multi

.
-

p l e u n it typ e w as t h e S pragu e syst e m i n v e n t e d by L i e ut F ra n k

,
.

J S p rague an d rst use d o n t he S o uth S id e El e vat e d R ailway in

.
,

C hicag o In this syst e m t he mai n o r m o t o r c o n tr o lle r was a d r u m

.

similar t o that o f t he Typ e K platfo rm c o n tr o lle r but di ff e ri n g ,

fr o m it in b e i n g Op e rat e d by a pilo t m o t o r This latt e r w as .

u n d e r t he c o n tr o l o f t he m o t o rma n w ho c o uld caus e its armatur e

,

t o r o tat e thus r e v o l vi n g t he mai n c o n tr o l cyli n d e r a n d maki n g

,

t he pr o p e r c o n n e cti o n s fo r t he acc e l e rati o n o f t he car m o t o rs .

A n umb e r o f n o v e l d e vic e s w e r e i n c o r p o rat e d in this typ e o f

c o n tr o l In o rd e r t o s tart t he car all that was n e c e ssary w as
.
,

fo r t he m o t o rma n t o start t he pil o t m o t o r in O p e rati o n which ,

w o uld be gi n t he r e v o luti o n o f t he mai n c o n tr o ll e r drum The .

rat e o f m o v e me n t o f this d r um was limit e d by t he pro pulsi o n cur

r e n t A r e lay was i n t e r p o s e d in t he mai n c o n tr o l circuit an d s o
.
,

a rra n ge d that if t he liv e curr e n t e xc e e d e d a pr e d e t e rmi n e d

am o u n t t h e ci r cuit o f t he pil o t m o t o r w o uld b e br o k e n st o ppi n g
, ,

t he m o v e m e n t o f t he mai n d r um u n til t he liv e curr e n t fe ll b e l o w

t he limiti n g valu e T h e n t he pil o t m o t o r w o uld agai n b e c o n
.

n e c t e d t o its circuit an d t h e cyli n d e r b e r e v o lv e d furth e r T his .

acti o n w o uld c o n ti n u e u n til t he p r o pulsi o n m o t o rs w e r e in t he full

parall e l c o n n e cti o n A n umb e r o f o th e r r e lays we r e i n tr o duc e d
.

t o make t he Op e r ati o n m o r e c e rtai n an d t o pr e v e n t abus e o f t he

,

e qui pm e n t M ag n e tic bl o w o uts similar t o th o s e us e d o n t he

.
-

platfo r m c o n tr o ll e rs w e r e e mpl o ye d In ge n e r al its o p e rati o n .

,

was quit e satisfact o ry fo r fairly sm all car s taki n g n o t o ve r ab o ut ,

1 50 kw t o tal capacity
. .
1 00 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

Type M C on t rol Whe n

igi n al S prague c o n tr oll e r was
. t he or

us e d for h e avy e quip m e n ts it w as f o u n d i n ad e quat e ; s o wh e n

t he S pragu e pat e n ts w e r e purchas e d by t he G e n e ral E l e ctric
C o mp a n y t he ma n ufactu r e o f t h e o rigi n al S pragu e c o n tr o l w as
aba n d o n e d t he Typ e M

,

c o n tr o l b e i n g substit ut e d fo r it .

T his latt e r sh o w n diagrammatically in Fig 53 utili z e s t he p r i n ci

,
.
,

p l e m e n ti o n e d in c o n n e cti o n with t h e h e av y T yp e K c o n tr o ll e rs
o f br e aki n g t he circuit in sp e cially d e sig n e d c o n tact o rs A se t .

o f mag n e tically o p e rat e d switch e s is substitut e d fo r t he drum .

FI G . 53 .

C i r c u it s of t yp e M c o n t ro ll e r .

Th is t ype of c ont ro
l l er is v y
er w id e ly used o n e e lv t d di t b
a e an n e r ur an c ar s M o t o rs of
p lly a p y dl d
.

ra c t i c a ny ca acit m ay b e h an e .

The se actuat e d by a small curr e n t fr o m t h e t r o ll e y a n d the ir

ar e ,

m o v e m e n t is g o v e r n e d by t he m o t o r ma n thr o ugh a mast e r
c o n t r o ll e r wh o s e fu n cti o n is t o admit curr e n t t o t he pr o p e r
,

switch e s an d s e cur e t he c o rr e ct s e qu e n c e o f cl o si n g a n d O p e n i n g
th e m t o o btai n t he d e sir e d c o mbi n ati o n s The l o c ati o n o f t he .

mast e r c o n tr o ll e r may thus b e practically i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he

mai n c o n tr o ll e r t he o n ly c o n n e cti o n b e i n g th r o ugh t he small
,

wir e s fo r supplyi n g curr e n t t o t he mag n e ts fo r Op e r ati n g t he mai n

s w it ch e s o f t he c o n tr o l Tw o typ e s o f o p e rati o n ar e sta n dard :
.

that pr o vidi n g ma n u al c o n tr o l o f t he s w itch e s an d that in which ,

 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O T OR S 10 1

t he m o v e m e n t o f t he switch e s is aut o matically g o v e r n e d by

t he m o t o r curr e n t as in t he o r igi n al S pragu e syst e m
, .

T he e ss e n tial e l e m en t o f t he syst e m t he ,
u n it switch o r

c o n tact o r is a switch actuat e d by an e le ctr o mag n e t E ach o f
,
.

the se u n its may be c o n sid e r e d as r e placi n g a n g e r an d its c o rr e

s p o n din g s e gm e n t in t he ha n d o p e rat e d c o n t r o ll e rs an d c o n sists
-
,

o f a p air o f c o n tacts o n e o f which is x e d an d t he o th e r m o ve d by

, ,

t he acti o n o f t he s o l e n o id The pair o f c o n tacts Op e r at e in an arc

.

chut e o f m o uld e d i n sulati o n with an i n dividual mag n e tic bl o w

o ut . T o i n sur e t h e p r o p e r s e qu e n c e o f cl o si n g an d Op e n i n g t he
switch e s i n t e r l o cks ar e pr o vid e d fo r maki n g t he n e c e ssar y c o n
,

n e c t io n s Al l o f t he c o n tact o r s ar e plac e d in a c o v e r e d m e tal b o x

.

m o u n t e d o n an i n sulate d supp o rt b e n e ath t he car o r in t he cab ,

o f t h e l o c o m o tiv e Si n c e e ach c o n tact o r is i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he

.

o th e rs t h e capacity o f t h e switch may b e mad e as la r g e as r e qui re d

,

for t he particular cas e T he siz e o f m o t o r s which c an be ha n dl e d

.

is n o t limit e d as with t he d r um typ e o f c o n t r o lle r In cas e t he

,
.

d e sir e d capa c ity is t o o gr e at fo r a si n gl e switch t w o o r m o r e may

,

b e plac e d in pa r all e l t o subdivid e t he curr e n t .

The aut o matic c o n t r o l pr o vi d e s fo r t he acc e l e r ati o n o f t he t r ai n

at a pre d e t e rmi n e d valu e o f m o t o r cur r e n t alth o ugh it d o e s n o t
,

pr e v e n t ma n ual o p e r ati o n o f t he c o n t r o ll e r at a l o w e r rat e if de

sir e d T he ar r a n g e m e n t is quit e similar t o that d e scrib e d fo r t he
.

o r igi n al S pragu e c o n tr o l The O p e rati o n o f t he c o n tact o r s is

.

g o ve r n e d by a limit swit ch in t he m o t o r cir cuit s o that t he m o t o r

,

cu rr e n t while acc e l e rati n g is c o n n e d w it hin a d e n it e ra n ge .

T his is ac c o mplish e d by havi n g i n t e rl o c ki n g c o n tacts o n c e rtai n

o f t he switch e s t he m o v e m e n t o f e ach c o n n e c ti n g t he mag n e t
,

c o il o f t he n e xt succ e e di n g c o n tact o r t o t he c o n t r o l circuit .

U n d e r all c o n diti o n s t he c o n tact o r s a re e n e r g i z e d in a d e n it e

o r d e r as d e sc r ib e d in t h e g e n e ral parag r aph o n t he s e ri e s pa r all e l
,
-

c o n tr o lle r T he p r o gr e ssi o n o f switch e s c a n b e arr e st e d at an y

.

p o i n t by t he mast e r c o n t r o ll e r an d is als o g o ve rn e d by t he limit

,

switch s o that t he r at e o f m o v e m e n t is n e v e r b e y o n d that which

,

will ke e p t he m o t o r cu rr e n t withi n t he pr e scrib e d r a n g e .

Un it S w i t c h C on tr o l
The syst e m us e d by t he We sti n g h o us e
.

C o mpa n y is quit e similar t o that j ust d e sc r ib e d di ff e r i n g mai n ly

,

in t he m e a n s us e d t o Op e rat e t he i n divi dual u n it switch e s

o r c o n t act o rs Whil e i n th e Typ e M syst e m t he swit ch e s ar e

.

Op e rat e d e l e ctrically by m e a n s o f curr e n t tak e n fr o m t he li n e in ,

t he We sti n gh o us e c o n t r o l th e y a r e actuat e d by m e a n s o f c o m
1 02 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

pr e ss e d air suppli e d fr o m t he air brak e r e se r v o irs The admissi o n -

.

o f air t o t he O p e r ati n g cyli n d e rs is c o n t ro ll e d by e l e ctrically Op e r

at e d n e e dl e valve s The curr e n t fo r th e m may b e o btai n e d

.

e ith e r f r o m a l o w p o t e n tial st o rag e batt e r y o r fr o m t he li n e

-
T he .

mai n claims in fav o r o f this typ e o f c o n tr o l are that a m o re

p o sitive acti o n o f t he switch e s may b e o btai n e d o n acc o u n t o f t he
gr e at e r pr e ssu re s p o ssibl e b e tw e e n t he c o n tact n ge r s T he .

ge n e r al fe atur e s o f Op e r ati o n are quit e similar t o th o s e o f t he T ype

M c o n tr o l ; in fact b o th e quipm e n ts may b e a r ra n ge d t o b e Op e r
,

Cw ow 5 rm c /76 5 a , bot c ar e

CuraurS W/fC/ZCS d a s: f are

.

S w nrc h Gr o up

FI G . 54 .
-
C ir c ui t s Of typ e HL c o n t r o l .

I n t his t yp e o f c on t ro ll er t he m a g tine c s w it c h e s Of t h T yp M
e te ll c on ro e r ar e r e pl ac ed
l
e e c t ri c a ll y c o n t ro ll ed, p n e u m at ic all y p
-
o e r at e d s w it h
c Cest ll on fro ers o t hi s g en era l t yp e
g q pm
.

a r e m ad e fo r a Wi d e ran e of e ui en t .

at e d t o ge th e r o n o n e t r ai n fr o m o n e mast e r c o n tr o ll e r Fig 54 . .

giv e s a diagram sh o wi n g t he c o n n e ct io n s o f this c o n t r o l .

B ri d g e C o n n e c tio n
In s o m e o f t he typ e s o f multipl e u n it c o n
.
-

tr o l as w e ll as in s o m e o f t he lat e r Typ e K c o n tr o lle rs o f large

,

iz e t he cha n g e fr o m s e ri e s t o parall e l is mad e with o ut e ith e r

,

sh o r t circuiti n g o r o p e n circuiti n g t he m o t o rs This is a e c o m

- -
.

p l is he d by t h e bridg e c o n n e cti o n It c o n sists in putti n g a .

r e sista n c e in parall e l with t he m o t o r s an d thr o ugh it m aki n g t he ,

cha n ge T his is sh o w n in Fig 5 5 T he p r i n cipl e o f t he bridge

. . .
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y IWO TOR S 1 03

c o n n e cti o n is t o ha ve t he re sista n c e plac e d in paralle l with t he

mo t o rs such that t he curr e n t o w i n g th r o u g h it is p r actic ally t he
sam e as t he m o t o r cu r r e n t T h e n wh e n t he c o n n e cti o n s are
.

cha n ge d t o parall e l th e r e will b e n o distu r ba n c e in t he t o tal c u r re n t

,

t ake n by e ith e r m o t o r o r by t he li n e T he succ e ss o f this a r r a n ge .

m e n t d e p e n ds o n havi n g t he m o t o r cu r r e n t at t he i n sta n t o f
maki n g t he cha n ge t he same as that th r o u g h t h e r e sista n c e Fo r .

this r e as o n t he b r idge c o n n e cti o n is b e st suit e d t o aut o matic

c o n tr o l wh e r e t he cu r r e n t is limit e d by e l e ct r ical r e lati o n s o n ly
,
.

FI G . B ridg e m e t ho d o f t ran sit i o n

55 .

.

Thi s m et ho d m a es k th h g f
e c an ie t p ll l w it h t b k i g
rom s er es o ar a e ou rea n t he c ir c u i t
th gh
ro u ei t he r m o o r a n
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.
.

us e d in c o n n e c t io n i W th
c on t ro f th e rs o t t yp
e m i e- ni e .

Pn e um lly O pe r ate d D rum C on tr o l

a t ic a -
e d r um c o n tr o ll e r .
T h

is at pre s e n t t he m o st c o mpact an d t he m o st e xible d e vic e fo r

p r o duci n g a n umb e r O f di ffe r e n t c o mbi n ati o n s in e l e ctric ci r cuits ,

a n d it is still t he m o st suitabl e m e th o d o f c o n tr o l fo r small e quip

m e n ts With r e m o t e Op e r ati o n o f t h e d r um an d pr o t e cti o n

.
,

a g ai n st arci n g it make s a satisfact o ry apparatus fo r multipl e

,

u n it c o n tr o l A typ e o f c o n t r o lle r has b e e n d e v e l o pe d primarily

.
,

fo r si n gl e car s e rvic e o n t he N e w Yo rk C ity railways but which

-
,

is applicabl e fo r multipl e u n it Op e rati o n o f an y cars which ar e n o t

-

t o o h e a vy M e cha n ically it c o n sists o f an o rdi n ary drum c o n

.
,

tr o lle r which is actuat e d by a pair o f c o mp r e ss e d -air cyli n d e rs

,
1 04 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

arra n ge d t o tur n t he mai n shaft thr o ugh a rack an d pi n i o n T he .

r e v e rs e drum is als o m o v e d by air cyli n d e rs A dmissi o n a n d r e .

l e as e o f air ar e g o v e r n e d by mag n e ticall y o p e r at e d n e e dl e valve s -

,

as in t h e u n it swit ch c o n tr o l A curr e n t limit r e lay is i n tr o duc e d

.

in t h e c o n tr o l ci r cuit t o k e e p t he m o t o r cu r re n t withi n a pr e
scrib e d ra n ge This d e vic e o p e rat e s in t he sam e ma n n e r as t he
.

limit swit ch e s alr e ady d e sc r ib e d with mul t ipl e u n it c o n tr o l 1 -

.

Jon e s Type C o n tr o l A n o v e l typ e o f s er i e s parall e l c o n tr o l

.
-
,

suitable fo r us e with f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n ts has b e e n br o ught

-
,

o ut by M e ssrs P N Jo n e s a n d J W We lsh o f t he P ittsb u r gh

. . . . .

R ailways C o It o p e rat e s with a p e rma n e n t s e r i e s c o n n e cti o n

.

b e tw e e n all o f t he m o t o rs an d e mpl o ys a mi n imum o f r e sist a n c e

,

fo r s e cu r i n g t he d e sir e d st e ps At l e ast thr e e o f t he m o t o rs a re

.

in circ uit at all tim e s .

The c o n n e cti o n s o n t he di ff e r e n t st e ps ar e sh o w n i n Fig 5 6 . .

The c o n tr o ll e r has s e v e n p o i n ts o f which thr e e n umb e r e d 2 4

, , ,

a n d 7 ar e Ope rati n g p o siti o n s

,
T he curr e n t in s o m e o f t he m o
.

t o rs is r e v e rs e d in maki n g t he cha n ge s ; but si n c e b o th arm atur e

an d e ld ar e r e v e rs e d t o ge th e r t he dir e cti o n o f m o ti o n is no t
,

cha n ge d The r st p o siti o n plac e s all t he m o t o rs in s e ri e s with a

.

suitabl e r e sista n c e which is cut o ut o n t he s e c o n d p o i n t O n e

,
.

m o t o r is c o mpl e t e ly sh o r t ci r cuit e d o n t he third n o tch aft e r

-
,

which it is c o n n e ct e d t o t he li n e thr o ugh r e sista n c e O n t he n e xt .

tra n siti o n p o i n t a s e c o n d m o t o r is r e v e rs e d thus placi n g it i n s e ri e s ,

with t he o th e r an d t he r e sista n c e O n t he f o urth n o t ch t he re .

s is t a n c e is cut o ut le avi n g t he m o t o rs in t he s e ri e s parall e l

,
-

c o n n e cti o n T he n e xt tra n siti o n p o i n t is similar t o t he o th e r

.

tra n siti o n c o n n e cti o n s e xc e pt that but thr e e m o t o rs are in circuit

,
.

T he fth an d sixth p o siti o n s are r e ally tra n siti o n st e ps ; a n d t he

m o t o r s ar e plac e d in full parall e l o n t he s e v e n th n o tch Thi s typ e .

o f c o n t r o l has b e e n e mpl o y e d with succ e ss o n t h e cars o f t he

P ittsburgh R ailways which ar e e q uippe d w it h m o t o rs havi n g

'

small diam e t e r ar matu r e s o n acc o u n t o f t he small siz e d wh e e l -

.

It is stat e d that t he c o n tr o l will w o rk e q ually w e ll with sta n d

ard m o t o r s Fo r furth e r d e tails o f t he apparatus an d arra n ge
.

m e n ts Of t he ci r cuits r e fe r e n c e may b e mad e t o U S P at e n t . .

No . issu e d S e pt e mb e r 1 1 9 1 4 ,
.

P r o po r ti o n in g o f R e s i s ta n c e s In a n y o f t he m e th o ds s o far
.

d e vis e d fo r t he c o n tr o l o f dir e ct cu r r e n t s e ri e s m o t o rs it is no t
-
,

1
F o r a d e t ail e d d e s c rip t io n o f t h is t yp e o f c o n t r o l s ee E le c t ric Jo urna l,
O c t ob e r, 1 9 1 3 .
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O TOR S 1 05

sufci e n t t o r e duc e t he p o t e ntial at t he mo t o r t ermi n als by t he

use o f di ff e r e n t c o mbi n ati o n s o f m o t o rs To pr e v e n t an e xc e ssiv e .

o w o f curr e n t an d t o k e e p t h e t o rqu e withi n rath e r n ar r o w lim

,

it s it is n e c e ssar y t o i n tr o duc e a c e r tai n am o u n t o f r e sista n c e

,

i n to t he circuit in s e ri e s w ith t he m o t o r s The am o u n t o f this .

r e sista n c e sh o uld be j ust e n o ugh t o r e duc e t he starti n g curr e n t

FI G . 56 . J
on es t yp e c o n t ro l .

I n t hi s c o n t ro l com bi n a t io n o f t he m o t o r s ar e u s e d in s t e ad of t h e us u a l r e s is t a n c e , r e d u c in g
t he ener gy l oss l
w hi e s t ar t in g , an d g iv m g a g r e at e r n u m b e r o f run n i n gp o int s .

an d t o rqu e t o t he d e sir e d limiti n g valu e s all o wabl e fo r t he

t he
e qu i pm e n t As t he m o t o r s gai n sp e e d t he am o u n t o f r e sista n c e
.
,

must be l e ss e n e d u n til it is all r e m o v e d fr o m t he circuit This

,
.

may c o n stitut e t he e n tir e c o n tr o l o r it may be d o n e in c o nj un c ,

ti o n with cha n ge s in t he arra n g e m e n t o f t he m o t o rs such as ,

c o nn e cti o n s in s e ri e s an d in pa r alle l .
106 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

sta n dst ill t he curre nt o w i n g thr o ugh t he m o t o rs is lim

At ,

it e d o n ly by t he r e sista n c e o f t he wi n di n gs o f t he machi n e s c o n
n e c t e d in s e ri e s u nl e ss su fci en t e xt e r n al r e sista n c e b e i n s e rt e d t o
,

c ut t he cu rr e n t d o w n t o s o me sp e ci e d value .

As an e xampl e tak e t he 5 6 kw railway m o t o r cur ve s fo r which

, .
,

ar e sh o w n in Fig 1 9 It is d e sir e d t o acc e l e rat e a c e rt ai n c ar by

. .

usi n g a pair o f such m o t o rs with s e ri e s parall e l c o n t r o l at such a -

rat e that t he curr e n t will var y b e tw e e n t he limits o f 2 0 0 amp an d .

1 50 amp whil e r e sista n c e is i n clu de d in t he circuit

. The actual .

d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he limiti n g valu e s o f curr e n t d e p e n ds o n t he

w e ight o f t he car t he d e sir e d acc e le rati o n a n d t he all o w able
, ,

l o ad o n t he m o to rs The di ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t he maximum an d

.

mi n imum v alu e s o f curr e n t is d e t e rmi n e d by t he n umb e r o f s t e ps

o n t he c o n tr o ll e r whi ch in its tu r n d e p e n ds o n t he p e rmissibl e
,

v ariati o n fr o m t he m e a n acc e l e rati o n .

At sta n dstill t he curr e n t will hav e t he maximum v alu e a n d th e ,

n e c e ssary r e sista n c e t o be us e d will b e f o u n d by O hm s l aw :

E
R 1 + 2T

R I t he

wh e r e I is t he maximum curr e n t E is t he li n e , ex

t e r n al r e sista n c e an d r t he m o t o r r e sista n c e
,
. In t h e e xampl e
cit e d 7 o hm he n ce

, ,

50 0
R1 2 X

wh e n c e R I o hm s T his r e pr e s e n ts t he t o tal re sista n c e

.

which must be adde d t o t he m o t o r circuit t o ke e p t he rst rush

o f curr e n t d o w n t o t he d e sir e d limit .

W ith curre n t passi n g thr o ugh t he m o t o rs a t o rqu e will be de ,

v e l O pe d which will c aus e t he car t o acc e l e r at e

,
As t he car gai n s .

spe e d t he m o t o r s d e v e l o p a c o u n t e r
,
t he pr o ducti o n o f
which caus e s a d e cr e as e in t he m o t o r cu r r e n t an d h e n c e III t he ,

tractiv e e ff o rt and t he acc e l e r ati o n In o r d e r t o k e e p t he trac .

tive e ffo rt withi n t he limits d e sir e d t he r e sista n c e sh o uld b e re ,

d uc e d wh e n t he curr e n t has fall e n t o t he m i n imum valu e d e cid e d

on .

W h e n t he curr e n t has fall e n t o s o m e valu e I t he c o u n t e r

,

e . m f d e v e l o p e d by t he t w o m o t o rs in s e r i e s 2 E
. . will b e , c,

= E I
 C O N TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TOR S 1 07

'

It c e ssar y t o d e t e r mi n e t he n e w valu e o f e xt e r n al r e
is th e n ne

s is t a n c e R 2 which will caus e t he cu r r e n t thr o ugh t he m o t o rs t o

, ,

i n cr e as e t o t he ma x imum v alu e I The r e ducti o n in r e sista n c e

.

will b e mad e i n sta n ta n e o u s ly s o that th e r e w ill b e n o Opp o rtu n ity

,

fo r t he sp e e d t o cha n ge dur i n g t he Ope r ati o n o f t he c o n t r o lle r

fr o m o n e n o tch t o t he n e xt If t he e ld ux r e mai n e d c o n sta n t
.

with var iati o n s in ar matu r e cu rr e n t as in a shu n t m o t o r t he , ,

c o u n t e r e m f w o uld b e t he sam e aft e r t he r e sista n c e had b e e n

. . .

r e duc e d e xc e pt fo r t h e small cha n ge in I R d r o p in t he m o t o r

,

w in di n gs B ut with t h e s e r i e s m o t o r a n i n c r e as e in a r matu r e
.
,

a c o rr e sp o n di n g i n c re as e in e ld ux s o ,

will als o b e gr e at e r I n o rd e r t o n d t he .

'
am o u n t o f this r is e in c o u n t e r
-
t he saturati o n curv e o f t he
m o t o r may b e us e d an d t he t w o v alu e s o f ux c o r r e sp o n di n g t o
,

t he curr e n ts I a n d I d e t e rmi n e d fr o m it T he rati o o f i n c re as e .

c an als o b e f o u n d fr o m t he curv e o f t o r qu e pe r amp e r e Fig 2 2 ,

. .

In o btai nin g t he ris e o f c o u n t e r e m f wh e n t he re sist a n c e is . . .

r e duc e d s o that t he cu r r e n t i n cr e as e s fr o m I amp t o I amp it
. .
,

is o n ly n e c e ssar y t o d e t e rmi n e t he rati o o f tractiv e e ffo rt pe r amp e r e

fo r t he t w o valu e s o f cu r r e n t T hat is .
,

I
D
II
D
II
I

wh e re E 1 an d E 2 are t he c o u n t e r
0 C at curr e n ts I an d I

r e sp e ctiv e ly an d D an d D t he c o rr e sp o n di n g tr activ e e ff o r ts
,

.

T he valu e o f E 1 havi n g b e e n f o u n d alr e ady by e quati o n

0 that
o f E 2 c a n b e d e t e rmi n e d fr o m e quati o n
C Th e n e w a m o u n t o f
r e sista n c e W i ll hav e t o b e such as t o giv e t he c o u n t e r e m f E 2 . . .
6

wh e n a cu r r e n t I o ws thr o ugh t he circuit which will satisfy t he ,

e quati o n

E 2 Ec z
R2 + 2 T

This uat i o n is similar in f o r m t o e q uati o n

eq but take s a c
c o u n t o f an y valu e o f c o u n t e r e m f whi c h may e x ist at t he . . .

mo m e nt .

A pplyi n g th e s e e quati o n s t o t he e x a mpl e cit e d w e hav e fr o m , ,

e quati o n

50 0 1 50 2 X 1 25 v o lts
1 08 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

T his is t he c o u n t e r e m f e xisti n g t h e i n sta n t b e fo r e t he r e sista n c e

. . .

is r e duc e d The i n sta n t f o ll o wi n g t he r e ducti o n this b e c o m e s

.
,

1 25 X 1 35 v o lts

T he ne c e ssary valu e of re sista n c e is d e t e r m i n e d fr o m t he r e lati o n

50 0 1 35
R2 2 X

fr o m which R 2 is f o u n d t o b e o hms .

Th e sam e r e ducti o n in t o rqu e as t he sp e e d o f t he m o t o r i n

cr e as e s will be n o t e d an d wh e n t he cu rr e n t has fall e n t o 1 50 amp
, , .

t he c o u n t e r e m f may b e c alculat e d by e quati o n ( 2 ) as b e f o r e

. . . .

A n e w valu e o f re sista n c e may th e n b e f o u n d by t he

ti o n s (3 ) an d T his pr o c e ss will b e c o n ti n u e d u n til all
r e sista n c e is cut o ut an d t he m o t o rs are c o n n e ct e d i n s e r i es
,

re c t l y ac r o ss t he li n e .

To o btai n fu r th e r ac c e l e r ati o n i t is n e c e ssary t o r e c o n n e ct ,

m o t o r s in parall e l T he c o u n te r e m f pe r m o t o r will b e
. . . .

sam e ; but wh e n t he c o n n e c ti o n s ar e cha n ge d t o par all e l t he t w o

will n o t add E quati o n ( 2 ) will hav e t o be r e writt e n as
.

f o ll o ws :
E 21
( R +
3)
H avi n g o btai n e d t he n e w valu e fo r E I that o f E 2 may b e f o u n d C , 6

by eq uati o n B y this m e th o d t he mag n itud e o f all t he par

all e l r e sista n c e s may b e d e t e r mi n e d .

T abl e I sh o ws th e s e v alu e s as c o mput e d for t he pr o bl e m o ut

li n e d In t he c o lum n s fo r c o u n t e r
. t he upp e r v alu e s are
fo r e ach m o t o r (E ) an d t he l o w e r fo r t he t w o m o t o rs wh e n th e y
C ,

a re in s e r i e s . I n t he c o lum n s fo r r e sista n c e t he uppe r valu e s are ,

p e r m o t o r, a n d t h e l o w e r fo r t w o m o t o rs in pa r all e l .

It may b e s e e n that o n p o i n ts 5 an d 9 o n which all r e sista n c e ,

has b e e n cut o ut t he curr e n t will n o t ris e t o quit e 2 00 amp

,
.

T his is u n av o idabl e with t he assumpti o n s mad e .

G r aphi c a l M e t h o d o f C a l c u l a tin g R e s i s ta n c e s
This m e th o d .

o f calculati o n l e n ds its e lf v e ry r e adily t o a graphical s o luti o n .

R e fe rr i n g t o Fig 5 7 a diagr am has b e e n pl o tt e d b e tw e e n m o t o r

.

amp e r e s an d m o t o r v o lts If t he li n e e m f is 50 0 th e n wh e n t he
. . . .
,

t w o m o t o rs are in s e r i e s e ach will b e taki n g 2 5 0 v o lts l e ss what is

, ,

c o n sum e d in t he r e sista n c e T he li n e s S E a n d P J hav e b e e n .

 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 1 09

T AB L E I
R e s is t a n c e

0 4 64

1 36 1

dr aw n at an a n gl e such that t he o r di n at e as S E o r P J r e pre ,

s e n ts t he I R d r o p in o n e m o t o r at an y curr e n t I The li n e S A has .

b e e n d r aw n t o r e p r e s e n t t he I R dr o p pe r m o t o r fo r a n y valu e o f
cu rr e n t wh e n t he r e sista n c e is s o ch o s e n as t o b r i n g t he m o t o r t o
,

a sta n dstill at 2 0 0 amp Wh e n t he curr e n t has fall e n t o 1 50

.

amp t he t o tal I R dr o p is r e pr e s e n t e d by t he o rdi n at e S A a n d

.
,

,

t he d r o p in e xt e r n al r e sista n c e by E A

If t he r e s ista n c e is th e n

.

r e duc e d s o as t o b r i n g t he curr e n t t o 2 0 0 amp t he c o u n t e r e m f .

, . . .

will b e i n cr e as e d by t he rati o give n in e quati o n T h e curv e

T YW T b e tw e e n tractive e ff o rt pe r amp e r e a n d cu rr e n t has b e e n

pl o tt e d t o t he sam e bas e alth o ugh if t he curr e n t limits are t o be

, ,

th o s e d e cid e d o n t he p o i n ts Y a n d W ar e all that n e e d t o b e l o

,

c at e d T he straight li n e W YX is th e n d r aw n thr o u g h Y an d W
.
,

i n t e r secti n g t he cu r r e n t axis pr o l o n g e d at X It will b e s e e n at

.

o n c e fr o m similar tria n gl e s that a n li n e d r aw n th r o ugh X w ill

, , y


i n t e r s e cti o n s o n t he li n e s UP an d AP that are pr o p o r

1
At 1 9 6 am pe r e s .
1 10 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

an d s o o n , p o ssibl e li n e dr aw n thr o ugh X

fo r a ny If th e n t he .

li n e X A B is draw n thr o ugh X an d A i n t e r s e cti n g AP at B

,

t he o rdi n at e A B will r e p re s e n t t he c o u n t e r e m f d e v e l o p e d wh e n . . .

t he curr e n t has b e e n i n cr e as e d fr o m 1 5 0 t o 2 0 0 am p with o ut .

cha n gi n g t he sp e e d T he o rdi n at e S B gi ve s t he t o tal I R d r o p

.

a n d EB that e xt e r n al t o t he m o t o r ; this latt e r divid e d by t he ,

curr e n t d e t e r mi n e s t he n e w valu e o f r e sista n c e Th e I R d r o p

,
.

will th e n d e cr e as e al o n g t he li n e B B as t he curr e n t falls O ff u n til , ,

ICC 200
Mot o r A m pe r e s .

FI G . 57 .
Vo lt
am p e re d ia g r a m fo r d e t e r m in ing i
r e s s t an c e .

at p o i n t B t he cu r r e n t must be i n c r e as e d agai n T he sam e
,
.

c o n st r ucti o n is re p e at e d u n til t he t w o m o t o rs ar e i n s e r i e s with o ut

r e sist a n c e The c u r r e n t which will b e o btai n e d wh e n t he las t
.

po i n t o f r e sista n c e is c ut o ut may b e re adily d e t e rmi n e d si n c e t he ,

I R d r o p in t he m o t o r al o n e is pl o tt e d as S E W he n t he last li n e .

radi ati n g fr o m X is dr aw n it will i n t e rs e ct this li n e at s o m e p o i n t

as E . Th e abscissa d e t e rmi n e s t he cu rre n t .

In cha n gi n g t o parall e l it is o n ly n e c e ssar y t o m o v e t he a x is o f

,

r e fe r e n c e fo r I R d r o p t o t he pr o p e r p o i n t in t hi s c as e t he o r di ,

n at e fo r 5 00 v o lts a n d c o n ti n u e t he c o nstructi o n fr o m that plac e

,
.

T he r e mai n d e r o f t he di agram is e xactly t he sam e as b e f o r e .

As e xplai n e d t he diagram is th e o r e tic ally c o r r e ct a n d a c o m

, ,
'

par is o n o f t he valu e s f o u n d graphically fo r r e s is t an c e s with th o se

c alculat e d in Tabl e I sh o ws ho w cl o s e ly th e y agr e e F urth e r .

,
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O T OR S 111

t he diagram may be us e d fo r an y v alue o f li ne p o t e ntial with o ut

o th e r cha n g e tha n s hi fti n g t he o rigi n fo r t he I R dr o p Fo r .

d i ff e r e n t curr e n t limits it is n e c e ssar y t o take o th e r p o i n ts o n t he

t r activ e e ffo r t pe r amp e r e curv e thus ge tti n g a n e w l o cati o n fo r X
,
.

T he shap e o f t he curv e as dr aw n o n t he diagram sh o ws that a

, ,

small variati o n may b e mad e with o ut r e l o cati n g this p o i n t an d ,

t he e r r o r will n o t b e gr e at .

In ge n e r al as t he r e sist o rs ar e us e d b o th fo r t he s e ri e s an d t he
,

paralle l c o n n e cti o n s a c e rtai n am o u n t o f adj ustm e n t must b e

,

mad e o f t he valu e s d e t e r
min e d fo r d e n it e c ur r e n t
l imits T he m e th o d Of d o i n g
.

this may b e s e e n at o n c e
fr o m t he c o n structi o n It is .

o nly n e c e ssary t o c o n ti n u e

t he I R li n e s e ith e r ab o v e o r
b e lo w t he limits se t an d t he ,
r
e
p

p r o p e r valu e s c an be fo u n d I
s
e

d
e

If a c o n t r o ll e r is t o be us e d S
e
p
0

with f o ur m o t o r s t h e cha n ge s ,

in t he m e th o d t o all o w fo r
s e ts o f t w o m o t o rs p e rma
u e n tly c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s o r

in pa r all e l may e asily be de

t e r m in e d .

T im e fo r O pe ra tin g C o n
t r o ll e r .

I n Fig 5 8 is give n a
.
C ur r e nt . Ampe res
d i a g r a m b e tw e e n m o t o r F I G 5 8 S p e e d u rve s fo r r e s is t an c e
c . .

s pe e d an d m o t o r curr e n t fo r point s .

6 & C h Of t he t t h
T h v wit h t h x p t i fth F ll
e s e c ur es , e e ce on o e u
DO m S o n e S d th F ll P ll l p it i
e rie s

an e

u ar a e

os ons a re
l
,

t th t i F g 21 d
S i m i ar y b l m a e ca cu
C O HLI O I as c o m put e d I II t h e
o a n i an
l t d i th
' .
,

, a e n e s a m e m an n e r .

pr e c e di n g p r o bl e m Fr o m .

m e th o ds alre ady o utli n e d t he tim e wh e n t he c o ntr oll e r ha n dl e

,

sh o uld b e m o v e d fr o m o n e p o i n t t o t h e n e xt may b e o btai n e d if ,

t he car w e ight b e kn o w n Fo r a giv e n e quipm e n t t he tim e fo r

.
,

Op e r ati o n o f t he c o n t r o ll e r has b e e n f o u n d an d t he r e lati o n s be ,

t w e e n curr e n t an d tim e ar e give n in Fig 59 It is n o tic e able that . .

t he l e n gt h o f tim e o f O p e rati o n o n e ach p o i n t o f t he c o n tr o l is

di ff e r e n t t he tim e on t he parall e l p o i nts b e i n g c o ns ide rably
,

g r e at e r .
1 12 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

With a c o n tr o ll e r arra n ge d fo r
aut o matic acc e l e rati on t he ,

r e sista n c e will b e r e duc e d at t he pr o p e r tim e an d n o att e n ti o n ,

n ee d b e giv e n this phas e o f its acti o n W ith ha n d c o n tr o ll e rs .

t he t e n d e n cy is fo r t he m o t o rma n t o r o tat e t he o p e rati n g ha n dl e

at a u n ifo rm rat e S h o uld he d o this t he r e sista n c e s ha vi n g b e e n
.
,

calculat e d fo r d e n it e cu r re n t limits as o utli n e d in t he pr e c e di n g ,

T im e , S e c o nd s

FI G . 59 .
C urre n t t im e c u rv e fo r s t ar t in g a c ar .

T hi i
s s f
t he or m o f c ur v e O bt a in e d w h e n t he r e s is t a n c e s a n d t h e t im e o f m o v in g
ll l
t r o e r i an d l e h a e v b e e n c o rr e c t ly d et er m i n e d . N ot e t h at t h e t i m e o n t he v ar i o us

n o t u n i fo r m
.

par agraphs t he r e sults will be quit e diff e r e n t Fig 60 giv e s t he

,
. .

value s o f curr e n t o btai n e d wh e n t he c o n t r o ll e r with r e sista n c e s ,

as d e t e r m i n e d p r e vi o usly is r o tat e d at a u n ifor m r a t e such that

,

all t he r e sista n c e will b e r e m o v e d fr o m t he circuit at t he sa m e tim e

as in t he pr o p e r O p e rati o n The c o n clusi o n is o b vi o us E ith e r
. .

t he c o n t r o ll e r sh o uld b e n o tch e d up at t h e pr o p e r rat e o r t he ,

r e sista n c e sh o uld be r ec alc ul at e d fo r a u nifo rm l e n gth of tim e o n

e ach p o i n t .
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 13

R e s is t o r s for R ail w ay S ervi c e c o n n e cti o n with t he type s.

In
o f c o n tr o l a l r e ady c o n sid e r e d it is e ss e n tial that p r o p e r r e sist o rs
,

be e mpl o y e d The am o u n t Of e n e rgy t o b e dissipat e d is c o mpar a

.

t ive l y larg e an d t he curr e n t ca r ryi n g capacity must b e c o n sid e r

,
-

abl e F ur th e r t he mat e r ial s o f which t he r e sist o r s ar e made

.
,

S h o uld b e such that c o n ti n ual s e r vic e calli n g fo r r e p e at e d h e ati n g ,

an d c o o li n g will n o t caus e i n j u r y t o th e m
,
.

4 00 if)

3 50 M

100 4

50 2

4 6 8
T im e, Sec o n ds .

FI G . 60 .
S t a rt i n g c u rr e n t i im p ro p e r
w th op e ra t io n o f c o n t ro ll e r .

iv p i t if il t h v g
v l
T h e t im e in c r e m e n t s o n t h e s u c c e s s e o n s a r e u n o r m
a u e o f t h e c ur r e n t i s rac t i c a p lly
t h e s a m e as i n F i g 5 9 , i t v N t
v.
t
a ri e s o
hot we
Wd
h
er ad
a
i
e
e r an
e a e ra
n o n -u n i
e

f g
p v
o r m r a n e ; a n d t h e S e e d t i m e c ur e i s n o t s m o o t h .

In ar ly e quipme n ts t he r e sist o r s w e r e ch o s e n me r e ly t o give

e

t he p r o p e r r e sista n c e with o ut r e gar d t o th e ir o th e r qualiti e s A

.
,

f av o r it e typ e c o n sist e d o f st r ips o f G e rma n silv e r i n t e r laid with ,

st r ips o f mica an d r o ll e d up i n t o S pi r als T h e s e w e re e xp e n siv e

,
.
,

a n d h e avy o v e r l o ads w o uld t e n d t o bu r n th e m o ut An imp r o ve .

me n t was i n t r o duc e d by v e n tilati n g t he c o ils ; but this did n o t e

make th e m v e ry succ e ssful T h e y hav e b e e n e n tir e ly sup e rs e d e d

.

8
1 14 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

fo r r e gular s e r vic e by r e sist o r s o f t he cast grid typ e T he grids .

are mad e o f cast ir o n o r o f ir o n all o ys an d ar e ass e mbl e d in light

, ,

fr am e s in u n its o f t h e p r o p e r c apacity as sh o w n in Fig 6 1 The , . .

grids ar e e n tir e ly o p e n t o t he air a n d if plac e d u n d e r t he c ar o r

,

l o c o m o tiv e in such p o siti o n s as will all o w curr e n ts o f air t o r e ach

th e m th e y ar e e n tir e ly satisfact o ry Th e y are ch e ap an d r e liabl e
,
.
,

an d ,
alth o ugh t h e t e mp e r atur e c o e fci e n t is n o t n e gligibl e it ,

make s littl e diff e r e n c e fo r it c an b e d e t e r min e d an d all o w e d fo r

, .

A r e c e n t v ariati o n o f t h e gr id r e sist o rs is in maki n g th e m o f st e e l

bar b e n t t o t he pr o p e r shap e an d aft e rwa r d cas e hard e n e d in
,
-
,

st e ad o f c ast i r o n T his r e m o v e s t he gr e at e st o bj e cti o n t o t he

.

cast grid br ittl e n e ss whil e n o t cha n gi n g t he o th e r pr o p e rti e s t o

an y e xt e n t .

FI G . 61 .
As s e m b l e d fram e of g ri d r e s is t o r s , an d s e p a r at e u n it .

T h e r es is t o r s u s e d w it h r ail w a y m o t o r c o n t r o l ar e o f
o t h is or s im il art yp es Th y e ar e
f f g bl f
.

m ad e O c a s t ir o n in t h e or m of r i ds , a n d a s s e m ed in r a m e s , as s h o w n .

A typ e which has f o u n d s o m e fav o r e sp e cially in c o n n e cti o n with ,

p o lyphas e i n ducti o n m o t o r c o n tr o l is t he liquid o r e l e ctr o lytic ,

r e sist o r A ta n k o f t he pr o p e r siz e an d shap e is pr o vid e d with

.

t w o m e tal e l e ctr o d e s an d is ll e d with b r i n e o r o th e r e l e ctr o lyt e .

O n e o f t he e l e ctr o d e s is m o vabl e s o that t he dista n c e b e tw e e n,

th e m a n d h e n c e t he r e sista n c e may b e cha n g e d by n e grada

, ,

ti o n s The ac c e l e r ati o n d o e s n o t hav e abrupt variati o n s such

.
,

as must n e c e ssar ily b e o cc asi o n e d wh e n a limit e d n umb e r o f xe d

r e sista n c e s ar e us e d T h e wat e r r e sist o r is ch e ap an d is c apabl e
.
,

o f g e tti n g r id o f a larg e am o u n t o f h e at si n c e t he t e mp e r atur e o f ,

t he e l e ctr o lyt e ca n n o t i n cr e as e b e y o n d t he b o ili n g p o i n t t he ,

ge n e rati o n o f he at at that p o i n t causi n g e bulliti o n o f t he e l e ctr o

lyt e r e l e asi n g e n e rgy in t he vap o r
, .
 CON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TOR S 1 15

s e ri e s m o t o rs
by t he o rdi n ary s e ri e s parall e l m e th o d j ust -

t o t he fact that t he mai n j usticati o n fo r t he

is in t he high t r o ll e y p o t e n tials which may b e
e ssary t o use a stati o n ary tra n sf o r m e r o n t h e

r e duc e t he pr e ssu r e t o a v alu e suitabl e fo r

o f t he m o t o rs T his mak e s it p o ssible t o ge t an e fci e n t
.

FI G . 62 .
-
T r an s f o r m e r c o n t ro l fo r l p ha s e
s in g e - m o t o rs .

p e rf va by g p

T he m ot or o r m an c e is r ie d c o n n e c t in t he m a c h in e s t o t h e d iff e r e n t t a s, l , 2,
3 et c . in t ur n .

m e th o d o f p o t e n tial variati o n simply by br i n gi n g o ut fr o m t he

s e c o n dary o f t he tra n sf o rm e r a n umb e r o f taps which may b e c o n
n e c t e d in tur n t o t he m o t o rs A c o n tr o ll e r o f this typ e is sh o w n
.

diagrammatically in Fig 62 . .

O wi n g t o t he high e f ci e n cy o f t he tra n sfo rm e r e ach st e p ,

o n t he c o n tr o ll e r may b e us e d as an Op e r ati n g p o i n t th e r e b e i n g ,

n o l o ss d ue t o t he us e o f r e sista n c e as with dir e ct curr e n t c o n ,

-

tr o l T he m o t o rs are o rdi n arily plac e d p e rma n e ntly in parall e l

.
1 16 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

or s e r i e s parall e l a n d t he e n ti re variati o n in p o t e n tial is o b

in -
,

t ain e d by cha n gi n g t he tra n sfo r m e r taps t o which t he m o t o rs

ar e c o n n e ct e d .

I n o r d e r t o o bviat e br e aki n g t he circuit in shifti n g fr o m o n e tap

t o t he n e xt c o n n e cti o n is mad e thr o ugh a
,
pr e v e n ti ve c o il ,

whi ch is a c o il o f wir e o n a mag n e tic c o r e d e sig n e d t o have ,

app r o ximat e ly t he sam e e m f as t he p o rti on o f t he t r a n sfo rm e r

. . .

wi n di n g it sh o rt circ uits The l o w e r t e rmi n al o f t he c o il m ay

-
.

the n b e disc o n n e ct e d an d r e c o n n e ct e d t o t he n e xt high e r tap

with o ut causi n g an y disturba n c e in t he syst e m T he m e th o d is .

sh o w n in d e tail in Fig 63 Fo r t he h e a v i e r e quipme n ts a d o uble

. .

FI G . 63 .

Us e of t he p r e ve n t ive coi l .

By t he us e o f t he p evr ent v e c il t h
i o e m o t o r s m ay be c onnec t e d v
t o t h e ar io u s t a ps o n t h e
t r an s f
orm er Wi t h o u t b rea k n g t he
i u t
.

Ci r c
_

i , an d Wi t h o ut an y w id e v . .

v
a r i a t i o n i n t r a c t i e e ff o r t

se t ofpr e v e n tiv e c o ils is us e d maki n g t he o p e r ati o n still m o re ,

sm o o th .

A n i n d ucti o n r e gulat o r c an be e mpl o y e d fo r va r yi n g t he po

t e n t ial o n t he m o t o rs o f a si n gl e phas e e quip m e n t as sh o w n in Fig -
,
.

64 . T his all o ws a n abs o lut e ly u n if o rm acc e l e r ati o n Its us e .

w as p r o p o s e d wh e n t h e si n gl e phas e syst e m was r st pr o j e ct e d ; -

but e xp e r i e n c e has pr o v e d that t he acc e l e r ati o n o btai n e d with taps

f r o m t h e mai n t r a n sfo rm e r is sm o o th e r tha n in s e ri e s p aralle l -

c o n t r o l o f di r e ct curr e n t m o t o r s with t he sam e n umb e r o f st e ps ,

a n d t h e us e o f t h e r e gulat o r has b e e n u n n e c e ssa r y In s o m e o f .

t he la r g e r E u r o p e a n si n gl e phas e l o c o m o tiv e s it has b e e n e m

-

pl o y e d with c o n sid e rabl e satisfacti o n .

C o m b in a ti o n S y s t e m s for S in gl e Ph a s e an d D ir e c t C urr e n t .

S i n c e t he si n gl e phas e s e ri e s m o t o r wh e n c o n ducti v e ly c o mp o n
-
,

sat e d is als o an e xc e ll e n t dir e ct curr e n t m o t o r it may be O p e r

,
-
,
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 1 17

at e d e qually w e ll o n a si n gl e phas e alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t circuit o r

- -

o n a di r e ct cu r r e n t ci r cuit p r o vid e d t he li n e pr e ssur e b e c o r r e ct

-
, .

A n umb e r o f t he h e avi e r si n gl e phas e e quipm e n ts ar e a r r a n g e d -

fo r bo th m e th o ds o f Op e r ati o n All that is n e c e ssary is t o hav e

.

r o p e r c o n tr o ll e r s fo r e ach ki n d Of cu rr e n t an d switch e s fo r
p ,

cha ngin g circuits as t he t r ai n pass e s fr o m o n e s o urc e o f supply

t o t he o th e r as sh o w n in F ig 65
,
It is e ss e n tial t o g uar d a g ai n st
. .

t he p o ssibility o f w r o n g c o n n e cti o n s o n t he car fo r an accid e n tal ,

FI G . I n d u c t io n re g ul at o r c o n t r o l fo r s in g l e p h as e
64 .
- m o t o rs .

Th e t
ra n fo m
s t p
r er a pl d b y an i d u t io
s ar e re ac e gul t o b yn c n re a r, m e an s of w h ic h t h e
m ot or p o t e n t l m ay b v d b y n n t im l t e p
ia e ar i e i i es a s s.

c tact
on o f t he high t e n si o n al t e r n ati n g cir cuit with t he s e r i e s
-

parall e l c o n tr o lle r w o uld be disast r o us T o pre v e n t this t h e .

,

mai n switch o f t he car e quipm e n t is p r o vid e d with a r e tai n i n g c o il

s o arra n g e d that it will Op e n wh e n t he circuit is i n t e rrupt e d .

W h e r e t he alt e r n ati n g an d t he di re ct cur re n t s e cti o n s adj o i n a ,

d e ad spac e is le ft b e tw e e n t he t w o fo r a dista n c e n o t e x c e e di n g a car

l e n gth A car may th e n pass fr o m o n e s e cti o n t o t he o th e r at full
.

S pe e d in which cas e t h e m ai n switch o p e n s o n t he i n sulat e d spac e

,

th r o ugh lack o f p o w e r t o o p e r at e t he r e tai ni n g c o il re s e tti n g aut o ,

m at ic al l y fo r t he o th e r f o rm o f p o w e r aft e r passi n g t he b r e ak e r .

C on tr o l o f Thre e P ha s e M o t or s
-
T hr e e phas e m o t o rs r e qui r e
.
-

e n ti r e ly di ffe r e n t f o rms o f c o n tr o l fr o m th o s e pre vi o usly d e scrib e d .

1 18 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

FI G . 65 .

C o m bin e d s in g e -l p h a s e an d d i r e c t -
c u rr e n t c o n t ro l .

A com bi n at io n of t he t r an s f or m e r c o n r ot l f t h Si gl p h
or e n e- as e c ir c u it w it h r h e o s t at ic fo r
t he dir e c t c urr e n t . On ac c o u n t o f t he com pl t i it i t
ic a on , s no us e d s o m u c h n o w a s f or m er ly .

FI G . 6 6 Th.r e e -
p h as e m o t o r c o n t ro l .

l f
T h e e ad s r o m t h e s e c o n d ar y W i n d in g ar e b ro u ght o ut t o co ll ec t or rin g s a n d s h or t c ir

g v ariable
,

c ui t e d t hr o u h a s et o f r e s is t o r s .
 C ON TR OL OF RA IL WA Y M O TOR S 1 19

It has alr e ady b e e n S h o w n that r e ducti o n s in t he primary p o t e n

tial are i n advisabl e si n c e t he t o rqu e o f an i n ducti o n m o t o r vari e s
,

appr o ximat e ly as t he squar e o f t he appli e d pr e ssur e T he m o t o r .

s pe e d may be d e cr e ase d with o ut dimi n uti o n o f t o rqu e by placi n g

r e sista n c e in t he s e c o n dar y ci r cuits as sh o w n in Fig 66 The ,
. .

e ff e ct o f such r e sista n c e is appr o ximat e ly t he sam e as wh e n us e d

in t he armatur e circuit o f t he dire ct curr e n t shu n t m o t o r t he -

,

t o rqu e fo r a give n valu e o f curr e n t b e i n g o btai n e d at a l o w e r

spe e d wh e n r e sista n c e is i n tr o duc e d .

T his m e th o d is o p e n t o t h e sam e O b j e c
t ions as t he rh e o static c o n t r o l fo r dir e ct
curr e n t m o t o r s in that t he l o s s is gr e at
,

at re d uc e d sp e e ds The e fci e n cy o f
.

an i n d ucti o n m o t o r is always slightly

l e s s tha n t he sp e e d in t e rms o f s y n
c hr o n is m. A r e ducti o n o f t he s p e e d t o
o n e half n o rmal th e r e f o r e d e cr e as e s t he
-

e fci e n cy t o s o m e t hi n g l e ss tha n 5 0 pe r

ce n t . Fo r classe s o f s e rvic e wh e r e o n e
Op e rati n g spe e d is sufci e n t an d wh e r e ,

sto ps ar e i n fr e qu e n t rh e o static c o n tr o l
,

is applic abl e ; fo r o th e r c as e s o n e o r
a n o th e r o f t he m e th o ds d e scrib e d b e l o w
may b e us e d .

Chan g e s in N um b e r of

Pole s
. T he
on ly typ e o f m o t o r which c an be r e adily
a r ra n ge d t o Op e rat e with v aryi n g n um
b e rs o f p o l e s is t he alt e r n ati n g cur r e n t F ro
-
A r ra n g e m e n t .

i n ducti o n m o t o r T he machi n e usually o f in d u c t io n m o t o r fo r t w o

.

f
g if i
se

jz i
has a dist r ibut e d primar y win di n g ; an d t g tw m s o ive o e

it is p o ssibl e by pr o p e r i n t e rc o n n e cti o n gggiggit gf

i i p d t

t e S ee s 3
,

o f t he c o ils t o cha n g e th e ir g r o upi n g t o

,

give t w o d e n it e n umb e rs o f p o l e s o n e o f which is twic e t he o the r

,
.

O n e me th o d o f d o i n g this is sh o w n in Fig 6 7 Als o o n acc o u n t o f . .

,

t he c o n structi o n Of t he pr i mar y t he c o ils b e i n g dist r ibut e d in sl o ts

,

ar o u n d t he pe r iphe ry t w o o r m o r e disti n ct wi n di n g s e ach givi n g

, ,

an y d e sire d n umb e r o f p o l e s may b e plac e d o n t he machi n e

,
.

E ach o f th e s e may hav e its c o ils gr o up e d t o giv e t w o s e ts o f p o l e s

in t he rati o o f 2 : 1 so that t w o wi n di n gs may b e ar r an ge d
,

t o giv e f o ur s e ts o f p o l e s The S p e e d o f an i n ducti o n m o t o r de

.

p e n ds alm o st e n tire ly o n t he fr e qu e n cy o f t he supply an d t he

1 20 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

n umb e r o f p o l e s s o that this c o mbi n ati o n w o uld gi ve f o ur o pe r

,

ati n g sp e e ds In o rd e r t o mak e t he arr a n ge m e n t a v ailabl e it

.
,

is als o n e c e ssary t o wi n d t he s e c o n dary o f t he m o t o r with t he

sam e n umb e rs o f p o l e s as t he p rimary O n acc o u n t o f t he c o m .

plicati o n wh e n s e ve ral di ffe r e n t wi n di n gs ar e plac e d o n t he s e c

o n d ary t he usual limit is t w o n umb e rs o f p o l e s
, In cas e a s q uir .

r e l cag e s e c o n dary wi n di n g is us e d t his r e s t r ic t io n d o e s n o t

-
,

apply an d t he sam e s e c o n dary will w o rk fai r ly w e ll fo r an y c o m

,

bi n ati o n The squirr e l cage r o t o r is n o t v e ry satisfact o ry fo r

.
-

tracti o n an d is s e ld o m us e d
,
.

C h a g e s in Fr e qu e n c y
n The sp e e d o f an i n ducti o n m o t o r .

may re adily b e v ari e d by cha n gi n g t he fr e qu e n cy o f t he supply

circuit T his c an b e d o n e o nl y thr o ugh t he m e dium o f a r o tat
.

in g fr e qu e n cy cha n g e r s o that it is n o t e mpl o y e d dir e ctly ,

It .

is p o ssibl e h o w e ve r t o us e t he i n ducti o n m o t o r its e lf in this c a

, ,

p ac i t y ; a n d wh e n th e r e ar e t w o m o t o rs in t he e quipm e n t this
p e rmits a m e th o d which is us e d t o s o m e e xt e n t fo r c o n t r o lli n g t he
sp e e d o f i n ducti o n m o t o rs fo r railway s e rvic e In this f o rm t he .

c o n n e cti o n is k n o w n as c ascad e c o n tr o l c o n c at e n ati o n o r , ,

ta n d e m c o n tr o l .

C o n c at e n ati o n o f In duc ti o n M o t o r s If t he r o t o r o f an i n duc .

ti o n m o t o r be h e ld still an d an e m f b e impr e ss e d o n t he pri ,

. . .

mary an e m f will b e i n duc e d in t he s e c o n dary in t he sam e

,
. . .

ma n n e r as in a stati o n ary t r a n sf o r m e r The fr e qu e n cy in t h e s e c .

o n d ar y will th e n b e t he sam e as that o f t he supply circuit T his .

s e c o n dary e m f m ay b e us e d fo r a n y pu r p o s e t he sam e as with

. . .
,

t he o rdi n ary typ e s o f p o lyphas e tra n sfo rm e r If t he r o t o r b e .

.

r e v o lve d in the s a m e dir ec t ion as t he mag n e tic e ld it will c ut t he ,

flux at a l o w e r r at e an d t he s e c o n dary fr e qu e n cy will b e c o rr e

,

s p o n din g l y r e duc e d If t he sp e e d o f t he r o t o r b e i n cr e as ed t o
.

sy n chr o n ism t he ux will n o t b e cut at all by t h e c o n duct o rs o n

,

t he r o t o r an d its fr e qu e n cy will b e z e r o
,
B e t w e e n t he limits o f .

sy n chr o n o us sp e e d an d sta n dstill t he fr e qu e n cy will vary dir e ctly

as t he dr o p in sp e e d b e l o w sy n chr o n ism o r t h e slip ,
.

T he e m f g e n e r at e d in t h e s e c o n dary may b e us e d t o fur n ish a

. . .

s e c o n d m o t o r with e l e ctr ic p o w e r If t he r st m o t o r b e r un at .

ha lf s peed t he fr e qu e n cy o f its s e c o n dary ci r cuit will b e e xactly

,

o n e half that o f t he supply ; an d if t he s e c o n dary hav e t h e sam e

-

n umb e r o f tu rn s as t h e prima ry its e m f will b e o n e half t h e l i n e ,

. . .
-

p o t e n tial The t w o m o t o rs b e i n g e l e ctrically similar an d m e cha n

.
,

ic al l y c o upl e d t o g e th e r s o that th e y are f o rc e d t o r un at t he,

 C ON TR OL OF R A I L WA Y M O TOR S 12 1

sam espe e d (as fo r e xampl e t w o m o t o rs o n axl e s o f t he sam e c ar)

, ,

t he p o w e r will be d e live r e d by t he s e c o n dary o f t he rst m o t o r at

t he s y n chr on ou s s p eed o f t he s e c o n d S i n c e an i n ducti o n m o t o r
.

ca n n o t de live r an y p o w e r at sy n chr o no us sp e e d t he s e c o n d ,

machin e will n o t take an y curr e n t fr o m t he rst save fo r e xcita

t i o n,a n d t h e rst m o t o r in tur n havi n g n o cu rr e n t in its s e c o n d
,

ary b ut t he mag n e tizi n g curr e n t fo r t he s e c o n d will n o t d e live r ,

an y p o w e r The syst e m is th e n in t he sam e stat e o f e quilib r ium

.

as w o uld b e t he cas e w e re t he rst mo t o r ru n n i n g al o n e in s y n

o f t he c o mbi n ati o n in this c o n diti o n is ,

Mot o r

fo r c o n c at e n a t o n i c o n t ro l of p
t h re e - h a s e in d u c t io n
m o t o rs .

y p
T h e s e c o n d a r c ir c uit O f m o t o r N O 1 is c o n n e c t e d t o t h e r im a r o f m o t o r y N
O 2 , w hos e
y g T g gv f lf
. .
.

s e c o n d ar i s s h o r t -c i r c ui t e d t h r o u h r e s i s t o r s
.

h i s arr a n e m e n t i e s a n e c i e n t ha
s p ee d runn i n g
. p p l g
o i n t , i n w h i c h r e s e c t i t is S i m i ar t o t h e a r r a n e m e n t s h o w n in F ig 67 . .

h o w e ve r , e xactly o ne - half t he n or mal sy n chr o n o us sp e e d of t he

If t he spe e d o f t he mo t o rs falls a tri e t he fre qu e n cy in t he ,

s e c o n dar y o f t he rst o n e is th e n slightly gr eat er than o n e half that -

o f t he primary an d t he s e c o n d will b e Op e rati n g be l ow sy n chr o n

,

ism The valu e o f t he slip o f t he s e c o n d mo to r is t he diffe re n c e

.

b e tw e e n t he sp e e d c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t he s e c o n dary fr e qu e n cy an d
t he actual sp e e d C o n diti o n s ar e th e r e f o r e right fo r pr o duci n g
.

t o rqu e in t he s e c o n d machi n e T his will caus e a p o w e r curr e n t

.

t o o w in t he r o to r o f t he s e c o n d m o t o r which in tur n must be ,

t r a n sfo rm e d fr o m its pr imary This p o w e r cu r r e n t must o f c o u r s e

.

b e draw n thr o ugh t h e r st m o t o r an d t he curr e n t in t he s e c o n d

,

ary o f t he latt e r re acti n g agai n st its e ld flux will pr o duc e a

, ,

to r qu e It may be sh o w n that appr o ximat e ly o n e half t he t o rqu e

.
-
1 22 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

is fur n ish e d fr o m e ach mac hi n e In o rd e r t o o btai n still l o w e r

.

spe e ds as fo r starti n g r e sista n c e may b e i n t r o duc e d i n t o t he

, ,

r o t o r cir cuit o f t he s e c o n d m o t o r T his will have t he s ame .

e ffe ct as t he i n s e r ti on o f r e sista n c e in t he s e c o n da r y o f a S i n gl e

mo to r .

W h e n it is d e si r e d t o o p e rat e ab o v e t he h alf sp e e d o btai n e d -

with t he t w o m o t o rs in ta n d e m t h e s e c o n d o n e may b e cut o ut

,

o f t h e c i rcuit a n d t h e s e c o n dary o f t he r st sh o rt ci r cuit e d e ith e r -

,

o n its e lf o r thr o ugh r e sista n c e as n e c e ssary , Th e s e c o n d m o t o r .

,

if w o u n d fo r t h e c o rr e ct p o t e n tial may b e c o n n e ct e d t o t he li n e
,

in par all e l with t he rst ; b ut si n c e t h e am o u n t o f p o w e r r e qui r e d

fo r c o n sta n t sp e e d ru n n i n g is c o n sid e rably l e ss tha n that fo r
-

acc e l e r ati o n t he s e c o n d m o t o r is o r di n arily l e ft e n ti r e ly o ut o f

t he ci r cuit t he p o w e r fact o r an d e fci e n cy o f t he si n gl e m o t o r

,

b e i n g high e r tha n wh e n t he l o ad is di vid e d T his arra n ge m e n t .

als o mak e s p o ssibl e a simpl e r fo r m o f c o n tr o ll e r .

In an y cas e wh e n m o t o r s ar e c o n n e ct e d in casc ad e t he s y n ,

c hr o n o us sp e e d o f t h e se t may b e d e t e r m i n e d fr o m t he fact that

t he e ffe ctiv e n umb e r o f p o l e s o f t he c o mbi n ati o n is t he sum o f th o s e

o f t he t w o m o t o r s Fo r i n sta n c e if a f o ur p o l e m o t o r is c o n
.
,

c at e n at e d with o n e havi n g six p o l e s t he r e sult is t he sam e as ,

th o ugh a si n gl e m o t o r with t e n p o l e s w e r e us e d which e v e r ma ,

chi n e is c o n n e ct e d t o t he li n e .

S plit P h a s e C o n tr o l If a p o lyphas e i n ducti o n m o t o r b e c o n

.
-

n e c t e d t o a si n g l e phas e supply it will n o t hav e a n y sta r ti n g t o r qu e

-
, ,

a n d will th e re f o r e r e mai n stati o n a r y If h o w e v e r t he m o t o r .

, ,

b e start e d by an y e xt e r n al m e a n s it will co n ti n u e t o r un a n d may

,

b e us e d in t he sam e way as th o ugh it w e r e O p e rati n g o n a p o ly

phas e circuit E xp e r im e n t has sh o w n that this e ffe ct is d ue t o a
.

t r a n sf o rmi n g acti o n in t he m o t o r cha n gi n g t he si n gle phas e supply -

t o p o lyphas e If t he t e rmi n als o f t he idl e phas e b e t e st e d an

.
,

e m f will b e f o u n d substa n tially o f t h e sam e valu e a n d in t h e

. . .
,

sam e phas e p o s iti o n as in r e gular p o lyphas e Op e rati o n T his .

e m f may b e utili z e d t o fu r n ish with t h e si n gl e phas e e m f o f

. . .
,
-
. . .

t he supply a tru e p o lyphas e circuit O n which may b e Op e rat e d

,

sta n dar d p o lyphas e apparatus .

If an i n ducti o n mac hi n e o f t h e typ e d e scrib e d in t he last para

graph b e plac e d o n a l o c o m o tive it is e vid e n t that a si n gl e phas e
,
-

c o n tact li n e may b e us e d t o supply p o lyphas e m o t o rs fo r pr O pul

si o n as sh o w n diagrammatically in Fig 69 T his m eth o d is us e d
, . .

in o n e imp o r ta n t i n stallati o n in t hi s c o u n t r y T he th r e e phas e .

-
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O T OR S 1 23

i n du cti on m o t o rs may b e o f sta n dar d typ e s c o n tr o ll e d by an y o f ,

have b e e n d e scrib e d ab o v e .

A n umb e r o f sp e cial syst e ms o f O p e r ati o n

o n e tim e o r a n o th e r All o f th e m p o ss e ss .

o f sup e r i o rity an d may b e us e d t o adva n tag e in c e rtai n

,

i n st allati o n s The m o st valuabl e o f th e m are :

.

l . Th e War d Le on ar d s y st e m
-
.

2 . Pe rmut at o r s y s t em .

3 . M e c h an i c a l r e c t i e r .

4 . M e r c ur y vap o r re c t i e r .

Tra n s fo rm er

FI G . 69 .
S pl it -p h as e c o n t ro l fo rp e r at io n o f
o t h r e e - h as e p m o t o rs fro m a
s in g l e p h a s e t r o ll e y
-
.

By t h is m e an s p
t h r e e - h a s e in d u c t io n m ot ors m ay be em pl y o ed fo r r ai lw y a s er v ice g
t hro u h
t he m e di u m o f t h e r o t at i n gp
h as e -c o n ve rt er .

W ar d Le on ar d S y s te m
- .

This syst e m o f c o n tr o l i n v e n t e d ,

b y t he lat e H W ard Le o n ard is in its wid e st applicati o n suitabl e

.
,

fo r us e o n an y ki n d o f supply ci r cuit what e v e r T he c u r r e n t .

fr o m t he c o n tact li n e is us e d t o Op e rat e a c o n sta n t sp e e d m o t o r -

ge n e r at o r s e t (Fig c o n sisti n g o f a m o t o r suitabl e fo r t he

s upply syst e m a s e par at e ly e xcit e d di r e ct curr e n t ge n e rat o r an d

,
-
,

an e xcit e r all m o u n t e d o n t he sam e shaft

, T he pr o pulsi o n m o .

t o rs ar e pe r ma n e n tly c o n n e ct e d t o t he ge n e rat o r thr o ugh t he

r e ve rse r an d Ope rati o n is c o n t r o ll e d by varyi n g t he p o t e n tial
,
.

T his may b e d o n e e ith e r by cha n gi n g t he r e sista n c e in t he ge n

e r at o r e ld circuit o r by varyi n g t he e ld curr e n t o f t h e e xcit e r
,
.
1 24 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

T he latt e r is t he m e th o d usually r e c o mm e n d e d si n c e , t he l o ss is
l e ss .

T his fo rm o f c o n tr o l c an be O p e rat e d t o giv e abs o lut e ly un i

fo rm acc e le rati o n an d is applicabl e t o any fo rm o f supply cir c uit
, .

T he e fci e n cy du r i n g acc e l e rati o n is high S i n c e t he rh e o stat ic ,

l o ss e s are practically e limi n at e d N o c o n tacts carryi n g he avy .

cu r r e n ts hav e t o b e br o k e n o r cl o s e d whil e t he trai n is in Op e ra

ti o n si n c e t he m o t o r cu r r e n t c an b e r e duc e d t o z e r o by Op e n i n g
,

t he e xcit e r e ld circuit The o bj e cti o n t o t he syst e m is its gr e at

.

w e ight an d c o st Fo r this r e as o n it n e v e r has b e e n us e d in pr ac

.

tic e an d o n ly a fe w l o c o m o tiv e s hav e b e e n e quipp e d with it

,
.

S o m e r e c e n tly ad o pt e d typ e s o f c o n tr o l w o uld i n dicat e

Mofar

FI G . 70 .
W ard -L e o n a r d s yst e m o f c o n t ro l .

T hi s m et hod i s s u it a bl e fo r t h e o p e r a t io n o f s t a n d ar d dir e c t -c ur r e n t r ai lw y
a m o t o rs f
ro m
a Sin gl e-
p h ll y
as e t r o e , n o m at t e r w h at t h e r e f q y
uenc A m o t or fo r O pe r at i o n o n an y com
b gl p h
.

m e r c i a l c i r c u it m a y b e s u s t it ut e d f o r t h e s in e- as e m a c h in e .

w e ight an d c o st o f t he W ard Le o n ard syst e m are n o t s o e xc e ss i ve -

as w o uld app e ar fr o m t he Opi n i o n s o f diffe r e n t e n gi n e e rs .

It sh o uld b e stat e d in this c o n n e cti o n that t he W ard Le o n ard -

c o n tr o l is us e d s o m e what e xt e n si ve ly fo r m i n e h o ists an d si m i
lar stati o n ary s e rvic e .

P e rm uta tor C on tro l A sp e cial f o rm o f i n ducti o n machi n e

.
,

k n o w n as t he p e rmutat o r has b e e n br o ught o ut fo r t r an s fo r ,

mati o n fr o m alt e r n ati n g t o dir e ct curr e n t 1

It c o n sists e ss e n tially .

o f an i n ducti o n m o t o r prima r y an d s e c o n dary wi n di n g h e ld

stati o n ary The s e c o n dary wi n di n g is similar t o a dir e ct

curr e n t ge n e rat o r armatu r e an d has l e ads br o u g ht o ut t o a c o m ,

mutat o r S i n c e t he s e c o n dary is h e ld still with r e fe r e n c e t o t he

.

1
A m o re c o m ple t e d e s c r ip t io n Of t h is m a c h in e is give n in C h ap t e r X II I .
 C ON TR OL OF R A IL WA Y M O TO R S 25

primary t he e m f ge n e rat e d by t he fo rm e r has a di r e ct rati o t o

,
. . .

t he li n e p o t e n tial as in a n o rdi n ary tra n sfo rm e r

,
If a se t o f .

b rush e s b e r o tat e d o n t he c o mmutat o r a t s y n c hr on ous s p eed ,

di r e ct cu rr e n t c an b e take n o ff an d us e d t o Op e rat e o rdi n ar y ,

se r i e s railway m o t o rs An y sta n dard typ e o f dir e ct cu rr e n t

.
-

c o n t r o l may b e e mpl o y e d o r t he p r imary p o t e n tial may b e var i e d

,

by taki n g diffe r e n t taps fr o m t he l o w e r i n g tra n sfo rm e r A .

l o c o m o tive c o n struct e d o n t hi s p r i n cipl e has b e e n Op e rat e d in

Fr a n c e fo r s o m e tim e an d is said t o b e ve r y satisfact o ry
.
,
.

Me c h an i c al R e c t i e r 1 In plac e o f t h e p e r mutat o r a m e cha n

.
,

i cal r e ctie r may b e e mpl o y e d fo r fur n ishi n g t he m e a n s o f cha n g

Lo w e r in g

FI G . 71 M e rc u ry re c t i e r c o n t ro l .

W it h t he m e r c ur y va or re c t i s t an d ar d d ir e c t - c ur r e n t m o t o rs m ay be f
s a t is a c t o r ily
g
er ,
O p e r at e d fro m a s in gl e -p as e t ro ll ye As s h o w n , t w o 60 0 o t v l m a c hin e s a r e pl a c e d i n s e r ie s ,
l
.

w it h t h e m id d e p om t gro un d e d .

in g fr o m alt e r n ati n g t o dire ct cu r r e n t fo r supplyi n g t he p r o pulsi o n

m o t o rs The r e ctie r is in e ffe ct a t w o part c o mmutat o r ro
.
-
,

t at e d at sy n chr o n o us sp e e d by m e a n s o f a small m o t o r T he .

t w o mai n s e gm e n ts o f t he c o mmutat o r ar e di vid e d i n t o s e v e ral

s e cti o n s an d c o n n e ct e d thr o ugh r e act an c e T his pr e v e n ts t he
, .

e m f fr o m d r o ppi n g t o z e r o whil e passi n g fr o m o n e p o l e t o t he

. . .

o th e r A l o c o m o tiv e has b e e n built usi n g this m e th o d o f Op e ra

.
,

ti o n but n o gur e s hav e b e e n publish e d which w o uld i n dicat e

,

wh e th e r it has pr o ve d satisfact o r y o r n o t .

M e r c ury Vapor R e c t i e r S till a n o th e r syst e m pr o p o s e d fo r

.

r ailway Op e r ati o n is t o cha n g e fr o m high t e n si o n si n gl e phas e our - -

1
Se e a sol C h a pt e r X II I .
1 26 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

r e n t t o di r e ct curr e n t thr o ugh t he m e dium o f a m e rcury vapo r

r e cti e r R e cti e rs o f this typ e hav e b e e n built c o mm e rcially
.

in larg e siz e s a n d are n o t by an y m e a n s t he d e lic at e c o n triva n c e s

,

o f s e v e ral y e ars ag o .

D uri n g t he y e ar 1 9 1 4 a trial e quipm e n t w as plac e d in Op e rati o n

,

fo r t he P e n n sylva n ia R ail r o ad o n t he si n gl e phas e li n e o f t he

-

N e w Yo rk N e w H av e n an d H artfo rd R ailr o ad
,
. T hi s l o c o m o
tiv e was e quipp e d with sta n dard di r e ct curr e n t m o t o rs Op e rat e d
-
,

fr o m a m e rcury v ap o r r e cti e r T he c o n n e cti o n s ar e sh o w n in

.

Fig 71
. . Alth o ugh d e tail e d r e p o rts are n o t y e t availabl e t he ,

e quipm e n t has b e e n in r e v e n u e s e rvic e fo r s e v e ral m o n t h s f a n d it

is stat e d that t he p e rf o rma n c e is e xc e e di n gly satisfact o ry It is.

e vid e n t that this f o rm o f c o n tr o l is a c o mm e rcial p o ssibility ; an d

if ad o pt e d will r e m o v e s o m e o f t he limitati o n s imp o s e d o n t he

si n gl e phas e syst e m o n ac c o u n t o f its i n ability t o use sta n dard
-

dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs
-
.
 C HAP T E R V I

P O W ER R EQ UI RE M EN T S AN D EN ERG Y C O N S U M P T I O N

R e q uir e m e nt s of Tr ain O pe ra io nt . I n t he
gi n e e r i n g w o r k
en

n e c e ssa r y in c o n n e cti on with t h e d e sig n a n d o p e r ati o n o f a r ail

r o ad it is e ss e n tial that t he am o u n t o f p o w e r d e ma n d e d fr o m t he
,

syst e m an d als o t he am o u n t o f e n e r gy r e quir e d fo r trai n m o v e

,

m e n t b e accu r at e ly d e t e r mi n e d what e v e r t he cha r act e r o f t he

, ,

m o tiv e p o w e r Fo r an y typ e o f m o tiv e p o w e r th e r e ar e c e r tai n

.
,

fu n dam e n tal r e lati o n s which d e t e rmi n e th e s e qua n titi e s ; an d

fr o m th e m t he p r o p e r s e l e cti o n o f e quipm e n t may b e mad e T he .

c o n sid e r ati o n o f th e s e r e lati o n s has al r e ady b e e n mad e in C hapt e r

II ; th e y must n o w b e b r o ught t o g e th e r t o s ee th e ir c o n n e cti o n in
t he s o luti o n o f t he p r o bl e ms at ha n d .

T he qua n titi e s which hav e t he g r e at e st e ff e ct o n trai n O p e r ati o n

ar e its w e ight t h e t r ai n r e sista n c e b o th i n h e r e n t a n d i n cid e n tal
, , ,

t he ac c e l e r ati o n a n d t he maximum sp e e d T h e s e ar e t he e ss e n
.

tial o n e s ; but t he l e n gth o f r un has a mark e d e ffe ct si n c e it may ,

cha n g e t he maximum sp e e d o r t he acc e l e r ati o n .

T h e maximum sp e e d a t tai n e d a ff e cts t he pow er r e quir e d pri n

c ipal l y by t he diffe r e n c e it mak e s in t he trai n r e sista n c e but ,

its e ffe ct o n t he en er gy c o n sume d is much gr e at e r si n c e it is a ,

me asur e o f t he e n e r gy i n put .

T he trai n w e ight is a d e t e r mi n i n g fact o r in b o th p o w e r a n d

e n e r gy si n c e t h e valu e o f e ith e r vari e s dir e ctly with it
,
.

It will b e sh o w n that t h e acc e l e r ati o n has a gr e at i n u en c e o n

t he p ow er r e quir e d but its e ffe ct o n t h e t o tal e n er gy is v e r y small
, ,

sav e in a n i n dir e ct way T his must b e s o si n c e t he e n e rgy im

.
,

par t e d t o t h e t r ai n d e p e n ds s o much o n t he maximum sp e e d

a t tai n e d du r i n g t h e r un .

T he i n h e r e n t trai n r e sista n c e whil e it has s o m e e ffe ct o n b o th

,

t he p o w e r a n d t he e n e r gy is in m o st cas e s small in c o mparis o n

,

with o th e r va r iabl e s T he i n cid e n tal r e sista n c e e sp e cially that

.
,

d ue t o g r ad e s may a ffe ct t he r e qui r e m e n ts m o r e tha n an y o th e r

,

fact o r T his is s e e n m o st in o p e rati o n o f sl o w sp e e d fr e ight

.
-

trai n s in which cas e t he acc e l e r ati o n is r e lativ e ly l o w

,
.

1 27
1 28 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

In rd e r t o asc e r t ai n t he p o w e r d e ma n d th e n fo r an y sp e ci c
o , ,

cas e it is n e c e ssary t o k n o w t he valu e s giv e n ab o v e T he d e t e r

, .

mi n ati o n c an b e m ad e by t h e m e th o d s o utli n e d in C h apt e r

II .

S tr aigh t Lin e S pe e d Tim e C urv e s

It is difcult t o d e duc e .

a n a n alytical r e lati o n b e tw e e n t he v ariabl e s e n t e ri n g i n t o t he

p o w e r pr o bl e m T he cha r act e ristic curv e s o f m o tiv e p o w e rs

.

vary in a ma n n e r difcult t o e xp r e ss in a simpl e e quati o n ; an d

t he sam e is tru e O f t r ai n r e sista n c e In a larg e n um be r o f pr o b .

l e ms a n e e d is f e lt fo r a S impl e an d r e as o n ably ac curat e d e t e r

mi n ati o n o f p o w e r r e qui r e m e n ts B y maki n g a n umb e r o f .

appr o ximat e assumpti o n s it is p o ssibl e t o us e a graphical

m e n t which is c o mparativ e ly simpl e .

60 80
~

T im e . S ec o n d s .

FI G . 72 .

S im pl e s t r a ig h t -
l in e s p e e dt im e c ur ve .

If w e c o n sid e r t he m o tiv e p o w e r t o b e such that it c an supply a

c o n sta n t tractiv e e ffo rt o v e r a limit e d ra n g e o f o p e rat i o n an d ,

assum e u n ifo rm rat e s o f c o asti n g an d o f braki n g t he pr o bl e m is ,

r e duc e d t o a p o i n t wh e r e a s o luti o n b e c o m e s practical T he .

simpl e st r un o f this typ e (A Fig 72 ) c o n sists o f acc e l e rati o n at

,
.

a c o n sta n t rat e u n til it is n e c e ssary t o cut o ff t he p o w e r a n d apply

t he b r ak e s. It is e vid e n t that if t he rat e o f braki n g is t he sam e
fo r all ru n s this giv e s t h e mi n imum p o ssibl e ac c e l e rati o n
,
F ur .

th e r tha n this a n i n sp e cti o n o f t he diagram sh o ws that t he m axi

,

mum sp e e d is e xactly twic e t he av e rag e s p e e d C o mpari n g this .

r un with t h e id e al r un K at av e rag e sp e e d it will b e s e e n that t h e

, ,

dista n ce c o v e r e d is t he sam e in e ach , t he ar e a o f t he t w o dia

grams b e i n g t he sam e .
 P O WE R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 1 29

If a high e r rat e o f acc e l e rati o n tha n t he mi n imum be us e d it ,

will be n e c e ssary in o rd e r t o c o v e r t he sam e dista n c e in t he sam e

,

tim e t o i n tr o duc e a p e ri o d o f c o asti n g ( Fig 73 r un B )

,
S uch a .
,
.

high maximum sp e e d as in r un A ( which is r e pr o duc e d fr o m Fig .

72 ) will n o t b e attai n e d si n c e t he t r ai n is pr o p e ll e d at n e ar ly t he
,

m aximum sp e e d fo r s o m e tim e by c o asti n g With still high e r .

rat e s o f acc e l e rati o n (r u n s C an d D ) t he maximum sp e e d is fu r th e r

'

r e duc e d In c e r tai n r u n s if t he am o u n t o f d r ifti n g is t o o gr e a t

.
, ,

t he v e l o city which t he t r ai n must r e ach will agai n b e i n c r e as e d o n ,

acc o u n t o f t he gr e at r e ducti o n o f sp e e d whil e c o asti n g In ge n .

e r al t he e fci e n cy o f t h e m o tiv e p o w er r e mai n i n g t h e sam e t he

, ,

m o st e ffe ctiv e r un fo r c o v e ri n g t he giv e n dista n c e is that in which

l o w e st valu e o f c r e st o r maximum sp e e d is attai n e d .

T he m e th o d o utli n e d in t he last paragraph sh o ws a way o f

d e t e rmi n i n g t he m o st e c o n o mical acc e l e rati o n fo r an y giv e n r un .

60 30
Tim e, S e c o n ds .

FI G . 73 .
In u e n c e l
o f a c c e e r a t io n o n s p e e dt im e c ur ve .

If a succ e ssi o n o f id e n tical ru n s is tak e n as t he r e quir e d s e rvic e ,

o n e acc e l e r ati o n c a n b e f o u n d which is m o st e fci e n t fo r all o f

th e m W h e n t h e ru n s di ff e r t he b e st av e rag e rat e c an b e us e d
.
,
.

T his acc e l e rati o n havi n g b e e n ch o s e n , it sh o uld b e us e d fo r all

r un s n o matt e r what th e ir l e n gth
,
.

S pe e d Tim e C urv e s w it h El e c tric M ot or s

Wh e n w e c on sid e r .

applicati o n s o f t he straight li n e sp e e d tim e cu rv e w e n d that in

,

m o st cas e s o f p r actical m o tiv e p o w e rs t he assum e d c o n diti o n s ,

ca n n o t be e xactly m e t In usi n g e l e ct r ic m o t o rs t he u n ifo r m

.
,

acc e l e rati o n c an be adh e r e d t o o n ly while t he p o t e n tial is b e i n g

rais e d Aft e r t he m o t o r s are o p e rati n g dir e ctly o n t h e li n e th e re
.

is n o p o ssibility o f c o n ti n ui n g t he maximum acc e l e r ati o n ; but

t he tractiv e e ff o rt will fall o ff as d e t e rmi n e d by t he cha r act e ristic
curv e o f t he particular machi n e us e d If t he r un is sh ort this .
,

9
130 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

will n o t mak e a mark e d d e viati o n fr o m t he straight li n e curve s o ,

that fo r p r e limi n ary e stimat e s o r fo r a n alytical study t he appr o xi

mat e m e th o d r e mai n s us e ful Fo r t he act ual s e l e cti o n o f e quip
.

m e n t fo r an y i n dividual cas e t he m o t o r cha r act e r istics must be

e mpl o y e d . h
T e m e th o d us e d fo r d e t e rmi n i n g t he sp e e d tim e

curv e is that d e sc r ib e d in C hapt e r I I pag e 3 9 o r an y o th e r , ,

accu r at e way o f pl o tti n g it In o r d e r t o e stimat e t h e dista n c e

.

c o v e e d by t e un t e dista n c e ti me cu r v e may b e o btai n e d by

r h r h ,

t he us e o f t h e i n t e g r aph by succ e ssi ve pa r tial i n t e g r ati o n s o r by

, ,

d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he dista n c e i n cr e m e n ts fr o m t he data us e d t o

pl o t t he sp e e d tim e diag r a m

C u r v e s o f this charact e r are o f t h e
.

gr e at e st valu e si n c e th e y sh o w t h e e xact dista n c e c o v e r e d by

,

t h e trai n at a n y p o rti o n o f t h e r un .

C urr e n t T i m e C ur ve s
A ft e r t h e sp e e d tim e curv e fo r an y r un
.

has b e e n pl o tt e d t he c u r r e n t tim e cu r v e may b e f o u n d dir e ctly

,

,

si n c e th e r e is a d e n it e r e lati o n b e tw e e n t h e sp e e d o f a m o t o r an d
t h e cu r r e n t passi n g th r o ugh it which is i n variabl e ,
T his may .

b e s e e n at o n c e by a n i n sp e cti o n o f Fig 1 9 It must b e r e m e m . .

b e r e d h o w e v e r that whil e t he m o t o r s o f a n e quipm e n t ar e r un

, ,

n i n g at r e duc e d p o t e n tials o r u n d e r o th e r ab n o r mal c o n dit io n s

, ,

t he r e lati o n b e tw e e n sp e e d a n d cu r r e n t will n o t b e t he sam e as fo r

n o rmal o p e r ati o n alth o ugh e asily f o u n d at such tim e s by t he
,

m e th o ds al r e ady giv e n The cu r r e n t tim e curv e may th e n be

.

p l o tt e d T his cu r v e is o f valu e as i n dicati n g t h e l o ad which is

.
,

b e i n g d e ma n d e d fr o m t he li n e as w e ll as that which is b e i n g ,

imp o s e d o n t he m o t o rs .

P o w e r Ti m e C urv e s
I f t he li n e p o t e n tial is c o n sta n t t he ,

cu r r e n t curv e giv e s a m e asu r e o f t he p o w e r d r aw n fr o m t h e lin e at

an y i n sta n t an d it s in t egr a l m eas u r es t he a m ou n t of en er gy us ed
,

fo r t h e r un B y this m e a n s t he p e rf o rma n c e o f di ffe r e n t t r ai n s o r

.

o f di ff e r e n t ru n s may b e c o mpa r e d If t he li n e pr e ssur e is vari

.

abl e t h e p o w e r tim e cu r v e must be o bt a i n e d as t he pr o duct o f t he

,

curr e n t curv e a n d t he p r e ssu r e In that cas e a gr aph o f t h e latt e r

.

sh o uld b e pl o tt e d agai n st tim e .

U s e o f t h e C urre n t an d P o w e r C urv e s T his s e ri e s o f curv e s is .

o f gr e at u s e t o t h e e n gi n e e r in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e siz e o f e quipm e n t

n e c e ssary fo r t h e g e n e rati n g a n d substati o n s o f a r o ad a n d fo r t h e ,

siz e o f tra n smissi o n an d fe e d e r wir e s Fo r this purp o s e c urr e n t .

tim e o r po w e r ti m e c urv e s must b e pl o tt e d fo r a day o r such

,

o th e r p e ri o d as c o v e rs t h e e n ti r e r a n g e o f l o ad T h e sum o f .

t he i n sta n ta n e o us cu r r e n t valu e s giv e s t he t o tal d e ma n d o n t he

 P O WE R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 13 1

p o w e r pla n t at an y giv e n i n sta n t ; s o by a p r o c e ss Of summati o n

t he actual l o ad curv e fo r a n e n ti re day s r un o r an y d e sir e d

tim e is d e te rmi n e d A study o f t he t e rrit o r y in which t he r o ad

.

is l o cat e d will in c o n j u n cti o n with t h e cur r e n t o r p o w e r cu r v e s

,

fo r i n di v idual trai n s giv e an Opp o r tu n ity fo r dividi n g t he li n e

,

in t o pr o p e r s e cti o n s fo r t h e l o cati o n o f substati o n s T his will .

b e c o n sid e r e d at g r e at e r d e tail in a lat e r chapt e r .

M o t or C apac i t y T h e o th e r gr e at us e o f t h e cu r r e n t tim e curv e

.

is in t h e d e t e r m i n ati o n o f t he capacity o f t he m o t o r s t o b e us e d
fo r a par ticular pu r p o s e T h e r e ar e s e v e ral di ffe r e n t m e th o ds o f
.

d o i n g this O f th e s e t he m o st dir e ct is that in which t h e m o t o r

.
,

h e ati n g is asc e r tai n e d fr o m t he cur r e n t an d p o t e n tial carri e d by

t h e m o t o r du r i n g t he p e r i o d which t h e rati n g c o v e rs .

T he ability o f a m o t o r t o carry l o ad d e p e n ds o n s e v e ral di ff e r

e n t thi n gs : t he f o r m o f t h e charact e r istic cu r v e s must b e c o rr e ct ,

a n d Op e r ati o n n o t e xt e n d e d b e y o n d th e ir pr o p e r r a n g e ; t h e

t e mp e ratu r e must n o t e xc e e d s o m e maximum v alu e as d e t e r ,

mi n e d by t he mat e r ials o f which t he machi n e is c o n st r uct e d ,

a n d t he m o t o r must n o t b e w o r k e d b e y o n d t h e limits o f c o mmuta

ti o n In m o d e r n w e ll built m o t o r s t he charact e ristic curv e s

.
,
-
,

c o n ti n u e o f pr o p e r shap e b e y o n d t h e o r di n ary ra n g e o f Op e rati o n ,

a n d t he c o mmutati o n b o th in di r e ct cu r r e n t an d si n gl e phas e
,
- -

r ailway m o t o rs is s o g o o d that it n e e d n o t b e a d e t e r mi n i n g
,

fact o r T he h e ati n g o f t h e m o t o r pa r ts sta n ds as t he practical

.

limit b o th fo r i n sta n ta n e o us an d fo r sustai n e d l o ads M o d e r n

,
.

mo t o rs ar e usually c o n struct e d o f r e pr o o f mat e r ial t he o n ly ,

n on m e tallic pa r ts b e i n g t h e i n sulati o n
-
which c o n sists v e r y
,

lar g e ly o f mica asb e st o s an d o th e r h e at r e sisti n g substa n c e s

,
-
.

H e at in g Lim i t s He ati n g o f t he m o t o r imp o s e s limits o f t w o

.

ki n ds t o its capacity : i n sta n ta n e o us o r m o m e n tary an d c o n ,

t in uo us If a sudd e n l o ad is plac e d o n a m o t o r th e r e is a rush

.
,

o f cur r e n t with a c o n s e qu e n t I R l o ss in all p o r ti o n s o f t he

2
,

circuit If t h e l o ss is su f ci e n t it may caus e o v e rh e ati n g o f s o m e

.
,

pa r t an d bu rn o ut t he wi n di n g at that plac e O r it may b e

,
.

g r e at e n o ugh t o m e lt o n e o r m o r e o f t he s o ld e r e d c o n n e cti o n s
a n d Op e n t he ci r cuit with t h e p o ssibl e f o r mati o n Of an arc
,
.

E v e n th o ugh t h e j o i n ts in m o d e r n m o t o rs ar e all mad e with

high grad e t in s o ld e r it s o m e tim e s happ e n s that an o v e rl o ad
-
,

is s o h e a vy as t o m e lt t he s o ld e r at t he c o mmutat o r n e cks T he .

n atu r al saf e guard agai n st such damag e is t o plac e in t he m o t o r

132 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

ci cuit
r aut matic ci cuit br e ak e r o r a fus e s e t s o as t o o p e n
an o r -
, ,

b e fo r e t he m o t o r is damag e d .

T he o th e r h e ati n g limit is t he o n e o n which t he n o rmal rati n g

is bas e d An y e l e ctrical apparatus has a c e rtai n l o ss in c o n v e rt
.

in g e n e rgy fr o m o n e f o r m t o a n o th e r ; an d it is this which Occu r ,

ri n g withi n t he machi n e c aus e s h e ati n g M o t o r l o ss e s hav e

, .

alr e ady b e e n discuss e d in C hapt e r I II So m e o f th e m ar e de .

p e n d e n t o n t he cu rr e n t o th e r s o n t he p o t e n tial an d still o th e rs
, ,

o n t he sp e e d o f r o tati o n In g e n e r al h o w e v e r t he l o ss e s m ay
.
, ,

b e gr o up e d i n t o t w o class e s : th o s e which ar e a fu n cti o n o f t he

curr e n t an d th o s e d e p e n d e n t o n o th e r r e lati o n s T h o s e l o ss e s
, .

d ue t o t he curr e n t va r y n e arly as its squar e ; t he r e mai n d e r

ab o ut as t he r st p o w e r o f t he t e rmi n al p r e ssur e T O g e t t he .

av e rage l o ss fo r a giv e n r un will be t o d e t e rmin e t he c o r r e sp o n di n g

rat e o f h e at g e n e r ati o n an d h e n c e giv e s a m e a n s o f n d in g t he
,

capacity o f t he m o t o r .

In this c o u n try railway a n d o th e r m o t o r s fo r i n t e r mitt e n t

,

s e rvic e ar e rat e d in t w o ways : by t he l o ad th e y c a n c ar r y fo r o n e

h o ur o r o th e r stat e d tim e with a giv e n t e mp e r atur e ris e u n d e r ,

sp e ci e d c o n diti o n s an d by that which th e y c an carry c o n ti n u

,

o us l y with t h e sam e t e mp e ratur e ris e u n d e r o th e r stat e d c o n di ,

ti o n s Eith e r m e th o d assum e s that t he l o ad will b e u n if o rm

.

du r i n g t he p e ri o d fo r which t he rati n g is mad e 1

.

C h ara c t e r o f R a il w ay M o to r Load
$

In g e n e ral it is n o t p o ssibl e
.
,

t o mai n tai n t he l o ad o n a n y machi n e at a c o n sta n t v alu e in

s e rvic e I n t he cas e o f a r ailway m o t o r its fu n cti o n is t o start
.
,

a trai n fr o m r e st ac c e l e ra t e it t o s o m e o p e rati n g sp e e d an d r un
, ,

it at that sp e e d fo r a gr e at e r o r l e ss tim e Aft e r this t he p o w e r .

is cut o ff t he trai n all o w e d t o c o ast an d n ally c o m e t o r e st

,

un d e r t h e acti o n o f t h e brak e s .

A n i n sp e cti o n o f t he l o ad curv e sh o ws that t he c u rr e n t

thr o ugh t he m o t o r is n e v e r c o n st a n t u n l e ss t he r un is s o l o n g ,

that t he sp e e d c o n ti n u e s at t he maximum fo r s o m e tim e It is .

n o t p o ssibl e t o assig n a n y av e rag e valu e t o it o ffha n d F urth e r .

m o r e th e r e is a p e r i o d in e v e r y r un wh e r e t he m o t o rs are n o t
,

in o p e rati o n a p o r ti o n o f it b e i n g whil e t he trai n is in m o ti o n

,

a n d t h e r e mai n d e r whil e it is sta n di n g still .

Aft e r maki n g a st o p o f limit e d durati o n a similar cycl e e n su e s ; ,

a n d this will b e r e p e at e d i n d e n it e ly duri n g t h e e n tir e tim e O f

1
T he ac c e pt e d m e t h o d o f r a t in g r a il w a y m ot o rs is g i ve n in t h e S t a n da rd
i za ti o n R u l e s of t he A m e r ic a n I n s t it u t e of E l e c t r ic al E n g in e e r s , 1 9 1 4 e d it io n .
 P O WE R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 1 33

o p e rati o n as fo r a r o u n d trip o r m o r e fr e qu e n tly a wh o l e day s
, ,

r un . T h e succ e e di n g cycl e s o f cur r e n t may n o t b e p r e cis e ly

t he sam e S i n c e t h e l e n gth o f i n dividual ru n s t h e maximum
, ,

sp e e ds p o ssibl e an d t he physic al limitati o n s o f gr ad e s cu r v e s

, ,

a n d W i n d may va r y B u t t h e g e n e r al n atu r e o f t h e cycl e r e

.

m a i n s t he sam e in all cas e s If it is d e si r e d t o d e pict t h e pe r.

fo r m an c e o f a railway m o t o r it is n e c e ssary t o pl o t a s e r i e s Of,

curr e n t tim e curv e s fo r a l o n g p e ri o d o f Op e r ati o n s ay fo r a r o u n d

,

t r ip S uch a cu rr e n t tim e curv e is sh o w n in Fig 74

.

. .

M e th o d s o f Eq uat in g M o t o r Lo a d In o r d e r t o us e t he d a t a

.

fr o m t he actual Op e r ati o n o f t he m o t o r s as d e t e r mi n e d by t he ,

curr e n t tim e a n d p o w e r tim e curv e s it is n e c e ssary t o n d s o m e

,

basis o n which th e y may b e e quat e d t o c o n sta n tly appli e d l o ads .

T his is e ss e n tial b o th fo r purp o s e s o f t e sti n g an d fo r t h e p r o p e r

s e l e c t i o n o f m o t o r s fo r a giv e n s e r vic e T he o ld e st way was by .

c o mpar is o n an e quipm e n t b e i n g s e l e ct e d fo r a p r o p o s e d r o ad b e
,

caus e it had giv e n satisfacti o n in a similar s e r vic e p o ssibly in ,

a n o th e r l o cality Alth o ugh this m e th o d is crud e it w as us e d

.
,

fo r wa n t o f a b e tt e r an d it must b e admitt e d that v e ry g o o d

,

r e sults hav e b e e n o btai n e d .

T h e sci e n tic m e th o d o f g e tti n g t h e e quival e n t rati n g is t o

d e t e rmi n e t h e p o t e n tial an d cu r r e n t which c o n sta n tly appli e d , ,

will pr o duc e t he sam e l o ad o n t he m o t o r as t he va r iabl e o n e o b

t ain e d in s e rvic e S i n c e h e ati n g is t h e p r i n cipal c o n diti o n which
.

d e t e rmi n e s m o t o r capacity it is e vid e n t that at t he e quival e n t

,

l o ad it must be t he sam e as that in s e rvic e T h e d e t e rmi n ati o n .

o f this l o ad d e p e n ds o n t h e u se o f a m e th o d which will n d t h e

pr o p e r r e lati o n s b e tw e e n t he variabl e cu r r e n t a n d p o t e n tial a n d

th e ir e quival e n t c o n sta n t v alu e s t o giv e t he sam e h e ati n g in t h e
m otor .

1
H e atin g Val ue o f t h e C urre n t In an y e l e ct r ic circuit th e r e
.
,

is a c e rtai n l o ss due t o t he passag e o f t he curr e n t th r o ugh r e s is

ta n c e T his l o ss is a fu n cti o n o f t he cu rr e n t t h e tim e an d t h e
.
, ,

r e sis t a n c e It is always p r o p o r ti o n al t o t h e squar e o f t h e in

.

s t an t an e o us valu e o f cu r r e n t i i n t o t h e r e sista n c e in o hms r

, , , ,

b e i n g n um e rically e qual t o i r 2
.

With t he cur r e n t r e mai n i n g c o n sta n t at a v alu e I fo r an y

d e n it e i n t e r v al o f tim e as ,

1
T his d is c us s io n fo ll o w s t h e m e t ho d o f C . O . MA ILL O UX ,

Me t ho de de
d e t e rm in at io n du c o u r an t c o n s t an t p r o d u is a n t le m em e c h au ffe m en t

qu nn

c o ur an t v a ri a b l e ,

I n l er n a l i on a l E l ec t r ic a l C o n gre s s , T urin , 1 9 1 1 .
1 34 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

t t1 to

t he am o u n t of e n e rgy W dissipat e d as h e at
, , in t he r e sista n c e
r is
W 1 2
r (t 1 t o) I 2
rl

W h e n t he curr e n t va r i e s du r i n g t he tim e c o n sid e r e d t he

b e c o m e s calli n g t he i n sta n ta n e o us valu e o f curr e n t i
, ,

If t he r e sista n c e l o ss is t he sam e in t he t w o
e quat e t he e xp r e ssi o n s ( 1 ) an d ( 2 )

W PM

fr o m which we may d e t e r mi n e

E quati o n s ( 5 ) ( 6) giv e t h e imp o r ta n t r e lati o n s b e tw e e n t he

an d

e quival e n t c o n sta n t a n d variabl e curr e n ts p r o duci n g t h e s am e

h e ati n g in t he sam e tim e i n t e rval Fr o m e quati o n ( 5) it may

.

b e s e e n that th e ir s qu ar es ar e e qual a n d e quati o n ,

that t he

s o call e d
-
e ffe cti v e curr e n t is e qual t o t he squ ar e r o o t o f t he
m e a n o f t he squar e s o f i n sta n ta n e o us valu e s .

T he pr o bl e m o f e quati n g a va r iabl e curr e n t t o a c o n sta n t o n e

thus r e s o l ve s its e lf i nt o n di n g an e ffe ctiv e valu e which is n um e r
ic al ly e qual t o t h e squa r e r o o t o f t he m e a n o f t h e succ e ssiv e
o rdi n at e s o f t h e curv e r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e fu n cti o n 72 f( ) If
2
t .

t he e quati o n o f this fu n cti o n is k n o w n t h e d e t e rmi n ati o n is ,

simpl e ; but if as is usually t he cas e it ca n n o t b e o btai n e d

, , ,

s o m e appr o ximat e c o n st r ucti o n must b e r e s o rt e d t o .

D e t e rm in ati o n o f E e c t ive C urr e n t fr o m 1 C urv e

2 The ge n .

e ral f o r m o f t he g r aph o f curr e n t as a fu n cti o n o f tim e is sh o w n in

Fig 74 which r e pr e s e n ts a curv e o f this charact e r

.
,
S uch a .

cha r t may b e d r aw n by a r e c o rdi n g amm e t e r o r by taki n g a larg e ,

n umb e r o f suc c e ssiv e r e adi n gs an d pl o tti n g t he cu r v e th e r e fr o m .

 PO WE R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 1 35

To apply t he m e th o d i n dicat e d by e quati o n ( 6) fo r g e tti n g t he

e quival e n t cu rr e n t t h e valu e s o f i in t he curr e n t tim e curv e must
,

be squar e d an d r e pl o tt e d as sh o w n in F ig 75
T he m o r e rapid
,
. .

t he uctuati o n s o f t h e o r igi n al curv e t he cl o s e r t o g e th e r t he ,

160 200
T im S ec o n d s

e ,
.

FI G . 74 .
T yp i c a l c ur r e n t t im e c ur ve .

re p r es e n t s t he a c t ua lf or m o f c ur v e o bt a in e d in ra pid -
t r a n s it s er vi
ce w it h f q
re ue n t

o in ts sh o uld b e tak e n si n c e t he e ff e ct o f squa r i n g is t o gr e atly

p ,

magn ify t h e di ff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n succ e e di n g valu e s .

T he ar e a u n d e r t he cu r v e as Fig 75 must n e xt b e f o u n d by ,
.
,

s o m e f o rm o f m e cha n ical i nt e gr ati o n as t he us e o f a pla n im e t e r ,

.

160 20 0 240 280 320

T: m e , S ec o n d s .

F1 G . 75 .
C u rr e n t s q u a r e d t im -
e cu r ve .

T hi
s c ur v e is p rod uc e d by q s u ar in g th v l e a ue s o f t he c ur r e n t s ho w n in F ig . 74 .

T his a r e a divid e d by t h e t o tal l e n g th o f t he diag r am giv e s t h e

, ,

m e a n o r di n at e 1 2
It is n e c e ssary t o use t he sam e u n its o f li n e ar
,
.

an d squar e m e asu r e fo r if t h e pla n im e t e r giv e s t he ar e a in squa r e

, ,
13 6 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WAY

inch e s t he l e n gth o f t he bas e sh o uld be tak e n in i n ch e s an d t he

, ,

qu o ti e n t will giv e t he av e rag e h e ight in i n ch e s T his is s o me .

tim e s f o rg o tt e n in i n t e rpr e ti n g t he r e sults T he squar e r o o t o f .

this m e a n o rdi n at e wh en r e duc e d t o t he scal e o f t he curv e is

, ,

t he e ff e ctiv e valu e d e sir e d as I in e quati o n ,

D e t e rm in at i o n b y P o l ar M e t h o d
T he s e c o n d m e th o d which .
,

was e lab o rat e d by M r M aill o ux in t he pap e r ab o v e r e f e rr e d t o

.

FI G . 76 . P l
o ar c urr e n t t im e d i ag r a m .

Thi s re p resent s t he sam e f un c t io n as F ig . 74 , b u t re pl ot t e d in po l ar c o or d in a t es .

o bviat e s t he n e c e ssity o f pl o tti n g a curv e o f v alu e s o f curr e n t

squa r e d r e placi n g it by a p o lar diagram o f curr e n t Fig 76
, ,
.
,

which whil e givi n g t he sam e n al r e sult is simpl e r t o c o n struct

, ,
.

T h e us e o f t he p o lar curv e fo r n di n g t h e h e ati n g d ue t o a

curr e n t o r igi n at e d with D r Fl e mi n g w ho e mpl o y e d it fo r de
1
.
,

t e rm in in g t he e ff e ctiv e val u e o f t he alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t The .

m e th o d o f M r M aill o ux is bas e d o n t he sam e p r i n cipl e s but is

.
,

wid e r in sc o p e i n c ludi n g t he e v aluati o n o f an y curr e n ts as i n di

, ,

c at e d in e quati on

1
J . A F L E M I NG ,
. The A l t e rn at e C urr en t Tr a n sfor m er , 1 8 9 6 , Vo l . I 32
, ,

R e p r e s e n t at io n Pe r io di c Po l ar D iagram s

pp . 1 90 1 9 4 ,
of C urre n t s by .
 P O WE R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 137

T he r st st e p in this m e th o d c o n sists in pl o tti n g t he cu rr e n t

tim e curv e o n a p o la r basis as sh o w n in Fig 76 In d o i n g this
,
. .

t h e curr e n t i b e i n g t he i n d e p e n d e n t variabl e is mad e t he radius

, , ,

v e ct o r an d t he tim e t b e c o m e s t h e a n gl e
, , ,
.

T o mak e t he tra n sf o rmati o n o f c o or di n at e s c o mpl e t e t he ,

f o ll o wi n g c o n diti o n must be m e t an d that o nly : ,

f( M ) f( ) ( )
3
t HA G

fo r all v alu e s o f n i n clud e d b e tw e e n t he limits n 0, an d n ,

Kt
wh e n t is t he t o tal l e n gth o f t he diagr am in r e cta n gular (o r any
fo r m o f C art e sian ) c o or di n at e s If this r e quir e m e n t is m e t an
.
,

o r d i n at e y o f t h e r e cta n gular cur v e at an y dista n c e fr o m t h e ,

o rigin al o n g t he X axis an d r e pr e s e n t e d by nAt will always be ,

e qual t o t h e radius v e ct o r p o f a p o lar curv e situat e d at a pr o

, , ,

po rti o n al a n gular dista n c e by nA O It may b e s e e n at o n c e that

,
.

this r e lati o n is i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he valu e s giv e n t o At o r t o AO ,

pr o p o rti o n al cha n g e s in th e s e a ff e cti n g o n ly t he scal e o f t h e curv e .

T he p o lar curv e has di ff e r e n t p r o p e r ti e s fr o m t h e r e cta n gular

curv e ; si n c e it is this diffe r e n c e which is utiliz e d t he char act e r ,

is t ic s o f t he p o lar cu r v e must b e d e t e r mi n e d O f th e s e t h e m o st .
,

imp o rtan t fo r t he pr e s e n t pu r p o s e is t h e ar e a i n clud e d by t he

cu r v e An e l e m e n t o f t he p o lar diagram c o n tai n e d b e tw e e n t w o
.

radii v e ct o r e s OP an d OQ ( Fig
,
has an ar e a dA.
,

dA % p ds % p d0 2
(8 )
p b e i n g t he radius v e ct o r ,
d 0 t he v e ct o r ial a n gl e an d ds pd 0 ,

an y e l e me n t of t he curv e
. . W h e n t he e n tir e v e ct orial a n gl e in
clud e d is
0 $1
t he ar e a ,
A, is e qual to

jj
o

A
f o
dA l
/z p de
z

T his ar e a may be fo u n d by math e matical substituti o n wh e r e ,

practic abl e or by m e cha nical i n t e grati on in an y cas e as by t he

, ,

us e o f t he pla n im e t e r .

Fo r po lar curv e s as fo r C art e sian curv e s th e r e may be f o u n d

, ,

an e quival e n t ar e a which c o rr e sp o n ds t o a c o n sta n t m e a n h e ight .

U si n g this o rdi n at e an d t he sam e t o tal v e ct o r ial a n gl e a p o la r ,

diagram will b e o btai n e d havi n g t h e sam e a r e a as that i n clud e d

by t he actual cu r v e In C ar t e sia n c o or di n at e s this e quival e n t
.

diagra m is a pa r alle l o gr am ; in p o lar t he s e ct o r of a circl e ,

.
13 8 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

T he
ar e a o f t he e quival e n t s e ct o r with a v e ct o rial a n gl e
, 0,
a n d m e a n o rdi n at e I p b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d by A w e hav e
, ,

E quati n g this with e quati o n

Ip 02

A
2
fr o m which is r e duc e d

c o mparis o n o f e quati o n s ( 6) an d ( 1 2 ) sh o ws th e m
A
pr e cis e ly t he sam e f o rm T h e t w o e quati o n s o n e i
.
,

c o ordi n at e s an d t he o th e r in p o lar giv e t w o ways o f o btai n i n g

, ,

id e n tical r e sults U si n g b o th m e th o d s fo r t he s o luti o n o f t he

.

sam e pr o bl e m w e may say that I

,
I p s o that ,

Alth o ugh t he sult r e ach e d by e quati o n s ( 6) an d ( 1 2 ) is t h e

re

sam e th e r e is t he imp o rtan t di ff e r e n c e that whil e e quati o n

,

o r t h e m e mb e r t o t h e right o f t h e e quality sig n in e quati o n

is t h e m ean ordin a t e of a p ol ar c u r ve e quati o n o r t h e l e ft o f

,

e quati o n d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t t he m e a n o r di n at e o f t he curv e
o f squar e s but t h e s qu ar e r oo t o f that valu e
,

1 o f t h e curv e o f squar e s in r e cta n gular c o o r di n at e s i

2
, ,

in e quati o n It may b e acc o u n t e d fo r by squar i n g b o th

o f e quati o n which giv e s
5 0
l
l
t f o
ra =
9 0

R e f e rr i n g t o e quati o n an d substituti n g ,
we hav e

( 15 )

1 2
r e pr e s e n ts t he m e a n o r di n at e o f t h e r e cta n gular curv e o f
squa r e s o f t he fu n cti o n i At t h e r ight o f t he e quati o n is t he c o r
.

r e ct e quival e n t o f as may b e s e e n by r e f e r e n c e t o e quati o n ( 1

I n o th e r w o r ds t he m ea n o rdin a t e of a cu r ve of s qu ar e s in C a r t e s ian
,

c oor din a t es is e qua l t o t he s qu a r e of t he m ean or din a t e of t he p o l a r

 P O WE R R E Q UI R E M E N TS 139

c u r ve re pr e sen t in g f t he It
s am emay e qually
u n c t io nw e.ll b e

s t at e d that t he m e a n o r di n at e o f t he p o lar curv e o f a fu n cti o n ,

b e in g t h e r a dius o f a s e ct o r subt e n di n g t h e sam e v e ct o r ial a n gl e

an d e n c l o si n g t h e sam e ar e a as t h e curv e is e qual t o t h e squar e ,

r o o t o f t he a r ithm e tical m e a n o f t he squar e s o f t he o r di n at e s o f

t he sam e fu n cti o n e ith e r r e p r e s e n t e d by t he p o lar curv e its e lf
, ,

o r by t he c o rr e sp o n di n g curv e in r e ct a n gula r c o or di n at e s .

T h e e xp r e ssi o n j ust d e r iv e d is g e n e r al T h e valu e o f t as us e d

.
,

in e quati o n may b e a n ythi n g ; t h e l e n gth o f t h e dia gr am is

h e n c e i n d e n it e wh e th e r pl o tt e d in r e cta n g ular o r in p o lar
,

c oor d in at e s
.
c
T h e radius v e ct o r p may mak e l e ss tha n o n e o r
.
,

an y n umb e r o f r e v o luti o n s ab o ut t h e p o l e If t h e v e ct o r ial

,
.

a n gl e is e qual t o 27r t h e radius v e ct o r has mad e o n e c o mpl e t e

,

l e n g th o f t h e r e cta n gular diagr am is i n c r e as e d t he ve c

As t h e ,

t o r ial a n gl e b e c o m e s c o r r e sp o n di n gly la r g e r T h e scal e ch o s e n .

fo r t h e p o la r diag r am may b e a n ythi n g c o n v e n i e n t a n d t h e r adius ,

v e ct o r may mak e an y r e qui r e d n umb e r o f tu r n s In o r d e r t o

'

r e v e n t c o n fusi o n , it is p r e f e r abl e t o us e a disti n ct p o l e fo r e a c h

p
r e v o luti o n o f t h e r a dius v e ct o r .

Re placi n g in e quati o n ( 1 5) t he v alu e at t h e ri g ht o f e qu ati o n

or, eq u ally w e ll ,

The squ a r e roo t of this e xp r e ssi o n is

quati o n i n dicat e s a practical m e th o d fo r n di n g t he valu e

T his e

o f I p t he m e a n o rdi n at e ( m e a n radius v e ct o r ) o f t h e p o lar cu r v e

, .

T h e ar e a A o f a p o lar cu r v e may b e o btai n e d r e adily by a

, ,

pla n im e t e r T he valu e o f 0 t h e v e ct o r ial a n gl e must b e n um e r

.
, ,

ic all y e qu al in radia n s ) t o t h e n umb e r o f tim e s 27r that t he

r adius v e ct o r has mad e tu r ns ar o u n d t h e p o l e .

T o us e t he p o lar m e th o d o f e valuati n g t he m o t o r l o ad t he ,

cur r e n t tim e cur ve must b e re pl o tt e d with p o lar c o ordi n at e s

- -
.

T he simpl e st m e th o d is t o k e e p t he scal e o f o r di n at e s ( amp e r e s )

t he sam e an d us e an y c o n v e n i e n t valu e o f a n gl e t o r e pr e s e n t t he
,
140 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

abscissa ( ti m e ) has b e e n sh o w n t he latt e r scal e is imma

. As ,

t e r ial ; an d t he t o tal v e ct o rial a n gl e may b e s o ch o s e n as t o mak e

t he tra n sf o rmati o n e asy Fo r e xampl e t he use o f 1 o f a n g l e
.
,

t o r e pr e s e n t 1 s e c o n d o f tim e o r o th e r simpl e r e lati o n , mak e s ,

t h e c o n st r ucti o n o f t he p o lar diag r am e asy si n c e o rdi n at e s o f ,

t he r e cta n gular curv e may b e tra n sfe rr e d dir e ctly with t h e u s e

o f divid e r s n o c o mputati o n b e i n g r e qui r e d
,
H avi n g tra n sf o rm e d .

t he cur ve i n t o p o lar c o ord in at e s t h e ar e a may b e f o u n d with a ,

pla n im e t e r o r by an y o th e r availabl e m e th o d T his qua n tity .

must b e substitut e d in e quati o n ( 1 8) t o ge t t he v alu e o f I p I t .

must b e r e m e mb e r e d that t h e v e ct o rial a n gl e must be tak e n in

radia n s T h e n al r e sult in amp e r e s is f o u n d by multiplyi n g t he
.

valu e o f I p by t he scal e o f t he cu r v e bas e d o n t he u n its in which ,

t h e a r e a is d e t e rmi n e d F o r e xampl e if t h e ar e a is f o u n d in
.
,

squa r e i n ch e s I p will b e in i n ch e s an d t h e r e sult must b e multi

, ,

pli e d by t he n umb e r o f amp e r e s pe r i n ch t o ge t t h e valu e o f t h e

r m s curr e n t
. . . .

Av e rag e M o t or P o t e n t ial
In a n y r un with a n o rmal s e t o f
.

m o t o rs t he trai n starts fr o m r e st an d is b r o ught up t o ab o ut

, ,

half t he maximum sp e e d at a n e ar ly c o n sta n t v alu e o f c u r r e n t .

T his is acc o mplish e d by O p e rati n g at r e duc e d pr e ssur e du r i n g t he

acc e l e rati n g p e ri o d It is e vid e n t that t he a v e rag e p o t e n tial on
.

t he m o t o r must b e l e ss tha n that o f t he li n e fo r t he tim e duri n g

which t he m o t o r is r e c e ivi n g p o w e r T h e r e is als o a p e ri o d wh e n .

t he m o t o r is n o t c o n n e ct e d an d h e n c e is n o t subj e ct t o an y e m f
, . . .

what e v e r The ir o n l o ss an d t o s o m e e xt e n t t he fricti o n an d

.
, ,

wi n dage ar e d e p e n d e n t o n t he v alu e o f m o t o r p o t e n tial T h e s e

, .

l o ss e s do n o t var y as a dir e ct fu n cti o n o f t he pr e ssur e but o n , ,

t h e c o n trary ar e n e arly t he sam e o v e r a wid e ra n g e

,
F o r this .

r e as on it has b e e n f o u n d sufci e n tly accurat e t o O btai n th e m fo r a

fe w di ff e r e n t av e r ag e v alu e s such as o n e h alf thr e e qu a r t e rs ,
-
,
-

a n d full p o t e n tial G e n e rally sp e aki n g t he capacity o f t he

.
,

m o t o r t o ge t rid Of h e at d e t e rmi n e s t he t e mp e ratu r e t o which

it will ris e with a c e r tai n am o u n t Of l o ss T his t e mp e ratur e is .

la r ge ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f wh e r e t h e l o ss e s ar e pr o duc e d ; that is ,

if th e ir sum is a c e rtai n t o tal a n d c o rr e sp o n ds t o a d e n it e ,

t e mp e ratu r e ris e t he sa m e t e mp e r atur e will b e r e ach e d if t he

,

dist r ibuti o n o f l o ss b e tw e e n its vari o us c o mp o n e n ts is cha n g e d .

S i n c e t he c o pp e r l o ss is a fu n cti o n o f c urr e n t o n ly it c a n b e ,

f o u n d by t he m e th o d o utli n e d The ir o n an d fricti o n l o ss e s are .

m o r e c o mpl e x an d ca n n o t be Obtai n e d r e adily e xc e pt by actual

,
 P O W E R R E Q U I R E M E N TS 14 1

t e st T h e y d o v a r y with t he t e rmi n al p o t e n tial alth o ugh n o t

.
,

in di r e ct p r o p o rti o n It is e vide n t th e n that if a m o t o r is .

'

, ,

a bl e t o ca r r y I amp e r e s at E v o lts with t h e sp e ci e d t e mp e ra

tu r e ris e it will o n ly carry a l es s cu rr e n t I at a higher po
, , ,

t e n t ial E d e p e n di n g o n t he am o u n t o f i n cr e as e in t h e ir o n an d

fr icti o n l o ss e s T hat t he variati o n in th e s e l o ss e s with t h e po

.

t e n t ial is c o mpa r ativ e ly small may b e s e e n by r e f e r e n c e t o t he

m o t o r wh o s e cu r v e s ar e giv e n in Fig 1 9 T his m o t o r has a . .

c o n ti n u o us c apacity o f 60 amp at 3 00 v o lts o r o f 55 amp at 400 .

, .

v o lts A small e rr o r in t h e d e t e r mi n ati o n o f t he av e rage p o t e n

.

tial will t h e r e f o r e caus e a r e lativ e ly slight discr e pa n cy in this

Rat in g M o to r s
of W h e n t he h e ati n g valu e Of t he
R a il w ay .

curr e nt has b e e n d e t e rmi n e d it fu r n ish e s a basis fo r n di ng t h e ,

c o n sta n t l o ad whi c h sh o uld b e app l i e d t o a m o t o r fo r pu r p o s e s o f

t e st ; o r c o n v e rs e ly that curr e n t which t he m o t o r c an carry o n
, ,

t e st r e p r e s e n ts t he e ff e ctiv e valu e o f t he variabl e curr e n t which

may s a fe ly b e all o w e d in actual Op e r ati o n In maki n g t e sts at .

t he fact o r y at l e ast t w o s e pa r at e d e t e r mi n ati o n s ar e mad e : t he

,

curr e n t which t h e m o t o r c an carry fo r o n e h o u r at n o r mal p o t e n

tial t o o btai n t he maximum all o wabl e t e mp e r atu r e at t h e e n d
o f t hi s tim e a n d that which c a n b e appli e d c o n ti n u o usly e ith e r
, ,

at t he li n e pr e ssu r e o r s o m e l o w e r v alu e t o giv e t he sam e maxi ,

mum t e mp e ratur e .

T he rati n g o f railway m o t o rs has b e e n o p en t o c o n sid e r abl e

discussi o n , o n acc o u n t o f t he difculty in sp e cifyi n g t he av e r age

o r e ffe c tiv e l o ad ( s e e para graph o n H e ati n g valu e o f t he
V ar i o us ways Of d e t e r mi n i n g t he capacity hav e b e e n adva n c e d
at di ffe r e n t tim e s but n o n e o f th e m has pr o v e d e n ti r e ly s at is fa c
,

t o ry T he p r e s e n t m e th o d o f rati n g ad o pt e d by t he A m e r ica n

.
,

I n stitut e o f El e c t r ical En gi n e e r s in is as f o ll o ws

41 5 in al R at in g The n omi n al r at i n g O f a rail w a y mo t o r s hall

. N om

be t he me c han i c al o ut p ut a t t he c a r o r l o c omo t ive axl e me as ure d in ,

k il o w at t s w hi c h c aus e s a ri s e o f t e mp e r at ure abo ve t he s urr o un di n g

,

a ir b y t he rmo me t e r n o t e x c ee di n g 9 0 C at t he c o mmu t a t o r a n d

, ,
.
,

75 C at an y o t h e r n o rmall y a c c e ssibl e p ar t aft e r o n e ho ur s c o n

.

t in uo us r un at it s r a t e d v ol t age ( an d fr e q ue n c y in t he c as e of a n al t e r
n at i n g c u rr e n t mo t o r ) o n a s t an d w i t h t he mo t o r c o ve rs arr an g e d t o
-

1
S t an d ar d iz at io n R ul es of t h e Am i
e r c an I n s t it ut e El e c t ric al En g in e e rs ,
of

P r oc e ed in gs A . I . E E
. .
,
Vo l . XXX III p ,
. 1 28 1 , Au g u s t , 1 9 1 4 .
1 42 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

se c u re max imum ve n t il at io n w i t hout e xt e rn al bl ow e r The ri se in .

t e mp e r at ur e as me a su re d b y r e si s t a n c e s hall n o t e x c e e d 1 00 C

, .

41 6 T he s t at e me n t o f t he n o mi n al r at i n g s hall al s o i n c l ude t he
.

c o rr e s p o n di n g v o l t age an d armat ur e s p e e d .

4 1 7 C on t inu ou s R at in g
.
The c o n t i n uo us r at i n gs of a r ail w a y
mo t o r s hall be t he i n p ut s in amp e re s at w hi c h it m ay b e O p e rat e d c o n
t in u o usl y at o n e h alf t hr ee q uart e r s an d full v o l t age r e s p e c t ive l y wi t h
,
-
, ,

o ut e x c e e di n g t he s p e c i e d t e mp e r a t u r e r i s e s ( s e e w he n o pe r at e d
o n s t an d t e s t w i t h mo t o r c o ve r s an d c o o li n g s y s t e m if a n y a rr a n ge d , ,

as in s e rvi c e In asmu c h as t he s ame m o t o r m ay b e O p e r at e d un der

.

diffe r e n t c o n di t i o n s a s r e g ar d s ve n t il at i o n it w ill be n e c e s s ar y in e a c h
,

c as e t o d e n e t h e s y s t em o f v e n t il a t i o n w hi c h is u s e d I n c as e m o t o r s .

ar e c o o l e d b y e x t e rn al bl o w e r s t he v o l ume o f air o n w hi c h t h e rat i n g

, ,

is b as e d s ha l l be give n .

T he rst o r n o mi n al r ati n g is t he o n e which has b e e n us e d fo r

, ,

ma n y y e ars in this c o u n t r y as e xpr e ssi n g t he o utput o f a railway

m o t o r It is n o t an i n dicati o n o f t h e l o ad that t he m o t o r c an
.

carr y in s e rvic e an d is o f valu e mai n ly t o giv e a g e n e r al c o mp ari

,

s o n O f t he capaciti e s o f vari o us machi n e s T he s e c o n d o r c o n .

,

t in uo us rati n g d o e s giv e an i n dicati o n o f t h e ability o f a m o t o r t o

,

p e r f o r m a sp e ci e d s e r vic e an d is t he o n e which c an b e e mpl o y e d t o

,

adva n tag e in t he s e l e cti o n o f e quipm e n t .

It is t o b e n o t e d that t he c o n ti n u o us r ati n g as giv e n in t he d e ,

n it io n ,
i n clud e s p r o v i s i o n fo r c o n sid e r ati o n o f t he m e th o d o f
v e n tilati o n us e d T his f e atu r e is v e r y imp o r ta n t T h e capac
. .

ity b e i n g d e p e n d e n t p r i n cipally o n t h e h e ati n g t h e m o t o r will ,

hav e a t e mp e r atu r e ris e at a n y sp e ci e d l o ad which is d e t e r mi n e d

by t he rat e o f g e n e r ati o n o f h e at d ue t o l o ss e s in t he machi n e an d ,

t h e ability o f t he m o t o r t o g e t rid o f t he h e at thus pr o duc e d .

W ith n atu r al v e n tilati o n t he air c o mi n g in c o n tact with t he o ut

,

sid e o f t he m o t o r cas e c o n stitut e s t he o n ly m e dium availabl e fo r

this pu r p o s e If by an y m e a n s t he qua n tity o f air passi n g o v e r
.
, ,

t h e m o t o r cas e is i n cr e as e d t h e am o u n t o f h e at giv e n O ff will b e

,

g r e at e r a n d t he t e m p e ratur e Of t he m o t o r r e duc e d E v e n if
,
.

n o v e n tilati n g syst e m is p r o vid e d t h e r apid cha n g e Of air u n d e r a ,

m o vi n g t r ai n will caus e t h e m o t o r t o Op e r at e at a l o w e r t e mp e ra
tu r e tha n wh e n t e st e d in a fact o r y in still air W ith sp e cial .

m e th o ds o f v e n tilati o n in which a qua n tity o f air is f o rc e d thr o ugh

,

t he m o t o r t he t e mp e ratur e at t he sp e ci e d l o ad is still furth e r

,

r e duc e d It f o ll o ws that with an y syst e m O f articial v e n tila

.

ti o n t he r ati n g e ith e r n o mi n al o r c o n ti n u o us c an b e i n cr e as e d
, ,
.

In t h e r ul e fo r d e t e r mi n i n g t he n o mi n al rati n g it is e xpr e ssly

 P O WE R REQ U I R E M E N TS 43

stat e d that n o e xt e r n al v e n tilati n g syst e m shall b e e mpl o y e d s o ,

that t he g ai n in capacity appli e s o n ly t o t he c o n ti n u o us rati n g .

In s o m e r e c e n t typ e s o f railway m o t o r s t he v e n tilati o n has ,

b e e n i mp r o v e d by t he additi o n o f bl o w e rs o n t he a r matu r e shaft ,

a rr a n g e d t o pass a c o mpar ativ e ly lar g e am o u n t o f air thr o ugh

t he cas e ( s e e C hapt e r I V ) W ith m o t o r s o f this typ e t he v e n
.

t il at in g syst e m is a n i n t e gr al part o f t h e machi n e s o that t h e a d ,

va n tage is n o t c o n n e d t o t h e c o n ti n u o us rati n g b ut als o s e r v e s ,

t o i n c r e as e t he n o mi n al r ati n g S i n c e t h e latt e r is us e ful fo r

.

c o mpa r is o n o n ly this m e th o d Of v e n tilati o n has t h e e ffe ct o f a p

,

p a r e n t l y g ivi n g a m o t o r a hi g h e r o n e h o ur capacity
-
tha n wh e n

t he v e ht il at in g syst e m is o utsid e t h e machi n e its e lf .

M o tor C apac ity an d S e l e c t io n T o us e t he ab o v e i n f o rmati o n

in t he s e l e cti o n Of a m o t o r fo r a d e n it e s e r v ic e it is n e c e ssary ,

t o d e t e rmi n e t he av e r a ge cu rr e n t an d p o t e n tial fo r t he e quipm e n t .

T his may b e d o n e by n di n g t he av e r ag e r un an d pl o tti n g fo r it ,

t he cu rr e n t cu r v e fo r a m o t o r which is e x p e ct e d t o d o t h e w o rk ;
o r by maki n g a s e t o f cu rr e n t cu r v e s r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e p e r f o r ma n c e

Of t he m o t o r o v e r a n e xt e n d e d s e r i e s o f r u n s an d ge tti n g t he ,

av e r ag e cu rr e n t fr o m th e m In e ith e r cas e t he r o o t m e a n
.

squar e cu rr e n t sh o uld b e f o u n d w hich giv e s t he l o ad
,

w hi ch t he m o t o r will hav e t o carr y If this cu r r e n t is e qual t o

.

t he c o n ti n uo us r ati n g o f t h e m o t o r at t he av e r ag e p o t e n ti a l f o u n d
fo r t h e r un o r r u n s t h e m o t o r has sufci e n t capacity fo r t h e w o r k
, ,

u n l e ss it is c o n sid e r e d advisabl e t o hav e a c e r tai n ma r gi n fo r

ha n dli n g e m e r g e n cy busi n e ss as fo r hauli n g t r ail e r s If t he
, .

r m s cu rr e n t is d e cid e dly l e ss tha n t he c o n ti n u o us r a ti n g it will

. . .
,

b e w e ll t o s e e if a small e r m o t o r c a n b e us e d If o n t he o th e r h a n d
.
, ,

t he r m s cu r r e n t is gr e at e r tha n t he c o n ti n u o us capacity a
. . .
,

large r m o t o r will b e n e e d e d It is n e v e r wis e t o att e mpt t o l o ad

.

a m o t o r b e y o n d its c o n ti n u o us rati n g si n c e th e r e is gr e at liability

,

Of pe r ma n e n t i n j ury Pr actically an y railway m o t o r Of sta n dard

.

make is abl e t o ca rry its rat e d c o n ti n u o us l o ad with o ut difc ulty ,

a n d w il l o pe r a t e i n d e n it e ly with o ut t r o ubl e if this is n o t e xc e e d e d .

B ut if t he b e st o f m o t o r s is l o ad e d b e y o n d t he c o n ti n u o us capac
ity t r o ubl e is liabl e t o d e v e l o p armatu r e s t o bu r n o ut c o mmuta
, , ,

to r s b e c o m e r o u gh e t c ,
.

M o t o S pe e d an d G e ar in g For t he small e r m o t o r e quip

r s

m e n ts such as ar e us e d o n city an d i n t e ru r ba n cars t he m o t o rs are

, ,

a lm o st i n va r iably o f t h e g e ar e d type T h e r e is c o n sid e r abl e

.

latitud e in t h e ch o ic e o f g e ar r e ducti o n fo r a n y par ticular s e r vic e .

 .

1 44 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

R e fe r e n c e t o t he
s e cti o n o n S traight Li n e S p e e d T im e C urv e s

at t he b e gi n n i n g Of this chapt e r will sh o w that t h e sam e r un c an

b e c o v e r e d in a giv e n tim e with a wid e ra n g e o f acc e l e rati o n rat e s .

S i n c e it has b e e n d e m o n st r at e d th a t th e r e is a c e r tai n ac c e l e rati o n

rat e which is m o st e fci e n t fo r a giv e n r un this sh o uld b e d e t e r ,

mi n e d an d t he m o t o r g e ar rati o s e l e ct e d t o giv e it In n e arly all .

practical ru n s this will call fo r t he maximum acc e l e r ati o n p o ssibl e ;

o r in o th er w
,
o rds t h e m o t o rs sh o uld b e g e ar e d fo r t h e l o w e st
,

sp e e d which will e n abl e th e m t o c o v e r t he dista n c e in t he giv e n

tim e A high e r sp e e d will b e acc o mpa n i e d with l o w e r ac c e l e r a
.

ti o n an d l e ss c o asti n g ; an d si n c e t he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t he trai n is

b e i n g us e d fo r pr o pulsi o n wh e n drifti n g t he m o t o rs ar e n o t call e d
,

o n fo r s o g r e at a l o ad . T his is b e n e cial b o th fr o m t he sta n d

,

po i n t o f m o t o r capacity an d o f e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n In addi .

ti o n t he r e qui r e d acc e l e rati o n may o ft e n b e Obtai n e d with l e ss

,

c u rr e n t fr o m t he li n e s o that t he d e ma n d o n t he e l e ctrical sys

,
'

t e m a n d t he t r a n smissi o n a n d c o n v e rsi o n l o ss e s ar e r e duc e d

, ,
.

Fo r i n t e rurba n cars t h e sam e e quipm e n t is o rdi n a r ily us e d

,

b o th fo r l o cal an d fo r limit e d trai n s If t he g e ari n g is c o r r e ct fo r

.

t he l o cal ru n s t h e maximum sp e e d p o ssibl e is o rdi n arily t o o l o w

,

t o m e e t t he d e ma n ds Of t he fast sch e dul e n e e d e d fo r limit e d trai n s .

If t he m o t o r s ar e g e a r e d fo r t h e high sp e e d d e ma n d e d in limit e d
ru n s t he p o ssibl e acc e l e r ati o n fo r l o cal s e rvi c e will n o t b e e n o ugh ;
,

o r t h e h e avy c urr e n t will b e s o gr e at as t o caus e o v e r h e ati n g .

S o m e r o ads hav e us e d m o t o r s with a g r e at e r capacity tha n o th e r

wis e n e c e ssary in o rd e r t o sta n dardiz e t he e quipm e n t .

U s e o f Fie l d C o n tr o l M o t or s
A m o r e r e c e n t s o luti o n is t h e
.

us e o f e ld c o n tr o l m o t o rs such as d e scrib e d in C hapt e r III

,
.

W ith t he h e avy e ld t he tractiv e e ff o rt is sufci e n t t o m e e t

t he d e ma n ds fo r rapid ac c e l e r ati o n in l o cal s e rvic e an d fo r t he ,

city p o rti o n o f limit e d ru n s T he w e ak e ld all o ws t he sam e

.

m o t o rs t o b e o p e rat e d at high sp e e ds fo r t h e limit e d trai n s a n d ,

fo r t h e l o n g e r ru n s in l o cal s e rvic e B o th o f th e s e r e sults may

.

be ac c o mplish e d with m o t o rs o f t he mi n imum p o ssibl e si z e ,

whil e t he p o w e r d e ma n d fr o m t he li n e is k e pt d o w n t o as l o w a
valu e as with t he si n gl e sp e e d m o t o r suitabl e fo r t he sam e
-

s e rvic e .

P rO pe r N um b e r of M o t o r s A qu e sti o n t o b e d e cid e d in t h e
.

ch o ic e o f m o tiv e p o w e r is that o f t he n umb e r o f u n its t o b e us e d

t o pr o duc e t he d e sir e d r e sults It is O bvi o us that if t he pr o p o r
.

t io n al p e rf o rma n c e o f m o t o rs o f all siz e s w e r e t he sam e it w o uld ,

 P O WE R RE Q U I R E M E N TS 14 5

make n o practical di ffe r e n c e i n t o ho w ma n y u n its t he p o w e r

w e r e subdivid e d In p r actic e with d o ubl e truck car s th e r e is
.
,
-
,

a ch o ic e b e tw e e n t w o m o t o rs an d f o u r m o t o r s fo r t h e e quipm e n t .

T he capacity o f e l e ct r ic m o t o rs vari e s n e a r ly as t h e f o urth p o w e r

o f t h e li n e ar dim e n si o n s s o that a m o t o r o f d o ubl e rati n g will
,

hav e its dim e n si o n s appr o ximat e ly tim e s th o s e Of t he small e r

machi n e r e sulti n g in l e ss t o tal w e ight fo r t h e t w o m o t o r e quip
,
-

m e n t S i n c e t h e dim e n si o n s are n o t i n c r e as e d in pr o p o rti o n t o

.

t he o ut put f t h e l e n g th o f wi n di n g s a n d o f t h e ma g n e tic ci r cuit

a r e c o rr e sp o n di n g ly l e ss a n d t h e e fci e n cy is c o n s e qu e n tly high e r
, .

All o th e r thi n gs b e i n g e qual t he us e o f t w o m o t o rs Of a c e rtai n

,

rati ng sh o uld r e sult in a small e r i n put t o t he car tha n wh e n f o ur

m o t o r s o f t he sam e t o tal capa c ity ar e e mpl o y e d Fr o m t he .

e fci e n cy sta n dp o i n t th e r e c an b e n o qu e sti o n but that t h e small e r

n umb e r o f m o t o r s is p r e f e r abl e T his ar r a n g e m e n t als o has

.

t he e ff e ct o f simpl ifyi n g t he c o n tr o l wi r i n g a n d in s o m e cas e s ,

all o ws a l e ss i n t r ic a t e an d ch e ap e r c o n tr o ll e r .

T he us e Of f o ur m o t o r s is d e fe n d e d o n t h e gr o u n d that th e r e is
gr e at e r r e liab il ity with this c o mbi n ati o n si n c e t he damagi n g o f ,

o n e m o t o r o n ly a ff e cts o n e f o u r th o f t he t o tal n umb e r

-
B ut in .

o rdi n ary typ e s o f s e r i e s pa r all e l c o n tr o l t h e m o t o r s are pe r

-

m a n e n t ly c o n n e ct e d in pai r s s o that wh e n o n e is i n j u r e d its

,

mat e has t o b e cut o ut at t he sam e tim e N e ith e r is it at all .

c e rtai n that f o ur machi n e s with t he n e c e ssa r y duplicati o n o f

,

pa r ts b o th in t he m o t o r s th e m s e lv e s an d in t he c o n tr o l an d
,

wi r i n g ar e l e ss subj e ct t o damag e tha n t he t w o lar g e r o n e s

,

which ar e th e i r e quival e n t It is e vid e n t that t he mai n t e n a n c e

.

e xp e n s e fo r t h e f o ur machi n e s will b e gr e at e r tha n fo r t he t w o .

T he c o st o f r e pai r i n g d o e s n o t va r y mu c h with t he m o t o r capacity ;

a n d with e qual w e ar th e r e ar e twic e as ma n y parts t o r e n e w in
, ,

t he f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n t
-
.

T he b e st r e as o n fo r t he us e o f f o ur m o t o r s is that t he e n ti r e w e ight
o f t he car is availabl e fo r adh e si o n s o that t he maximum tractiv e ,

e ff o rt p o ssibl e with a f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n t is gr e at e r tha n

-

with t w o m o t o r s If t he car al o n e is c o n s id e r e d t h e us e o f all

.
,

axl e s as d r iv e rs giv e s a t o tal adh e s i o n d e p e n di n g o n t he c o n di ,

ti o n o f t he track Of fr o m 5 00 lb pe r t o n with a c o e f c i e n t o f 2 5
, .

pe r c e n t t o 2 00 lb pe r t o n with o n e o f 1 0 pe r c e n t
. . E v e n in t he .

w o r st cas e s with w e t an d sl ipp e ry track it is p o ssibl e t o ge t

, ,

an ac c e l e rati o n o f app r o ximat e ly 2 mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c . .

W ith t he t w o m o t o r e quipm e n t ab o ut 60 pe r c e n t Of t he t o tal

-
.

10
146 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

w e i g ht o f t he car is o n t he driv e rs T he c o r r e sp o n di n g valu e s o f

.

maximum tractiv e e ff o rt availabl e ar e fr o m 30 0 lb pe r t o n .

with an adh e si o n c o e fci e n t o f 2 5 pe r c e n t t o 1 2 0 lb pe r t o n . .

with o n e o f 1 0 pe r c e n t With t he w o rst c o n diti o n s such an

.

e qu i pm e n t sh o uld b e abl e t o giv e an acc e l e r ati o n o f ab o ut

mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c T his might n o t b e high e n o ugh fo r

. .

a n e xt r e m e cas e but in ge n e ral is sufci e n t If t he m o t o r c ar

,
.

is t o haul o n e o r m o r e t r ail e rs t he us e o f f o ur m o t o rs is e n ti r e l y
j usti e d .

An o th e r plac e wh e r e t he us e o f f o ur m o t o r s is ad v a n tag e o us is
wh e r e t he t o tal m o t o r capacity is s o gr e at that t he limit o f s pac e
b e tw e e n t he wh e e ls an d b e n e ath t h e car fl o o r is r e ach e d It is .

quit e practical t o build a si n gl e m o t o r o f ab o ut 1 8 0 kw capacity .

o f such dim e n si o n s that it c an b e m o u n t e d o n a car t r uck fo r

sta n dard gaug e track with 3 6 in wh e e ls I t is s e l d o m th at a

,
-
. .

g r e at e r t o tal capacity tha n 3 60 kw pe r car is n e e d e d s o that .

,

this limitati o n is n o t fe lt e xc e pt in t he d e sig n o f l o c o m o tiv e s .

It sh o uld b e n o t e d that with maximum tracti o n t r ucks t h e 1

p r o p o r ti o n Of t o tal car w e ight which c an b e plac e d o n t h e driv er s

is i n c r e as e d fr o m 60 pe r c e n t as giv e n ab o v e t o fr o m 75 pe r
.
, ,

c e n t t o 8 0 pe r c e n t S uch trucks ar e us e d t o a c o n sid e rabl e

. .

e xt e n t in city s e r vic e b ut ar e u n suit e d t o sp e e ds much o v e r

,

30 mil e s pe r hr s o that th e ir applicati o n is c o n n e d t o sp e cial

.
,

cas e s wh e r e t his sp e e d will n o t b e e xc e e d e d .

P o w e r R e q uir e d for Al t e rn atin g C urr e n t M o t o r s The fo r e - -

g o i n g discussi o n has b e e n mad e with sp e cial r e f e r e n c e t o di r e ct

cu rr e n t s e r i e s m o t o r s but in n e ar ly e v e r y par ticula r it appli e s
,

e qually w e ll t o b o th si n gl e phas e an d thr e e phas e m o t o r s

-
T he -
.

m e th o d o f d e t e rmi n i n g t he capacity is p r e cis e ly t h e sam e fo r a n y

typ e O f m o t o r ; a n d t he ways o f i n cr e asi n g t he c o n ti n u o us rat in g
by impr o vi n g v e n tilati o n may b e appli e d equally w e ll t o all T he .

r e lativ e p e r f o rma n c e Of t w o m o t o r an d f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n ts is

- -

id e n tical wh e th e r t h e machi n e s b e d e sig n e d fo r o p e rati o n o n

,

dir e ct cu r r e n t o r o n alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t C urv e s sh o wi n g typi c al .

r e sults fo r a r un with si n gl e phas e s e r i e s m o t o rs ar e giv e n in

'

Fig 77 . .

It has b e e n m e n ti o n e d pr e vi o usly that e ld c o n tr o l is n o t

practical with si n gl e phas e s e ri e s m o t o r s ; n o r is it n e c e ssary
-
,

si n c e t he sp e e d may b e vari e d by t he us e o f di ffe r e n t taps o n t he

t r a n s fo r m e r .

1
S e e C ha p t e r V III .
 E N E RG Y C ON S UM P T I ON 1 47

Alt e r n ati n g curr e n t m o t o rs as n o w built ar e n o t usually

-
, ,

e mpl o y e d fo r s u c h high r at e s o f ac c e l e rati o n as are dir e ct curr e n t

-

m o t o r s ; but this is larg e ly b e caus e t he d e ma n d fo r alt e r n ati n g

c u r r e n t distrib uti o n is alm o st e n tir e ly in a e ld wh e r e t he r e
quir e d acc e l e rati o n is much l o w e r tha n in city s e r vic e It
'

is quit e p o ssibl e t o Obtai n t he sam e acc e l erati o n with e ith e r

typ e Of m o t o r .

2000 IO

120 I60

Tim e , S e co nd s

FI G . 77 . S p e e dt im e an d in p ut c urv e s w it h s in g l e p ha s e m o t o rs -
.

T he e ff ec t of
t h e t r an s o r m e r f c ont ro l i h ow i t h e l w v l f p w i p ut d i g t h
s s n n o a ue o o er n ur n e
p e r io d l
o f s u b- n o r m a p o t e n t ia l . C on t r ast th W t h F g 47 d 48
is i i s . an .

En e r gy R e q uir e d t We have s e e n in t he
for Tr ain O pe ra ion .

p r e c e di n g par agr aphs that a c e rtai n am o u n t o f f o rc e is n e c e ssa r y

fo r t he p r o pulsi o n o f t r ai n s S i n c e t he applicati o n o f f o rc e r e
.

s ul t s in t h e p e r f o rma n c e o f w o rk a c e rtai n am o u n t o f e n e rgy is ,

r e quir e d fo r trai n m o v e m e n t which c an b e d e t e rmi n e d fr o m ,

t he m e cha n ical r e lati o n s tak e n up in C hapt e r II T he e n e rgy .

r e quir e d may be divid e d int o t w o ki n ds as f o ll o ws

1 . En e r g y w hi c h is not c a pa bl e o f r e t ur n t o t he su pply
i ui t
c rc ,
n o r o f us ein t he pr o pul si o n o f t he t r ai n .

2 . E n e rg y w hi c h c a n b e r e c o ve r e d , in w h ol e o r in p art ,

an d us e d fo r p ro p ul s i o n ,
or re t ur n e d to t he s u pp l y

s y s t em .

T he rgy u n d e r t he rst h e ad c o n sists o f that us e d t o o ve r

ene

c o me x e d r e sista n c e s o f all s o rts T his i n clud e s b o th t he in .

h e r e n t trai n r e sista n c e an d that d ue t o cu r v e s an d n atural wi n ds .

Lo ss e s in t h e m o tiv e p o w e r ar e als o o f this typ e .

148 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

T he s e c o n d class i n clud e s t he e n e rgy fo r asc e n di n g grad e s an d

that n e e d e d fo r t h e acc e l e rati o n o f t he trai n En e rgy o f this .

s o rt is st o r e d in t he m o vi n g b o dy e ith e r as ki n e tic o r as p o t e n tial

,

e n e rgy .

In g e n e ral a larg e shar e o f t he st o r e d e n e rgy is wast e d in n o r mal

,

trai n o p e rati o n It is i n e xp e di e n t fo r a t r ai n t o d e sc e n d a grad e

.

at t o o high a sp e e d ; s o that if it has b e e n acc e l e rati n g due t o t he

,

f o rc e o f a gr ad e which has b e e n pr e v i o usly asc e n d e d this ao

'

c e l e r at ion must Oft e n b e st o pp e d by t h e applicati o n o f t he brak e s

b e fo r e t he maximum attai n abl e sp e e d is r e ach e d T he e n e rgy .

o f t h e grad e is th e n dissip at e d in f r icti o n o f t he brak e sh o e s agai n st

t he wh ee ls an d is l o st
, T he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t he trai n d ue t o
.
,

its m o ti o n ( % M o ) c an b e r e c o v e r e d an d us e d fo r pr o pulsi o n
z
,

if it is all o w e d t o c o ast o r drift aft e r t he p o w e r has b e e n cut
o ff. T he sp e e d will b e r e duc e d o n ly s o fast as e n e rgy is tak e n o ut
o f t he trai n t o o v e rc o m e t h e r e sista n c e s s o that t he r e tardati o n
,

will b e slight In o rdi n ary O p e rati o n it w o uld b e imp o ssibl e t o

.

all o w a trai n t o c o ast t o a sta n dstill In this cas e applicati o n .

o f t he brak e s will p r e v e n t t he f e t ur n O f e n e rgy G e n e rally s pe ak

.

in g th e n a c e rtai n am o u n t o f e n e rgy d ue t o t he asc e n t O f grad e s

, , ,

a n d t o t he i n e rtia o f t he trai n is c o n v e rt e d i n t o us e ful w o rk

,

wh e n d e s c e n di n g an d in c o asti n g t o a r e duc e d sp ee d b e f o r e t he
,

brak e s ar e appli e d .

Kin e t i c En e r gy S i n c e t h e kin e tic e n e rgy o f a m o vi n g b o dy is

.

pr o p o rti o n al t o t h e squar e Of its v e l o city t he am o u n t o f e n e rgy

,

which must b e suppli e d t o a trai n t o ac c e l e rat e it vari e s as t he

squar e O f t he ma ximum sp e e d attai n e d duri n g t he r un If n o .

e n e rgy w e r e wast e d in trai n r e sista n c e m o t o r l o ss e s e t c

,
t he ,
.
,

mi n imum i n put w o uld b e tak e n by that r un havi n g t he l o w e st

maximum sp e e d T he limiti n g c o n diti o n w o uld th e n giv e us a
.

r un with i n n it e ac c e l e r ati o n t o t he av e rag e sp e e d c o n sta n t ,

sp e e d o p e rati o n thr o ugh o ut t he r un an d n ally i n n it e r e tarda

,

ti o n t o a st o p at t he e n d o f t he r un S uch o p e rati o n is ma n ife stly

.

imp o ssibl e si n c e th e r e is a limit b o th t o t he acc e l e rati o n an d t o

,

t he r e tardati o n Als o t r ai n r e sista n c e pr e v e n ts m o ti o n at c o n

.
,

sta n t sp e e d with o ut t he applicati o n o f p o w e r e xc e pt u n d e r ,

c e r tai n c o n diti o n s T he v ariabl e charact e r o f t he f o rc e e x e rt e d

.

by o r di n ary f o rms o f m o ti v e p o w e r c o mplicat e s t he pr o bl e m still

fu r th e r s o that n o g e n e ral e quati o n c o v e r i n g all cas e s is p o ssibl e
,
.

P artial s o luti o n s hav e b e e n mad e at v ari o us tim e s .

 E N ERG Y C O N S UM P TI ON 149

Us e of S t raight Lin e S p i m e C urv eed T

A r e fe r e n c e t o Fig es
.

72 sh o ws that by c o n sid e ri n g as in t he d e t e rmi n ati o n o f p o w e r

,

r e qui r e m e n ts that t h e m o tiv e p o w e r c an supply a c o n sta n t tract

,

ive e ffo rt fo r a limit e d ra n ge o f sp e e d an d that t he t r ai n r e s is ,

Tim e , S e c o nd s

FIG . 78 .

Us e of t he t yp e r un .

ta n c e an d braki n g rate ar e c o n sta n t w e c an us e t he straight li n e ,

spe e d t im e curv e s fo r a c o n sid e r ati o n o f t he e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n

.

S i n c e t he e n e rgy r e quir e d fo r acc e l e r ati o n is st o r e d in t he m o ti o n

o f t he trai n t h e t o tal am o u n t r e qui r e d fo r this pu r p o s e va r i e s as
.
,

90 120 15 0
Tim e, S e c o n ds .

FI G . 79 .

G e n e ra l l o c us o f s t r a igh t l in e s p ve s
e e d t im e c u r
.

t he squar e o f t he m aximum sp e e d attai n e d If t he mi n imum .

acc e l e r ati o n is us e d as in Fig 72 t he e n e rgy impart e d t o t he

,
.
,

trai n d ue t o its v e l o city must all b e abs o rb e d by t he brak e s wh e n

t he trai n is st o pp e d If high e r acc el er ati o n s ar e e mpl o y e d as
.
,
1 50 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

in Fig . maximum sp e e ds ar e r e duc e d thus r e quiri n g a

73 , t h e ,

small e r e n e rgy i n put T he r e as o n fo r this is that t h e trai n is

.

pr o p e ll e d whil e c o asti n g by t he ki n e tic e n e r gy which has b e e n

st o r e d in it s o that at t h e i n sta n t o f applyi n g t he brak e s t he
,

e n e r gy c o n t e n t is l e ss tha n in r un A T he m o st e fci e n t r un fr o m
.

t he e n e rgy sta n dp o i n t is th e r e f o r e r o ughly that in which t h e t r ai n

has c o ast e d t o t h e l o w e st sp e e d at t he tim e t he b r ake s ar e appli e d .

H avi n g d e t e rmi n e d t he m o st e fci e n t ac c e l e rati o n this sh o uld ,

b e us e d fo r all ru n s m ad e with t he sam e m o tiv e p o w e r u n d e r

similar c o n diti o n s 1rr e s pe c t ive Of t he l e n gth Of t he r un T his
,
.

m ay b e d o n e by maki n g t h e di ff e r e n t parts o f t h e r un pr o p o rti o n al ,

as sh o w n in Fig 78 . .

By t he sam e m e th o d as alr e ady us e d t he sp e e d tim e cur v e s fo r

a n y l e n gth o f r un in a n y tim e may b e d e t e r mi n e d A serie s o f .

such cu r v e s is giv e n in Fig 79 an d is o f valu e in t h e i n v e sti g a

.
,

ti o n o f pr o bl e ms in trai n o p e rati o n wh e r e t h e m o t ive p o w e r is

us e d o n ly fo r ac c e l e rati o n .

En e rgy C o n s um ptio n w i t h El e c t ric M o t o r s We ha ve alr e ady

s e e n that t he us e o f s e ri e s e l e ct r ic m o t o rs caus e s a variati o n fr o m
t h e straight li n e curv e s
-
T he m aximum acc e l e r ati o n is o n ly
.

c o n ti n u e d up t o a limit e d ve l o city ; b e y o n d that p o i n t t he

tracti ve e ff o r t falls o ff an d with it t he acc e l e rati o n b e c o m e s l e ss
,
.

I n d e t e rmi n i n g t he actual e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n t he m o st e xact

m e th o d is t o pl o t t he curr e n t tim e curv e c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t he
-

r un ,
an d fr o m it Obtai n t h e p o w e r tim e curv e

F r o m t h e latt e r
.

t he e n e rgy i n put t o t he m o t o r s c a n b e f o u n d by summati o n By .

c o n ti n ui n g t he pr o c e ss Of pl o tti n g t he p o w e r cur ve s fo r t he
e n tir e p e ri o d o f o p e r ati o n a n d i n t e gr ati n g th e m t h e am o u n t o f
, ,

e n e r gy n e c e ssa r y fo r t h e pr o pulsi o n o f t h e trai n may b e d e t e r

mi n e d B y addi n g t he i n puts fo r all t he di ff e r e n t trai n s o n t he

.

syst e m t he t o tal e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n is f o u n d In cas e s wh e r e

,
.

t he l e n gth o f r un a n d t he c haract e r o f pr o l e d o n o t v ary wid e ly ,

t he pr o c e ss o f i n t e gr ati o n m ay b e sh o r t e n e d by s e l e cti n g a typ e ,

r un ,
a n d d e r ivi n g t h e t o tal e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n f r o m it T his .

is usually advisabl e o n ly fo r pr e limi n ary e stimat e s F o r n al .

c alculati o n s it is saf e r t o tak e t h e actual l o ad charts for d e t e r

mi n i n g t he t o tal e n e rgy r e quir e d .

Effe c t o f G e ar R at i o o n En e rgy C o n s um ptio n It has alr e ady

.
-

b e e n sh o w n that t he g e ar r e ducti o n has a c o n sid e rabl e e ffe c t o n

t he l o ad that a railway m o t o r is f o rc e d t o carry S imilar ly it is
.
,

al s o a fact o r in a ff e cti n g t he e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n W e hav e s e e n .

-
 E N E R G Y C ON S UM P T I ON 51

that ,
th e r thi n gs b e i n g e qual t he l e ss t he maximum sp e e d
all o , ,

t he small e r t he e n e r gy i n put ; s o that t he g e ar rati o which will

give t he l o w e st maximum spe e d an d mak e t he sch e dul e sh o uld
give t he l e ast e ne r gy c o n sumpti o n A c e r tai n qualicati o n Of .

this stat e m e n t must b e mad e in that if t he g e ar r e ducti o n b e

,

t o o gr e at t he maximum sp e e d m ay b e s o l o w that n o c o asti n g

,

c an b e i n clud e d in t he r un if t h e sch e dul e is t o b e mai n tai n e d .

T his may actually i n cr e as e t he sp e e d at which t he b r ak e s ar e

appli e d s o that t he e n e r gy whi c h is o r din ar ily tak e n fr o m t he
,

i n e rtia o f t he t r ai n by c o a s ti n g is all d e str o y e d by t he brake s .

S u c h a n e xtr e m e g e ar rati o is i n advisabl e si n c e s o m e ma r gi n ,

sh o uld b e all o w e d t o tak e car e o f h e avy l o ads l o w tr o ll e y p o t e n ,

tial an d o th e r ab n o r mal c o n diti o n s o f Op e rati o n If e ld c o n t r o l

,
.

m o t o r s are us e d as sugge st e d in a pr e vi o us par a gr aph t h e g e ar

, ,

rati o may b e a ma x imum an d still giv e a mar gi n fo r taki n g car e

o f sp e cial c o n diti o n s .

M e th o d o f C o m par in g n e rgy C o n s um ptio n

E
In t he c o m .

par is o n o f e quipm e n ts o r t h e sam e e quipm e n t u n d e r di ff e r e n t

,

o p e r a ti n g c o n diti o n s it is us e ful t o hav e s o m e simpl e basis which

,

may be us e d t o facilitat e c o mputati o n s It is Obvi o usly im .

p o ssibl e t o make a c o mpl e t e s e t o f graphical t e sts in e ach ca s e ,

a n d y e t it is imp o r t a n t t o hav e t h e c o mparis o n accurat e It is .

quit e e asy t o plac e a watt h o ur m e t e r in t he m o t o r ci r cuit an d

-
,

g e t a r e c o r d o f t h e t o tal e n e r gy i n put o v e r an e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o f
o p e rati o n s T his may th e n b e c o mpa r e d di r e ctly with t he
.

e n e r gy fo r a n o th e r r un Of t h e sam e l e n g th T h e applicati o n .

o f this m e th o d is quit e limit e d an d it is v irtually imp o ssibl e t o

,

g e t c o n sist e n t r e sults .

A fav o r it e m e th o d o f c o mpar i n g e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n is in

t he us e o f kil o watt h o u r s pe r car mil e o r pe r t r ai n mil e
- -
, T his .

g e ts away fr o m t he fu n dam e n tal dif culty o f t h e di r e ct c o m

par is o n t he v ar iati o n in t o t a l dista n c e but it d o e s n o t tak e i n t o
, ,

ac c o u n t t h e l e n gth Of i n dividual ru n s o r t he w e i g ht o f t he e quip

m e n t It is n e c e ssary t o c o n n e t he applicati o n o f this m e th o d
.

t o ca r s o r t r ai n s o f app r o ximat e ly t he sam e w e ight a n d e v e n ,

th e n t he r e sults may n o t b e o f g r e at valu e .

Watt Ho ur s pe r T o n M il e S i n c e t h e e n e r gy fo r m o vi n g a
'
- -
.

g iv e n mass a sp e ci e d dista n c e sh o uld b e t he sam e with c o n sta n t

trai n r e sista n c e t he b e st m e th o d o f c o mpar i n g t he e n e r gy c o n
,

sumpti o n o f di ffe r e n t e quipm e n ts is in t e r ms o f watt h o u r s pe r

t o n mil e
-
B y this m e a n s t he w e i g ht is e limi n at e d an d ca r s o r
.
,
1 52 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

trai n s o f wid ely varyi n g mass may hav e th e ir e n e rgy c o n s um p

ti o n c o mpar e d o n a fairly rati o n al basis T he e ff e ct Of t he .

l e n gth o f r un still r e mai n s ; but t h e c alculati o n v e ry O ft e n is made

t o d e t e r mi n e t he i n u e n c e o f this variabl e s o that t he m e th o d ,

is di r e ctly us e ful in this c o n n e cti o n .

T o o btai n t he e n e rgy in watt h o urs pe r t o n mil e it is o n ly - -

,

n e c e ssary t o e quip t h e car with a watt h o ur m e t e r t o r e c o rd t he -

e n e r gy i n put an d supply s o m e m e a n s o f d e t e rmi n i n g t he av e ra ge

,

w e ight o f t he trai n an d t he t o tal l e n gth o f run T he r e sult m ay .

th e n b e r e ach e d di r e ctly It is o f gr e at valu e in t he c o mpar i s o n

.

o f di ff e r e n t e quipm e n ts in vari o us ki n ds o f s e r v ic e Whil e th er e .

is a wid e ra n g e in t he am o u n t o f e n e rgy r e quir e d t he limits ar e ,

fairly w e ll d e n e d fo r an y particular class s o that t he valu e s o h ,

t ain e d in di ff e r e n t ru n s o f t he sam e ki n d may w e ll b e c o mpa r abl e

I n u e n c e o f Tr ain R e s i s tan c e o n En e rgy C o n s um ptio n A .

-

c e rtai n p o rti o n o f t h e e n e r gy impart e d t o t h e trai n by t he m o t o r s

must always go t o o v e rc o m e trai n r e sista n c e T his am o u n t is .

always e qual t o appr o ximat e ly twic e t he av e rag e r e sista n c e .

C o n sid e r a tr ai n m o vi n g at c o n sta n t sp e e d V ( mil e s pe r h o ur) , ,

t he t o tal trai n r e sista n c e b e i n g R ( po u n ds pe r t o n ) T h e t o tal .

i n put in kil o watts P is , ,

VR
5 03

T he e ne rgy W , ,
in watt h o u r s
-
p e r t o n - mil e , is
VR X h o u r s r un X 1 00 0
50 3 T mil e s r un
R e duci n g thi s to t e r ms o f u n ity , it b e c o m e s
1 00 0
R I 99 R
.

50 3

T his e quati o n h o lds u n d e r all c o n diti o n s o f o p e rati o n if t he ,

av e rag e valu e o f t r ai n r e sista n c e i n cludi n g that d ue t o curv e s

, ,

b e tak e n . T his c o mp o n e n t o f e n e r gy d o e s n o t var y a gr e at d e al

in i n dividual ru n s u n l e ss t he sp e e ds di ff e r wid e ly o r t he car
, ,

w e ights ar e s o dissimilar as t o b e i n c o mparabl e .

It is t o b e n o t e d that this valu e o f e n e rgy r e p r e s e n ts t he m o t o r

o u t p u t n e e d e d t o k e e p t h e t r ai n in m o ti o n at c o n sta n t sp e e d with ,

o ut st o ps . T his c o n diti o n is appr o ach e d v e r y n e arly in l o n g dis -

ta n c e ru n s an d gi v e s t he abs o lut e mi n imum e n e r g y c o n sumpti o n

,

fo r an y f o rm o f n o r mal o p e r ati o n F o r e xampl e a trai n c o n sist

.
,
 E N E RG Y C ON S UM P T I ON 1 53

mg of a si n gl e 50 t o n car ru nn i n g at a c o n sta n t sp e e d o f 3 0 mil e s

-
,

p e r hr has
.
,
a n o rmal trai n r e sista n c e o f appr o ximat e ly
lb pe r t o n T he o utput in watt h o urs pe r t o n mil e is th e n ab o ut
. .
- -

25 . T his valu e w o uld als o c o rr e sp o n d t o a 60 t o n car at 35 mil e s -

pe r h r o r a 3 0 t o n car at 2 0 mil e s pe r hr T h e c o rr e sp o n di n g
-
,
. .

i n put t o t he t r ai n d e p e n ds o n t he e fci e n cy o f t he m o t o r s an d
c o n tr o l If t he av e r ag e e fci e n cy is 8 5 pe r c e n t t he i n put will
. .

be watt h o urs pe r t o n mil e fo r this particular cas e

- -
.

E e c t of Le n gt h of R un o n En e r gy If it is n e c e ssary t o limit .

t he l e n gth Of r un as is r e qui r e d in all p r actical o p e r ati o n addi

, ,

t io n al e n e r gy must b e suppli e d b e sid e that for o v e rc o mi n g trai n

r e s ista n c e T h e am o u n t e xp e n d e d in acc e l e r ati n g a trai n c an
.

be f o u n d at o n c e si n c e it is st o r e d in t he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t he
,

t r ai n an d is n um e rically e qual t o % M u , in f o o t p o u n ds If
,
z - .

t he 5 0 t o n car r e fe rr e d t o in t he pr e c e di n g paragr aph is br o ught

-

up t o a sp e e d o f 60 mil e s pe r hr t he e n e rgy impart e d t o it is .

,

50 X 2 00 0
x ( 0 x
6

ft .
-
lb .

X 4 52 0 watt -
hr .

T his r e pr e s e n ts t he st o r e d e n e rgy which must be impart e d t o ,

t he t r a in n e gl e cti n g t he e n e r gy o f t h e r o tati n g parts

, W ith t he .

o r di n ary typ e s o f dir e ct curr e n t c o n t r o l t h e e fci e n cy o f t h e

-

e l e ctrical e quipm e n t will n o t b e m o r e tha n ab o ut 5 5 pe r c e n t .

du r i n g t he acc e l e rati o n p e ri o d s o that t he i n put t o t he car is ,

452 0
8 2 30 watt -
hr .

T he fci e n cy o f t he g e ne rati n g an d substati o n e quipm e n t

e ,

a n d o f t he t r a n smissi o n an d c o n tact li n e s duri n g t h e p e ri o d o f ,

h e avy l o ad whil e acc e l e rati n g will n o t b e o v e r 8 2 pe r c e n t s o

,
.
,

that t he t o tal e l e ctrical i n put r e pr e s e n t e d is appr o ximat e ly

watt hr at t he switchb o a r d At t he l o w e st c o st o f e n e rgy
-
. .
,

ct pe r k w hr this will am o u n t t o 5 cts which is ab o ut

. .
-
.
,
.
,

t he c o st fo r st o ppi n g a limit e d i n t e r urba n car In spars e ly s e tt l e d .

t e rrit o ry wh e r e a t r ai n may b e r e quire d t o mak e t w o s e parat e

,

st o ps for a s i n gl e pass e n ge r a 1 0-c t far e will j ust pay fo r t he

,
.

c o st o f st o ppi n g t he trai n .
1 54 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

A p o rti o n o f t he ki n e tic e n e rgy may b e r e c o v e r e d if t he trai n

i s all o w e d t o c o ast b e f o r e t h e brak e s ar e appli e d in maki n g a

st o p I n this way t he e n e rgy may b e r e tu r n e d in o v e rc o mi n g

.

trai n r e sista n c e It must b e r e m e mb e r e d that o n e half t he t o tal

.
-

ki n e tic e n e rgy will hav e b e e n r e m o v e d wh e n t he trai n has had

its sp e e d r e duc e d t o Of t he maximum F o r i n st a n c e t he .
,

trai n in t he last e xampl e will hav e giv e n up ft l b if .

-
.

it has b e e n all o w e d t o c o ast d o w n t o a sp e e d O f 4 2 mil e s pe r hr .

T h e e ff e ct o f st o ps o n t he e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n pe r t o n mil e -

c a n b e d e t e r mi n e d if t h e n umb e r o f st o ps p e r mil e is k n o w n If
.

t he 5 0 t o n car is ru n n i n g o n a sch e dul e which calls fo r o n e st o p

-

p e r mil e t he t o tal e n e r gy will b e that fo r trai n r e sista n c e alr e ady

1
,

f o u n d plus that fo r acc e l e r ati o n T his latt e r w o uld b e

, .

12, 0 0 00
g8
,
ft f lb ,
pe r t o n -
mil e ,
or

4
23
0
90 w a t t hr pe r t o n - mil e
' .

T he t o tal ou t put o f t he m o t o r s fo r such a r un is th e r e f o r e 90

25 1 1 5 watt hr pe r t o n mil e
-
. If t he sam e maximum sp e e d
-
.

is attai n e d an d t he l e n gth o f r un is 5 mil e s t he t o tal ou t pu t o f

, ,

t h e m o t o r s is 1 8 25 4 3 watt hr pe r t o n mil e T he c o rr e
-
.
-
.

s p o n d in g in p u t s may b e d e t e r mi n e d if t he e f ci e n cy o f t he
e quipm e n t is k n o w n Assumi n g t he sam e valu e s fo r e fci e n cy
.

as b e f o r e t he i n puts t o t h e car w o uld b e

, an d watt hr -
.

p e r t o n mil e-
r e sp e ctiv
,
e ly f o r t h e l mil e a n d t he 5 mil e ru n s
,
- -
.

T he e ffe ct o f fr e qu e n t st o ps is thus s e e n t o i n cr e as e t h e e n e rgy

by a mark e d am o u n t wh e n t he maximum sp e e d is high F o r .

this r e as o n t he sp e e d attai n e d sh o uld b e h e ld t o as l o w a valu e as

p o ssibl e c o n sist e n t with t he r e quir e d sch e dul e sp e e d T his may
, .

b e d o n e by t he us e o f high ac c e l e r ati o n a n d r e ta r dati o n It is .

e sp e cially imp o r ta n t o n city li n e s wh e r e t he st o ps will av e r age

,

fr o m f o ur t o t e n per mil e High sp e e d o p e rati o n u n d e r su ch

.
-

c o n diti o n s calls fo r a n e n e r g y c o n sumpti o n o ut o f all p r o p o r

ti o n t o t he v alu e o f t he s e r vi c e r e n d e r e d .

A n o th e r e ff e ct o f st o ps is t o i n c r e as e t h e ru n n i n g tim e o r , ,

c o n v e r s e ly t o r e duc e t he sch e dul e sp e e d W ith o r di n a r y i n t e r

,
.

u r ba n ca r s an d t h e usual sch e dul e sp e e d r at e s o f a c c e l e rati o n

, ,

a n d braki n g t h e e ff e ct o f a si n gl e st o p is t o add ab o ut o n e mi n ut e
,

t o t he ru n n i n g tim e T his is in additi o n t o t he tim e actually

.

l i f e s t ly i m p o s s ib l e va l u e
.

1
S uc h a s c he d u e is m an ,
b u t t he of t he com

p a ris o n is n ot c h an g e d t he re b y .
 E N E R G Y C ON S U M P T I O N 1 55

c o n sum e d in t he st o p which may v a r y fr o m a fe w s e c o n ds

,

t o s e v e ral mi n ut e s .

It will b e n o t e d that t he maximum sp e e d attai n e d rath e r tha n ,

t h e sch e dul e sp e e d has an e ffe ct o n e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n

, If by .
,

m e a n s Of rapid acc e l e r ati o n an d braki n g t he maximum is ,

mai n tai n e d fo r a lar g e p o rti o n o f t he r un t he sch e dul e sp e e d will ,

b e rais e d with o ut a gr e at i n cr e as e in e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n T his .

is v e ry mark e d in t he sh o r t e r ru n s an d l e ss s o in t he l o n g o n e s
,
.

T his is a n o th e r a r gum e n t fo r high r at e s o f acc e l e r a ti o n in city

s e r vic e S i n c e t he sch e dul e sp e e d m o r e n e a r ly app r o ach e s t he
.

maximum t he gr e at e r t he ac c e l e r ati o n an d r e ta r dati o n t h e

, ,

ma x imum sp e e d r e quir e d t o g iv e a c e r tai n sch e dul e sp e e d may

b e r e duc e d ; an d t h e e n e rgy i n put is l o w e r e d in pr o p o r ti o n t o t he
squar e o f t h e ma x imum sp e e d .

In u e n c e of G rad e s o n En e rgy S i n c e in a c o mpl e t e r o u n d

.
,

t r ip a c ar must g o up an d d o w n all t he g r ad e s o n t he li n e t he
, ,

n e t e ff e ct o f th e m o n t h e e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n is n il if t h e b r ak e s ,

d o n o t hav e t o b e a ppli e d t o k e e p t h e trai n fr o m r e achi n g t o o

hi g h a sp e e d As ma n y g r ad e s d o r e quir e brak e applicati o n s
.

t o p r e v e n t t h e attai n m e n t o f da n g e r o us v e l o citi e s th e r e will b e , ,

in g e n e ra l s o m e i n c r e as e o f e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n if t h e g r ad e s
,

a r e at all st e e p T h e e xact valu e c a n o n ly b e d e t e r mi n e d by

.

a n a n alysis o f a n y pa r ticular pr o bl e m .

In tru n k li n e w o rk e sp e cially with h e avy fr e ight t r ai n s

, ,

t he e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n will b e i n cr e as e d t o a ma r k e d d e gr e e

if n um e r o us gr ad e s ar e e n c o u n t e r e d In t he o p e r ati o n Of fr e ight
.

t r ai n s t h e maximum sp e e ds ar e c o mpa r ativ e ly l o w an d t he

, ,

t r ai n r e sista n c e mu c h l e ss tha n in pass e n g e r s e r vic e O n acc o u n t .

o f t h e la r g e mass o f f r e ight t r ai n s a la r g e f o r c e is r e quir e d fo r

,

o v e r c o mi n g an Opp o si n g g r ad e ; an d t o e n sur e saf e Op e r ati o n

, ,

b r aki n g must b e r e s o rt e d t o e v e n o n c o mparativ e ly slight

d ec l in e s .

T he r e iscas e wh e r e t he grad e s c an a c tually b e us e d t o a d

one

va n tag e in t he p r o pulsi o n o f trai n s If a d o w n g r ad e e xists o ut

.

o f a stati o n t he f o rc e o f t h e g r ad e will aid t h e m o tiv e p o w e r

,

in acc e l e r ati n g t he t r ai n ; an d fo r t r ai n s c o mi n g i n t o t he stati o n

,

in t h e Opp o sit e di r e cti o n t h e sam e g r ad e w ill h e lp r e ta r d th e m

,
.

S u c h a g r ad e is a p o sitiv e b e n e t p r o vid e d all trai n s ar e r e ,

qui r e d t o st o p at this p o i n t If e ach mai n stati o n c an b e l o cat e d

.

at t he cr e st o f a hill t he assista n c e o f t he gr ad e c an b e had in

,

b o th di r e cti o n s an d may e v e n r e sult in r e duci n g t he siz e o f t he

,
156 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

m o tiv e p o w e r r e quir e d F o r thr o ugh trai n s which d o n o t st o p

.
,

at t he stati o n s t he o n ly r e sult is t o add a c e rtai n am o u n t o f

,

ris e an d fall t o t he li n e which will hav e a r e lati ve ly small e ffe ct

- -
,

in trai n o p e rati o n .

I n g e n e r al it is n o t p o ssibl e t o plac e all stati o n s s o as t o mak e

,

us e o f this ph e n o m e n o n In t he cas e Of e l e v at e d t r ack th r o ugh

.

citi e s it c an b e d o n e with o ut an y gr e atly i n c r e as e d e xp e n s e .

In e l e vat e d o r u n d e rg r o u n d rail r o ads t he c o n st r ucti o n o f t he ,

li n e with such grad e s is e n tir e ly f e asibl e ; an d s o m e r o ads hav e t

b e e n built with t he stati o n s e l e vat e d ab o v e t he ge n e ral c o n t o ur
Of t he r o ad .

08 40 0 40

06 300 30

100 10

0 0
60 80
Se c o nd s

FI G . 80 .
Dis t rib ut io n O f e n e rg y c on sum p t io n .

g b
S h o w in t h e d is t r i ut io n o f t h e e n er gy p
in u t t o a 50 -t o n c ar w he n m a ki g n a l -m
l
i e r un
l qu l t o l
.

T h e s u m o f al l t h e o ss e s is j u s t e a t he t ot a e n er gy in p ut t o t he c ar .

D is trib ut io n Input Aft e r ha v i n g tak e n up in d e tail

of En e rgy

t he e l e m e n ts o f t he e n e r gy n e e d e d fo r trai n pr o pulsi o n it is ,

i n t e r e sti n g t o s e e t he distributi o n o f t he i n put In Fig 80 is . .

,

sh o w n t he dist r ibuti o n o f t he e n e rgy fo r pr o p e lli n g a c e r tai n

car o v e r a r un O f t he t o tal am o u n t suppli e d fr o m t he dis
.

tributi n g ci r cuit a p o r ti o n is l o st in t he wiri n g D u r i n g t he

,
.

o p e r ati o n o f t h e c o n tr o ll e r s o m e o f t he e n e rgy is c o n v e rt e d i n t o
,

h e at in t he r e sista n c e O f t he m o t o r i n put a p o rti o n suppli e s

.
,

t he e l e ctrical l o ss e s an d a n o th e r part t he m e cha n ical l o ss e s in

,

g e ars an d b e ari n gs T h e r e mai n d e r is us e d fo r t he pr o pulsi o n

.

Of t he trai n O f this o utput a c e r tai n am o u n t is us e d t o o v e r

.
,

c o m e trai n r e sista n c e t he bala n c e b e i n g c o n v e rt e d i n t o ki n e tic

,
-

e n e r gy which is partly us e d t o supply t he trai n r e sista n c e whil e

,
 EN ERG Y C ON S UM P T I O N 1 57

c o asti n g t h e r e sidu e b e i n g abs o r b e d in t h e brak e s T h e r e l a

, .

ti o n s o f t he diffe r e n t us e s Of t he i n put are cl e arly sh o w n in t he

diag r am .

En e rgy for Auxiliarie s In additi o n t o t he e n e rgy us e d dir e ctly

.
-

in t he pr o pulsi o n Of t r ai n s th e r e is in m o st cas e s a d e ma n d fo r
,

a n additi o n al am o u n t in auxiliary circuits o n t h e trai n .

Pr actically all e l e ctric cars e xc e pt t h e small e st si n gl e truck ,

-

city cars are e quipp e d with air brak e s t he air b e i n g c o mpr e ss e d

, ,

by a pump o n e ach m o t o r car d r iv e n by an e l e ctric m o t o r T h e , .

r e q ui r e m e n ts O f this circuit whil e sm all must b e add e d t o t h e , ,

p o w e r d e ma n ds ; a n d si n c e t he pump ru n s a c o n sid e r abl e p o rti o n

,

o f t h e tim e t h e am o u n t o f e n e rgy is w o rth taki n g i n t o ac c o u n t

, .

T e sts hav e sh o w n that t he e n e rgy fo r Op e rati n g t he air brak e s

1

in city s e rvic e is fr o m 1 pe r c e n t t o 2 pe r c e n t Of that r e quir e d . .

fo r t he tracti o n m o t o rs In i n t e ru r ba n s e rvic e t h e e n e rgy fo r

.

braki n g is fr o m 5 t o 1 2 watt hr pe r st o p fo r a 40 t o n car d e p e n d

-
.
-
,

in g o n t he rat e o f r e tardati o n It is w o rth n o ti n g that o n cars pr o

.

vide d with air whistl e s t h e e n e rgy us e d in this s e r vic e is ab o ut

,

e qual t o that for braki n g u n l e ss s p e cial car e is tak e n t o pr e v e n t

,

e xc e ssiv e us e o f t he whistl e T his has t he e ff e ct o f o v e rl o adi n g

.

t he c o mpr e ss o r I n cars e quipp e d with e l e ctr o p n e umatic

.

c o n tr o l th e r e is additi o n al c o m pr e ss e d air n e e d e d T he am o u n t
, .

fo r this is s o small as t o b e o f littl e c o n s e qu e n c e O n ma n y rapid .

tra n sit lin e s d o o r o p e rati n g m e cha n isms are w o rk e d with c o m

,
-

p r e ss e d air T his mak e s a c o n sid e rabl e additi o n t o t he o th e r

.

us e s a n d must b e all o w e d fo r O th e r p n e umatically o p e rat e d

, .

d e vic e s hav e b e e n i n tr o duc e d which call fo r additi o n al e n e rgy ,

s o that t he t o tal r e quir e d fo r th e s e auxiliari e s may am o u n t t o

s e v e r al pe r c e n t o f t he t o tal . .

Practically all e l e ct r ic cars ar e light e d fr o m t he tr o ll e y circuit .

T h e d e ma n d fo r e n e rgy c an b e r e adily calculat e d Alth o ugh it .

is n o t large fo r a si n gl e c ar it mak e s a c o n sid e rabl e t o tal fo r a

,

city syst e m T he o ld e r f o r ms o f lighti n g alm o st i n variably c o n

.

sist o f 1 6c p carb o n lamps c o n sumi n g appr o ximat e ly 5 5 watts

. .
, ,

an d c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s o f ve o n t he tr o ll e y ci r cuit T he n umb e r .

o f lamps pe r car v a r i e s fr o m v e t o tw e n ty ve d e p e n di n g o n -
,

t he siz e o f t h e car an d t he i n dividual tast e o f t he d e sig n e r In .

m o r e r e c e n t e quipm e n ts tu n gst e n lamps hav e b e e n us e d t o ad

va n tag e t o r e duc e t he e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n cutti n g it d o w n in ,

1
R e por t f
o t he E l e c t ri c R ai l w a y Te s t C o m m is s io n , M c G raw Pub l is hin g CO .
,

1 906 .
1 58 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

e xtr e m e cas e s fr o m kw t o k w an d at t he sam e tim e

. .
,

g ivi n g b e tt e r lighti n g .

H e ati n g o f city cars is m o st fr e qu e n tly d o n e with e l e ctric

p o w e r T he am o u n t o f e n e r gy r e quir e d t o k e e p t he t e mp e ratur e
.

t o a re as o n abl e p o i n t o n c o ld days is quit e c o n sid e rabl e a t e st ,

o n a larg e city r o ad sh o wi n g a p o w e r c o n sumpti o n o f kw

l
.

at full l o ad o n t he h e at e r s o r 1 6 pe r c e n t Of t he t o tal p ow e r tak e n

,
.

by t h e car In e l e vat e d s e r vic e u n d e r similar c o n diti o n s t he :

.
, ,

p o w e r fo r h e ati n g w a s kw o r 1 8 pe r c e n t o f t he t o tal
. . .

F o r high sp e e d i n t e rurba n r o ads t he d e ma n ds fo r h e ati n g ar e

-

much gr e at e r s o that in ma n y cas e s h e at e rs tak in g e n e rgy dir e ct

,

fr o m c o al ar e us e d o n ac c o u n t o f th e ir l o w e r o p e rati n g c o st T his .

is disc uss e d m o r e fully i n C hapt e r V I II .

R e g e n e ratio n o f El e c t ri c En e rgy I t has b e e n sh o w n that o f .

t he t o tal i n put fo r trai n o p e r ati o n a larg e p o r ti o n is us e d t o pr o ,

duc e ki n e tic e n e rgy In cas e gr ad e s ar e e n c o u n t e r e d a n o th e r

.
,

p o rti o n o f t he i n put will b e c o n v e rt e d i n t o p o t e n tial e n e rgy .

Whil e th e s e f o rms re adily admit o f r e c o n v e rsi o n i n t o s o m e o th e r ,

th e y ar e in g e n e ral n o t utiliz e d si n c e it is n e c e ssary t o d e str o y

, , ,

t he e n e r gy o f t he trai n by m e a n s o f brak e s in o rd e r t o pr e v e n t t o o
high a sp e e d o r t o bri n g t he trai n t o r e st If this e n e rgy c o uld
,
.

b e r e c o v e r e d in s o m e us e ful f o rm t he t o tal r e qu i r e m e n t w o uld b e

,

that n e e d e d t o o v e rc o m e trai n r e sista n c e al o n e with an additi o n ,

fo r t h e i n e vitabl e l o ss e s in t he e l e ct r ic circuit .

M a n y att e mpts hav e b e e n mad e t o r e c ov e r an appr e ciabl e

am o u n t o f this e n e r gy an d r e tur n it t o t h e e l e ctric circ uit .

G e n e rally sp e aki n g all o f t he pr o p o s e d m e th o ds i n clud e t he us e

,

o f t h e m o t o r s as e l e ctric g e n e rat o rs T o g e t a m o t o r which will .

d e liv e r e n e r gy t o t he li n e r e quir e s that t he mag n e tic ux be t o a

larg e e xt e n t i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he l o ad In di r e ct cur r e n t practic e .
-
,

a m o t o r with shu n t charact e r istics is n e c e ssar y an d in alt e r n at ,

in gcu r r e n t s e r vic e a shu n t cha r act e ristic must b e Obtai n e d o r ,

t he m o t o r must b e o f t he i n ducti o n typ e N o n e o f t he m o t o r s .

which hav e b e e n m o st succ e ssful in railway s e r vic e serie s

m o t o rs ) l e n d th e ms e lv e s re adily t o t he ge n e rati o n o f curr e n t A .

gla n c e at t he curv e s o f a s e ri e s railway m o t o r (s e e Fig 1 9 ) sh o ws .

that a curr e n t will b e tak e n n o matt e r ho w high a sp e e d is r e ach e d

,
.

T his is tru e wh e th e r t h e s e ri e s m o t o r is o p e rat e d o n dir e ct curr e n t

o r o n alt e r n ati n g curr e n t T he shu n t m o t o r is h o w e v e r w e ll
.
, ,

1
HERR I C K AN D B O YNTO N Am e r ic an El e c t ri c R ailw ay P ra c t ic e M c Graw

,

,

Hill B o o k C O In c 1 9 0 7
.
,
.
,
.
 EN E R G Y C ON S UM P T I ON 159

adapt e d fo r this s e rvic e I n Fig 8 1 t he cu r v e s o f t he shu n t m o t o r

. .

hav e b e e n e xt e n d e d b e y o n d t he o r igi n t o sh o w t he cha r act e ristic

e u n d e r a wid e r a n g e o f c o n diti o n s If t he sp e e d Of .

is i n cr e as e d b e y o n d t he n o rmal n o l o ad sp e e d t he -
,

cur r e n t in t he ar matur e will r e v e rs e an d t he machi n e will b e c o m e ,

a ge n e r at o r r e tu r n i n g cu rr e n t t o t h e distributi n g ci r c uit If t he
, .

railway syst e m is at all e xt e n siv e t he curr e n t thus fe d back i n t o ,

t he li n e c an b e us e d fo r t h e pr o pulsi o n o f o th e r car s an d will ,

re duc e t he l o ad o n t h e g e n e r ati n g stati o n T h e pr o p e r c o n diti o n .

fo r f e e di n g back i n t o t h e li n e is r e ach e d wh e n e v e r t h e m o t o r sp e e d
e xc e eds t h e n o lo ad sp e e d -
I n o th e r w o rds wh e n t he trai n is
.
,

(Ge ne r a t or Mo i o r
-

6 10 0

Cur r e n t ,
Am pe re s

FI G . 81 .
S hu n t m o t o r c h ar a c t e r s t c s i i .

p fe r o r m a n c e c ur v es o f t he s hunt m o t or , F ig 1 5 , ar e r e -d r a w n t o s ho w t he p f er o rm an c e
p x l l p
.

w h en t he s eed e c e e ds t he n orm a n o - o ad S ee d o f t h e m a c h i n e .

go i n g d o w n a hill o n which t he t r activ e e ff o rt d ue t o t he grad e is

gr e at e r tha n t he trai n r e sista n c e t he a r matur e cur r e n t w ill r e ,

v e r s e with o ut an y cha n g e in t he m o t o r c o n n e cti o n s R e g e n e r a .

ti o n is thus e n ti r e ly aut o matic .

W ith t he i n ducti o n m o t o r t he p e rf o rman c e is alm o st pr e c i s e ly

,

t he sam e as with t h e dir e ct curr e n t shu n t m o t o r In n e ith e r cas e

-
.
,

h o w e v e r is t he m o t o r i n h e r e n tly suit e d t o giv e t he large tractiv e

,

e ff o r t r e quir e d fo r starti n g with a high ac c e l e r ati o n Fo r this .

r e as o n m o t o rs o f t he c o n sta n t sp e e d typ e hav e n e v e r b e c o m e -

1 60 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

p o p ular for tracti o n In a hilly c o u n try h o w e v e r t he valu e

.
, ,

o f t h e e n e rgy sav e d may o v e rbala n c e t he disadva n tag e s .

W h e n m o t o rs o f t he s e ri e s typ e are t o b e e mpl o y e d fo r r e

g e n e rati o n it is n e c e ssary t o m o dify th e ir charact e ristics by t he
,

additi o n o f a shu n t wi n di n g o r by a r e c o n n e cti o n o f t h e s e rie s ,

e lds t o t he li n e as in Fig 8 2 T his giv e s th e m p e rfo r ma n c e

,
. .

c urv e s like th o s e sh o w n in Fig 8 1 an d t he o p e rati o n is t he sam e .

,

as that Of t he shu n t machi n e In this cas e it is n e c e ssary t o pr o

.

vid e p r o p e r c o n tr o ll e r c o n n e cti o n s for maki n g t he d e sir e d cha n ge s

as n e e d e d F o r small e quipm e n ts t he c o mplicat i o n i n tr o duc e d
.

in t h e c o n tr o l an d t he additi o n o f an e xtra wi n di ng
, ,

pr e v e n t e d t he ad o pti o n o f this f e atur e .

F1 G . 82 .
A rran g e m e n t O f s e r e s m o t o rsi fo r r e g e n e r a t io n .

T he e ld s ar e pl ac ed in s e r ies w it h a s uit a bl e r e s is t a n c e , w hil e t he a r m at u r e s a r e c o n n e c t e d

in p ll l
ar a e ac ro s s t he li ne .

In rd e r t o r e tu r n a p o r ti o n o f t h e e n e rgy o f acc e l e rati o n it is

o ,

furth e r n e c e ssary t o cha n g e t he charact e r istics o f t h e m o t o r in

such a ma n n e r that it will g e n e r at e in spi t e Of a r e ducti o n in sp e e d .

I n t he shu n t machi n e this may b e d o n e if t he e ld st r e n gth b e

,

mad e c o n sid e rably gr e at e r B y i n cr e asi n g t he ux t he n o rmal .

sp e e d is r e duc e d s o that if this cha n ge is sudd e n ly mad e t he m o t o r

,

will th e n b e o p e r ati n g ab o v e its n e w n o l o ad sp e e d an d e n e rgy -

,

will b e r e tur n e d u n til t he sp e e d c o r r e sp o n di n g t o t he particular

e ld str e n gth has b e e n r e ach e d T he ra n g e thr o ugh which this .

c an b e ac c o mplish e d may b e furth e r i n cr e as e d if t w o o r m o r e

armatur e s ar e put in s e ri e s as t he trai n sp e e d b e c o m e s l e ss W ith .

 EN E RG Y C ON S UM P T I ON 1 61

i n ducti o n m o t o rs t he sam e r e sult c an b e had by c o n cat e n ati o n ,

o r by cha n gi n g t h e n umb e r o f p o l e s T h e ra n g e o f sp e e d o v e r
.

which e n e r gy c an b e r e g e n e r at e d is Of c o urs e limit e d in an y typ e

o f m o t o r ; but it must b e r e m e mb e r e d that t h e larg e r part o f t h e

e n e r gy c a n b e r e tu r n e d by a c o mpa r ativ e ly small sp e e d r e ducti o n .

F o r i n stan c e if i n ducti o n m o t o r s ar e e mpl o y e d an d t he sp e e d

, ,

is r e duc e d t o o e half by c o n cat e n ati o n t he am o u n t o f e n e r gy

n
,

r e tu r n e d is th r e e f o u r ths Of t h e t o tal ki n e tic e n e rgy at full sp e e d

-
.

It must n o t b e tak e n fo r gr a n t e d that t he e n ti r e am o u n t o f

st o r e d e n e r gy c an b e r e tu r n e d t o t h e e l e ctric syst e m an d us e d at
s o m e o th e r p o i n t T he i n e vitable l o ss e s in t he machi n e s an d in
.

t he e l e ctric circuits will r e duc e t he qua n tity availabl e by a c o n

s ide r a b l e d e gr e e T he n e t am o u n t o f e n e r gy which c an b e r e
.

tu r n e d may b e quit e lar g e in c e r t a i n class e s o f s e r vic e O n .

m o u n tai n r o ads fo r i n sta n c e wh e r e braki n g is o rdi n arily us e d

, ,

t o p r e v e n t an e xc e ssi ve sp e e d t he e n e r g y which c an b e r e c o v e r e d
,

may am o u n t t o a m at e r ial p r o p o r ti o n o f t he e n ti r e d e ma n d In .

such a cas e t he n e c e ssar y c o mplicati o n o f t he m o t o rs an d c o n t r o l

may b e w e ll w o rth whil e .

Eff e c t s o f R e g e n e r at io n o n Eq uipm e n t
T he us e o f t he t r ac
ti o n m o t o rs fo r t he r e tu r n Of e n e r gy t o t he li n e ca n n o t b e d o n e
with o ut a d e n it e i n cr e as e in t he h e ati n g T he m o t o rs ar e w o rk
.

in g fo r a la r g er p o r ti o n o f t h e t o tal tim e s o that b o th t he r m s,

. . .

cu r r e n t an d t he a ve rag e m o t o r p o t e n tial ar e high e r ; this r e sults

in gr e at e r c o pp e r an d ir o n l o ss e s with i n cr e as e in t he av e rag e
,

m o t o r l o ad If t he m o t o rs ar e o n ly Of su fci e n t c o n ti n u o us
.

capacity t o p r o p e l t he ca r s in t he usual ma n n e r t he additi o n o f

,

t he r e g e n e r ati o n f e atur e will caus e th e m t o b e l o ad e d b e y o n d th e ir

n o r mal rati n g an d h e n c e t o o v e rh e at
,
.

In ma n y cas e s t he m o t o rs will hav e sufci e n t r e s e rv e capacity ,

s o that t he additi o n o f r e g en e rati o n will still k e e p t h e l o ad withi n

t he r ati n g Of t he m o t o r s in which e v e n t n o cha n g e is n e c e ssa r y

,
.

E ach cas e must be c o n sid e r e d s e pa r at e ly t he valu e s Of r m s ,

. . .

cur r e n t an d av e rag e m o t o r p o t e n tial b e i n g d e t e r mi n e d by t he

m e th o d alr e ady g iv e n .

An o th e r r e sult o f t h e r e g e n e rati o n o f e n e r gy is t he r e ducti o n

in brak e sh o e fr icti o n n e e d e d in c o n t r o lli n g t h e sp e e d o f t he t r ai n
-
.

S i n c e in o r di n ar y Op e r ati o n t h e e n e r gy Of t he t r ai n is abs o rb e d
by t he brak e sh o e s with c o n s e qu e n t p r o ducti o n o f h e at th e re
, ,

will b e a c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t o f brak e sh o e w e a r caus e d by t he

-

fr icti o n T he use Of r e g e n e rati o n r e m o v e s a lar g e am o u n t o f

.

11
 1 62 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

w o rk fr o m t he brak e s s o that t he sh o e w e ar is mat e rially r e

,

d uc e d r e sulti n g in a savi n g o f c o st in brak e sh o e s an d wh ee ls

, .

T he wh e e ls ar e als o subj e ct t o vari o us t r o ubl e s fr o m o v e r h e ati n g .

I n g e n e ral t h e wh e e ls Of A m e r ica n fr e ight cars ar e o f c ast i r o n

, ,

with t h e tr e ads chill e d t o r e sist w e ar T he alt e r n at e h e ati n g a n d

.

c o o li n g d ue t o braki n g s o m e tim e s caus e a n n e ali n g o f t h e chill ,

with r e sulta n t i n c r e as e d w e ar In e xt r e m e ca se s t he m e tal

is lik e ly t o crack o r sh e ll o ut n e c e ssitati n g t h e r e m o val o f
,

t h e a ff e ct e d wh e e l f r o m s e rvic e p e r haps l o n g b e f o r e it has

,

r e ach e d t he n o rmal limit o f life A la r g e p o rti o n Of this w e ar

.

c a n b e p r e v e n t e d by r e g e n e rati o n which will als o r e li e v e o th e r

,

parts o f t he e quipm e n t such as t he brak e riggi n g an d wi ll r e

, ,

du c e t h e l o ad o n t h e air c o mp r e ss o r s an d o th e r parts o f t he
braki n g syst e m S uch adva n tag e s as th e s e may b e w o rt h m o r e
.

tha n t h e actual re tur n o f en e rgy .

A p o ssibility e xists in c o n n e cti o n with t h e us e o f di r e ct curr e n t -

shu n t m o t o rs fo r r e ge n e r ati o n If a shu n t m o t o r b e mad e with

.

a maximum str e n gth o f e ld at l e ast e qual t o t he g r e at e st avail

abl e e ld o n a s e ri e s m o t o r o f t he sam e rati n g it will giv e e q ual
,

o r g r e at e r t o rqu e with t h e sam e armatur e curr e n t It c an .

acc e l e r at e up t o t h e n o rmal o p e rati n g sp e e d which will b e ,

app r o ximat e ly t he sam e as that o f t h e s e ri e s m o t o r at maximum

curr e n t F o r ac c e l e r ati o n ab o v e this p o i n t t he st r e n gth o f
.
,

e ld c an b e r e duc e d by t he i n s e rti o n o f r e sista n c e in s e ri e s with

t he shu n t e ld wi n di n g P r o p e r pr o p o r ti o n i n g o f t he r e sista n c e
.

will all o w t he m o t o r t o pr o duc e an ac c e l e rati o n curv e app r o x 1

mat e ly t he sam e as that fo r a s e r i e s m o t o r o f e qual capacity .

A m o t o r Of this typ e will ha v e t h e ad va n tag e o v e r t he s e ri e s m o t o r

that an y sp e e d ab o v e that with t he maximum e ld str e n gth is
a n Op e rati n g o n e ; an d all t he O p e r ati n g sp e e ds will giv e p r actically

maximum e fci e n cy T he sam e m o t o r c an b e us e d fo r sl o w

.

sp e e d w o r k with rapid acc e l e rati o n o n city str e e ts o r fo r high

, , ,

sp e e d w o rk o n privat e right o fway R e g e n e rati o n o n d o w n

-
.

g r ad e s c a n b e ac c o mplish e d at an y d e si r e d o p e r ati n g sp e e d by
p r o p e r adj ustm e n t o f t he e ld r e sista n c e T o r e tu r n e n e r gy t o
.

t he li n e wh e n st o ppi n g t he e ld st r e n gth c an b e i n cr e as e d by
,

cutti n g o ut r e sista n c e thus i n cr e asi n g t he c o u n t e r e m f o f t he

,
. . .

m o t o r u n til e n e r gy is r e c o v e r e d T he m o t o r armatur e s c an
.

b e c o n n e ct e d in s e ri e s t o carry t he r e g e n e r ati o n still furth e r .

T he pri n cipal O bj e cti o n t o this typ e o f m o t o r an d c o n tr o l

app e ars t o b e t he lack o f safe guard agai n st o v e rl o ad W ith .
 E N E RG Y C O N S U M P T I O N 1 63

t he s e r i e s machi n e an i n cr e as e in l o ad is acc o mpa n i e d by c o rr e

,

s po n din gl y gr e at e r e ld str e n gth thus aut o matically r e duci n g

,

t he sp e e d a n d l imiti n g t he o v e rl o ad With t he shu n t m o t o r n o

.

s uch i n h e r e n t saf e ty d e vi c e is p r e s e n t t he e ld str e n gth r e main i n g

,

c o n sta n t u n l e ss vari e d i n d e p e n d e n tly It is po ssibl e h o w e v e r

.
, ,

t o i n tr o duc e a r e lay which will aut o matically i n c r e as e t h e e ld

c u r r e n t wh e n an o v e rl o ad o ccurs ,
thus givi n g t he sam e f o r m o f
p r o t e cti o n as in t he s e r i es m o t o r Alth o ugh this m e th o d o f
.

o e r ati o n has n e v e r b e e n t r i e d it has v e ry attractiv e p o ssi

p ,

b ilit ie s an d may in t he futu r e b e e xt e n siv e ly us e d b o th fo r

, ,

i nt e ru r ba n an d tru n k li n e s e rvic e
-
.
 C HA P T E R V II

B RAK IN G O F ELEC TR I C RAI LW AY TRAI N S

I t
m por an c e . Ev e n th o ugh it is o f imp o rta n c e t o ge t a t r am
in m o ti o n rapidly it is n o n e t h e l e ss e ss e n tial t o b e abl e t o a r r e st
,

its m o v e m e n t wh e n d e si r e d at a r at e c o mparabl e with t he ao

,

c e l e r a t io n
, an d in such a ma n n e r that t he acti o n may b e pr e

d e t e rmi n e d with a c o n sid e r abl e d e g r e e o f accuracy I n d e e d .

,

fr o m t he sta n dp o i n t Of saf e ty t he b r aki n g o f trai n s is o f e v e n

,

gr e at e r imp o rta n c e tha n th e i r acc e l e r ati o n .

It is sh o w n in t he pr e vi o us chapt e r that a high rat e o f a c

c e l e r at io n is r e quir e d t o r e duc e t he am o u n t O f e n e r gy c o n sum e d .

It is e qually tru e that a rapid r e tardati o n is d e sirabl e t o cut

d o w n t he ru n n i n g tim e b e tw e e n st o ps It must b e n o t e d h o w
.
,

e v e r that o n e o f t h e e c o n o mi e s e ff e ct e d by t he rapid r e tardati o n

,

is d ue t o t he fact that t he t r ai n is abl et o pr o p e l its e lf fo r a p o r ti o n

o f t h e dista n c e by its o w n m o m e n tum fo r t he rapid r e ducti o n o f
,

sp e e d pr o duc e d in b r aki n g by o r di n ary m e th o ds c o n v e r ts a la r g e

p o rti o n o f t he st o r e d e n e r gy i n t o h e at with o ut p e rf o rmi n g an y
us e ful w o r k G r a n t e d that t h e m o st e fci e n t r un is t he o n e wh e r e
.

t he brak e s ar e appli e d at t h e l o w e st p r acticabl e sp e e d t he r e tard

,

a ti o n f r o m this p o i n t sh o uld b e t he high e st all o wabl e si n c e t h e

,

add e d dista n c e c o v e r e d wh e n a l o w e r rat e o f b r aki n g is us e d is

m o r e tha n Offs e t by t he d e c r e as e d av e rag e sp e e d at which this
par t o f t he r un is mad e .

M e th o d s Ava i l ab l e fo r R e tar dati o n S i n c e it is u n iv e r sally

.

g r a n t e d that s o m e f o r m o f braki n g by m e a n s o f which t he

,

sp e e d o f a t r ai n may b e r e duc e d at a rapid rat e i s a n e c e ssity, ,

t he n e xt thi n g is t o d e t e rmi n e what f o r c e s may b e e mpl o y e d t o

e ff e ct this r e ta r dati o n an d what m e th o ds may b e us e d t o mak e
,

th e m availabl e .

O n e f o rc e is always p r e s e n t an d is u n iv e rsally applicabl e in

,

d e c r e asi n g t h e v e l o city T his is t he trai n r e s i sta n c e S i n c e it

. .

i n cr e as e s with t he sp e e d it is gr e at e s t wh e n it is m o st n e e d ed
'

.
,

If curvatu r e o f t he track is pr e s e n t it will als o aid in r e tardati o n

,
.

G rad e s may assist o r may hi n d e r d e p e n di n g o n t he dir e cti o n o f

, ,

164
 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 65

m o ti o n T he t r ai n r e sista n c e e v e n in fav o rabl e cas e s is n o t

.
, ,

sufci e n t t o c o n tr o l t h e trai n m o ti o n satisfact o rily T he f o rc e .

d ue t o this acti n g o n a si n gl e 5 0 t o n car at a sp e e d o f 60 mil e s

,
t -

p e r h r. is
,
ab o ut 2 7 lb p e r t o n which
. will p r
, o duc e a r e ta r d ati o n

o f app r o ximat e ly mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c which is e n ti r e ly

. .
,

i n ad e quat e fo r p r a c ti c al Op e rati o n si n c e if t h e f o r c e r e mai n e d

, ,

t he sa m e u n til t he t r ai n w e r e b r o u g ht t o r e st a tim e o f ,

2 2 1 s e c o n d s w o uld b e n e c e ssa r y t o st o p t h e car It is e vid e n t .

that s o m e additi o n al f o r c e is r e qui r e d .

T he m o st Obvi o us m e th o d o f Obtai n i n g an additi o n al r e tar di n g

f o r c e is t o p r o duc e fr icti o n agai n st t he track T his has b e e n us e d .

in s om e cas e s O n a fe w gr avity r o ads d o gs ar e e mpl o y e d which

.

e n ga g e t h e ti e s s o that if t h e c ar st o ps o n t h e up g rad e t h e d o gs
, ,

will act an d p r e v e n t t h e car fr o m r u n n i n g backwa r d d o w n t he

t r ack A m o r e r e n e d m e th o d o f pr o duci n g fricti o n agai n st t he
.

t r ack is t o us e m e tallic bl o cks which may b e p r e ss e d o n t he r ails .

T his has b e e n e mpl o y e d in c o n n e cti o n with c e r tai n o f t h e cabl e

r o ads whi c h w e r e p o pula r at o n e tim e T his m e th o d Of r e ta r da
.

ti o n is p o o r si n c e as will b e s e e n t he slidi n g fr icti o n o btai n abl e

, , ,

b e tw e e n t he b r ak e bl o cks an d t he rail s is l e ss tha n that which

c an b e o bt a i n e d by o th e r m e a n s .

T h e o th e r availabl e m e th o d o f utili z i n g fr icti o n as a r e ta rdi n g

f o rc e is t o p r o duc e t he f r icti o n by t he p r e ssur e o f bl o cks agai n st
t he car wh e e ls W h e n this is d o n e it is e ss e n tial that t h e wh e e ls
.
,

hav e sufci e n t adh e s i o n o n t he r ails t o p r e v e n t slidi n g o r t he ,

c o n diti o n s w o uld b e t he sam e as with t h e t r ack b r ak e al r e ady

d e sc r ib e d ; an d t he rubbi n g o f a si n gl e plac e o n a wh e e l ag a i n st
t h e r ail w o uld r e sult in w e a r i n g a at sp o t o n t h e l o ck e d wh e e l ,

w hich w o uld hi n d e r its fu r th e r Op e rati o n .

T he r st railway ca r s w e r e r e adily b r o ught t o r e st by m e a n s o f

f o r c e appli e d t o w o o d e n bl o cks b e a r i n g a g ai n st t he wh e e ls T his .

n atural s o luti o n Of t h e p r o bl e m n e e d e d m o dicati o n fo r h e avi e r

e quip m e n t o n ly by i n cr e asi n g t h e p r e ssu r e Of t h e b r ak e sh o e s a n d ,

t he us e o f a mat e r ial whi c h w o uld r e s ist w e a r whil e givi n g s uf

ci e n t f r i c ti o n t o b e e ffe c tiv e T h e f o r c e was appli e d t o t he sh o e s
.

by m e an s o f a syst e m o f l e v e r s Op e r at e d by ha n d T his typ e o f .

brak e has b e e n us e d t o a v e r y gr e at e xt e n t fo r all class e s o f

v e hicl e s It was t he o n ly ki n d e mpl o y e d o n st e am railway ca r s
.

fo r ma n y y e a r s an d is t o day r e tai n e d as a valu e d auxilia r y

,
.

N e e d for P o w e r B rak e s Alth o ugh t he ha n d brak e as j ust ,

d e sc r ib e d was ad e quat e fo r t he li g ht ca r s an d l o w sp e e ds in c o m
,
1 66 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

m o n us e 25 y e ars ago its limitati o n s hav e b e e n e xc ee d e d in n e arly

,

e v e ry f o rm o f railway v e hicl e Exc e pt in t he cas e o f sl o w sp e e d

.
-

city car s o f light w e ight s o m e f o rm o f brak e applie d by a p o w e r

,

m o r e c e rtai n an d o f gr e at e r am o u n t tha n t he availabl e m uscular

fo r c e o f t he O p e rat o r must b e e mpl o y e d It sh o uld b e r e
, .

m e mb e r e d that a lar g e shar e o f t he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t he m o vi n g

trai n must b e abs o rb e d by t he brake s o n ly a small p o rti o n o f it
,

b e i n g tak e n car e o f by t he t r ai n r e sista n c e S i n c e t he ki n e tic .

e n e rgy i n cr e as e s di r e ctly as t h e w e ight a n d as t he squa r e o f t he

s pe e d it may b e s e e n that t h e st o ppi n g o f a 2 0 t o n car fr o m a s p e e d

,
-

o f 2 0 m il e s pe r hr . will r e quir e t he abs o rpti o n o f e ight tim e s t he

e n e rgy p o ss e ss e d by a 1 0 t o n car ru n n i n g at 1 0 mil e s pe r hr
-
.

W hil e t h e ha n d brak e will tak e car e o f t he latt e r cas e with e as e ,

t he f o rm e r is p r actically b e y o n d its ra n g e Of e fci e n t Op e rati o n .

A s 2 0 t o n s is ab o ut t he m i n imum w e ight o f car n o w in us e e x ,

c e pt fo r v e ry light city s e rvic e t he applicati o n o f p o w e r brak e s

,

t o all e l e ctric cars has b e e n agitat e d in ma n y quar t e rs A study .

o f t h e diff e r e n t f o rms o f p o w e r brak e s availabl e is th e r e f o r e

p e r ti n e n t
.

N at ur e of Brak in g P h e n o m e n a All t he m e cha n ical r e lati o n s

.
-

in braki n g f o ll o w t he laws o f m o ti o n T h e s e laws hav e alr e ady

.

b e e n discuss e d in s o m e d e tail in C hapt e r I I R e tardati o n is a .

ph e n o m e n o n o f a charact e r pr e cis e ly similar t o ac c e l e rati o n an d ,

may b e c o rr e ctly r e gard e d as n e gativ e ac c e l e rati o n It will n o t .

b e n e c e ssar y t o r e p e at t h e fu n dam e n tal r e lati o n s ; but it is w e ll

t o n o t e that r e tardati o n b e i n g Opp o s e d t o t he di r e cti o n Of m o ti o n
, ,

t he alg e b r aic sig n s o f t he fu n cti o n s sh o uld b e car e fully ch e ck e d

in o rd e r t o pr e v e n t mistak e s .

Ad h e s i o n C o e f c ie n t It has alr e ady b e e n m e n ti o n e d that ,

in o r d e r t o utiliz e fricti o n b e tw e e n t he wh e e ls o f a t r ai n a n d b r ak e
sh o e s b e a r i n g agai n st th e m t he f o rc e appli e d shall n o t b e s o
,

gr e at that t he a v ailabl e adh e si o n b e tw e e n t he wh e els an d t he

r ail shall b e e xc e e d e d .T he c o e fci e n t o f slidi n g fr icti o n is l e ss
tha n that o f r o lli n g fr icti o n ( o r adh e si o n ) If slidi n g tak e s plac e
.

t he maximum braki n g e ffo rt which c an b e o btai n e d will b e r e

d uc e d . It has als o b e e n p o i n t e d o ut (t hat slidi n g caus e s u n du e
w e ar o n t he wh e e ls .

Alth o ugh t he v alu e s o f adh e si o n hav e n e v e r b e e n e x pe ri

m e n tally ch e ck e d thr o ugh a wid e ra n ge o f c o n diti o n s t he f o ll o w ,

in g fairly r e pr e s e n t t he r e sult o f such t e sts as hav e b e e n ma de :

 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 67

C O EFF I C I ENTS OF AD H E S I O N BETWEEN DRIV ERS AN D R A IL 1

T ho r o u ghly w e t r ail

ab o v e tabl e that t he n o r mal adh e si o n

t he

p e r c e n t whil e
. with t h e u s e o f sa n d t h e

b e l o w 2 0 pe r c e n t e xc e pt with t he m o st
.

In g e n e r al a maximum f o rc e e qual t o
,

rai n w e ight may b e appli e d at t h e wh e e l

io n o r r e ta r dati o n with o ut slippi n g
,
.

fo rc e w e r e avail e d o f it w o uld p r o duc e an ao

u n ti n g to

2 00 0 X X 5 mil e s p e r hr .
pe r se c .

gy o f r o tati o n e quival e n t t o o n e t e n th o f t h e
ener -

T his e xtr e m e valu e o f acc e l e rati o n is s e ld o m

r e a c h e d in practic e si n c e it is in m o st cas e s far b e y o n d t he
,

maximum capacity o f o rdi n ary m o tiv e p o w e r s o r brak e riggi n g .

o f t h e variabl e charact e r o f t h e adh e si o n c o e fci e n t ,

u n wis e t o att e mpt t o d e sig n braki n g e quipm e n t up

t o this limit In m o st cas e s acc e l e rati o n s an d r e ta r dati o n s o f
.
,

fr o m to mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c will b e f o u n d ampl e fo r

. .

s e rvic e c o n diti o n s alth o ugh gr e at e r rat e s ar e d e ma n d e d fo r

,

e m e r g e n cy braki n g .

It may b e n o t e d in this c o n n e cti o n that t he adh e si o n is a ff e ct e d

t o a c o n sid e rabl e e xt e n t by t he ar e a o f t h e c o n tigu o us su r fac e s .

It IS usually assum e d that t he c o n tact b e tw e e n wh e e l an d rail is

a lin e ; but si n c e b o th ar e c o mp r e ss e d t o s o m e e xt e n t t he c o n
, ,

tact r e ally is a su r fac e T he shap e o f this surfac e va r i e s w ith t he

.

e lasticity o f t he m e tal an d is e vid e n tly g r e at e r with l arg e di

,

am e t e r wh e e ls tha n with small o n e s T h e r e ducti o n in adh e si o n .

is v e ry mark e d in l o c o m o tiv e t e sti n g pla n ts wh e r e t he driv e rs ,

ar e carri e d di r e ctly o n supp o rti n g wh e e ls o f appr o ximat e ly t h e

1
ED w P B U RC H
. .
,

E le c t ri c T r ac t io n fo r R a il w a y T r ai n s , p . 4 0 6, Mc
G r aw -Hill B o o k C O .
,
In c .
,
19 1 1 .
1 68 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

sam e siz e I n this cas e slippi n g Occu r s with mu c h l o w e r valu e s o f

.

adh e si o n tha n o n o rdi n ary track .

S lidin g Fric t io n
T his f o ll o ws a quit e di ff e r e n t s e t Of laws f r o m
.

r o lli n g fricti o n It was r st giv e n a th o r o ugh i n v e stigati o n by

.

G e o rg e We sti n gh o us e an d S ir D o uglas G alt o n in a s e r i e s o f

t e sts mad e o n t he Lo n d o n B right o n an d S o uth C o ast R ailway
,

( E n gla n d ) i n 1 8 78 a n d r e p o rt,
e d by G alt o n t o t h e

I n stituti o n o f M e chan ical En gi n ee rs in A pril 1 879 T h ,

.

kn o w n as t he G alt o n We sti n gh o us e t e s t s hav e b e

-

,

an d summariz e practically all that is k n o w n at t h e pr e s e n t ti m e

Ho ur
FI G . 83 .
V a r i a t io n in f r ic t io n w it h s pe e d .

on t he
subj e ct o f slidi n g fricti o n T h e y w e r e mad e o n .

brake sh o e s b e ari n g o n st e e l tir e d wh e e ls an d c o v e r a wid e

-
,

ra n g e o f c o n diti o n s T he b e st publish e d i n t e rpr e t ati o n o f th e s e

.

t e sts is that mad e by M r R A P a r k e in a pap e r pr e s e n t e d b e fo r e

. . .

t he A m e r ica n I n stitut e o f El e ct r ical E n gi n e e r s 1

He n ds t hat .

t he a ver a ge c o e fci e n ts o f fr icti o n fo r di ff e r e n t sp e e ds may be

e xpr e ss e d by t h e e quati o n

f 1 0 0 353 2 V
.
( I)
1
R A
. . PAR K E ,
R a il ro a d C ar B rak in g ,
Tr a n s a c t i o n s A I . E E
. .
,
Vo l . XX ,

p . 235 .
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 69

wh er e V is t he sp e e d in mil e s pe r h o ur an d f t he c o e f ci e n t o f ,

slid in g fricti o n F o r m axim um Obs e r v e d c o e f ci e n ts t he e qua

.
,

1 0 029 33 V
.

T he graphs o f th e s e e quati o n s ar e sh o w n in Fig 83 The p o i n ts . .

pl o tt e d are t he v alu e s o btai n e d in t h e We sti n gh o us e t e sts It .

c o e fci e n t o f fricti o n falls r apidly

tha n at a spe e d
d e sig n e d t o
s s ur e s w o uld

t he valu e d e t e r mi n e d in t he pr e c e di n g
par agr aph F o r an y o th e r v alu e o f b r aki n g e ff o r t a c o rr e sp o n d
.

in g r e ducti o n in fr icti o n with sp e e d w ill tak e plac e .

Effe c t o f D is tan c e o n S l i din g Fric t i o n F u r th e r e xp e r im e n ts .

mad e by C aptai n G alt o n app e ar t o sh o w that t he c o e fci e n t o f

fr icti o n als o d e cr e as e s as a fu n cti o n o f t he tim e du r i n g which
T he r e sults o f th e s e
t o i n dicat e that th e r e
t cu r v e c o rr e sp o n di n g t o e ach i n itial c o e fci en t o f
fr icti o n an d that th e s e curv e s ar e o f t h e fo rm
,

fl

wh e r e f is t h e i n itial c o e fci e n t o f f r icti o n c o r r e sp o n di n g t o a ,

pa r tic ular sp e e d an d pr e ssur e 3 is t he dista n c e in fe e t t r av e l e d

, , ,

w hile t he rubbi n g surfac e s ar e in c o n tact f l t he c o e fci e n t o f ,

fricti o n aft e r an y e laps e d dista n c e a n d h an d c are c o n sta n ts

, .

U si n g t he r e sults o f t he G alt o n t e sts t he valu e s fo u n d fo r h ,

an d c caus e e quati o n ( 3 ) t o b e c o m e

1 0 00 0 4 72 3
f1 1 0 0 02 3 9 0 8
I

T he graphs this e quati o n fo r var i o us i n itial sp e e ds an d c o

of ,

e f c ie n t s o f fr icti o n ar e sh o w n in Fig 8 4
,
T he po i n ts ar e th o s e
. .

fo u n d by C aptai n G alt o n at t he c o rrre s po n din g sp e e ds as de s ig

n at e d by t h e gur e s Lat e r e xp e r im e n ts w o uld i n dicat e that
.

a c o n sta n t fr icti o n is r e ach e d much s oo n e r tha n w o uld be d e r iv e d

1
M o re re c e n t t est s m ad e b y t he Pe n n s ylvan ia Rail ro a d ag re e in g e n e ra l
w it h t h e c u rve O f m a xi m um val ue s , b ut s u f c ie n t p o in t s w e re n o t o b t ain e d
t o d e t e r m in e a c c ur at e ly it s f o r m .
1 70 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

by t he ab o v e e quati o n a n d that a valu e c o n si de rably gr e at e r

,

tha n that fo u n d ab o ve is c o rr e ct T he r e as o n w hy G al t o n s .

r e sults ar e l o w may b e b e caus e Of t he sh o rt dista n c e s i n clud e d in

t he t e sts ; n o n e o f th e m w as fo r a gr e at e r r e c o rd e d l e n gth tha n 9 00
ft T he p o i n ts o n t he cur ve in which t he c o e fci e n t is rapidly
.

falli n g th e r e fo r e pr e p o n d e r at e .

It is u n fo rtu n at e that n o c o mpl e t e r math e matical utilizati o n

o f t he charact e r istic r e ducti o n o f fricti o n with tim e c an b e mad e .

Alth o ugh it e x e rts a mark e d i n u e n c e o n t he am o u n t o f t im e

n e e d e d fo r bri n gi n g a trai n t o a s t o p t h e v ariati o n o f c o n diti o n s ,

a ffe cts t he d e cr e as e t o such an e xt e n t that n o e xact rul e s c an b e

fo rmulat e d Si n c e t he grad e dir e ctly adds t o o r subt r acts f r o m
.
, ,

t he braki n g f o rc e appli e d it must cha n g e t h e rat e Of r e ta rd a

,

40 0

Dis t a n ce Fe e t .

FIG . 8 4 . V a ri a t io n o f f ric t io n w it h d is t an c e .

T he sm a ll n um b ers b e s id e th p i t
e f t t h p d t w hi h t h t
o n s re er o e s ee s a c e es t s w ere m ad e .

ti o n i n d e p e n d e n tly o f t he c o e fci e n t o f fr icti o n T his h as t he

,
.

e ff e ct Of v aryi n g t h e tim e o f rubbi n g b e tw e e n sh o e a n d wh e e l

c o rr e sp o n di n g t o a giv e n b r aki n g f o rc e s o that t he n al r e sult is ,

t o cha n g e t he r e lati o n Of t he c o e f ci e n t o f fricti o n an d tim e o r

dist a n c e T he i n dicati o n is that t he brak e s ar e r e lativ e ly m o r e
.

e fci e n t o n an up g r ad e an d l e ss s o o n a do w n g r ad e
,
.

Th e r e lati o n b e tw e e n t h e c o e fci e n t pf fricti o n an d t he braki n g

pr e ssur e is quit e c o mplicat e d but t e sts i n dicat e that t h e c o ,

e ffi ci e n t va r i e s i n v e r s e ly with it .

T he bad r e sults o f slidi n g t he wh e e ls as i n cr e asi n g t he tim e ,

o r dista n c e n e e d e d t o bri n g a trai n t o a st o p may b e s e e n by a

c o mparis o n o f t he valu e s o f r o lli n g fricti o n ( adh e si o n ) an d

slidi n g fr icti o n W h e n t he wh e e ls k e e p th e ir grip o n t he t r ack
.
,
 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A I L WA Y TR A I N S 1 71

an d r o tat e t he maximum braki n g fo r c e that c an be appli e d is

,

that which p r o duc e s a fricti o n al r e sista n c e j ust b e l o w t he t o tal

adh e si o n Of t he wh e e l o n t he rail B y t he us e Of sa n d this c an
.
,

n e a r ly always b e k e pt o v e r a valu e o f W h e n t he braki n g

fo r c e e xc e e ds t he limitin g valu e Of adh e si o n t he r e sista n c e at ,

t he c o n tact o f wh e e l a n d rail o b e ys t he laws o f slidi n g fr icti o n ;

an d it may b e s e e n that e v e n fo r m o d e r at e sp e e ds t h e r e ta r di n g

fo r c e will b e l e ss Fo r e xampl e t he c o e f ci e n t o f slidi n g fr ic

.
,

ti o n at a sp e e d Of 2 0 mil e s pe r hr is which is l e ss tha n

.

t he adh e si o n m e n ti o n e d ab o v e ; a n d si n c e t he fr icti o n b e c o m e s
,

l e ss with t h e dista n c e o f a pplicati o n this r e p r e s e n t s a maximum

,

Com bin e d E e c t of Variat io n s in Fr i c t i o n C o e ffic i e n t In

d e t e rmi n i n g t he r e tardati o n which will be pr o duc e d by t he a ppli
cati o n O f a giv e n braki n g fo r c e all o f t he variabl e s which e n t e r
,

must b e take n i n t o ac c o u n t T he i n itial fricti o n which is o h

.

t ain e d at an y giv e n sp e e d c a n b e f o u n d with c o n sid e r abl e accu r acy .

It appar e n tly d e cli n e s fo r a c e rtai n dista n c e d ue t o t he e ffe ct o f

,

t he g e n e r al r e ducti o n in fr icti o n with tim e o f applicati o n ; but ,

si n c e t he brakin g fo rc e is simultan e o usly l o w e r i n g t he S p e e d t h e ,

fr icti o n has a t e n d e n cy t o b e c o m e g r e at e r A s t he t r ai n m o v e s
.

f o r wa r d t he i n c r e as e o f fr icti o n with t he l o w e r sp e e d will o v e r

,

bala n c e t he r e ducti o n due t o t he tim e t he brak e s hav e b e e n

appli e d rst v e r y sl o wly an d th e n m o r e rapidly u n til wh e n
, , , ,

t he sp e e d is v e r y l o w t h e fr icti o n b e c o m e s s o g r e at as t o st o p
,

t he t r ai n ab r uptly . T his e ffe ct o n pass e n g e r car b r aki n g c a n

be n o tic e d at an y tim e T o o ffs e t this n al i n c r e a s e in fr icti o n
.
,

it is cust o mar y t o r e duc e t he b r aki n g f o r c e as t he t r ai n n e a r s a

st o p .

D e t e r m i ati o n o f C o rr e c t
n R e t a r d ati on In c o n n e c ti o n with
t he e n e r gy c o n sumpti o n o f e l e ct r ic t r ai n s it has b e e n Se e n that
,

in g e n e ral t he m o st e c o n o mi c al r un is th at in which t he ac c e l e r a
ti o n is t he high e st A gr e at d e al o f car e ful e xp e r im e n tal an d
.

th e o r e tical e n g i n e e r i n g has b e e n d o n e t o d e t e r mi n e h o w high

t he acc e l e r ati o n may b e car r i e d ; an d t h e valu e s in u se t o day
r e pr e s e n t t he maxima that c an b e appli e d fo r vari o us class e s
o f s e r vic e O n t he o th e r ha n d v e r y littl e has b e e n acc o mplish e d
.
,

in t he e mpl o ym e n t Of high b r aki n g r at e s in p r actic e Alth o ugh .

b r ak e s ar e usually d e sig n e d t o giv e a v e r y high r e tar dati o n fo r

e m e r g e n cy s e r vic e ,
t he r e gular applicati o n s us e l o w e r valu e s
tha n th o s e o f t he c o rr esp o n di n g acc e l e r ati o n s T hi s is t he m o r e
.
1 72 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

ma r k e d si n c e t he us e o f a la r g e t r a c tiv e e ffo r t calls fo r a gr e at

,

e xp e n ditur e o f e n e r gy du r i n g t h e wh o l e starti n g p e ri o d whil e ,

a high braki n g f o r c e m e r e ly tak e s a lar g e r v o lum e Of c o mp r e ss e d

air fu r n ish e d at a c o st v e r y much l e ss tha n that o f t he e n e r gy
,

fo r sta r ti n g I n o th e r w o r ds it sh o uld b e pr o tabl e t o use

.
,

r e gula r ly fo r s e rvic e st o ps b r aki n g r at e s which ar e as high o r

,

high e r tha n t he c o r r e sp o n di n g ac c e l e r ati o n s w o r ki n g t he b r ak

,

in g appa r atus o n t he e dg e o f t he e m e r g e n cy applicati o n fo r

e ach st o p T his will als o e limi n at e t h e p e r s o n al e l e m e n t t o s o m e
.

e xt e n t a n d all o w t he p r e d e t e rmi n ati o n o f trai n p e rf o r ma n c e with

,

gr e at e r ac cu r acy .

Tran s m i s s i o n o f Br ak in g Fo r c e s I n t he u s e o f t h e fr icti o n
b e tw e e n wh e e ls an d b r ak e sh o e s fo r t h e pr o ducti o n Of t he r e
tar di n g fo rc e in t r ai n b r aki n g it is n e c e ssa r y t o hav e an ad e quat e
,

m e a n s o f t r a n smissi o n o f t h e f o rc e t o t h e d e si r e d p o i n ts and ,

t o b e abl e t o c o n t r o l it in am o u n t S i n c e it is u n d e si r abl e t o slid e

.

t he wh e e ls pr e cauti o n s must b e tak e n t o pr e v e n t this in an y

,

b r ak e applicati o n whil e at t he sam e tim e t he fo rc e us e d is as

,

n e a r t h e all o wabl e limit as n e e d e d fo r ad e quat e b r aki n g To .

d e t e r mi n e what this maximum f o r c e c an b e r e qui r e s a k n o wl e dge

o f t h e dist r ibuti o n o f t he w e ight o f t h e car o n its supp o r ti n g

wh e e ls It might b e assum e d that t he w e ight is car r i e d u n i

.

f o rmly o n all t he wh e e ls ; but due t o t he m o m e n t d e v e l o p e d by

,

t he applicati o n o f t he r e ta r di n g f o r c e away fr o m t he c e n t e r
o f g r avity Of t he c ar t h e distributi o n will b e c o n sid e rably dif
,

fe r e n t f r o m this av e r a g e valu e .

S i n c e t he adh e si o n b e tw e e n wh e el an d rail is ultimate ly us e d

as t he basis o f o rdi n ar y b r aki n g syst e ms t he p o i n t o f applica ,

ti o n o f t he f o r c e is ab o ut as far r e m o v e d fr o m t he th e o r e tically
c o rr e ct p o siti o n as p o ssibl e If t he c ar is o f t he si n gl e t r uck
.
-

typ e it can b e c o n sid e r e d as a si n gl e m o vi n g mass ; o r if o f t he

,

d o ubl e t r uck typ e o f th r e e disti n ct mass e s t he c ar b o dy an d t he

-
, ,

t w o t r u cks .

D i s trib ut i o n o f Fo r c e s o n t h e C ar i n c e t he c e n t e r o f g r avity
.

is ab o v e t he p o i n t Of applicati o n o f t h e braki n g fo r c e th e r e is a ,

t e n d e n cy t o r o tat e t he c ar b o dy in t he sam e dir e cti o n as that Of

t he wh e e ls T his r o tati o n is p r e v e n t e d by t he p r o du cti o n Of a
.

g re at e r supp o rti n g f o r c e at t he fr o n t e n d (e ith e r t h e f o r w ar d

t r uck in a d o ubl e t r uck c ar o r t he f o rwar d wh e e ls in a si gl
- n e :
, ,

truck c ar ) su fci e n t t o bala n c e t he tu r n i n g m o m e n t It is e vi .

d e n t that t h e t o tal p r e ssu r e Of all t he wh e e ls o n t he t r ack must

 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 73

be qual t o t he t o tal w e ight ca rr i e d s o that t he e ff e ct Of r o ta

e ,

ti o n Of t he c ar b o dy an d t r ucks is t he sam e as th o ugh a p o r ti o n

Of t he mass w e r e actually t r a n sfe rr e d fr o m t he r e a r t o t he f o r wa r d
wh e e ls o r t r uck T h e p r e ssu r e o f t he fo r wa r d wh e e ls o f t he
.

l e adi n g t r uck will b e t he gr e at e st an d th a t Of t he r e ar wh e e ls ,

of t he r e ar t r uck t he l e ast S i n c e m o st c a r s must b e r e ady t o

.

Op e r at e in e ith e r dir e c ti on with e qu al facility t he p r e ssu r e o f ,

t he b r ak e sh o e s mu s t n o t e xc e e d that which will s kid t he wh e e ls

o n t h e r e a r axl e o f t h e c a r I n o r di n ar y pass e n g e r c ar s with
.
.
,

maximum r a t e s o f r e t ar dati o n t he p r e ssu r e o n t he rail fo r t he , ,

r e ar pair o f wh e e ls is l e ss tha n 8 5 pe r c e n t o f t he n o rmal p r e ssu r e

,
.

at sta ndstill o r at c o n s ta n t sp e e d T his r e pr e s e n ts t h e limit .

o f t he braki n g f o r c e that c an b e appli e d a n d it must b e s e e n ,

that it caus e s a c o n sid e r abl e r e ducti o n fr o m t he maximum

FI G . 85 .
D is t r ib u t io n of b r a k in g f o rc e s o n c ar bo dy .

b r aki n g e ff o r t th eo r e tically p o ssibl e w e re t he f o r c e s p r o p e r ly

adapt e d t o t he i n dividual wh e e l l o ads .

In o rd e r t o d e t e rmi n e t he actual fo rc e s it is n e c e ssary t o c o n ,

sid e r t he r e act i o n s e xisti n g b e t w e e n t he c ar b o dy an d t he trucks ,

an d als o th o s e in t he t r ucks th e ms e lv e s In this way it is p o ssibl e .

t o c o mput e t he all o w abl e braki n g fo r c e s fo r a n y s e t Of c o n diti o n s 1

.

T he b o dy o f a c ar sh o w n in Fig 8 5 is c o n s id e r e d as a fr e e
,
.
,

bo dy t he trucks havi n g b e e n r e plac e d by th e i r r e acti o n s P I
,

an d P 2 T he t r ucks b e i n g alik e a n d t he b r aki n g f o r c e s o n e ach

.

wh e e l b e i n g t he sam e t he h o r i z o n tal e ff o r t Of t he r e ta r di n g fo r c e
,

will be t he sam e fo r e ach t r uck b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d by H T he ,

.

car w e ight W1 acts v e r tically d o w n war d at its c e n t e r o f g r avity

, , ,

l
which is ,
in or di n ar y cas e s at a dist an c e
,
or midway b e tw e e n t he

t wo supp o rti n g t r ucks . T he acti o n of t he b r ak e s caus e s t he car

1
T hef o ll o w in g t re at m e n t is b as e d o n t he m e t h o d o f R . A . PAR K E ,
R ail ro ad
C ar B rakin g Tr an s ac ti on s A I E E V o l XX p 2 52
,
. . . .
,
.
,
.
 74 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

as a wh o l e t o be re tard e d at a rat e a, so that t he t o tal

f o rc e is

W10
20

Als o , si n c e t he t o tal r e acti o n o f t he tru cks must e vid e n tly

to t he e n tir e w e ight o f t he car ,

P1 P2

T aki n g m o m e n ts ab o ut P I we hav e
t
W1
5
wh e n c e
W1 0 0
g l

S ubstituti n g t he valu e of P 2 in e quati o n

W1 W1 0 0
2 gl

Ac o mparis o n O f e quati o n s ( 5) an d ( 6) sh o ws
W1
w e ight supp o rt e d by e ach t r uck has b e e n ,
2
Wl a c
re m o val o f an am o u n t fr o m t he r e ar an d its
g l
t he f o rward truck .

If t h e car is i n t e n d e d fo r O p e rati o n in b o th dire c

usually t he ca se t he d e t e rmi n i n g fact o r is t he pr
,

o n t h e r e ar truck an d a c o n sid e rati o n o f that

,

applicabl e t o t he o th e r wh e n t he m o ti o n is r e v e r s e d F o r cars .

d e sig n e d t o r un in o n e dir e cti o n o n ly it is p o ssibl e t O m o dify t he

,

braki n g f o rc e s t o apply a gr e at e r pre ssu r e t o t he sh o e s o n t he

f o r ward truck In that cas e a similar calculati o n t o t he o n e fo l
.

l o wi n g c an b e mad e fo r t he fo rward truck t he r e lati o n s b e i n g ,

id e n ti c al
.

D i s t r i b ut io n of Forc e s on t h e Truc k C o n sid e ri n g t he r e ar

t r uck as a fr e e b o dy Fig 86 t he car has b e e n r e plac e d by its
,
.
,

pr e ssur e P 2 t he track by t he r e acti o n s R I an d R 2 an d t he braki n g

, ,

f o rc e o n t he rails by t he r e acti o n s T I an d T2 S i n c e e ach pair .

 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 75

of wh ee ls must r o tat e as a si n gl e u n it b e i n g rigidly pr e ss e d o n t he

,

sam e axl e t he fo rc e s TI an d T2 may be c o n sid e r e d as c o mbi n e d

,

fo r th e i r r e sp e ctiv e pair s o f Wh e e ls T he truck w e ight W2 acts .

thr o ugh t he c e n t e r Of gr avity o f t he truck at a dis t an c e d ab o v e ,

t he r ail an d midway b e tw e e n t he wh e e ls .

T aki n g a summati o n o f t he v e r tical fo rc e s w e hav e ,

R 1 + R2 _

W2 _
P2

an d a summati o n of t he h o r i z o n tal fo r c e s giv e s

T1 + T2

I 1
R0 R3

FI G . 86 . Dis t ribu t i o n
-
of b r a k in g fo rc e s on t r uc k .

T aki n g m o m e n ts ab o ut R1,

W2 0 P2 b

Hh Wza d
b gb

Substituti n g t he valu e Of R 2 ine quati o n (7

W2 P2 Hh Wg a d
7 b
(1 1)
2 gb

R e plac i n g H an d P2 by th e ir valu e s fo u n d in e quati o n s ( 2 )

an d e quati o n s ( )
1 0 a n d ( 1 1 ) b e c o m e r e sp e ctiv e ly , ,

W$ 2 W2 a
TI + T2
29

23 [ M
W
t
?
1 76 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

W1 2 W2 W1a h Wza d
[h $
c
+
i
_

4 2g g b

A c o mparis o n o f e quati o n s ( 1 3 ) an d ( 1 4) sh o ws that t he

r e sult o f apply i n g t he brak e s is t o r e duc e t h e rail pr e ssur e o n

ac W1
e ac h pair O f wh ee ls o f t he r e ar truck by an am o u n t
2 gl
ti o n s ( 5) an d an d has als o tra n sfe r r e d fr o m t he r e ar
f o rward wh e e ls of t he truck an am o u n t e qual t o
ah W1 ad W2
2 gb gb

If t he car is t o be o p e rat e d o n ly in o n e dir e cti o n t he v alu e s o f

,

all fo rc e s may b e d e t e rmi n e d an d all pr e ssur e s o n t he br ak e

sh o e s m o di e d acc o rdi n gly O rdi n arily cars must b e suitabl e fo r
.

o p e rati o n in e ith e r di r e cti o n ; in which cas e t he maxi m um pr e s

sur e fo r an y pair of wh e e ls must b e r e duc e d fr o m

t he valu e gi v e n in e quati o n
S o lvi n g e quati o n ( 1 2 ) fo r a we have

Sin ce W1 2 W
is t he t o tal w e ight o f t he car t he e quati o n s
2

ab o v e may be simpli e d by d e sig n ati n g by W t he t o tal w e ight o r ,

W = W1 + 2 W2

E quati o n ( 5)
1 th e n b e c o m e s

a 2g

T he e quati o n s fo r t he rail pr e ssur e s R I an d R 2 h old fo r an y

valu e s o f T I an d T2 that may e xi st I f t he c o e fci e n t o f adh e si o n
.

b e r e pr e s e n t e d by f l th e n
,

TI f 1 121

T2 fl

We may arra n g e t he e xpre ssi o n s fo r rail pr e ssur e s s o lv

n ow r e - ,

in g th e m fo r T I an d T 2 fr o m e quati o n s ( 1 8) an d an d r e

d uc in g by t he substituti o n o f v alu e s o f W an d a fr o m e quati o n s

( 1 6) an d T hen
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TRA I N S 1 77

fwl Wb 2f1 ( W 1 h 2 W2 d)
X
c
(W l ' '
2f1 Wl '

l
l b

fi W Wb 2f1 ( W1 h 2 Wzd)
X
4:
W + M W W
Un d e r rmal c o n diti o n s with t he dir e cti o n o f m o ti o n r e
no ,

ve r s ibl e t he g r e at e st p r e ssur e that c an b e appli e d t o a n y pai r o f

,

wh e e ls an d will slid e n o n e o f th e m may b e d e t e rmi n e d by maki n g

T2 f 1 R2 ( )
2 2

S ubstitutin g this valu e in t he e quati o n fo r R 2 ,

an d simplifyi n g
f1 W Wb
TI T2 X
4 Cb
Wb l 2f1

[ W1 01 ) 2 W2 dl
7
$

F r o m t he dim e n si o n s o f stan dard pass e n g e r cars with o ut

el e ctrical e quipm e n t an d assumi n g a c o e fci e n t o f adh e si o n
,

f
y
l
f l it is f o u n d that i n st e ad o f havi n g a v alu e,
o f

ea ch pair of wh e e ls ,
t he adh e si o n is on ly M An o th e r

way o f l o o kin g at this is that if t he brak e -sh o e p r e ssur e s ar e

e qual o n all wh e e ls t h e availabl
,
e adh e si o n for o btai n i n g r e

t a r d at io n is o n ly p er c e n t o f t h e t o tal w e ight o f t h e c
. a r .

If th e s e pr e ssur e s c an be adj ust e d t o all o w fo r this t r a n sfe r o f

w e ight t he e ffe ctiv e n e ss c an b e i n c r e as e d o v e r 1 6 pe r c e n t .

A lth o ugh it is n o t practical t o p r o p e r ly alt e r t he sh o e p r e ssur e s

'
b e tw e e n t he t w o truc k s with o ut chan gi n g t he x e d l e v e r ag e s
o f t he brak e riggi n g it is p o ssibl e t o mak e a r e adj ustm e n t Of t h e
,

f o rc e s acti n g o n e ach t o c o mp e n sat e fo r t he w e ight t r a n sfe r fr o m

t he f o rwar d t o t he r e ar wh e e ls o f that truck .

I n c o mm o n practi c e t h e brak e sh o e s m ay h e ar o n t h e wh e e ls
,

e ith e r o n t he i n sid e o r t h e o utsid e o f t h e tru ck f r am e O rdi n a .

rily the y are plac e d o n t h e i n sid e as sh o w n in F ig 8 7 W h e n

, ,
. .

this arra n g e m e n t is us e d it is p o ssibl e by v a r yi n g t he a n gu

, ,

l arit y o f t h e ha n g e r li n k t o i n tr o duc e a f o r c e whi ch will

,

e qu aliz e t o a n y d e sir e d d e gr e e t he tra n sf e r o f w e ight fr o m t h e

r e ar t o t h e f o rward axl e .

I n F ig 8 7 ar e sh o w n t h e f o rc e s ac ti n g o n t h e truc k duri n g a n
.

applic ati o n o f t h e brak e s T h e f o rc e s P a n d P ar e th o s e sup pli e d

.

12
1 78 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

fr o m brak e b e am an d ar e r e ally e qu ally divid e d b e tw e e n t h e

t he ,

t w o wh e e ls at o pp os it e e n ds o f an axl e ; whil e t h e o th e r f o rc e s
o ccu r s e pa r at e ly but g e n e rally in e qual am o u n t at t h e i n divid ual
, ,

c o n tact p o i n ts A s m e n ti o n e d b e fo r e it is simpl e r t o t r e at t h e
.
,

pair o f wh ee ls o n a si n gl e axl e as o n e u n it O pp o s e d t o t he .

bra ke sh o e p r e ssu r e ar e t he r e acti o n s OI an d Q 2 fr o m t he wh e e ls

-
,

a n d t h e f r icti o n al f o r c e s F 1 an d F 2 r e sult f r o m th e s e T he re ac .

ti o n s o n t he b r ak e sh o e s fr o m t he ha n g e r li n ks ar e r e pr e s e n t e d
by V I an d V 2 T he middl e o f t h e brak e sh o e s is usu
.

a small dista n c e b e l o w t he c e n t e r o f t h e wh e e ls ; t he an
t he dir e cti o n o f OI an d Q 2 an d t he h o r iz o n tal is r e pr e s e n t e d by ,

0 ( by similar t r ia n gl e s ) T he m e a n v alu e s o f t he fricti o n al

.

FI G . 87
.
E q u al iz a t io n of b ia k e -s h o e
p re s s u re .

By p o p ly
r er o ff s e t t in g th b k e ra e h an g e rs , t he w e ig h t t f b tw th
r an s er e e en e l
w h ee s of t he
t ruc k m ay be com p e n s a t e d , al l o w m g a g r e at e r t o t a l b ki g f
ra n or c e .

f o r c e s F 1 an d F 2 must th e r e f o r e b e i n cli n e d fr o m t he v e r tic al at

t he sam e a n gl e I n t h e pa r ticular e xampl e Of brak e riggi n g sh o w n
.
,

t h e ha n g e r li n ks ar e i n cli n e d t o t he ta n g e n tial di r e cti o n Of t he

fricti o n by t he a n gl e cp R e s o l vm g t he f o r c e s i n t o r e cta n gular
.

c o mp o n e n ts r e f e rr e d t o t he ax e s Of t he ha n g e r li n ks fo r e ach pair
,

o f wh e e ls w e hav e ,

S 1n 0
F1
1 CO S

2 c0 s + F 2 s in
P oo s 0

No w , d e sig n ati n g t he c o e fci e n t Of brak e sh o e fricti o n by fz -

,

F1 f Qi
z ( 2 6)

172 f2 Q 2 ( 7)
2

R e -w r iti n g e quati o n s ( 24 ) an d ( 5)
2 with th e s e v alu e s an d s o lvi n g
fo r cp an d P ,
 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 79

1 Fl -
Fz
fz F I + F2
F 2 ) S in
2f2 00 8 <0 + ( 15 )
Eff e c t of R ot at io nal I n e r ia .
t
additi o n t o d e str o yi n g t he
In
an s l at io n in t he m o vi n g car t he brak e sh o e
e xisti n g ,
-

t he r o tati o n al e n e r gy o f t he wh e e ls
in t he cas e o f m o t o r cars o r l o c o m o tiv e s o f t he ,

i n e r tia is e n tir e ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f that due t o

t r a n slati o n ; an d in d e st r o yi n g it t he c o e fci e n t o f adh e si o n
b e tw e e n wh ee ls an d t r ack d o e s n o t e n t e r Pr actically a gr e at e r .
,

b r aki n g fo r c e must b e us e d t o p r o duc e a giv e n r e tardati o n

n o f t he wh e e ls an d o th e r pa r ts is tak e n i n t o

se n t t he r adius of t he wh e e l ,
t he re tardati o n a

a
of t he c ar is als o acc o mpa n i e d by a re tardati o n 7 in t he m o ti o n
7

wh e e l an d o n e half o f
Of one -

he r adius o f gy r ati o n o f this part ab o ut i ts axis

t he r e tardi n g fo r c e n e c e ssary t o b e appli e d at t he wh e e l tr e ad

fo r a truck with o ut e l e ct rical e quipm e n t

. Fo r a m o t o r t r uck this
fo r c e mus t be i n c r e as e d by t he am o u n t

? (0 611)
2 2

2 a
-

wh e r e w z is t he w e ight an d kg t he radius o f gyrati o n o f t he

f
~

a r matu r e an d n 1 an d n g t he r e sp e ctiv e n umb e r s o f t e e th o n t he

,

axl e g e ar an d o n t h e m o t o r pi n i o n .

T he t o tal r e tardi n g f o rc e s n e c e ssary ar e th e r e f o r e fo r a trail e r , ,

2 10 1 16 1 2

g ()
r
a

2 70 151 2

()
1
a
g r

o r, fo r a t r uck e quipp e d with t wo m o t o rs ,

1
C om p are C ha p t e r II ,

R o t a t io n a l Ac c e l e r at io n .
180 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

r (3
2

r (3 <3
2 2

r
9 e
7
w err
r
g

7
a

Fo r an o rdi n ar y pair Of cast ir o n wh e e ls-

an d axl e
k 2

an d
(7)
1 us i n g th e s e v alu e s in e quati o n s ( 30) an d

an d r e placi n g T 1 an d T2 by th e ir v alu e s fo u n d in e quati o n s ( 20 )

an d w e hav e

f1 W ( W b 2f 1 ( Wl h 2 W2 d)
4
(
e
W 2f 1 W 1
7 ) b

l (W 3 2 8w 1 ) b
. 2f1 ( W 1 h 2 W2 d)
4
( W 2f 1 W 1
) b

S ubstituti n g th e s e v alu e s in e quati o n we hav e

zf1 W l h 2 W2 d

E quati o n ( 2 9 ) may lik e wis e b e simpli e d by substitut i n g

t he valu e o f P I F 2 fr o m e quati o n ( 2 8)

F1 F2 = f2 (F 1 + 17
2 ) t a n (I
)

wh e n c e
fl W W (1 -
f2
2
t an 2
p)
c c os

f? 4 c COS ( 0 ( 15 )
W 2f 1 W I '

z
Fro m this last e quati o n it may b e s e e n that by han gi n g t he ,

brak e b e ams b e tw e e n t he wh e e ls an d g i vi n g t he pr o p e r a n gl e o f
,

i n cli n ati o n t o t he han g e r li n ks t h e pr e ssur e may b e i n cr e as e d

,

o n t h e f o r ward wh e e ls o f t h e t r uck a n d r e duc e d o n t h e r e ar wh e e ls

, ,

with c o r r e sp o n di n g chan g e s in t he fr icti o n al f o rc e pr o d u c e d .

R e v e rsi n g t he di r e cti o n o f m o ti o n t r a n sp o s e s t h e distributi o n

o f w e ight b e tw e e n t he t w o axl e s o f t h e tru ck an d als o t he ,

acti o n s o f t he ha n g e r li n ks s o that t h e gre at e r pr e ssur e is always

,

appli e d t o t he fo rward wh e e ls .

T h e w o rst practical difculty with t he applicati o n o f this

m e th o d o f c o mp e n sati o n o f t he b r ak e sh o e pr e ssur e li e s in t he
-

fact that t he a n gl e qb must n e c e ssarily v ary as t he b r ak e sh o e s

 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 18 1

b e c o m e w o r n ; s o that it is n o t p o ssibl e t o mak e t he c o mp e n sa

ti o n t he sam e u n d e r all c o n diti o n s An y d e si re d am o u n t may .

b e s e cur e d up t o t he p o i n t wh e r e skiddi n g o c curs 1

T he practical .

valu e s o f 0 d) t he a n gl e t he ha n g e r sh o uld mak e with t h e

,

h o r iz o n tal ra n g e fr o m 2 5 t o ,
d e p e n di n g o n t he l e n gth o f
wh e e l bas e an d diam e t e r o f wh ee ls .

Brak e R iggin g
In an y f o r m o f brak e maki n g us e o f t h e
(

fr icti o n b e tw e e n t he wh e e ls an d b r ak e S h o e s it is n e c e ssa r y t o ,

hav e a syst e m o f l e v e rs t o t r an smit t he f o rc e fr o m t he plac e

wh e r e it is d e v e l o p e d t o t he p o i n t o f applicati o n T he g e n e r al .

p r i n c ipl e s ar e t he sam e fo r all b r ak e s o f this class : a c o mpar a

t iv e l y small f o r c e is appli e d by air pr e ssu r e at t he b r ak e cyli n d e r ,

a n d it is i n c r e as e d c o n sid e r ably thr o ugh t he l e v e r syst e m T his .

is p o ssibl e si n c e t he t o tal m o v e m e n t o f t he sh o e s t o giv e t h e

,

maximum p r e ssur e n e e d be o n ly a fracti o n Of an i n ch .

T h e subj e ct o f l e v e r ag e in brak e ri g gi n g i s p ri mar i ly o n e Of

statics ; but t he qu e sti o n o f spac e e n t e rs in maki n g all o wa n c e fo r
bfa ke sh o e cl e ar a n c e pro visi o n fo r w e ar o f t he sh o e s wh e e ls a n d
-
, ,

j o i n ts an d t he spri n gi n g o f m e mb e r s T he cyli n d e rs o f sta n d

,
.

a r d air b r ak e appar atus ar e all d e si g n e d t o giv e a n o r mal pist o n

-

t r av e l o f ab o ut 8 in The l e v e r ag e rati o b e tw e e n t he pist o n a n d

.

t he brak e sh o e s vari e s t o s o m e e xt e n t ; but g o o d practic e c alls

fo r valu e s b e tw e e n t he limits o f 1 2 t o 1 an d 8 t o 1 B y this .

m e an s t he siz e o f brake cyli n d e r may b e d e t e r mi n e d F o r .

e xampl e if t he w e i g ht o f a c e r tai n car is

,
l h an d 1 00 p e r .
,

c e n t b r aki n g fo r c e is t o b e appli e d with a l e v e r ag e r ati o o f 1 0

.

t o 1 t h e f o rc e t o b e e x e r t e d by t h e pist o n is 500 0 lb
, With an .

e m e r g e n cy air p r e ssur e o f 70 lb p er sq i n this will r e.qui r e . .

,

a cyli n d e r with an i n sid e diam e t e r o f sq in S i n c e t he . .

st a n dard diam e t e rs o f b r ak e cyli n d e r s i n c r e as e by i n c r e m e n ts Of

2 in a 1 0 in cyli n d e r will b e r e qui r e d
.
,
-
. .

H avi n g d e t e r mi n e d t he pr o p e r si z e o f cyli n d e r t he brak e r iggi n g ,

fo r t he t r ucks an d car b o dy may b e calculat e d T h e r e ar e th r e e .

diffe r e n t ar ra n g e m e n ts fo r applyi n g t he b r ak e sh o e s : t h e brake s

may be hu n g i n sid e t he wh e e ls ; th e y may b e hu n g o utsid e ; o r
b o th may b e us e d T he latt e r typ e is usually k n o w n as t he
.

c lasp brak e O f t he r st t w o t he in sid e hu n g b r ak e s ar e p r e f
.
,

e r a b l e fo r r e as o n s al r e ady discuss e d
, In s o m e c as e s it m ay b e .

advan tag e o us t o ha n g t he sh o e s o utsi d e t he wh e e ls fo r structural

1
Fo r f ur t he r
a dis c u s s io n of p
t h is t o ic , see Tr a n s a c t io n s A . I . E . E .
,

Vo l . XX p 2 64 ,
. .
182 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

re as o n s W ith e ith er i n sid e hu n g o r o utsid e hu n g brak e s th e r e

.
- -
,

is an u n b ala n c e d pr e ssu r e which must be o pp o s e d by a r e acti o n

f r o m t he wh e e l T his r e acti o n is fur n ish e d by t h e b r ass e s in t he
.

j o ur n al b o x e s I n t h e cas e o f h e avy high sp e e d trai n s which

.
-
,

hav e t o b e r e tar d e d r apidly t he braki n g p r e ssu r e s b e c o m e e x,

c e s s ive .T his may c aus e t he b r ass e s t o w e a r m o r e o n t he sid e

away fr o m t he b r ak e sh o e s an d e v en fo r c e th e m o ut o f po Sit io n
, .

T O r e m e dy this t r o ubl e a n umb e r o f r ailr o ads o p e rati n g high

,

sp e e d t r ai n s h av e ad o pt e d t he clasp b r ak e fo r this typ e plac e s ,

e qual brak e sh o e p r e ssur e s o n o pp o sit e sid e s o f t he wh e e l thus

-
,

r e m o vi n g t he r e acti o n s fr o m t he b e a r i n gs .

Truc k Br ak e Riggin g
In applyi n g t he b r aki n g f o r c e t o t he
truck it m ust b e dist r ibut e d e qually t o all Of t he brake sh o e s
, ,

o r th e r e will b e da n g e r o f slidi n g t h e wh e e ls If it is d e sir e d t o .

i n cr e as e t he braki n g fo rc e o n t he fr o n t wh e e ls this sh o uld b e do n e ,

[ we [ ev
er

FI G . 88 T ru c k b r ak e
. r igg in g fo r l i
e e c t r c c ar .

f lv
T h e o r c e de i e r e d by t h e pu ll rod is t r a n s m it t e d t h r o u h t h e i g lv l v
e d th b tt
e er an e o om
r o d ( s o m e t im e s k n o w n as t he a d j u s t in g
r o d ) t o t h e d e ad lv
e e r , t h us pply g t h b k
a in e ra es .

by givi n g t he han g e r s t he p r o p e r a n g l e T he f o rc e c an be appli e d .

t o t he f o ur sh o e s s e parat e ly by h avi n g i n d e p e n d e n t l e v e r syst e ms

,

fo r e ach sid e Or t o g e th e r thr o ugh b r ak e b e ams

, ,
T h e s e latt e r .

ar e us e d t o a larg e e xt e n t o n fr e ight car s ; but o n e l e ct r ic m o t o r

car s th e r e is s e ld o m sufci e n t r o o m fo r th e m with i n sid e hu n g -

b r ak e s s o th at s e par at e l e v e r s are us e d b e in g c o n n e ct e d t o g e th e r
, ,

w ith a bar t o which t h e mai n pull r o d is fast e n e d .

W h e n b r ak e s ar e applie d t o d o ubl e t r uck e l e ct r ic cars which -

must trav e l a r o u n d sharp curv e s t he plai n b ar fo r c o n n e cti n g ,

t he t r uck b r ak e l e v e rs t o g e th e r is s o m e tim e s n o t sufci e n t t o

p ro vid e fo r t h e e xc e ssiv e swiv e li n g In such cas e s t he b ar is .

mad e in t he fo rm Of a circular are t e ch n ically k n o w n as a radius ,

b ar ,
an d t he b r ak e pull r o d is c o n n e ct e d t o it th r o ugh a r o ll e r
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 83

w o r ki n g in a cl e vis The truck c an th e n s w iv e l an y n e e d e d

.

am o u n t with o ut i n t e rfe ri n g with t he acti o n Of t he brak e s .

T he usual a rr a n g e m e n t o f t h e b r ak e riggi n g with o ut b r ak e

b e ams is s h o w n in Fig 8 8 T he us e o f t he r adius bar an d t he . .

re lati o n s Of t h e l e v e r s may b e cl e a r ly s e e n It may be n o t e d that .

,

by fast e n i n g o n e e n d o f t he d e ad l e v e r t o t he t r uck fram e t h e ,

re acti o n o f t h e b r ak e sh o e o n t he liv e l e v e r is tra n smitt e d t o t he

o th e r sh o e s o that t h e f o rc e appli e d g i v e s d o ubl e t h e b r aki n g
,

e ff o r t p r o duc e d o n a si n gl e sh o e .

Fo un dat i o n Bra k e Riggin g In F ig 8 9 is sh o w n a c o mm o n .

ar ra n g e m e n t o f t he e ss e n tial p arts Of t he b r ak e r igg i n g attach e d t o

t he car b o dy T he air p r e ssu r e acti n g o n t he pist o n o p e r at e s
.

FI G . 89 .
Fo u n d a t io n b rak e r ig g in g .

A f orm of b k
ra e ri ggi g i v y n n er com m on us e N ot e t he m et ho d o f c o n n e c t in g th e h an d
b k i t f b
.

ra es so as n o t t o n w it h t h
er ere e ac t io n of t he a ir - rake .

t he push r o d an d t he push r o d l e v er an d with t h e ai d o f t he -

, ,

cyli n d e r r o d appli e s t he r e quisit e fo rc e s t o t h e b r ak e riggi n gs

,

o f t h e t w o t r ucks It is always d e si r abl e t o p r o vid e ha n d b r ak e s

.

fo r e m e r g e n ci e s in cas e o f failu r e o f t he air supply o r wh e r e it is

, ,

n e c e ssa r y t o h o ld t h e car aft e r t h e air pr e ssur e has b e e n cut Off .

T his c o n n e cti o n may b e mad e t o t he push r o d as sh o w n t he , ,

l e ve r ag e o n t he ha n d b r ak e syst e m b e i n g such as t o p r o duc e t he

-

sam e t o tal b r akin g fo r c e as w h e n air is us e d O th e r arr a n g e m e n ts .

may b e mad e .

T he calculati o n o f t he p r o p e r l e n g ths o f t h e va r i o us l e v e r s is
simpl e aft e r t h e brak e sh o e p r e ssur e s hav e b e e n d e cid e d o n I t
-
.

will b e di ff e r e n t fo r e ach i n dividual l e v e r a rr a n g e m e n t T o .

sh o w t he m e th o d o f calculati o n t he d e t e rmi n ati o n fo r a typical ,

car will b e tak e n up .

1 84 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

Exam pl e A c e rtai n c ar wh o s e pri n cipal w e ights are giv e n

.
-
, ,

b e l o w , is t o b e tt e d with brak e s T he e l e ctrical e quipm e n t .

c o n sists o f t w o m o t o rs b o th m o u n t e d o n o n e truck t he o th e r
, ,

truck b e i n g a trail e r C o n n e cti o n s fo r b o th air an d han d brak e s

.

ar e t o b e pr o v id e d it b e i n g assum e d that t he platf o rm l e v e rag e

,

syst e m o f t he ha n d brak e is such that t he a v e rag e m o t o rma n c an

pr o duc e a f o rc e o f 1 2 00 lb in t he pull r o d c o nn e ct e d t o t he mai n
.

l e v e r syst e m It is d e sir e d t o d e t e rmi n e t he l e n gth s o f all

.
.

l e v e rs an d t he f o rc e s in all parts o f t he brak e riggi n g

,
.

W e i g ht o f c ar b o d y an d app ar at us supp o r t e d t he r e o n lb .

W e i g ht o f mo t o r t ruc k lb .

W e i gh t o f t r a il er t r uc k

W e i g ht o f e ac h m o t o r lb .

T he m t r truck is o o hav i sid hu n g b r ak e sh o e s wit h o ut

to e n e-

b r ak e b e ams B o th t he li v e an d t he d e ad l e v e rs ha v e l e n gths o f
.

2 7 in t he brak e sh o e s b e i n g hu n g 7 in fr o m t he l o w e r e n d
.
,
. .

T he trail e r truck is t o hav e o utsid e hu n g brak e sh o e s with

b r ak e b e ams t he li v e an d d e ad l e v e r s b o th b e i n g 2 3 in l o n g with
,
.

sh o e s hu n g 7 in fr o m t he l o w e r e n d . .

T he braki n g f o rc e o n t he m o t o r t r uck is t o b e 1 00 pe r c e n t .

o f t h e w e ight carri e d an d o n t h e t r ail e r t r uck 90 pe r c e n t o f t h e

, .

w e ight .

T he w e ight o n t he wh e e ls o f t he m o t o r t r uck is

2 4 000 3 8 , 00 0 1b .

or 950 0 lb .
p e r brak e sh o e pr e ssur e t o be appli e d is
wh e e l . T he -
,

th e re f o r e at 1 0 0 pe r c e n t 9 5 00 lb
,
.
,
.

T he w e ight carr i e d by t he wh e e ls o f t he t r ail e r truck is

60 0 0

T his c o rr e sp o n ds t o 6 50 0 lb pe r wh e e l At 90 pe r c e n t braki n g
. . .

f o r c e t he pr e ssur e pe r sh o e is 58 50 lb S i n c e a brake b e am is t o .

b e us e d t he f o rc e fo r t he t w o sid e s must b e supplie d at o n e p o i n t

, ,

maki n g a t o tal o f lb o n t he brak e b e am . .

T he t o tal b r aki n g p o we r n e e d e d is

95 00 X 4 X 2 lb .

If a 1 2 in diam cyli n d e r is us e d a p re ssur e o f 60 lb o n t he

-
. .
, .

pist o n will giv e a t o tal o f 6780 lb T his will mak e t he t o tal .

l e v e rag e rati o
 6 780

which a c o n se r vativ e v al u e fo r a car o f this typ e

is .

O n t h e m o t o r truck t he d e ad l e v e r fulc r um b e i n g
,
-

upp e r e n d t he f o rc e in t he adj usti n g r o d is

,

20 X 9 50 0
704 0 lb .

27

With t he liv e l e v e r ful c r um at

-
t he b o tt o m ,
t he pull at t he t o p is

2 4 60 lb .

27

T he pr o o f of this last cal c ulati o n is t h at t he sum o f t he f o rc e

at t he t o p an d b o tt o m o f t he liv e l e v e r must be e qual t o t he pr e ss
sur e o n t he sh oe .

2 4 60 704 0 9 5 00 lb .

Sin ce th e r e i s a duplicat e s e t o f sh o e s an d l e v e r s o n e ith e r sid e

of t he t r uck t he t o tal st r e ss in t he pull r o d is twic e that f o u n d
, ,

or,

2 X 2 4 60 492 0 lb .

On t he t ail e r truck w
r ith , t he d e ad l e v e r fulcrum at
-
t he upp e r
e n d, t he f o r c e i n t he adj usti n g r o d is

I n t he liv e l e v e r with t he fulc r um at t he adj usti n g r o d

, ,
t he fo rc e
at t he t o p is

5 1 00 lb .

this is pr o v e d as f o ll o ws
5 1 00

b r ake cyli n d e r t he f o r c e
,
on t he push he n ce
o n t he cyli n d e r r o d is
'

6 1 80 5 1 00 lb .

in .
(in practic e in .
)
1 86 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

an d t he l e n gth b is
30 in .

t he cyli n d e r l e v e r , t he l e n gth d is
49 2 0 X 3 0
m .
( i n pract i c e

an d c is th e r e fo r e
30

With a f o rc e o f 1 2 00 lb acti n g
. on t he ha n d brake
-
ro d
,
which
fa Hand d ra ke

FI G . 90 .
Dis t ribu t io n of forc es in f o u n d a t io n b ra k e r ig g i n g

must b e i n c r e as e d t o 6780 l b .
, t he f o r c e r e qu ir e d at t he end of

t he multiplyi n g l e v e r is
78
339 0 lb .

T he l e n gth fr o m t he fulcrum t o t he p o in t of c o n n e cti o n is

th e r e f o r e
1 2 00 X 3 6
( practically 1 2 % in .
)
3 390

In rd e r that t he l e v e rs may b e parall e l wh e n t he slack ad

o

j uste r is half way o ut an d t he pist o n is at t he e n d o f its n o rmal

,

st r o ke t he l e n gth o f t he cyli n d e r r o d must b e

,

so m .
 B R A K I N G O F EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 187

A m o v e m e n t o f M in at e ach sh o e . on t he m o t o r t r u c k will
iv e a m o v e m e n t at t h e push r o d o f
g

27 30
x x l 3 93 in .

7
.

30 17 12

A similar m o v e m e n t o f i n at e a c h sh o e . on t he t r a il e r t r u c k
Wi ll give a m o v e m e n t at t he push r o d o f
16
( V4 X 2) X X

o 86 in
7
. .

17 12.

T he t o tal m o v e m e n t of t he pu s h ro d is
in .

an d ,addi n g 15 in . fo r l o s t m o ti o n t he t r av e l n e c e ssar y fo r t he
,

p ush r o d t o apply t he maximum braki n g f o r c e is app r o ximat e ly

Aut o m i S l ac k Ad j us t e r T he am o u n t o f air n e e d e d fo r
at c .
-

p r o duci n g a c e r tai n cyli n d e r p r e ssu r e d e p e n ds o n t he pist o n trav e l ,

s o that it is d e si r abl e t o k e e p this as sh o r t as p o ssibl e With t he .

aut o m atic b r ak e wh e r e t he cyli n d e r is suppli e d fr o m an auxili ar y

,

r es er v o i r o f small capacity e xc e ssiv e pist o n t r av e l will r e sult in

,

r e duc e d cyl in d e r p r e ssu r e an d c o n s e qu e n tly small e r b r aki n g

,

e ff o r t
. T h e b e st Op e r ati o n is Obtai n e d wh e n t h e pi s t o n t r av e l is
j ust sufci e n t t o all o w p r o p e r cl e ara n c e o f t he sh o e s wh e n t he
b r ak e s ar e r e l e as e d O n sta n d ar d e quipm e n ts this calls fo r a
.

ru n n i n g t r av e l Of ab o ut 8 in An y g r e at e r m o v e m e n t simply
.

calls fo r m o r e air o r fo r l e ss e fci e n t br aki n g .

V a r i o us f o r ms Of aut o matic sl a ck adj ust e r s ar e o n t he mar k e t .

The b e st k n o w n o f th e s e i s sh o w n i n F ig 8 9 A small c o n n e c . .

ti o n is mad e th r o u g h t he b r ak e cyli n d e r wall at a p o i n t d e t e r

mi n e d by t he maximum d esirabl e pist o n t r av e l Wh e n this is .

e x c e e d e d air is admitt e d t o t he tap a n d s e r v e s t o Op e r at e a

,

r atch e t ,
cha n g i n g t he p o siti o n Of t he l e v e r a s i n dic a t e d in t he ,

dia g r am E a c h tim e t he b r ak e s ar e appli e d w h e n t h e t r av e l

.

is g r e at e r th a n t he d e si r e d am o u n t t he rat c h e t will m o v e o n e
,

n o tch ,
u n til t he e xc e ss has all b e e n tak e n up aft e r whi c h n o ,

fu r th e r acti o n o f t he sla c k adj ust e r will tak e plac e u n til t he

sl ack has a g ai n pass e d t he limiti n g valu e a n d t he pist o n t r av e l ,

has b e c o m e t oo g r e at .

M e th o d s o f S upplyin g B r ak in g Fo r c e Han d B r ak e s T he .

b r ak e r i gg i n g d e s c r ib e d will w or k e qually w e ll with an y avail abl e

1 88 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

f o r c e that c an b e appli e d in t he pr o p e r am o u n t an d with pr o p e r ,

c o n tr o l T w o m e th o ds o f Op e rati o n hav e b e e n sugg e st e d

.

ma n ual an d air p r e ssu r e b e i n g us e d W ith ha n d brak e s t he .

,

f o r c e is appli e d t o a b r ak e staff by m e a n s o f a c r a n k e d ha n dl e o r
ha n d wh e e l tur n e d by t he m o t o r ma n T he sta ff car r i e s at its
-
.

l o w e r e n d a chai n which is attach e d t o t he pull r o d c o n n e cti n g

t o t he f o u n dati o n brak e ri gg i n g B y r o tati n g t he b r ak e sta ff
.

t he chai n is wrapp e d ab o ut it thus applyi n g t he b r aki n g f o r c e

,

t o t he r iggi n g If t he car is h e avy an d t he n e c e ssa r y r e tardi n g

.
,

f o r c e is lar g e it is s o m e tim e s imp o ssibl e t o ge t sufci e n t l e v e rag e

,

with this ar r a n g e m e n t T o i n c r e as e t he pull t he b o tt o m o f

.
,

t he b r ak e sta ff may carry a g e ar t he chai n c o n n e cti o n t o t he

,

pull r o d b e i n g mad e thr o ugh t he m e shi n g g e ar T he f o rc e may .

thus b e i n cr e as e d t o an y d e si r e d valu e A limitati o n may b e .

s e e n in v a r i o us f o rms O f high rati o ha n d b r ak e s in that if

-
, ,

d e sig n e d t o giv e t he maximum braki n g f o rc e wh e n appli e d

by t he a v e r ag e m o t o rma n th e r e is a gr e at risk Of skiddi n g t he
,

wh e e ls wh e n Op e r at e d by a str o n g e r m an T his is s o m e thi n g .

which ca n n o t b e tak e n car e o f in t he d e sig n an d may r e sult in ,

t he us e o f ha n d brak e s o f l e ss p o w e r m e r e ly t o o b viat e thi s

da n g e r .

I n t he o p e r ati o n O f han d brak e s it is n e c e ssary as in a n y , ,

c as e t o hav e a c e rtai n am o u n t o f slack in t he riggi n g T his
,
.

is n e e d e d t o k e e p t he sh o e s away fr o m t he wh e e ls wh e n t he brak e s
ar e r e l e as e d T he o rdi n ary m o t o rman in maki n g a st o p d e
.
, ,

si r e s t o ap ply t h e brak e s as s o o n as p o ssibl e aft e r t h e sig n al h as

b e e n giv e n o r t h e pr o p e r pl ac e fo r th e ir o p e rati o n has b e e n
,

r e ach e d I n o rd e r t o pr e v e n t l o ss o f tim e in m aki n g t h e a p pli

.

c ati o n it is o ft e n t h e c ust o m am o n g m o t o rm e n t o r u n t h e c a r s
,

with t h e sl ack all t ak e n o u t o f t h e b r ak e r iggi n g t h e sh o e s b e i n g ,

as n e ar t h e wh e e ls as p o ssibl e with o ut ap plyi n g t h e b r ak e s .

T his i s d o n e by wi n di n g t h e sp ar e ch ai n o n t h e brak e st a ff ,

a n d h o l di n g t h e h a n dl e in th at p o siti o n c o n ti n u ally Wh en .

o p e r ati n g in this m a n n e r it is alm o st im p o ssibl e t o k e e p f r o m

,

h avi n g s o m e fri cti o n o f t h e sh o e s o n t h e wh e e ls T his in e ff e ct .

, ,

i s t h e s am e as i n cr e asi n g t h e t r ai n r e s ist a n c e ; a n d it r e q u i r e s
additi o n al p o w e r fr o m t h e e l e c tri c ci r cuit I n c e rtai n c as e s .

wh e r e air brak e s h a v e b e e n add e d t o c ars alr e ady in u s e with

h a n d brak e s o n ly it h as b e e n f o u n d th at th e r e h as b e e n a m ark e d
,

d e c r e as e in t h e p o w e r c o n sumpti o n s om e tim e s am o u n ti n g t o
,

as mu ch as 1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t .
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y TRA I N S 1 89

Air Brak e s . O f all t he

f o rms o f p o w e r b r ake s which hav e b e e n
d e v e l o p e d t he o n e which has m e t with t he g re at e st succ e ss an d
,

has b e e n m o st wid e ly ad o pt e d is that in which t he braki n g f o rc e

,

is pr o duc e d by m e a n s o f c o mpr e ss e d air G e n e rally sp e aki n g .

,

c o mpr e ss e d air is admitt e d t o t h e brak e cyli n d e r an d t he pist o n ,

Op e rat e s a push r o d c o n n e ct e d t o t he riggi n g T he pri n cipal .

di ff e r e n c e in v ar i o us typ e s o f brak e s is in t he m e th o ds by which

t h e admissi o n an d r e l e as e o f air t o t he cyli n d e r is c o n t r o ll e d T he .

t w o m e th o ds in g e n e ral us e ar e t he straight an d t he aut o

mati c syst e ms I n t he f o rme r air is appli e d dir e ctly t o t he b r ak e
.
,

cyli n d e r fr o m a mai n r e s e r v o ir ; in t he s e c o n d it is suppli e d t o t h e ,

cyli n d e r fr o m an auxiliar y r e s e r v o i r t he mai n ai r pr e ssur e b e i n g ,

us e d t o c o n tr o l t he admissi on o f air t o an d fr o m t he l att e r an d ,

t he r e l e as e o f t he air fr o m t he brak e cyli n d e r t o t he o utsid e

atm o sph e r e .

M e th o d s o f C o m pre s s in g t h e Air An o th e r w ay in which

.

syst e ms o f air brak e s di ffe r is d ue t o t he m e th o ds in us e fo r sup

plyi n g t he c o mp r e ss e d air T he simpl e st ar ra n g e m e n t is t o
.
.

pr o vid e lar g e stati o n ary c o mpr e ss o rs at suitabl e p o i n ts al o n g t he

railr o ad Th e s e pla n ts c o n ti n u o usly charg e stati o n ary r e s e r
.

vo ir s o f lar g e capacity E ach car is pr o vid e d with a st o rag e t a n k

.
,

which may b e char g e d fr o m t he stati o n ary r e s e r v o i r s as ne e d e d ,

t he Op e rati o n taki n g but a fe w mi n ut e s as t he car r e ach e s t he

char gi n g stati on I n o rd e r t o r e duc e t h e siz e o f t he car r e s e r v o ir
.
,

t he air is st o r e d at high pr e ssur e ( ab o ut 3 0 0 lb pe r sq . .

F or us e in t he cyli n d e r s this is r e duc e d t o ab o ut 4 5 lb pe r

, .

sq i n which caus e s a c e rtai n l o ss in e fci e n cy

. .
, .

The m o r e c o mm o n m e th o d o f supplyi n g t he c o mpr e ss e d air

is by m e a n s o f i n di v idual c o mpr e ss o rs l o cat e d o n t he ca r s o r ,

l o c o m o tiv e s F o r st e am s er v ic e t he c o mpr e ss o rs are driv e n

.
,

di r e ctly by st e am fr o m t he b o il e r th e r e b e i n g o n e o r m o r e i n stall e d
,

o n e ach l o c o m o ti v e d e p e n di n g o n t he capacity r e quir e d F o r

, .

s e r v ic e o n e l e ct r ic r o ads t he st e am pump is r e plac e d by o n e dri v e n

,

e ith e r fr o m g e ari n g c o n n e ct e d t o t he axl e o r by an i n dividual e l e c ,

t r ic m o t o r T he axl e d r iv e n c o mpr e ss o r s w e r e fa v o r e d in t he
.

e ar ly p e ri o d o f air b r ak e Op e rati o n o n e l e ct r ic r o ads ; but o wi n g

-
,

t o a n umb e r o f di fculti e s in c o n structi o n an d high mai n t e n a n c e ,

c o sts th e y hav e b e e n alm o st e n tir ely s us pe rse de d by m o t o r

,

d r iv e n c o mpr e ss o rs .

T he m o t o r d r iv e n c o mpr e ss o r may b e e ith e r a simpl e o r a t rim

-

stag e air pump o f t he r e cipr o cati n g typ e O p e rat e d dir e ct o r ,

1 90 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

th r o ugh g e a r i n g by a small s e r i e s m o t o r in t he cas e o f dir e ct

,

curr e n t o r si n gl e phas e r o ads ; o r by an i n ducti o n m o t o r o n thr e e

-

phas e li n e s In syste ms u s i n g i n div idual c o mpr e ss o rs wh e r e

.
,

t he r e s e rv o ir c an b e cha r g e d as Oft e n as r e qui r e d t he pr e ssu r e ,

r a n g e is b e tw e e n 50 an d 9 0 l b t he limits b e tw e e n t he maximum
.
,

an d t he mi n imum v alu e s usually b e i n g ab o ut 2 0 lb b e tw e e n .

70 a n d 90 lb is t he ra n g e o n ma n y syst e ms )
. .

T o k e e p t he pr e ssur e in t he r e s e rv o i r withi n t he p r o p e r limits ,

i n t e r mitt e n t Op e r ati o n o f t he air c o mp r e ss o r is n e c e ssary T he .

acti o n is c o n tr o ll e d aut o matically by s o m e f o r m o f g o v e r n o r

which c o n n e cts t h e m o t o r t o t he li n e wh en t he pr e ssu r e has fall e n
t o t he mi n imum limit an d O p e n s t he ci r cuit wh en it has b e e n
,

i n cr e as e d t o t h e maximum V ari o us typ e s o f g o v e r n o r ar e in

.

us e but t he basic p r in cipl e as stat e d ab o v e is t he sam e in all

, , , .

S tr aight Air B r ak e s . T he simpl e st m e th o d o f supplyi n g t he

air t o t he brak e cyli n d e r is o bvi o usly that in whi ch it is admitt e d
di r e ctly fr o m t he mai n r e s e rv o ir T he c o n tr o l fo r this typ e o f
.

b r ak e c o n sists e ss e n tially o f a val v e O p e rat e d by t he m o t o r man ,

which c an c o n n e ct t he cyli n d e r t o t he mai n r e s e r v o ir c an dis ,

c o nn e ct it an d r e tai n t he air o r c an r e l e as e t he air c o mpl e t e ly

,

fr o m t he cyli n d e r by c o n n e cti n g it with t he atm o sph e r e .

Fo r si n gl e car o p e rati o n t he straight air brak e is id e al fo r t h e

-
, ,

m o t o r man c an graduat e t he am o u n t o f air admitt e d t o t he cyli n d e r

an d th e r e by adj ust t he braki n g f o rc e t o o btai n u n if o r m r e tardati o n

in spit e o f t he var iabl e c o e fci e n t o f fri c ti o n As t he l e n gth o f t he

.

trai n is i n cr e as e d difculty is e xp e r i e n c e d in g e tti n g u n if o r m

,

applicati o n o f t he brak e s All t he air w hich e n t e rs t he cyli n de rs

.

must o w fr o m t he mai n r e s e rv o ir o n t he f o rward car o r l o c o m o

tiv e thr o ugh t he c o n tr o lli n g valv e an d th e n thr o ugh a train
, ,

pip e t o t he brak e cyli n d e r s o n t he i n dividual cars It is e vid e n t .

that t he pr e ssur e will build up at t he fr o n t e n d o f t he trai n r st ;

a n d that a c o n sid e rabl e tim e will e laps e b e f o r e t he brak e s ar e

appli e d with full f o rc e o n t he last c ar o f t h e trai n T his v a r iati o n .

in f o rc e at t he i n sta n t wh e n t he b r ak e s ar e appli e d may caus e

trai n s t o br e ak in t w o r e sulti n g in s e r i o us accid e n ts ; an d at b e st
,

imp o s e s s e v e r e strai n s o n t he d r awbar s .

Aut o m at ic Air B r ak e s T o o bviat e t h e t r o ubl e s i n cid e n t t o t he

u s e o f straight air brak e s o n trai n s o f c o n sid e r abl e l e n gth t he
-

aut o matic air brak e w as d e v e l o p e d I n this syst e m t he train

.

pip e d o e s n o t fe e d di r e ctly i n t o t he b r ak e cyli n d e r s b ut is us e d ,

t o char g e a mai n r e s e rv o ir o n t he l o c o m o tiv e an d a s e t o f auxiliary

 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 191

r e s e rv o irs o n e O f which is l o cat e d o n e ach car In t he n o rmal

, .

ru n n i n g p o siti o n all o f t he latt e r ar e fully charg e d t o t he tr a in

,

pip e p r e ssu r e an d t he brak e cyli n d e rs ar e O p e n t o t he o utsid e

,

atm o sph e r e .

T h e s e r e lati o n s ar e c on tr o ll e d by a d e vic e k n o w n as t he

t r ipl e valv e sh o w n in Fig 9 1 which aut o matically mak e s
, .
,

t he p r o p e r c o n n e cti o n s b e tw e e n t he t r ai n pip e t he auxilia r y ,

r e s e r v o i r t he brak e cyli n d e r an d t he o utsid e atm o sph e r e I t

, , .

is e vid e n t that a tripl e v alv e is a n e c e ssar y part o f t he e quip

me n t o f e ach car in t he t r ai n .

Bra ke

FI G . 91 . P l a in t ripl e V alve .

As s ho w n , t he ra e c b k l
in d e r is e a us n o xh t i g t t h t id
e ou st e a m os ph ere , an d t he au x ili y ar
v
r es er o ir is b g
e in c h ar e g f
r o m t he ra n i e t i p p Th i i t h l
s s e r e e a s e o r r u n n in gp o s it i o n A
l d v lv t l ft l
.

pp p v t g t he
.

r ed uc t io n in t r a in i e r e s s ur e c a us es e s i e a th e o m o e o t he e c o s in c o nne c
b pp x ili y v i g th l b k
,

t io n e t w e e n t h e t r a in i e an d t h e a u ar r es e r d
o r , an c o n n e c t in e at t e r t o t he ra e
yl
c i n d er , t h e e h aus tx e in b g l
c o s e d at t h e s a m e t im e

To apply t he b r ak e s t he t r ai n pip e pre ssur e is sudd e n ly re

,

d u c e d which caus e s a m o v e men t o f t he tripl e val v e disc o n n e ct

, ,

in g t he auxiliary r e s e rv o ir fr o m t he trai n pip e an d c o n n e cti n g ,

it with t he brak e cyli n d e r m e a n whil e cl o si n g t he e xhau st c o n

,

n e c t io n T his caus e s t he air t o o w fr o m t he auxiliar y r e s e rv o ir

.

t o t he b r ak e cyli n d e r applyi n g t he b r ak e s ,
V a r i o us imp r o v e .

me n ts hav e b e e n mad e fr o m time t o tim e t o i n cr e as e t he rapidity

with which t he t r ai n pip e p r e ssur e is l o w e r e d an d t o mak e t he
-
,

m o v e m e n t o f t he t r ipl e v alv e with a m i n imum r e d ucti o n in

pr e ssur e In t he w e ll k n o w n quick acti o n b r ak e which is
.
- -
,

in us e o n a larg e pr o p o r ti o n o f t he st e am r o ads t he trai n pip e ,

is v e n t e d di r e ctly i n t o t he brak e cyli n d e r by t he m o v e m e n t o f

1 92 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

t he tripl e valv e .I n this way t he r e ducti o n in trai n pip e pr e ssur e -

c an b e mad e in a v e ry sh o rt tim e r e quiri n g o n ly a fe w s e c o n ds

,

for t he l o n g e st fr e ight trai n s in Op e rati on I n maki n g an .

o rdi n ary o r s e r v ic e applicati o n t he full pr e ssur e a v ailable
,

f r o m t he auxiliary r e s e r v o ir is n o t n e e d e d W h e n t he d e s ir e d .

am o u n t o f air has b e e n admitt e d t o e ach b r ak e cyli n d e r its ,

tripl e val v e is cl o s e d T o pr o duc e this e ffe ct t he trai n pip e

.
-

pr e ssur e n e e d o n ly b e l e ss e n e d a small am o u n t ; in t he sta n dard

typ e s o f b r ak e this r e ducti o n must n o t e xc e e d ab o ut 1 5 lb .

With a gr e at e r dr o p in t he trai n pip e t he e m e r g e n cy applica

ti o n o ccu r s in which t he t r ai n pip e is fully v e n t e d t o t he atm o s

,

h e r e o r t o t h e cyli n d e r s an d t he full pr e ssur e fr o m t he auxiliary

p ,

r e s e r v o ir is appli e d t o t he b r ak e s .

T o r e l e as e t h e brak e t he e n gi n e e r s v al v e is m o v e d t o such a

,

p o siti o n as t o admit air fr o m t he mai n r e s e rv o ir t o t he t r ai n pip e .

T his i n cr e as e in train pip e pr e ssur e cha n g e s t he p o siti o n o f

-

t he tripl e v al v e s o as t o cl o s e t he c o n n e cti o n b e tw e e n t he au xiliary

r e s e r v o ir an d t he brak e cyli n d e r c o n n e cti n g t he f o rm e r t o t he
,

trai n pip e T his r e charg e s t he auxiliary r e s e r v o ir At t he sam e

. .

tim e t he brak e cyli n d e r is c o n n e ct e d t o t he atm o sph e r e whic h ,

r e l e as e s all t he air an d r e m o v e s t he pr e ssur e fr o m t he pist o n an d

fr o m t he b r ak e s .

A m o dicati o n o f t he quick acti o n brak e k n o w n as t he

-
,

high sp e e d b r ak e has b e e n d e v e l o p e d fo r us e o n fast p ass e n g e r

-
,

trai n s In t he d e sig n o f this b r ak e acc o u n t is tak e n o f t he

.
,

fact that t he c o e fci e n t o f fricti o n is l e ss at high sp e e ds The .

trai n pip e pr e ssur e in this typ e is high e r than in t he quick acti o n

- -

brak e b e i n g in t he n e ighb o rh o o d o f 1 1 0 lb
, Wh e n t h e .

e m e rg e n cy applicati o n is mad e t he full pr e ssur e is appli e d fr o m

,

t he auxilia r y r e s e rv o irs t o t he cyli n d e rs pr o duci n g a braki n g f o r c e

,

which alth o ugh n o t suffici e n t t o caus e sl idi n g o f t he wh e e ls at

,

t he high sp e e d w o uld alm o st c e rtai n ly d o it b e f o r e st o ppi n g

,

t he t r ai n . T o p r e v e n t such a r e sult t he p r e ssur e is l o w e r e d

,

g r adually by m e a n s Of an aut pm at ic r e duci n g v alv e o n t he c ar

, ,

t o t he e m e rg e n cy sta n da r d o f 60 lb .

E1e c t r o pn e um at ic B r ak e Alth o ugh t he quick acti o n and

-

t he high sp e e d b r ak e s ha v e b e e n v e ry satisfact o r y in g en e r al s e rv
-

'
ic e c o n diti o n s ar i s e in c o n n e cti o n with t he Op e r ati on Of h e avy
, ,

fast t r ai n s wh e r e t he c o n tr o l th e y e x e rcis e is n o t su fci e n t Ev e n

,
.

with t he quick acti o n brak e th e r e is a c e rtai n tim e lag b e tw e e n

-
,

t he m o ve m e n t o f t h e e n gi n e e r s val v e an d t he applicati o n o f t he

 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 93

brake s o n t he r e ar car o f t he trai n Wh e r e t he t r ai n s a r e sh o r t .

,

o r wh e r e t he sp e e ds ar e l o w this will cau s e n o difficulty in o p e r a ,

ti o n With l o n g high sp e e d t r ai n s th e r e is c o n sid e r abl e su r gi n g

.
,
-

o f t he c a r s a n d st r ai n o n t he d r aft rig g i n g
, Fu r th e r tha n this t h e .
,

tim e r e qui r e d fo r t he full applicati o n o f t h e brak e s mak e s t he t o tal

dista n c e fr o m t he b r aki n g si g n al t o a st o p mat e r iall y l o n g e r tha n
if t he b r ak e s w e r e all s e t simulta n e o usly A c e rtai n tim e e l e m e n t .

is u n av o idabl e fo r t he air ca n n o t o w fr o m t he au x iliar y r e s e r v o i r

,

t o t he b r ak e c yli n d e r i n sta n ta n e o u s ly ; but b e y o n d this it is d e ,

sir abl e t o e limi n at e t he lag T his is acc o mplish e d by t h e us e o f .

t he e l e ct r o p n e umatic b r ak e In this typ e t he o rdi n ar y f e atu r e s

.
,

o f t h e aut o m a tic b r ak e ar e r e tai n e d but t he applicati o n o f t h e ,

by an e l e ct r ic circuit in a ma n n e r s o m e what ,

t o that o f t he el e c t r O pn e um at ic c o n t r o l o f t he m o t o r
c i rcuits in multipl e u n it o p e r ati o n A sp e c ial f o rm o f tripl e
-
.

val v e is us e d in which t h e admis s i o n o f air t o t he b r ak e cyli n d e r s

,

is g o v e r n e d by e l e ct r o mag n e tic v alv e s B y p r o p e r c o mbi n ati o n s .

o f e l e ct r ic ci r cuits t h e b r ak e cyli n d e r p r e ssu r e may b e built up

t o t he maximum may b e h e ld in t h e cyli n d e r s o r may b e wh o lly

, ,

o r par tially e xhaust e d T his latt e r f e a tu r e is Of g r e at imp o r

.

ta n c e si n c e with t he o r di n ary aut o matic b r ak e th e r e is littl e O ppo r

,

t un it y t o pr o vid e a graduat e d r e l e as e .

A c o mp ar i s o n o f t he acti o n o f t he t w o typ e s o f b r ak e is sh o w n
in Fig In t he p n e umatically c o n tr o ll e d b r ak e t he st o p is
.
,

mad e in 4 0 s e c o n ds f r o m t he tim e t he b r ak e applicati o n w as b e

g un b r i n gi n g t h e trai n t o r e st in a dista n c e o f 1 2 9 0 ft
,
I n this .

o p e rati o n a g r aduat e d acti o n was o btai ne d by i n c r e asi n g t he

trai n pip e p r e ssu r e t o r e l e as e t he b r a k e s an d th e n pa r tially r e

-

applyi n g th e m In c o mpar is o n with this t he e l e ct r ically c o n

.
,

t r o ll e d b r ak e s br o u g ht t h e t r ai n t o r e st aft e r 2 0 s e c o n ds o r o n e ,

half t he tim e r e quir e d fo r t he p n e umatic t he dista n c e tak e n b e i n g ,

70 0 ft I n t he o p e rati o n Of t he e l e ct r ically c o n t r o ll e d b r ak e a
.
,

much m o r e e ffe ctiv e g r aduati o n Of t he r e l e as e was o btai n e d th e r e ,

b e i n g t w o pa r tial r e ducti o n s o f p r e ssu r e T he r e sult c an b e s e e n .

in t he m o r e u n if o r m sl o p e o f t he sp e e d tim e c u r v e D ue t o this
.

f e atu r e t he ma x imum b r aki n g e ff o r t c an be i n c r e as e d t o a valu e

,

which w o uld b e da n g e r o us fo r t he o r di n ar y aut o matic b r ak e I t .

sh o uld b e n o t e d that t he n al p r e ssu r e at t he e n d o f t he st o p is

1
Fig s 9 2 . an d 93 ar e f ro m an i l
ar t c e by W V . . T U RNER, E le c t r i c J o u rn a l ,

Vo l . V III p , . 90 5 , O c t .
,
19 1 1 .
1 94 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

I8 24 50
Tim e , S e c onds .

FI G . 92 .
p s w it h au t o m a t ic an d e l e
S e rvic e st o
N t h at
ot e e th p
ress u b ild p
re u h s u p idly i t h
m uc m or e r a n e

l l
a s o t h a t t h e r e e as e s i g d l w h il i t h t
ra ua e ti n ppli e au o m a c a c a t io n

ppli d t
,

a n d t h e n t e -a e o d re th p uc e e r e s s ur e .

18 24 30 36
Tim e , S e c o nd s

y p i
F I G 9 3 Em e rg e n c s t o s w t h au t o m at c a n d e e c t r o n e u m at c b ra e s
. . i l p i k .

g b k gf bl b l

g
I n a d d it io n t o u s in a h i h e r r a i n o r c e i t is o s s
i e t o p u i d u p t h e r e s s p
u
re m ore

p ly b l g bl b
,

r a id w it h t h e e l e c t r O p n e u m a t ic r a k e r e s u t i
,n in a c o n s id e r a . e r e d u c t i o n o t h i n t im e

a n d d is t an c e r e q uir e d for s t o pp in g a t r ain .

0
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 95

l e ss with t he e l e ct r o p ne umatic c o n t r o l tha n with t h e c o mm o n

typ e .

I n e m e r g e n cy st o ps t he advan tag e o f simulta n e o us acti on o f

t he b r ak e s o n all t h e ca r s is much g r e at e r tha n fo r s e r vic e applica
ti o n s A typical c o mpar i s o n o f e m e r g e n cy st o ps i s sh o w n in
.

F ig 9 3 which has b e en pl o tt e d t o t h e sam e s cal e s as Fig 9 2

.
, . .

It may b e s e e n that t he t o tal dista n c e fo r t he st o p is 3 0 0 ft l e ss .

fo r t he e l e ct r ic b r ak e o r o n ly slightly o v e r half that fo r t he

,

p n e uma t ic T he tim e for st o ppi n g t h e t r ai n is lik e wis e d e c r e ase d

.

fr o m 2 2 s e c o n ds t o 1 1 s e c o n ds T he us e o f t he e l e ctric c o n
.

t r o l mak e s p o ssible a c o n sid e rabl e r e ducti o n in t he dista n c e

i n t e r v al which must b e all o w e d b e tw e e n t r ai n s fo r safe ty s o that ,

t r ack capacity may b e mat e r ially i n cr e as e d .

C o m b in e d S t r a i ght an d Aut o m atic B rak e M a n y e l e ct r ic

r o ads Op e r at e th e ir ca r s si n gly fo r t he gre at e r p o r ti o n o f t he tim e ,

but Oc casi o n ally r un t r ai n s o f t w o o r thr e e ca r s F o r si n gl e c ar .

-

s e rvi c e t he str aight air b r ak e giv e s all t he d e si r e d fe atu r e s an d

is e asi e r t o ma n ipul at e tha n t he aut o mati c B ut wh e n c ar s are
.

c o upl e d t o g e th e r t he use o f t he st r aight air brak e e v e n o n c o m

, ,

p a r a t iv e l y sh o r t t r ai n s l e ads t o t
,
h e difculti e s d ue t o sl o w t r a n s
m issi o n o f t he b r aki n g f o r c e t o t he r e ar o f t h e t r ai n Fo r suc h .

cas e s it is p o ssibl e t o hav e a c o mbi n e d e quipm e n t which fo r ,

n o r mal Op e rati o n acts as a straight air b r a k e but may b e quickly,

c o n v e r t e d i n t o an aut o matic brak e by t he cha n g e in a fe w valv e

c o n n e cti o n s A n umb e r o f va r iati o n s in t he a r r a n g e m e n t o f t he
.

valv e s is p o ssibl e an d se v e r al typ e s o f c o mbi n ati o n brak e are in

,

Vac uum B r ak e .
Alth o ugh t he
air brak e is in alm o st u n iv e r sal
us e in this c o u n t r y it has a c o mp e tit o r in E u r o p e in t h e va c uum
,

b r ake In this typ e t he pri n cipl e o f o p e rati o n is alm o st id e n tical

.

with that o f t he air b r ak e b ut t he c o mpr e ss e d air is r e plac e d by

,

a p artial vacuum p r o duc e d by a pump s o m e what similar t o t he

,

o rdi n ar y air c o mp r e ss o r
-
S i n c e t he pr e ssu r e in t he b r ak e cyli n d e r
.

d e p e n ds o n t he u n bala n c e d acti o n o f t he e xte r n al air o n t he pi s t o n ,

it f o ll o ws that t he maximum f o rc e which c an b e o btai n e d is 1 5

. i
lb p e r sq n In o d e r t g e t t
. r . o h e sam b ak sh o e p r e ssu r e s
e r e -

as are o r di n ar ily in us e t he siz e o f cyli n d e r s must b e c o n sid e r

,

ably in cr e as e d In g e n e ral t he O p e r ati o n o f t his b r ak e is in fe

.
, .

ri o r t o t h e m o d e r n air brak e s d e scrib e d ab o v e .

El e c t ric an d M agn e tic Br ak e s A n umb e r o f att e mpts t o

utiliz e el e ctric e n e r gy fo r t he b r aki n g o f tr ai n s hav e b e e n mad e
1 96 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

fr o m time t o tim e T he simpl e st o f th e s e c o n sists o f a disc

.
,

fast e n e d t o t he axl e an d a circular e l e ctr o mag n e t attach e d t o t he

,

truck T he mag n e t wh e n e n e rgiz e d with cu r r e n t fr o m t he tr o ll e y

.
,

wir e may b e mad e t o b e ar agai n st t he disc T his typ e o f b r ak e

, .

w as d e v e l o p e d a n umb e r o f y e ars ag o ; but it n e v e r w as v e ry

succ e ssful an d is n o w Obs o l e t e A much simpl e r arra n g e m e n t is
, .

t o r e v e r s e t h e car m o t o r s an d c o n n e ct th e m t o t he li n e T his .

pr o duc e s a c o u n t e r t o r qu e givi n g a p o w e r ful r e tar di n g e ff o rt

, .

B o th o f th e s e m e th o ds o f b r aki n g r e quir e t he use o f e l e ctric

e n e r gy fr o m t h e li n e an d t he s e c o n d i n cr e as e s t h e duty o f t h e
,

m o t o rs .

It has alr e ady b ee n sh o w n that a m o vi n g car p o ss e ss e s a

c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t o f st o r e d e n e rgy d ue t o its v e l o city I t , .

w o uld s e e m d e sirabl e t o utiliz e this in st o ppi n g t he car in s o m e

o th e r way tha n t o wast e it in h e ati n g t he b r ak e sh oe s an d wh e e ls .

If t he m o t o r s c an b e mad e t o r e v e rs e th e ir usual fu n cti o n s an d act

as ge n e r at o rs th e y will c o n v e rt t he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t he m o vi n g
,

t r ai n i n t o e l e ct r i c ity which may b e r e tu r n e d t o t he li n e o r us e d

,

fo r s o m e o th e r purp o s e T he g r e at e st o bstacl e in t he w ay o f
.

r e tu r n i n g e n e r gy with o r di n ary equipm en ts is that t he s e r i e s m o t o r

d o e s n o t r e adily l e n d its e lf t o this us e If all o w e d t o Op e r at e .

with o ut cha n g e o f c o n n e cti o n s it c a n n o t b e mad e t o e x e r t a,

c o u n t e r t o r qu e si n c e t he sp e e d i n c r e as e s i n d e n it e ly as t he
-
,

l o ad is r e duc e d O n t he o th e r ha n d if t he e ld is r e v e rs e d t he
.
, ,

c o u n t e r e m f will b e in t he sam e dir e cti o n as t he li n e

. . . so

that t he m o t o r will gi v e a c o u n t e r t o r qu e but with additi o n al -

,

c u rr e n t fr o m t he li n e T o mak e t he s e ri e s m o t o r av ailabl e fo r
.

this ki n d o f b r aki n g an d t o r e tur n e n e r gy t o t he c o n st a n t p o t e n

,
-

tial t r o ll e y ci r cuit it is n e c e ssar y t o add a shu n t e ld T his

,
.

c o mplicat e s t h e c o n st r ucti o n o f t h e m o t o r an d o f t he c o n t r o ll e r
t o a p o i n t wh e r e it is n o t o r di n a r ily c o n sid e r e d f e asibl e .

It is p o ssibl e t o sh o r t ci r cuit t he m o t o r o n its e lf aft e r t he li n e

-
,

ci r cuit has b e e n disc o n n e ct e d I n this cas e t he machi n e acts .

as an o r di n ary s e r i e s g e n e r at o r an d will d e liv e r a cu rr e n t de ,

p e n d e n t o n its charact e r istic an d t he r e sista n c e in t he e xt e r n al

ci r c uit B y p r o p e rly ch o o si n g t he r e sista n c e t he p o w e r d e liv e r e d
.
,

c an b e adj ust e d as d e sir e d with a c o rr e sp o n di n g r e tardati o n

,

o f t he trai n .

T o adapt this m e th o d o f braki n g t o a s e t o f m o t o r s with s e r i e s

pa r all e l c o n t r o l it is n e c e ssary t o r e v e rs e t he m o t o r e lds s o t he
,

e m f will b e g e n e rat e d in t he pr o p e r dir e cti o n

. . . T h e r e sista n c e .
 B RA K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A I N S 1 97

may be ch o se n t o gi ve t he de sir e d r e t ar d at io n T his is a me th o d .

o f e m e r g e n cy b r aki n g which is always availabl e o n an y c ar

e quipp e d with t w o o r m o r e m o t o r s an d s e ri e s pa r all e l c o n t r o l -
.

T he machi n e s may b e disc o n n e ct e d fr o m t he li n e r e v e rs e d ,

an d thr o w n t o t he parall e l p o siti o n T h e y will th e n g e n e r at e .

in t he sam e di r e cti o n ; but si n c e t he mag n e tic ci r cuits ar e

,

n e v e r abs o lut e ly id e n tical th e r e will b e m o r e r e sidual ma g n e tism

,

in o n e o r t he o th e r machi n e s o that it will o v e rp o w e r t he o th e r

,

a n d Op e r at e it as a m o t o r T he t w o . will th e n b e in s e r i e s ,

a n d a c o n sid e r abl e cu rr e n t will o w ar o u n d t he l o cal circuit wh o s e ,

v alu e will b e d e t e r mi n e d by t he sp e e d Of t he car an d t he r e sist

a nc e . T he p o w e r r e quir e d fo r this acti o n is tak e n fr o m t he
m o m e n tum o f t he car an d t e n ds t o r e duc e t he sp e e d I n t he
, .

cas e o f a f o u r -m o t o r e quipm e n t with t he o rdi n a r y platf o r m c o n

,

t r o ll e r it is u n n e c e ssary t o th r o w t he ha n dl e t o t h e pa r alle l
,

p o siti o n fo r t he pai r s o f m o t o rs ar e plac e d in parall e l thr o ugh t he

,

r e v e r se r Al l that is n e e d e d is t o cha n g e t he c o n n e cti o n s by

.

th r o wi n g t he r e v e r s e l e ve r It is o bvi o us that if t he c ar is m o vi n g
.

backward t he b r aki n g e ff e ct will b e pr o duc e d with t he c o n t r o ll e r

,

thr o w n t o t he f o r wa r d p o siti o n .

With s o m e typ e s o f c o n tr o ll e r t he o n ly r e sista n c e will b e t hat

o f t he m o t o rs an d t he wi r i n g s o that t he c urr e n t an d t h e b r aki n g
,

e ff o r t will b e la r g e but if t he m e th o d is us e d fo r e m e r g e n cy st o ps
,

o n ly, this will n o t o ccasi o n an y di f culty If t h e t o rqu e de .

v e l o p e d is s o g r e at as t o caus e t he wh e e ls t o slid e t he e m f ,
. . .

g e n e r at e d by t he m o t o r s falls t o z e r o an d t he t o rqu e c o n s e ,

qu e n tly disapp e ars T he m o t o rs will th e n r e v o lv e agai n

.
,

pr o duci n g a b r akin g e ff o rt .

N e w e ll M agn e t i c Br ak e A f o rm o f brak e d e p e n di n g o n
.
,

t he sam e p r i n cipl e but usi n g it much m o r e e ffe cti v e l y

,
w as ,

d e v e l o p e d ab o ut t e n y e ars ago an d plac e d o n t he marke t u n d e r

,

t he n a m e o f t h e N e w e ll b r ak e fr o m its i n v e n t o r I n this typ e
,
.
,

sh o w n in Fig 9 4 t he curr e n t fr o m t he m o t o r s acti n g as g e n

.
, ,

e r at o r s is pass e d th r o ugh t he c o il a Of t h e mag n e t b pulli n g it

, , ,

ag ai n st t he t r ack an d pr o vidi n g a p o w e rful b r aki n g e ff o rt T he .

m o v e m e n t o f t he mag n e t d o w n ward has als o t he e ff e ct o f Op e r at

in g t he l e v e r syst e m thus applyi n g t he b r ak e sh o e s t o t he wh e e ls
,
.

T he e ff e ct o f t he mag n e ts is tw o f o ld ; in additi o n t o pr o duci n g a

b r aki n g e ff o r t in th e ms e lv e s th e y pull t he e n tir e truck d o w n o n
,

t he track with i n c r e as e d f o rc e s o that a gr e at e r t o tal braki n g

e ff o r t may b e appli e d t o t h e wh e e ls .
1 98 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

An i n g e n i o us f e atur e o f t he N e w e ll brak e is that t he e n e r gy

wast e d in r e sista n c e i n st e ad o f b e i n g dissipat e d t o t he air b e
,

n e ath t he car is utiliz e d fo r h e ati n g by havi n g t h e r e sist o r s put

,

i n sid e t he car b o dy in plac e o f t he o r di n a r y e l e ctric h e at e r s .

B o th t h e l o ss at starti n g an d whil e b r aki n g ar e us e d t o h e at

t he r e sist o r s ; a nd t he mat e r ial o f which th e y ar e mad e is s uch
as t o st o r e t he h e at an d giv e it o ut at a n e a r ly u n if o rm rate .

With city car s maki n g fre qu e n t st o ps t he am o u n t g e n e r at e d in ,

this ma n n e r is o rdi n ar ily m o r e tha n s ui c ie n t t o k e e p t he t e m

pe rat ur e as high as is usual with t he o rdi n ary m e th o ds o f h e at
in g . W hil e th e re is n o r e as o n w hy t he starti n g l o ss sh o uld n o t
b e us e d in t he sam e w ay wh e n this syst e m o f braki n g is n o t ,

e mpl o y e d it is n o t c u st o mary t o d o s o
, Fo r s e rvic e in summ e r .

FI G . 94 .
-
N e w e ll l
e e c t ro m ag n e t ic b r ak e .

C u rr e n t d e lv
i ere d by t he c ar m o t o r s ac ti g
n as g e n e r at o rs is p as sed g
t hr o u h t h e l
coi a o f
t he l
e e c t ro m a g n et b, c a us in g a b ki g
ra n e ff o r t .

a duplicat e s e t o f r e sist o r s is pl a c e d b e n e a th t he car in t he usual

p o siti o n .

With this typ e Of b r ak e it is e n tir e ly p r actical t o o btai n r e tar

dati o n s o f 3 mil e s pe r hr per s e c an d o v e r T he gr e at e st . . .

o p e rati n g di fculty with t h e N e w e ll brak e as with all typ e s ,

utilizi n g t he m o t o r s t o g e n e rat e cu r r e n t in a l o cal circuit is that ,

wh e n t he r o tati o n o f t he wh e e ls c e as e s t he braki n g e ffo rt st o ps .

It is th e r e f o r e n e c e ssar y t o use t he ha n d b r ak e o r s o m e o th e r
, , ,

f o rm o f p o w e r brak e t o h o ld t he trai n aft e r it has b ee n br o ught

,

t o r e st which is an u n d e si r abl e f e atu r e

,
An o th e r o bj e cti o n is .

that t he m o t o rs ar e w o r ki n g a g r e at e r p o rti o n o f t he tim e s o that ,

t he e ff e ctiv e h e ati n g cu r r e n t is i n c r e as e d If th e y ar e .

o f m o r e tha n sufci e n t capacity t o mak e t he sch e dul e this Will ,

hav e but littl e e ff e ct ; but if alr e ady w o rk e d t o t he h e ati n g li m it ,

t h e imp o siti o n o f t he add e d l o ad will f o rc e th e m b e y o n d th e i r

c o n ti n u o us capacity an d caus e damag e T his p o i n t sh o uld be .

giv e n car e ful study in cas e an y such f o rm o f brak e is t o b e

ap pli e d .
 B R A K I N G OF EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TRA I N S 199

M o m e nt um Brak e s .
-
T he i n e rtia o f t he t r ai n may als o b e
us e d t o Op e r at e a m e cha n ical b r ak e M o m e n tum b r ak e s hav e
.

d e si g n e d in which t he sh o e s o r d r ums ar e br o ught in c o n

b y m e a n s o f s o m e f o r m o f fricti o n c lutch . T his typ e h as
n e v e r b e e n v e r y succ e ssful an d its us e has b e e n e xtr e m e ly limit e d
, .

It is difcult t o mak e an y such f o r m o f brak e Op e r abl e fo r m o r e

tha n a si n gle car which limits its applicati o n at o n c e It is
, .

e xtr e m e ly d o ubtful wh e th e r an y such d e vic e c an e v e r n d a

wid e us e .
 C H A P T E R V I II

C AR S AN D C AR EQ UI P M EN T

C l a s s i c at io n C ars
. railway O p e rati o n may b e v e ry
fo r
br o adly divid e d i n t o t w o mai n gr o ups : th o s e fo r fr e ight o r e x
pr e ss s e rvic e an d th o s e fo r t he tra n sp o r tati o n o f passe n g e r s .

C ars o f t he f o rm e r typ e hav e b e e n sta n da r diz e d t o a la r g e d e

gr e e an d th e ir d e sig n must c o n f o r m t o c e rtai n rul e s ad o pt e d by
,

t he I n t e rstat e C o mm e rc e C o mmissi o n an d t he M ast e r C ar

B uild e rs Ass o ciati o n

P ass e n g e r cars o n t h e c o n trary ar e n o t
.
, ,

subj e ct t o such rigid sup e r v isi o n ; an d e sp e cially in t h e case o f ,

e l e ct r i c r o ads th e r e is wid e di v e rg e n c e in th e ir d e sig n It

, .

is with th o s e o f t he latt e r typ e that this chapt e r tr e ats .

T he d e v e l o pm e n t o f car d e sig n fo r e l e ctric railway s e rvic e

has v e ry cl o s e ly f o ll o w e d t he g r o wth o f t he diffe r e n t class e s o f
r o ads , as e n um e rat e d in C hapt e r I P ass e n g e r c ars fo r e l e ctric
.

railways may th e r e fo r e be r o ughly classi e d as f o ll o ws :

1 . C ars fo r i t y an d s uburb a n s e rvi c e
c .

2 . R a p i d t r a n sit c ar s (e l ev a t e d a n d s ub w ay ) .

3 . In t e r u rb an c ars .

4 . T r un k li n e c o ac he s
-
.

5 . S p e c i al s e rvi c e c a r s .

T he latt e r t w o typ e s n e e d n o t di ff e r in an y partic ul ar fr o m

sta n dard cars fo r st e am railway Se r vic e O n such tru n k li n e s .

as h av e b e e n o r may be e l e ctri e d o ur pr e s e n t e xp e ri e n c e in di
,

cat e s that all m o ti ve p o w e r will b e suppli e d by i n d e p e n d e n t

l o c o m o tiv e s s o that n o e l e ctrical e quipm e n t o n t he ca r s is
,

n ee d e d fo r succ e ssful O p e rati o n In cas e a g e n e r al e l e ct r icati o n

.

o f an y railr o ad is mad e it may b e d e sirabl e t o i n clud e such mi n o r

,

d e tails as e l e ct r ic light an d h e at an d p o ssibly bus li n e s an d

,

c o n tr o l cabl e s s o that t he m o tiv e p o w e r may b e sub divide d

an d plac e d at i n t e r vals thr o ugh o ut t he l e n gth o f t h e t r ai n ,

an d ha n dl e d with m ul tipl e u n it c o n tr o l -
S uch cha n g e s a r e o f .

mi n o r imp o rta n c e an d n e e d n o t b e c o n sid e r e d si n c e th e y d o n o t

, ,

r e quire an y m o dicati o n o f t he d e sig n .

2 00
 CA R S A N D CA R E Q U IP M E N T 20 1

C ar s of t he typ e s fo r Op e r ati o n o n city surfac e railw a ys

t r amways ) hav e u n d e r g o n e a gr adual d e v e l o pm e n t f r o m
t he sam e b e gi n n i n gs as t he st e am r ail r o ad c o ach ; but t he m e c e s ~

siti e s o f t he s e rvic e hav e p r o duc e d a r adically di ffe r e n t structu r e .

A lth o ugh str e e t cars hav e b e e n passi n g th r o ugh a p r o c e ss o f

e v o luti o n fo r t h e last 6 0 y e ars th e r e is t o day l e ss u n if o rmity in
,

d e sig n than e v e r b e fo r e T his is lar g e ly due t o t he cha n g i n g

.

c o n diti o n s o f o p e rati o n o n la r g e city r o ads which are f o r c i n g,

th e m t o pr o vid e i n cr e as e d faciliti e s an d at t he sam e tim e r e c e iv e

l e ss r e tu r n o n t he i n v e stm e n t In o rd e r t o m e e t this situati o n
.
,

c ar build e r s an d railway c o mpa n i e s ar e t o day d e v e l o pi n g radi c a l

d e si g n s with t he o bj e ct o f b e tt e r an d m o r e e c o n o mical O p e rati o n .

n r f
S i c e th e y r u n alm o st e xclusiv e ly o n p ivat e right o way c ar s -
,

fo r e l e vat e d a n d subway s e rvic e ar e n o t subj e ct t o t he sam e

limiti n g c o n diti o n s as t o siz e an d w e ight as ar e su r fac e ca r s .

T h e ir d e sig n app r o ach e s m o r e n e ar ly that o f sta n dard st e am

c o ach e s T he mai n di ffe r e n c e li e s in t he fact that t o s e cu r e r apid
.

m o v e m e n t t he d o o rs must be S p e cially d e sign e d t o facilitat e

pass e n g e r i n t e rcha n ge .

F o r i n t e rurban s e rvic e t he cars may be quit e similar t o stan da r d

railway c o ach e s S i n c e th e y ar e o rdi n ar ily o p e r at e d in o n e o r
.

t w o car trai n s it is o ft e n e ss e n tial that a si n gl e u n it c o mbi n e t he

-
,

fu n cti o n s o f c o ach sm o k e r baggag e c ar an d s o m e tim e s e xp r e ss

, , ,

a n d mail . A s t he trafc o n r o ads o f this class is larg e ly l o c al ,

m o r e att e n ti o n sh o ul d be p aid t o t he d e sign o f d o o rs tha n in c a r s

fo r th r o ugh t r u n k li n e trafc
-
.

S t c t ur a l C l as s i c ati o n an d D e ve l o pm e n t
r u C o n sid e ri n g ca r s
fr o m a structural stan dp o i n t th e y may b e classi e d acc o r di n g t o
,

fo r m o r typ e t o mat e rial o r t o fr ami n g an d c o n structi o n

, ,
.

T h e y n atu r ally divid e th e ms e lv e s i n t o t w o typ e s : cl o s e d o r

b o x cars an d o p e n o r summ e r cars
,
.

T h e e arly d e sig n s o f str e e t cars w e r e o f t he cl o s e d b o dy o r

b o x car typ e ; an d m o st o f t he m o r e r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n ts
hav e b e e n in this class T he r st car s w e r e dir e ct adaptati o n s
.

o f t he stag e c o ach fo r s e rvic e o n railways o r t r amways W hil e .

th o s e fo r st e am r o ads w e r e s o o n i n c r e as e d in siz e an d b e f o re ,

l o n g c r ystalliz e d i n t o sta n dard d e sig n s o f c o n sid e r abl e capacity ,

t h e st r e e t ca r s due t o t he limitati o n s o f a n imal p o w e r t e n d e d

, ,

t o wa r d e xt r e m e ly light c o n st r ucti o n The o n e h o r s e b o btail
.
-

car was t he r st d e v e l o pm e n t fo r pu r e ly c ity s e r vic e C a r s o f .

this typ e w e r e usually ab o ut 1 2 ft l o n g w e r e si n gl e e n d e d an d

.
, ,
 202 TH E E L E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

w e r e arra n g e d fo r o p e rati o n by o n e m an t he d r iv e r The o o r , .

pla n o f a car o f this typ e is giv e n in Fig 9 5 With t he gr o wth o f . .

citi e s an d t he c o r r e sp o n di n g d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he str e e t railway

busi n e ss cam e a d e ma n d fo r d e sig n s o f i n cr e as e d c ap acity T his
, .

l e d t o t he c o n st r ucti o n o f car s o f ab o ut 1 8 t o 2 0 ft l e n gth o f b o dy .

( Fig . usually draw n by t w o h o rs e s In s o m e cas e s th e se .

w e r e han dl e d by t he d r iv e r al o n e but m o r e fr e qu e n tly th e y ,

w e r e arra n g e d fo r t w o

m an o p e rati o n D ue t o .
'

t he n e c e s s i t y o f light
w e ight n o fur th e r d e ,

ve l o pm e n t was p o ssibl e s o
>
l l o n g as a nimal p o w e r w as
-

FI G 9 5 Fl o o r pl a n o n e h o rs e c ar
. .
r e ta i n ed T he us e Of t he .
.

Th i t yp f
s w
e o i c ari l gas b f cabl e did D 0 13 cha n g e t he
n us e n a ar e n um er o
A ti
m eri c an c if b t 1 8 50 t
es rom l t
a 1 900
ou o as a e as .

S i tuat i o n t o an y e xt e n t ,

si n c e its st r e n gth w a s limit e d an d t he c ar w e ight had t o b e ,

k e pt a mi n imum .

T h e adv e n t o f e l e ct r ic p o w e r cha n g e d t he e n tir e situati o n .

A lth o ugh m o st o f t h e e arly e l e ct r ic cars w e r e t he sam e o n e s th at

had p r e vi o usly b e e n us e d with h o rs e s it w as alm o st imm e di at e ly ,

s e e n that t he limit t o siz e h ad b e e n r e m o v e d A g r a du al in c r e as e .

b e ga n at o n c e ; but b e f o r e l o n g t he limit o f c apacity fo r a si n gl e

FI G . 96 .
S in g l e - t r u c k h o r s e c a r , o r e ar ly e l e c t ri c c a r .

A l at er m ode l th an t hat s ho w n g
in F ig 9 5 , d e s i n e d t o b e d r a n w by t w h o o rs es M an y o f
d l l b
.

t he m w e r e re m o e e d an d t t e d w it h e e c t r ic m o t o r s e t w e e n 1 89 0 an d 1 9 00 .

truc k caus e d t h e ad o pti o n o f l o n g e r b o di e s supp o rt e d by t w o ,

swiv e li n g o r b o gi e trucks T his has b e c o m e t he sta n dar d fo r .

n e a r ly all class e s o f s e rvic e t h e small si n gl e t r uck c ar h avi n g n o w

,
-

b e e n sup e rs e d e d in all imp o rtan t citi e s e xc e pt fo r sp e cial s e rvi c e ,

o r o n li n e s o f e xt r e m e ly light t r a i c .

T he o p en car Fig 9 7 has always b e e n a fav o rit e with t h e

,
.
,

ridi n g public It is o n ly applicabl e fo r city s e r vic e b e i n g

.
,

u n suit e d fo r hi g h sp e e ds o r fo r l o n g ru n s It usually c o n sists o f .

 CA R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M E N T 2 03

a w o o d e n u n d e rfram e supp o r ti n g a ske l e t o n sid e fr ami n g with

,

a li g ht r o o f O n acc o u n t o f t he lack o f sid e b r aci n g it is st r u e

.
,

t ur ally w e ak T h e s e ats ar e o rdi n ar ily t r a n sve r s e b e n ch e s

.

e xt e n di n g t h e e n tir e width o f t he c ar an d ac c e ss is o btai n e d by ,

a st e p o r ru n n i n g b o ard at e ith e r sid e S uch a n ar r a n g e m e n t is .

da n g e r o us fo r t h e p a ss e n g e r s It may b e sh o w n that it is sl o w e r
.

t o l o ad a n d u n l o ad tha n t h e m o d e r n typ e s .

W hil e t he Op e n car may b e j usti e d in s o uth e rn climat e s wh e r e ,

it c an be in s e r vi c e t he e n ti r e y e ar its us e in n o r th e r n citi e s is
,

limit e d t o a s e as o n s e ld o m o v e r six m o n ths l o n g T his r e quir e s .

FIG 9 7. .
i l
n e -
k p
S g t ru c O e n c ar .

T hi t yp
s e o f c ar ha s b e e n in u s e , b l
o t h w it h h o r s e s a n d w it h e e c t r ic m o t o rs , f ro m t he e ar ly
da y s o f st r ee t r ai lw y
a s up t o t h e p r e s e n t t im e .

a duplicati o n o f e quipm e n t S o m e O f t he small e r r o ads r e du c e

.

h
t e capital e xp e n s e by usi n g t h e sam e t r ucks u n d e r b o th o p e n

a n d cl o s e d ca r s tra n sfe r ri n g th e m at stat e d dat e s T his pr a c

,
.

ti c e is o p e n t o c o n sid e rabl e o bj e cti o n .

I n o rd e r t o m e e t t h e d ema n d fo r t he o p e n c ar a n d at t he ,

sam e tim e r e duc e t h e t o tal c o st o f e quipm e n t a n e w typ e was

d e si g n e d ab o ut t e n y e ar s ag o k n o w n as t he c o n v e r tibl e c ar
,
.

I n this t he wi n d o w sash an d sid e pa n e li n g c o uld b e r e m o v e d o r

e ls e st o r e d in t h e r o o f s o that t he sam e b o dy w as availabl e
,

fo r e ith e r summ e r o r wi n t e r s e r vic e D ue t o t he i n h e r e n t .

st r uctu r al w e akn e ss an d t he di f culty o f g e tti n g a tight c o n

st r ucti o n fo r wi n t e r s e r vic e this car n e v e r had a g r e at p o pular ity
,

with t he str e e t r ailways .

A c o mp r o mis e b e tw e e n t he cl o s e d a n d t he Op e n typ e s w as

n ally mad e in t he s o call e d s e mi c o n v e r tibl e c ar T his is
- - .
 04 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

practically a cl o s e d c ar but with la r g e r wi n d o ws tha n o rdi n ary , .

T h e sash ar e e ith e r st o r e d in t he r o o f o r in p o ck e ts in t h e sid e

walls b e n e ath t he wi n d o w sill W ith t he us e o f t r an sv e rs e s e ats .
,

this typ e m e e ts m o st Of t he d e man ds o f t he ridi n g public an d ,

is adaptabl e t o an y o f t he m e th o ds o f far e c o ll e cti o n which h av e

b e c o m e sta n dard in t he last fe w y e ars .

In t he larg e r citi e s t he d e ma n d fo r u n its o f v e ry g r e at cap aci t y

,

has b e c o m e p r e ssi n g in t he past fe w y e ars D o ubl e truck c ars .

-

o f t h e la r g e st typ e s ha v e b e e n u n abl e t o m e e t t he n e e ds wh e r e

st r e e t c o n g e sti o n is gr e at At t he pr e s e n t tim e s e v e ral citi e s .

,

a r e maki n g e xp e r im e n ts with d o ubl e d e ck c ars t o o btai n maximum -

c ap acity with mi n imum sp ac e in t he st r e e t T h e s e h av e n o t b e e n .

in s e r vic e for a sufci e n t l e n gth o f tim e t o d e m o n strat e th e ir

w o rth but it is pr o babl e that th e ir us e will b e e xt e n d e d wh e r e
,

c o n g e sti o n is a maximum .

A n o th e r att e mpt t o in cr e as e c apacity has b e e n mad e by t he

u s e o f articulat e d cars In t he typ e s which h av e b e e n br o ug ht
.

o ut ,
t w o small car b o di e s hav e th e ir platfo rms r e m o v e d an d
ar e j o i n e d by a e xibl e u n it s o that t he c o mbi n ati o n f o rms a
_

si n gl e car T h e e n tra n c e is plac e d in t he e xibl e platfo rm an d

.
,

t h e e xits ar e at t he e n ds 1
.

S till a noth e r m e th o d fo r g e tti n g i n cr e as e d car capacity is t h e

u s e o f t r ai n s o f t w o o r m o r e u n its T h e s e may c o n sist o f o n e .

m o t o r car an d t r ail e rs o r t w o o r m o r e m o t o r cars o p e rat e d by

, ,

multipl e u n it c o n t r o l
-
.

E xc e pti o n al c o n diti o n s ha v e fr o m tim e t o tim e br o ught f o r t h
sp e cial d e sig n s o f cars A m o n g th e s e may be m e n ti o n e d t he .

C alifo r n ia typ e T his car is a c o mbi n ati o n o f cl o s e d an d

.

o p e n car In m o st o f t he d e sig n s t he c e n t e r p o rti o n o f t h e

.

b o dy is e n cl o s e d whil e t he e n d p o rti o n s o f t he car ar e O p e n It .

is a fav o r it e wh e r e t he climat e is mild but is cha n g e abl e as in , ,

C alif o r n ia It is n o t lik e ly t o e v e r ha ve a v e r y wid e e ld o f

.

applicati o n si n c e in l o caliti e s wh e r e t he w e ath e r chan g e s ar e

,

sudd e n an d s e v e r e t he car has practically o n e half its cap acity -

idl e at all tim e s .

M at e r i a l s of C ar C o n s truc tion Al l t he e arli e r cars fo r e v e ry

.

class Of s e rvic e w e r e built e xclusiv e ly o f w o o d T his is t he .

ch e ap e st availabl e mat e r ial an d its fab r icati o n d o e s n o t call fo r ,

e xp e rt d e sig n Withi n t he last t e n y e ars t he pric e o f w o o d has

.

1
Fo r a m o re com ple t e d e s c r ip t i o n , see E l e c t r i c R ai l w a y J o urn a l ,
Vo l .

XLI p ,
. 58 3 ; M ar . 2 9, 1 9 1 3 .
 CA R S A N D CA R E Q UIP M EN T 20 5

r is e n c o n sid e rably s o that t he adva n tag e o f l o w c o st is l e ss

,

tha n f o r m e rly S t e e l as a mat e r ial fo r ca r s has b e e n m a ki n g

.

r apid p r o gr e ss fo r alth o u g h t he r st c o st is g r e at e r t h e d e
, , ,

p r e ciati o n is l e ss S t e e l cars ar e m o r e r e liabl e an d ar e n e a r ly

.

fr e e fr o m r e r isk I n c o llisi o n s th e y sta n d up b e tt e r tha n th o s e

.

built o f w o o d T he adva n tag e s o f w o o d as an i n t e ri o r n ish

.

a re Obvi o us ; a n d s o m e r o ads s e e k t o r e tai n t h e g o o d p o i n ts o f

b o th mat e r ials by ad o pti n g a s e mi st e e l c o n st r ucti o n in whi c h -

,

t he mai n fr ami n g is o f st e e l t he d e ta ils an d n ish b e i n g o f ,

w o o d T his mak e s a ch e ap e r structur e tha n t he all st e e l c ar

.
-
,

but t he r e risk is gr e at e r an d t he d e pr e ciati o n usually m o r e .

T h e us e o f t he all st e e l car is i n cr e asi n g rapidly an d it is quit e

-
,

p o ssi bl e that it will b e r e quir e d by law o n all mai n li n e pass e n g e r

r o ads withi n a fe w y e ars .

Fr am in g T h e re are thr e e g e n e r al m e th o ds o f supp o rti n g

t he car b o dy T he o ld e st an d m o st us e d is t o build a h e avy
.

u n d e r fr a m e o r platf o rm which is str o n g e n o ugh a n d sufci e n tly

-
,

ri g id t o ca rr y t he e n tir e sup e rstr uctur e T his c o n st r ucti o n pr o .

duc e s a v e r y satisfact o ry car wh e th e r t he fr ami n g is o f st e e l o r ,

o f w o o d but it is o ft e n u n n e c e ssa r ily h e a v y an d c o rr e sp o n di n g ly

,

c o stly T he e xp e n s e i n cid e n t t o hauli n g n e e dl e ss d e ad w e i g ht

.

may b e a la r g e am o u n t o n a r o ad Op e r ati n g ma n y ca r s ; a n d
t he fr ami n g sh o uld b e s o d e sig n e d as t o r e duc e this e xt r a w e ight
t o a mi n imum T his c an b e d o n e by car e fully d e t e r mi n i n g t he
.

st r e ss e s in all par ts an d d e si g n i n g t he m e mb e r s o n ly sufci e n tly

h e avy t o giv e a pr o p e r fact o r o f safe ty Wh e n t he e n ti r e str e n g th .

is in t h e o o r o r b o tt o m fr ami n g t he v e r tical sti ff n e ss is n o t ,

g re at an d must b e suppli e d e ith e r by maki n g t h e l o n gitudi n al

,

m e mb e r s h e avy o r by p r o vidi n g t e n s i o n m e mb e rs b e n e ath t he

,

sills .

A s e c o n d m e th o d o f f r am in g was i n v e n t e d by Ge o rg e G ibbs ,

an d rst us e d in t he d e sig n o f t he o rigi n al st e e l ca r s fo r t he N e w

Yo r k subway 1
T he p r i n cipal di ff e r e n c e in this d e si g n is that
.

t he mai n l o n g itudi n al m e mb e r s ar e l o cat e d at t he t o p o f t h e

car t he w e i g ht b e i n g ca rr i e d by t he sills th r o ugh t he m e dium o f
,

t he wind o w p o sts T he o o r frami n g is light havi n g o n ly e n o ugh

.
,

st r e n gth t o supp o rt its e lf T he wi n d o w p o sts ar e h e avy e n o u g h

.

t o t r a n smit t he l o ad t o t he b o lst e r s B y t he ad o pti o n o f this .

c o n structi o n t he t o tal w e ight o f t he m e mb e rs may b e l e ss tha n

,

1
A com ple t e d e s c ri p t io n of t he or ig in al s ub w a y c a rs is give n in A m e r ic a n

En gi n e er an d Rai lr o a d J ourn al , O c t o be r, 1 9 0 4 .
 6 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

with t he rigid u n d e rfr am e It is o bvi o us that this is o nl y appl i

.

c abl e t o cars built wh o lly o r par tially o f st e e l ; but with this typ e
o f frami n g th e y may b e mad e n e a r ly as light as th o s e o f w o o d .

A third m e th o d o f c o n structi o n mak e s t he sid e sh e athi n g

o f t he car fur n ish a larg e p o rti o n o f t h e v e rtical sti ff n e ss t he d e ,

sig n b e i n g quit e similar t o t he familiar plat e gird e r bridg e i B y

thus utilizi n g t he sid e sh e athi n g a maximum w e ight e fci e n cy
,

may b e o btai n e d C a rs o f this typ e hav e b e e n d e si gn e d fo r a

.

c o n sid e rabl e n umb e r o f city r o ads for a fe w i n t e r urb a n s an d fo r

, ,

n e arly all Of t he e l e v at e d an d subway li n e s T h e e xc e ll e n c e o f

.

this frami n g and t he c o mparativ e ly small am o u n t o f d e ad w e ight

, ,

is i n c r e asi n g its p o pularity ; s o that it is lik e ly t o b e c o m e sta n d

ar d fo r ma n y typ e s o f cars fo r di ff e r e n t class e s o f s e rvic e .

R o o f F r a m in g I n t he e arly d e sig n s o f cars t he r o o fs w e r e ,

mad e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he b o di e s an d w e r e o f t he light e st c o n
,

st r ucti o n o ft e n b e i n g imsy O p e rati o n by e l e ct r ic p o w e r

,
.

with an o v e r h e ad tr o ll e y mad e it n e c e ssary t o c o n sid e rably

st r e n gth e n t he r o o f frami n g A t t he sam e tim e it w as f e lt that
.
,

t he at r o o f d e sig n o f t he o l d sta n da r d h o rs e car did n o t p e rmit

g o o d v e n tilati o n A s o m e what radical cha n g e was mad e by t he
.

additi o n o f t he m o n it o r d e ck t he typ e which is familiar o n
,

st e am railr o ad c o ach e s Aft e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f use it has b ee n

.
,

f o u n d that t he m o n it o r r o o f with m o vabl e sash d o e s n o t O ffe r a

, ,

satisfact o r y s o luti o n o f t he v e n tilati o n pr o bl e m an d that t he ,

bre ak in t he r o o f fr ami n g i n h e r e n t t o t he d e sig n mak e s a w e ak

structur e V e n tilati o n has b e e n tak e n car e o f-b y v ar i o us syst e ms
.
,

s o m e d e p e n d e n t o n t he m o ti o n o f t he car t o d r aw t he us e d air
o u t th r o ugh sp e cial v e n tilat o rs whil e in o th e rs air is circulat e d
,

by m e a n s o f m o t o r d r iv e n bl o w e rs T he applicati o n o f th e s e
-
.

d e vic e s has r e m o v e d t h e primary n e e d fo r t he m o n it o r d e ck ; an d

t he s e c o n dary pu r p o s e t o fur n ish light h as b e e n all but d e fe at e d
, ,

thr o ugh t h e us e Of c o l o r e d glass .

A s o luti o n o f t he r o o f p r o bl e m which has b e e n satisfact o ry

was advan c e d a fe w y e ars ag o an d is b e i n g ad o pt e d in ma n y o f
,

t h e n e w d e sig n s . T he m o n it o r is o mitt e d e n ti r e ly t he r o o f ,

b e i n g mad e in t he f o rm o f a at arch r o u n d e d at t he e n ds t o f o rm
,

a platf o r m h o o d T he use o f st e e l a n gl e s b e n t t o t h e p r o p e r
.
,

shap e fo r ca rli n e s r e sults in sti ffe n i n g t he r o o f t o a mark e d

, ,

d e gr e e an d with a r e ducti o n in w e ight o v e r t h e m o n it o r d e sig n

,
.

T he n atural lighti n g o f t he car n ee d n o t b e i n t e r fe r e d with si n c e ,

t h e f o r m o f t h e r o o f all o ws t h e wi n d o ws t o b e mad e s o m e what

 C AR s A N D C A R E Q U I P M E N T 07

hi gh e r A furth e r d e v e l o pm e n t is t o c o n ti n u e t he wi n d o w p o sts
.

upwa r d b e n di n g th e m in a c o mpl e t e arch an d maki n g th e m

, ,

s e r v e fo r car li n e s T his still fu r th e r str e n gth e n s t he fr ami n g

.
,

maki n g t he e n tir e st r uctur e m o r e n e arly o n e c o mpl e t e u n it .

In an y o f t he arch r o o f car s t he v e n tilati o n must b e tak e n ca r e

-

o f by s o m e f o r m o f f o r c e d air ci r culati o n C a r e ful d e sig n has .

giv e n much b e tt e r r e sults in t hi s r e sp e ct than w e r e p o ssibl e with

t he m o n it o r r o o f ; a n d t he g e n e r al app e ara n c e o f t he c ar b o th ,

i n t e r i or an d e xt e ri o r is at l e ast as g o o d as that o f t he e a r li e r
,

typ e .

D o or Arr an ge m e n t W h e re t he st o ps are i n fr e qu e n t as in ,

tr u n k li n e s e rvic e t he arra n g e m e n t o f t he car i n t e r i o r is g e n e r ally

-
,

fo r t he c o mfo rt o f t he pass e n g e r s duri n g t he j o ur n e y an y e xt r a ,

tim e c o n sum e d at st o ps b e i n g o f mi n o r imp o r ta n c e W ith city .

surfac e li n e s an d rapid tra n sit r o ads h o w e v e r t he mai n Obj e ct , ,

is t o Obtai n a fair sch e dul e sp e e d with a maximum n umb e r Of

st o ps In Such cas e s t he l e n gth o f r id e pe r pass e n g e r is c o mp ara
.

t iv e ly sh o rt an d a c e r tai n am o u n t o f c o mf o r t may be sac r ic e d

,

in o rd e r t o r e duc e t he durati o n o f t he trip F o r this class o f t r afc .

t he a r ra n g e m e n t o f t he car b o th as r e g a r ds t he s e ati n g a n d t h e
,

d o o r s sh o uld be mad e t o facilitat e t he m o v e m e n t o f pass e n g e r s

,

wh e n e n t e ri n g an d l e avi n g T he e arli e st typ e s o f car fo r this

.

s e rvic e w e r e o n t h e s am e g e n e ral pla n as t he o r din ar y s t e am

c o ach havi n g d o o rs at e ach e n d an d s e ats ar ra n g e d e ith e r t r a n s
, ,

ve r s e ly o r l o n gitudi n ally as in F ig 9 6
,
I n t he Old e r cars t he
,
. .
,

platf o rms w e r e e n tir e ly o p e n ; but o wi n g t o public d e ma n ds m o st ,

o f th e m hav e b e e n e n cl o s e d with p e rma n e n t v e stibul e s fo r t h e

past t e n y e ars T he r st e ff e ct o f this cha n g e was t o att r a c t a

.

larg e n umb e r o f pass e n g e rs t o t he platfo r ms wh e r e th e y r o d e by ,

pr e fe r e n c e N aturally this t e n d e d t o c o n g e st t he e n t r a n c e s a n d
.
,

t o mak e rapid l o adi n g an d u nl o adi n g difcult In s o m e citi e s .

,

such us e o f t he p l atfo rms by pass e n g e rs has b e e n p r o hibit e d .

A lth o ugh this aids t o s o m e e xt e n t it still is n o t t h e b e st a rr a n g e

m en t fo r rapid i n t e r chan g e A simpl e e xp e di e n t is t o us e o n e
.

e n d o f t he car fo r e n tra n c e o n ly an d t he o th e r fo r e xit,

T his .

e stablish e s r e gula r paths fo r t he m o v e m e n t o f t h e pass e n g e rs an d ,

aids g r e atly in r e duci n g t h e tim e o f st o ps M a n y o bj e cti o n s t o .

this m e th o d o f Op e rati o n hav e b e e n r ais e d t he p r i n cipal o n e b e i n g ,

that pass e n g e rs must e ith e r g e t o n o r o ff t he car quit e a dista n c e

f r o m t he str e e t cr o ssi n g which may n e c e ssitat e walki n g thr o ugh
,

mud o r s n o w I n s o m e citi e s a c o mpr o mis e is mad e by r e gular ly

.
208 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

e mpl o yi n g t he sch e m e m e n ti o n e d ab o v e bu t all o wi n g pass e n g e rs ,

t o u s e e ith e r platfo rm as a n e xit at t h e discr e ti o n o f t h e c o n

duct o r W ith this m o dicati o n t he e f ci e n cy o f t he m e th o d is
.
,

r e d u c e d c o n sid e r ably .

T he p r o p e r d e sig n an d l o cati o n o f t he e n t r a n c e an d e xit d o o r s

h as a mark e d e ff e ct o n t he rapidity o f l o adi n g an d u n l o adi n g .

FI G . 98 .
A c c e l e rat o r c ar .

An e ar ly at t em pt to p v
re e nt c r o w d in g of t he e n t r an c e an d e x it an d to re duce t h e t im e of
ps bl gl pe ly
,
.

st o . S ui t a e fo r Sin e -e n d o r a t io n o n .

T he si n gl e n arr o w swi n gi n g d o o r o f t he st e am c o ach limits t he

,

sp e e d with which pass e n g e rs c an e n t e r o r l e av e t he car If d o o r s .

o f this typ e ar e us e d fo r str e e t c ars a l o n g tim e will be n e e d e d a t ,

st o ps An e a r ly att e mpt t o aid t he pass e n g e r dist r ibuti o n is t he

.

FI G . 99 .
S e m i -
l
a c c e e rat o r c a r .

A m o di c at io n of t he t yp e show n in Fig 9 8 , . a r r an ged to a ll ow do u bl e-e n d O p e r a t io n .

B r o w n e ll acc e l e r at o r car sh o w n diagrammatically in F ig 9 8 ,
. .

In this t he d o o r s w e r e pla c e d at o n e sid e Of t he c e n t e r n e ar e st t he ,

e n t r a n c e st e p T his pr e v e n t e d an y p e rs o n s w h o might b e sta n d

.

in g o n t he platf o r m fr o m i n t e rf e r i n g with t he m o v e m e n t o f pas

FI G . 1 00 .
-
C e n t e r -d o o r c ar .

A re ce nt t yp e w h i c h , w it h a fe w m in o r m o di c a t io n s , h as b e e n ad o pt ed in a n um b er o f

l g A
ar e m e r ic a n c 1 t ie s .

b o ardi n g t he car S uch a d e sig n is o n ly applicabl e wh e r e

s e n ge r s .

t h e ca r s always r u n in o n e di r e cti o n W h e r e th e y must r un .

e ith e r w ay t he s e mi ac c e l e rat o r
,
car Fig 99 c o uld be ,
.
,

substitut e d .

A s a fu r th e r aid t o rapid m o v e m e n t c e n t e r d o o rs may be us e d , ,

e ith e r al o n e as in F ig 1 0 0 o r in c o n j u n cti o n with t he e n d d o o rs

,
.
,
.
 C A R S A N D CA R E Q U I P M E N T 2 09

T he fo rm e r p o ss e ss ma n y practical advan tag e s due t o t he fact ,

th at t he pass e n g e r m o v e m e n t may always b e u n d e r t he e y e o f t he

c o n duct o r an d h e may b e h e ld r e sp o n sibl e fo r an y accid e n ts T h e
,
.

t p ati n Obj e cti o n t o t h e c e n t e r d o o r c a is that it is m o r e

g r ea o e r g r

difcult t o e stablish r e gular paths fo r t he pass e n g e rs tha n in t h e

e n d d o o r ca r s
- B y car e ful t r ai n i n g o f t he c o n duct o rs it is p o ssibl e
.

t o la r g e ly p r e v e n t this tr o ubl e .

S e a tin g Arran g e m e n t
T h e i n u e n c e o f t h e s e ati n g pl a n o n
t he r apidity o f l o adi n g an d u n l o adi n g is q uit e m ar k e d T h e Old e r .

FI G . 101 .
C r o s s -s e a t c ar .

A des i g n w id e ly us ed a b o ut 1900 ; an a da p t at i on f
ro m s t e am l
r ai r o a d c o a c h des i g ns

t y p e s o f st r e e t ca r s w e r e n e arly all e quipp e d with l o n g itudi n al

s e ats o n e ith e r S i d e o f t he c e n t e r aisl e ru n n i n g t he e n ti r e l e n gth ,

o f t he car b o dy ( F igs 95 9 6 98 Whil e this pla n is fairly

.
, , ,

satisfact o r y wh e n th e r e is n o c r o wdi n g it b e c o m e s bad with a ,

sta ndi n g l o ad It is un pl e s an t fo r t h e s e at e d pass e n g e r s an d

.
,

i n c o n v e n i e n t fo r th o s e sta n di n g T h e us e o f tra n sv e r s e s e ats .

,

as in Fig 1 0 1 p r o vid e s gr e at e r c o mf o rt fo r t h e f o r m e r but

.
, ,

FI G . 1 02 M o d ied t yp e o f c ro s s -s e a t c ar .

vl p
A de e o m e nt f ro m g
t h e d e s i n s h o w n in F ig 101, t o o ve rcom e b
O j e c t io n a bl e c ro w d in g at
p p g
.

t h e d o o rs , an d t o er m it o f a Wi d e r O e n in .

t icts t he am o u n t o f spac e availabl e for t he latt e r T h e sta n d

re s r .

in g spac e is m o r e c o mf o r tabl e th a n w ith l o n gitudi n al s e ats si n c e ,

g ab ha n dl e s m a y b e plac e d o n t h e s e at backs fo r supp o r t

r T he .

w o rst t r o ubl e is that t h e c o n ge sti o n n e ar t he e n t r a n c e an d e xit

d o o r s is much gr e at e r tha n with sid e s e ats A c o mpr o mis e is .

usu ally ad o pt e d in c ity car s by havi n g l o n g itudi n al s e ats n e ar

t h e d o o r s an d cr o ss s e ats in t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c ar wh e n d e sig n e d
, ,

fo r e n cl e n t r a n c e as in Fig 1 0 2 , With c e n t e r e n t r a n c e cars t he

. .

l4
210 THE EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y

tr o ubl e is n o t s o mark e d an d t he s e ats c an all b e plac e d tra n s

,

ve r s e l y with o ut m uch da n g e r o f c o n ge sti o n O th e r c o mbi n a .

ti o n s may b e mad e ad v a n tag e o usly fo r particular c as e s .

A m o r e l o gical study Of b o th s e ati n g arra n g e m e n ts an d d o o r

d e sig n has b e e n mad e in c o n j u n cti o n with t he pr e paym e n t o f
far e s T h e furth e r c o n sid e rati o n o f b o th th e s e t o pics will b e
.

tak e n up in that c o n n e cti o n .

Far e C o ll e c tio n .
C e rtai n r o ads e sp e cially rapid tra n sit li n e s
, ,

c o ll e ct far e s b e f o r e t he pass e n ge rs e n t e r t he cars T his o b v iat e s

.

an y n e e d o f c o n duct o rs guards o r brak e m e n b e i n g t he o n ly

,

e mpl o y e e s n e e d e d o u t he trai n s in additi o n t o t h e m o t o rm e n

.
.

P r actically all surfac e r o ads b o th city an d i n t e rurba n ar e s o

, ,

S ituat e d that far e s must b e c o ll e ct e d aft e r t he pass e n g e rs hav e

b o ar de d t he car A cc o rdi n g t o t he o ld e r m e th o ds t he c o n duct o r

.
,

pass e d thr o ugh c o ll e cti n g far e s fr o m pass e n g e rs aft e r th e y had

,

e n t e r e d a n d b e c o m e s e at e d O ft e n he w o uld b e in t he i n t e ri o r
.

d o i n g this duri n g a st o p T his practic e has t w o disadva n tag e s :

.

t h e c o n duct o r is n o t in a g o o d p o siti o n t o k n o w wh e th e r t h e st e ps
,

a r e cl e ar b e f o r e sig n ali n g t h e m o t o rma n t o start n o r c a n h e s e e ,

t he pass e n g e rs w h o ar e e n t e ri n g o r l e avi n g t he car B e sid e s mak .

in g o p e rati o n da n g e r o us this mak e s far e c o ll e cti o n difcult a n d in

, ,

s o m e cas e s alm o st i m p o ssibl e It als o gi v e s dish o n e st c o n duct o r s

.

a cha n c e t o miss far e s o r t o fail in r e gist e ri n g th e m A
,
.

n umb e r o f s ch e m e s t o mak e far e c o ll e cti o n e asi e r an d m o r e c e r

tai n an d t o r e duc e accid e n ts hav e b e e n t r i e d withi n t he past fe w

, ,

y e a r s O f t he vari o us o n e s ad v o cat e d t he pr e paym e n t pla n

.
,

has m et with t he m o st succ e ss in t he U n it e d S tat e s It has b e e n .

ad o pt e d in n e arly e v e ry larg e city in t he c o u n try an d in ma n y o f ,

t he small e r o n e s . T he basic pri n cipl e o f all m e th o ds Of far e

p r e paym e n t is t o hav e t he c o n duct o r at o r n e ar t h e e n tra n c e an d ,

t o p r e v e n t a n y p e rs o n fr o m g o i n g i n t o t h e car with o ut r st
t e n d e ri n g his fare B y t hi s m e a n s t he c o n duct o r d o e s n o t hav e
.

t o d e p e n d o n his m e m o ry t o e n sur e c o ll e cti o n o f far e s ; a n d h e may

b e l o cat e d in such a p o siti o n that h e c a n b e su r e t h e st e ps ar e cl e ar
b e f o r e givi n g t he sig n al t o go ah e ad I n t h e lat e r typ e s o f pr e
.

paym e n t cars v ar i o us f o rms Of d o o rs O p e r at e d by t he c o n duct o r

, ,

fr o m his xe d p o siti o n mak e it imp o ssibl e fo r pass e n g e rs t o

,

e n t e r o r l e av e aft e r t h e starti n g sig n al has b e e n giv e n T his .

r e duc e s t he b o ardi n g an d alighti n g accid e n ts by a mark e d

d e gr e e .
 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 211

fa r e s w e r e c o ll e ct e d at t he i n sta n t o f b o a r di n g t he car t he
If t he ,

time take n in l o adi n g w o uld b e mat e rially i n cr e as e d This is .

o bviat e d by usi n g t h e e n tra n c e platf o rm fo r h o ldi n g a c e rtai n

n umb e r o f pass e n g e rs whil e th e y ar e g e tti n g th e ir far e s r e ady t o

pr e s e n t t o t h e c o n duct o r t h e d o o r b e i n g cl o s e d an d t he car
,

sta r t e d imm e diat e ly aft e r th e y hav e b o ar d e d t he platf o r m I n .

s o m e o f t he typ e s o f pr e paym e n t ca r s as ma n y as t e n t o tw e lve ,

pass e n g e r s m ay b e acc o mm o dat e d in this ma n n e r s o that n o m o r e ,

tim e is c o n sum e d in t h e o rdi n ar y st o p tha n wh e r e far e c o ll e cti o n

is mad e in t he ol d w ay .

Type s o f P r e paym e n t C ar s P ractically an y sta n dard typ e o f

.

car may be ar ra n ge d fo r far e p r e paym e n t The succ e ss o f a n y .

partic u lar d e sig n d e p e n ds t o a c o n sid e r abl e d e g r e e o n t he

am o u n t o f spac e availabl e fo r pass e n g e r s b e f o r e pr e s e n ti n g fa r e s .

T his r e qui r e s sp e cial d e si g n o f platf o r ms in m o st cas e s .

FI G . 1 03 O rigin a l P ay -As -Yo u - En t e r c ar .

T he c o n duc t or is s t a t io n e d in t he x d pe o s it io n sho w n , an d re c ei v es f
t h e a r es f
ro m t he
p ass e n g e rs as p
t h e y a s s him o n e n t er in g t h e c ar The s e at i n g a rr a n g em e nt i s not an e s s e n t ia l
f p
.

e a t ur e o f t h i s t y e o f c ar .

T he rst typ e o f pr e paym e n t car which was i n tr o duc e d in ,

M o n tr e al in 1 9 0 5 is sh o w n diagrammatically in Fig 1 03 I n this

,
. .

t he platf o r ms ar e l e n gth e n e d s o m e what fr o m t he sta n da r d d e

sig n an d a raili n g divid e s t h e r e ar o n e i n t o t w o p o r ti o n s o n e fo r
, ,

e n t e r i n g pass e n g e r s a n d t he o th e r fo r t h e c o n duct o r an d l e avi n g

,

pass e n g e rs T he c o n duct o r r em a i n s in his p o siti o n at all tim e s

.
,

an d e ach pass e n g e r o n e n t e r i n g t h e car t e n d e r s his

,
far e o r ,

d e p o sits it in a sp e cial fa r e b o x T he c o n duct o r is th e n in a .

p o siti o n wh e r e he c an c o ll e ct all fa r e s a n d wh e r e he c an watch ,

t he m o v e m e n ts o f t he e n t e r i n g an d l e avi n g pass e n g e rs T he .

fr o n t d o o r is us e d fo r e xit o n ly an d is u n d e r t he o bs e r vati o n ,

o f t he m o t o r ma n .

In t he o r i g i n al d e sig n t he st e ps w e r e n o t m o vabl e an d n o e n
, ,

c l o si n g d o o r s fo r t he v e stibul e s w e r e pr o vid e d N o sp e cial at .

t e mpt w as mad e t o p r e v e n t passe n g e rs fr o m l e avi n g o r b o ar di n g

t he car whil e in m o ti o n Alth o ugh this typ e c o n sid e rably r e
.
212 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

d uc e d t h e umb e r o f accid e n ts fr o m such c aus e s it did n o t e h

n ,

t ir e l y p r e v e n t th e m .

An o th e r typ e o f pr e paym e n t car k no w n as t he P ay Withi n

-

car was br o u g ht o ut s o o n aft e r t h e P ay As Yo u En t e r car but
,
- - -
,

by a rival c o n c e r n In t he o r igi n al f o rm sh o w n in Fig 1 04 t he

.
, .
,

bulkh e ads ar e e nt ir e ly r e m o v e d t he c o n duct o r is stati o n e d in t he ,

middl e o f t h e e n d e n t r a n c e an d pr o vid e d with an O p e rati n g ,

sta n d T h e v e stibul e has slidi n g d o o rs which ar e w o rk e d e ith e r

.

by c o mp r e ss e d air o r by a syst e m o f ha n d Op e r at e d l e v er s w o rk e d -
,

fr o m t he Op e r ati n g sta n d T he o utsid e st e ps ar e als o ar r a n g e d

.

t o f o ld up a n d disapp e ar wh e n t he v e stibul e d o o r s are cl o s e d .

I n this d e sig n t he e n tir e platf o r m is mad e availabl e fo r e n t e r i n g

pass e n g e r s waiti n g t o pay th e ir far e s E xit is usually mad e by .

FI G . 1 04
O r ig in a l P a y -
W i t h in c ar .

vl p ft f
l

A t y pe de e o ed soon a er t h e P A -Y -E c ar . T h e p r in c ip a l d is t in g u is h in g e a t ur e is
t he s ys t e m of do or s an d f ld i g
o n st e sp .

t he fr o n t platf o rm t he d o o r b e i n g t he sam e as that fo r e n tra n c e

, ,

but c o n tr o ll e d by t he m o t o rma n W ith this typ e o f car b o ardi n g .

a n d ali g hti n g accid e n ts ar e practically e limi n at e d si n c e t h e c o n ,

duct o r is i n st r uct e d n o t t o giv e t he star ti n g sig n al u n til t he e n

tra n c e d o o r is cl o s e d ; an d t he m o t o rma n mus t n o t start t he c ar ,

aft e r r e c e ivi n g t he sig n al u n l e ss t he e xit d o o r is cl o s e d T h e

,
.

disti n ctiv e f e atur e o f this car is t he syst e m o f d o o rs an d f o ldi n g

st e ps .

A ft e r a fe w y e ar s t he ma n ufactur e rs o f th e s e t w o f o r ms o f
p r e paym e n t c ar s c o mbi n e d i n c o rp o r ati n g t he g o o d fe atu r e s o f
,

b o th G e n e r ally sp e aki n g t he platf o rm c o n st r ucti o n o f t he

.
,

o ri g i n al P A Y E car w as c o mbi n e d with t he d o o r ar r a n g e m e n t

- -

o f t he P ay W ithi n car pr o duci n g a d e sig n c o n sid e rably in

-
,

adva n c e o f e ith e r .

With c ars o f t he p r e paym e n t typ e it is e ss e n tial t o rapid o p e r a ,

ti o n that t he spac e n e ar t he d o o r s be as littl e r e st r ict e d as p o ssibl e .

Fo r this r e as o n t he s e ati n g ar ra n g e m e n ts hav e b e e n d e v e l o p e d

fr o m that sh o w n in F ig 1 02 si n c e in m o st citi e s t he cr o ss s e ats
.
,

hav e b e e n f o u n d m o r e d e sirabl e .
 C A R S A N D CA R E Q U IP M EN T 2 13

A furth e r d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he d o o r o p e r ati n g pri n cipl e is t o -

hav e t he d o o rs a r ra n g e d S O that t he s tarti n g si g n al is giv e n aut o

m at ic al l y wh e n all o f th e m ar e cl o s e d T his may b e ac c o mplish e d .

v e ry simply with a hel l o r light ci r cuit givi n g t he i n dicati on ,

t o t he m o t o rma n with o ut sig n al fr o m t he c o n duct o r T he sch e m e .

may b e car ri e d still furth e r in cars e quipp e d with multipl e u n it

,
-

c o n tr o l by i n cludi n g t he d o o rs in t he mast e r c o n t r o l ci r cui t

,
.

With t his arra n g e m e n t t he car ca n n o t be start e d u n til th e y hav e

all b e e n cl o s e d It th e n b e c o m e s p o ssibl e t o i n cr e as e t h e sp e e d
.

o f o p e rati o n fo r as s o o n as t h e car has c o m e t o a st o p an d t h e

,

d o o rs hav e b e e n o p e n e d t he m o t o rma n c an th r o w his c o n tr o lle r

,

t o t he rs t O p e rati n g p o siti o n T h e n as s o o n as th e y hav e b e e n

.
,

cl o s e d t he car will star t with o ut sig n als o f an y s o r t an d t he

,
'
m o t o r ma n c an at o n c e tu r n his c o n t r o ll e r furthe r as d e si re d I f .

t he d o o rs a r e Op e n e d whil e t he car is ru n n i n g p o w e r will imm e ,

d iat e l y b e cut o ff .

C e n t e r Entr an c e C ar s T he pr e paym e n t p r i n cipl e has b e e n

e x t e n d e d t o c e n t e r sid e d o o r cars As al r e ady m e n ti o n e d t he
-
.
,

sid e d o o r has ma n y Op e r ati n g adva n tag e s It d e c r e as e s t he .

av e ra g e dista n c e t he pass e n g e r must g o fr o m t he e n t r a n c e t o n d

a pl a c e ; an d si n c e t he platf o r ms are u n n e c e ssary th e y may b e ,

e n tir e ly o mitt e d b e i n g r e plac e d with s e ats thus addi n g mat e r i

, ,

ally t o t he capacity o f t he car It is als o p o ssibl e by i n c li n i n g t he

.
,

o o r t o mak e a car with l o w e r st e ps tha n t he sta n dar d In

,
.

N e w Y o r k a d e sig n has b e e n p r o duc e d in which by havi n g t h e

, ,

o o r i n cli n e d upward b o th ways fr o m t he c e n t e r d o o r an d by ,

t he u s e o f sp e cial fe atu r e s t he st e p has b e e n e n tir e ly e limi n at e d

, ,

t he car o o r at t he e n tra n c e b e i n g o n ly 1 0 in ab o v e t he st r e e t .

l e v e l ( s e e Fig
1
.

N e ar Side C an
- A sp e cial typ e Of car has b e e n d e sig n e d fo r
.

pr e paym e n t o f far e s in c o n n e cti o n with t h e n e ar sid e st o p which -

,

is b e i n g r e quir e d in ma n y citi e s o n ac c o u n t o f saf e ty In t he .

N e ar S id e car Fig 1 0 6 t he e n tran c e an d e xit ar e b o th o n t he
-
,
.
,

f r o n t platf o r m t he r e ar platf o r m b e i n g e n ti r e ly e limi n at e d um

,

l e ss t he car is d e sig n e d fo r d o ubl e e n d s e rvic e T he c o n duct o r -

.

is r e li e v e d o f all O p e r ati n g duti e s si n c e t h e pass e n g e rs e n t e r ,

a n d l e av e t he car u n d e r t h e e y e o f t h e m o t o r ma n T h e latt e r .
,

havi n g c o n t r o l o f b o th t he e n tr a n c e an d e xit d o o r s c an star t t he ,

car wh e n he is satis e d that t h e st e ps ar e cl e ar It is p o ssibl e t o .

1
A com pl e t e d e s c rip t io n o f t his c ar m ay be f o un d in E l e c t r i c R ai lw a y
J o urn al ,
V o l XXX I X p 4 1 8 M ar 1 6
.
,
.
,
.
,
19 12 .
2 14 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

i n t e rl o ck t he c o n tr o ll e r with t he d o o rs s o as t o pr e v e n t o p er a? ,

ti o n o f t he m o t o rs u n l e ss t he d o o rs ar e cl o s e d T he c o n duct o r .
,

th e n acts m e r e ly as cashi e r his fu n cti o n b e i n g t o mak e cha n g e

, ,

a n d assu r e hims e lf that t h e p r o p e r fa r e has b e e n d e p o sit e d in t h e

far e b o x by t h e pass e n g e r I n small citi e s with light trafc t he .

,

FI G . 1 05 .
-
N ew Y o rk st e pl e s s c ar .

T he o o r l v li
e e s b ut 1 0 in a b v th g
o e e r oun d, an d t here ar e n o s t e ps i n s id e t he c ar

g f l th p y l
.

p
.

t h e a rr a n e m e n t O s e a t s t o c e ar e on w he e s, an d t he o s it io n of t he m o t o rs at t he
o ut e r e n d s o f t h e t r u c s k .

c o n duct o r m ay e v e n b e dis pe n s e d w it h t he m o t o r m a n p e rf o rm ..
,

in g t he duti e s o f b o th In t he latt e r cas e t he tim e c o n sum e d in

.
,

st o ps is liabl e t o b e s o m e what l o n g e r tha n wh e r e a c o n duct o r is

e mpl o y e d .

FI G . 106 . N e a r - s id e
-
c ar .

T he e n t r an c e a n d
ex it d o o rs ar e un der t h e c o n t ro l of t he m o t o r m an ; t he c o n duc t or is not
re qu ired te g ve
i s t art i n g g l
si n a s .

R apid T ran s it C a r s d e sig n o f cars fo r s e rvic e o n e l e vat e d

T he
a n d subway r o ads is n o t limit e d as fo r u s e o n su r fac e li n e s p r i n ,

c ipal l y b e caus e t h e pr o bl e m o f fa r e c o ll e cti o n d o e s n o t e n t e r In . _

all r o ads o f this class pr e paym e n t o f fa r e s is an e ss e n tial pa r t ;

but o n a c c o u n t o f t h e physical f e atur e s maki n g it p o ssibl e t o
, ,
 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 5

o p e rat e e n tir e ly o n privat e right o f w ay paym e n t is m ad e in - -

,

t h e stati o n s b e f o r e t h e pass e n g e rs e n t e r s o that t he cars c an b e ,

d e sig n e d e n tir e ly fo r c o mf o rt an d rapidity o f o p e rati o n T he .

d o o rs o f t he e ar li e st typ e o f rapid t r a n sit car w e r e m o d e l e d

cl o s e ly aft e r th o s e o f t he o p e n platf o rm st e am c o ach o f t he
sam e p e r i o d but t he cars o rdi n arily had l o n gitudi n al s e ats in
,

st e ad o f t he cr o ss s e ats o f sta n dard railr o ad d e sig n s S uch a .

car is sh o w n diagr ammatically in Fig 1 0 7 . .

FI G . 1 07 .
E ar ly ra p id -
t ran s it c ar .

T hi t yp
s e, w it h o p en p la t f or m s , h as b een w id e ly u s e d o n al l o f t he e ar li
er e l e v at e d ro ads
N p
.

'
ot e t he o s it io n o f t he m o t o r m an s c ab .

It is t o b e n o t e d in c o n n e cti on with all cars fo r o p e r ati o n ,

o n e l e vat e d an d subway li n e s that si n c e t he platf o rms must b e ,

sp e cially d e sign e d in an y cas e th e r e is n o advan tag e in havi n g ,

th e m n e ar t he l e v e l o f t he rail M uch m o r e rapid l o adi n g an d .

u n l o adi n g c an b e o btai n e d with th e m at t h e l e v e l o f t h e car o o r ,

si n c e this o bviat e s an y n e e d o f st e ps T hi s arrang e m e n t als o .

simpli e s t he car framin g t o s o m e e xt e n t si n c e t h e sills c an b e ,

mad e c o n ti n u o us fr o m o n e e n d o f t he b o dy t o t he o th e r .

FI G . 1 08 .
R ap i d -t r an s it c ar , u s e d in N e w Y o rk , C hi c ag o , B ro o kly n ,
et c .

A m o d i c a t io n o f t he o p e n -p l tf
a or m c ar s h o w n in Fig . 108 .

A n o th e rtyp e o f rapid t ran sit car sh o w n in Fig 1 0 8 is t he sam e ,

.
,

in g e n e r al d e si g n but i n clud e s a fe w cr o ss s e ats n e ar t he middl e o f

,

t he car T h e s e s e ats ar e i n var iably o f t he n on r e v e r sibl e typ e

.
- .

C ars such as sh o w n in th e s e t w o diagrams hav e b e e n o p e rat e d

o n t h e p r i n cipal e l e vat e d li n e s fo r ma n y y e ars .

T he g e n e ral d e ma n d fo r t he e n cl o s e d v e stibul e car l e d t o t h e

typ e sh o w n in Fig 1 0 9 which is t he o n e us e d o n s e v e ral o f t he
.
,

e l e vat e d li n e s o f C hicag o T he pri n cipal o p e r ati n g adva n tag e

.

in this d e sig n is that si n c e t he pass e n g e rs ar e p r o t e ct e d fr o m t he

,
216 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

w e ath e r th e y ar e b e tt e r li n e d up at t he e xits wh e n t he car c o m e s

,

t o a stati o n .

S i n c e t he pri n cipal pr o bl e m in t he d e sig n o f r apid tra n sit cars

is t o s e cur e swift m o v e m e n t o f t he pass e n g e rs it w o uld app e ar th a t ,

t h e additi o n o f d o o rs in t he middl e o f t h e sid e s w o uld add t o

FI G . 1 09 .
R ap id -t r a n s it l
en c osed v e s t ib u l e c ar .

A l at er t yp e t han t hos e sho w n in Fig s . 1 07 an d 1 08 .

t he of
u n l o adi n g an d l o adi n g A car o f this typ e sh o w n in
sp e e d .
,

Fig 1 1 0 was rst us e d o n t he B o st o n El e v at e d R ailr o ad

.
, On .

that r o ad t h e sch e m e is t o hav e t he pass e n ge rs e n t e r by t h e e n d

d o o rs an d l e a v e by t he c e n t e r d o o rs If this pla n is adh e r e d t o .

by all t he pass e n g e rs it i n cr e as e s t he rapidity o f Op e rati o n c o n

,

F/a ff ar m

FI G . 1 1 0 S id e - e n t r an c e
. ra p id -
i
t r a n s t -c a r , N e w Yo rk .

A m o di c a t io n of t he t yp e show n in F ig 109 , t o giv e g r e at e r f ilit i

ac es f p id l
or ra o a d in g
l g
.

and u n o a d in .

s id e r a b l y . U n f o rtu n at e ly ,
it is n o t p o ssibl e t o c o mpl e t e ly trai n
t he A m e rica n ridi n g p ublic t o m o ve in x e d cha n n e ls s o that t he ,

adva n tag e o f e stablishi n g r e gular dir e cti o n s o f m o v e m e n t is but

partially r e ali z e d Ev e n a partial e stablishm e n t o f a r e gular
.

FI G . 111 .
S id e - e n t ran c e r a p id t r an s it
-
c ar , P hil ad e lp h ia .

Thi s d i ff e r s f ro m t he N e w Yo r k c ar p r in c ip ll y i t h
a n e s e a t in g a rr an ge m en t .

dir e cti o n o f m o ti o n h e lps t o s o m e e xt e n t ; an d it w o uld s ee m that ,

e v e n if n o g e n e r al adh e r e n c e t o t h e rul e w e r e mad e t h e e xtr a ,

d o o r s sh o uld aid in l o adi n g an d u n l o adi n g C ar s o f a similar .

d e sign hav e b e e n ad o pt e d o n a n umb e r o f rapid t r an sit r o ads .

 CA RS A N D CA R E Q UIP M EN T 217

A slight m o dicati o n c o n sists in t he additi o n o f a fe w cr o ss s e ats

o n e ith e r sid e o f t h e c e n t e r d o o rs as sh o w n in Fig 1 1 1 whi c h ,
.
,

r e p r e s e n ts t he typ e o f car us e d o n t h e P hilad e lphia e l e vat e d r o ad .

Pr actically t he sam e r e sults in rapidity o f pass e n g e r i n t e r

cha n ge sh o uld be acc o mplish e d by c o mbi n i n g t he c e n t e r an d e n d

FI G . 1 1 2 , R a p id -t ran s it c ar , M e t r o p o l it a n R ail r o a d of P a ri s .

N ot e t he s h or t d is t an c e f r om . t h e d o or s t o t he s e at s in any pa rt of t he c ar .

d o o r s placi n g t w o sid e d o o rs s o m e dista n c e fr o m t he e n ds Of t he

,

c ar as in F ig 1 1 2 which r e pr e s e n ts a d e sig n us e d in P a r is
,
.
, In .

'

this t he maximum dista n c e fr o m a s e at t o a d o o r is n o gr e at e r

tha n wh e n c e n t e r an d e n d d o o rs ar e us e d in a car o f e qual l e n gth .

FI G . 1 1 3 C a m b ri dg e
. s ub w a y c ar .

A recent t yp e of ra p id t r an s it
- c ar , ar r a n g e d f l ar g e
or ca p ac it y .

A m o v e m e n t has b e e n gr o wi n g in t he past fe w y e ars fo r l o n g e r

car s fo r this class o f s e rvic e si n c e t he pass e n ge r capacity c an be ,

i n c r e as e d t o s o m e e xt e n t with o ut addi n g t o t he platfo rm lab o r .

Re c e n t cars d e sig n e d fo r t h e B o st o n C ambridg e subw ay ( F ig .

1 1 3) an d fo r t he N e w Y o rk M u n icipal R ailway ( Fig 1 1 4 ) are .

FI G . 1 1 4 R a p i d - t r a n s it
. c ar , Ne w Y o rk M u n i c ip al R ail w a y .

A v y er r e c en t c ar , d esi g n ed a ft er a com p r ehen s iv et udy t

s g iv e m un u m p
, o ax as s e n g er
c ap ty
ac i .

e xampl e s o f this In b o th typ e s t he p r i n cipl e m e n ti o n e d in t he

.
,

last pa r agraph has b e e n us e d t o r e duc e t he dista n c e fr o m t he d o o r s

t o t he s e ats ; but b o th cars ar e s o l o n g ( 69 ft in an d 6 7 ft 4 . . .

in r e sp e ctiv e ly ) that it is n e c e ssar y t o c o mbi n e th e s e sid e d o o r s

.
,

with c e n t e r sid e d o o r s as us e d in s o m e o f t he e ar li e r d e sig n s In

,
.
218 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

this way t he distan c e t o t he s e ats is n o m o re tha n in t he e n d an d

sid e d o o r cars ; an d is actually l e ss tha n in much sh o rt e r e n d
-

d o o r c ars .

Whil e it is d e sirabl e t o s e at e ve ry pass e n g e r it is g e n e rally ,

r e c o g n iz e d that in c o n g e st e d busi n e ss districts it is n o t p o ssibl e

t o pr o vid e e n o ugh c ars t o fur n ish s e ats fo r all ; an d wh e n ma n y ,

busi n e ss h o us e s cl o s e at t he sam e tim e it tax e s t o t he limit ,

t he o rdi n ar y rapid tra n sit r o ad t o pr o vid e acc o mm o dati o n s o f an y

ki n d T his has b e e n r e c o g n iz e d in t he c ar fo r t he N e w Yo r k
.

M u n icipal R ailway Whil e a larg e d o o r capacity is n e e d e d fo r

.

rush h o ur s e r v i c e it is n o t s o n e c e ssa r y at o th e r tim e s ; an d s o m e

,

o f t h e d o o rs ar e arra n g e d t o b e us e d o n ly wh e n n e e d e d f o ldi n g ,

s e ats b e i n g plac e d i n fr o n t o f th e m as d e sir e d .

T he e ff e ct o n Op e rati o n d ue t o t he use o f di e r e n t rapid tra n sit

cars is v e r y mark e d Fo r i n sta n c e it has b e e n e stimat e d that t he
.
,

n e w N e w Yo rk M u n icipal R ailway ca r s will i n c r e as e t he capacity

o f t h e t r ack by 2 0 t o 2 5 pe r c e n t o v e r what it w o uld b e if t he lat e st

.

typ e o f cars n o w in use o n o th e r r o ads o f its class in N e w Yo rk

C ity w e r e e mpl o y e d ; an d it will als o sav e ab o ut a y e ar
in platf o rm c o sts an d b e tw e e n
,
an d in p o w e r
syst e m capacity b e caus e o f t he d e cr e as e d e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n pe r
p ass e n g e r carri e d 1
.

Int e rur b an C ar s The i n te ri o r arra n g e m e n t o f cars fo r i n t e r
u r ba n r o ads is subj e ct t o m o r e c o n icti n g e l e m e n ts O f d e sig n tha n
in city o r rapid tra n sit s e r v ic e T he c o ll e cti o n o f far e s must b e
.

c o n sid e r e d t o s o m e e xt e n t but t he pr o bl e m is n o t s o s e r i o us as i n
,

city cars ; fo r t he n umb e r o f pass e n ge rs e n t e ri n g is n o t v e ry larg e

at an y o n e st o p an d t he rid e s are l o n ge r Furth e r s o m e syst e m
,
.
,

o f far e r e c e ipts may b e us e d fo r in de n t i c at io n It is m o r e e ss e n .

tial t o pr o v id e faciliti e s fo r t he c o mf o rt o f t he pass e n g e rs an d this ,

n e e d i n cr e as e s with t he a v e rag e l e n gth o f rid e O n r o ads Op e rat.

in g t r ai n s fo r ru n s e xc e e di n g ab o ut t w o h o urs in l e n gth t he c o n ,

ve n ie n c e s sh o uld b e ab o ut t he sam e as th o s e sta n dard fo r st e am

c o ach e s A car which has b e e n ad o pt e d by o n e o f t he larg e r

.

i n t e rurba n r o ads o f t he M iddl e We st is sh o w n in F ig 1 1 5 In . .

this ar e c o mbi n e d t he fu n cti o n s o f sta n dard pass e n g e r c o ach ,

sm o k e r an d baggag e car T he sm o ki n g an d baggage r o o ms ar e

,
.

m e r g e d in o rd e r t o sav e spac e T his c o mpartm e n t has a n um

,
.

b e r o f f o ldi n g s e ats which ar e n o rmally us e d fo r pass e n g e rs but ,

1
Se e Ele c t r i c R a i l w a y J o u r n a l J un e
,
6, 1 9 14, Vo l . XLIII p , . 1 261 .
 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 2 19

which c an b e f o ld e d back agai n st t he walls in cas e th e r e is an

e xtra am o u n t o f baggag e .

T he use o f t he c e n t e r e n tra n c e car fo r i n t e rurba n s e rvic e has

mad e but littl e h e adway s o far ; but it is lik e ly t o hav e a wid e r
applicati o n in t he future o n acc o u n t o f its e xc e ll e n t qualiti e s .

T he mai n c o mpar tm e n t may b e s e parat e d by t he e n t r a n c e f r o m

t he sm o ki n g an d baggag e r o o ms whil e t he dista n c e fr o m an y part ,

t o t he d o o r s may b e r e duc e d Fig 1 1 6 sh o ws a car o f this typ e . .

w hich has b e e n succ e ssfully us e d in high sp e e d s e rvic e -

.

FI G . 1 15 S t a n d ar d i n t e ru rb an c ar , I ll in o is T r ac t i o n S y s t e m .

Th i s c ar c o m bi n e s al l t he f e a t ur e s o f t he o r d in ar y s t e am l
r ai r o a d l oca lp a ss e n g er t r ain .

A umb e r o f i n t e ru r ba n r o ads hav e f o u n d it d e sirabl e t o O p e r at e

n

a limite d fr e ight s e rvic e T o do this m o t o r -e qu i pp e d ca r s o f

.
,

t he o rdi n a r y baggag e typ e hav e b e e n us e d In s o m e cas e s th e y .

ar e Op e r at e d as s e parat e u n its an d in o th e r s t he m o t o r capacity ,

is i n c r e ase d s o that th e y ar e abl e t o haul o n e o r t w o t r ail e rs .

A d e ma n d has b een f o u n d fo r i n t e rurba n parl o r car s e rvic e -

duri n g t he past fe w y e ars ; an d t o satisfy it c ars r e s e mbli n g t he ,

FI G . 1 16 .
-
C e n t e r-e n t ran c e in t e ru rb an c ar K an s as C it y C l ay , ,
C o un t y an d

S t Jo s e p h R a ilw a y
. .

Thi s is a r e cent d es ig
n,w hi h h cp v d q it p p l
as ro ed w hi h h ub e o u ar , a n c as e e n ad o p t e d w it h
m in o r m od i c a t io n s o n a n um b fi t u b
er o d n er r an r o a s.

P ullman parl o r cars but usually sh o rt e r hav e b e e n built T h e s e

, ,
.

ar e m o st fr e qu e n tly r un as trail e rs t o o bviat e t he n o is e i n cid e n t

t o m o t o r Op e r ati o n w hi ch alth o ugh slight is o bj e cti o n abl e t o

, , ,

s o m e patr o n s T h e y ar e usually a s o urc e o f c o n sid e rabl e r e v e n u e

.
,

fo r th e y fur n ish additi o n al s e ati n g capacity which is paid fo r by

t he e xc e ss far e s charg e d .

T he d e ma n d fo r di n i n g cars o n e l e ctric r o ads has b e en v e ry

s light up t o t h e pr e s e n t tim e ; but in t he futur e if s e v e ral r o ads ,
22 0 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

c o mbi n e t o giv e thr o ugh s e r vi c e it is p o ssibl e that a n e e d fo r

,

th e m may b e fe lt Al l o f t he di n i n g s e rvic e n o w ha n dl e d o n
.

i n t e r u r ba n r o ads is gi v e n by bu ff e ts o p e r at e d in c o n j u n cti o n with

t he pa r l o r cars .

O n a fe w r o ads it has b e e n d e sirabl e t o r un n ight trai n s an d

t o supply sl e e pi n g car s e rvic e T h e cars which hav e b e e n us e d
.

ha ve b e e n sp e cially d e sig n e d an d i n clud e a n umb e r o f f e atur e s

,

n o t s e e n o n t he sta n dard P ullma n cars S i n c e this s e r vic e is

.

e n tir e ly sp e cial n o att e mpt will b e mad e t o giv e d e tail e d d e

,

s c r ipt io n s o f t h e cars us e d .

Auxili ar y El e c tr ic D e vic e s
Alth o ugh t he car b o dy t he m o t o r s ,

an d t he c o n t r o l ar e t he e ss e n tials o f t h e r o lli n g st o ck a larg e ,

n umb e r o f auxilia r y parts a r e n e e d e d t o c o mpl e t e t he e quipm e n t .

P ri n cipal am o n g th e s e a r e t he lighti n g d e vic e s an d h e ati n g sys

t em . Whil e n e ith e r is us e d c o n ti n u o usly th r o ugh o ut t he o p e ra
ti o n o f t he car b o th are n e c e ssary if t he s e r vic e is t o b e c o n ti n u e d
,

fo r m o r e tha n sp e cial e v e n ts .

C ar Light in g U p t o t he pr e s e n t tim e t he lighti n g o f e l e ct r ic

,

cars b o th fo r city an d fo r i n t e rurba n s e rvic e has b e e n d o n e by

, ,

clust e rs o f 1 6 c p c a r b o n i n ca n d e sc e n t lamps o r by a li n e o r
-
. .
,

li ne s o f such lamps d o w n t he middl e o r sid e s o f t he car T h e y .

ar e plac e d ve in s e r i e s o n t he tr o ll e y circuit s o that sta n dard ,

lamps o f 1 1 0 t o 1 2 0 v o lts may b e us e d I n o rd e r t o hav e un i .

f o rmity in illumi n ati o n an d t o p r e v e n t u n e qual d e t e ri o r ati o n

, ,

t he lamps must b e car e fully match e d t o hav e th e m o f t he sam e

cur r e n t capacity I n m o st i n stallati o n s t h e lamps hav e b e e n
.
,

l e ft bar e o r pr o v id e d with i n ad e quat e shad e s an d r e e ct o r s

,
.

S uch a syst e m is far fr o m satisfact o ry fo r t he am o u n t o f light,

pr o duc e d by t he carb o n lamps is i n suf ci e n t fo r r e adi n g whil e ,

t he e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n is high T he bar e l am ps ar e n o t ar

ra n g e d fo r t he b e st distributi o n O f t he light a n d th e y pr o duc e ,

a glar e in t he e y e s O f t he p ass e n ge rs which is harmful .

Withi n t he last fe w y e a r s m o r e att e n ti o n has b e e n paid t o t he

c o rr e ct lighti n g o f cars an d illumi n ati n g e n gi n e e r s hav e put a
,

gr e at d e al o f th o ught o n t he subj e ct T he o rdi n a r y car is a dif

.

c ult i n t e ri o r t o t r e at si n c e it is p r actically a l o n g n arr o w r o o m

, , ,

with but littl e wall spac e for di ffusi o n o f t he light an d with a ,

l o w c e ili n g which is usually n o t w e ll d e sig n e d fo r r e e cti o n .

T he rst st e p in t he impr o v e m e n t o f car illumi n ati o n is t he

substituti o n o f tu n gst e n lamps fo r t h e carb o n B y t h e u s e o f .

2 3 -watt tu n gst e n lamps in plac e o f t he 50 watt c a r b o n lamps -

,
 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 22 1

t he g li hti n g c o st c a n b e r e duc e d t o l e ss tha n o n e.

-half whil e t he ,

am o u n t o f light is i n cr e as e d ab o ut 1 5 pe r c e n t T his cha n g e .

has b e e n mad e in a n umb e r o f la r g e city r o ads '

.

T he cha n g e fr o m carb o n t o t un gs t e n l am ps whil e i n cr e asi n g ,

t he t o tal am o u n t o f light d o e s n o t g e t rid o f t he o bj e cti o n abl e

,

glar e n o r d o e s it impr o v e t h e light distr ibuti o n M o r e r e c e n t

,
.

d e v e l o pm e n ts ha v e sh o w n that by t h e us e o f fairly larg e u n its in ,

t h e n e ighb o rh o o d o f 100 watts spac e d much fu r th e r apar t a n d

,

e quipp e d with pr o p e r shad e s an d r e e ct o rs t h e t o tal am o u n t o f ,

light in t he car m ay b e s o m e what i n cr e as e d an d its distributi o n

m ad e v e r y much b e tt e r T his is als o acc o mpa n i e d by a mat e r ial
.

r e ducti o n in e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n fo r lighti n g l e ss c o st o f lamps , ,

an d a savi n g in t h e n e c e ssar y wi r i n g fo r t h e car It is v e ry pr o b .

abl e that this m e th o d o f car lighti n g will n d m o r e an d m o r e fav o r

as its ad v a n tag e s b e c o m e b e tt e r k n o w n The pri n cipal Obj e cti o n
.

is that if t h e lighti n g is c o n c e n trat e d in ve u n its all in s e ri e s a , ,

failur e Of o n e lamp will thr o w t he car in dark n e ss T his c an b e .

tak e n car e o f by t h e us e o f a s e l e ct o r switch Op e rat e d by t he c o n

,

duct o r by m e a n s o f which a spar e lamp may b e he ld r e ady t o

,

thr o w i n t o t h e circuit in cas e o f a n o th e r bur n i n g o ut It is pr a c .

tically always n e c e ssary t o hav e an auxilia r y circuit fo r mark e rs ,

d e sti n ati o n sig n s e t c an d o n e o r t w o lamps o n this circuit c an

,
.
,

b e plac e d in t he car i n t e ri o r fo r such e m e rg e n ci e s In an y cas e .

it is e asy fo r t he c o n duct o r t o b e suppli e d with a spar e lamp which ,

c an b e us e d t o r e plac e o n e bur n e d o u t .

O n e g e n e r al o bj e cti o n t o all lighti n g syst e ms d e p e n di n g o n

.

tr o ll e y cu r r e n t is that t he li n e p o t e n tial is liabl e t o larg e an d sud

d e n uctuati o n s . W hil e th e s e hav e but littl e e ff e ct o n t he m o t o r
o p e r ati o n, th e y caus e ick e ri n g o f t h e li g hts Oft e n t o such an ,

e xt e n t as t o mak e r e adi n g imp o ssibl e T his c o n diti o n is w o rs e

.

'
with ca r b o n lamps a n d is c on sid e r ably impr o v e d by t he sub
,

s t it ut io n o f tu n gst e n lamps particularly in larg e u n its B ut

, .

th e r e is n o f o rm o f i n ca n d e sc e n t lamp which will sta n d a variati o n

o f 2 5 pe r c e n t in p o t e n tial with o ut a wid e cha n g e in ca n dl e p o w e r
. .

U p t o t he p r e s e n t tim e n o r e m e dy has b e e n s e r i o usly sugg e st e d

,
.

O n e m e th o d which has b e e n tri e d e xp e r im e n tally c o n sists in

placi n g in s e ri e s with t he lamp ci r cuit a r e sist o r with a la r ge
p o siti v e t e mp e ratur e c o e fci e n t which will t e n d t o st e ady t he
,

lamp p o t e n tial T his has n o t b e e n put in practical f o rm an d in

.
,

an y e v e n t r e quir e s t he wast e o f c o n sid e r abl e e n e r gy t o b e e ff e c tiv e .

A n o th e r sugg e sti o n is t he us e o f a m o t o r g e n e rat o r s e t fo r supply

2 22 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

in g t h e lights T his is als o o p e n t o t he o bj e cti o n o f b e i n g un

.

e c o n o mical W ith tr o ll e y p o t e n tials Of 1 2 00 v o lts an d o v e r it

.
,

b e c o m e s a n e c e ssity t o us e s o m e such d e v ic e b o th fo r supplyi n g ,

t he lamps an d fur n ishi n g curr e n t fo r t he o p e rati o n Of t he c o n t r o l

ci r cuits T his giv e s a par tial s o luti o n o f t he lighti n g p r o bl e m o n
.

such r o ads O n si n gl e phas e r o ads t he variati o n o f t h e li n e

.
-
,

p o t e n tial is c o n sid e rably l e ss an d t he lighti n g t r o ubl e s ar e n o t s o

,

gr e at as o n t he l o w p o t e n tial dir e ct curr e n t li n e s

,
- -
.

C ar H e atin g
The pr o p e r h e ati n g o f cars in wi n t e r is a subj e ct
o f c o n sid e r abl e imp o rta n c e in n o rth e r n climat e s T he pr o bl e m .

must b e c o n sid e r e d fr o m a n umb e r o f di ffe r e n t a n gl e s an d is ,

rath e r difcult o f s o luti o n t o t he satisfacti o n o f all t h e patr on s o f a

r o ad In city surfac e cars t he pass e n g e rs usually rid e fo r sh o rt
.
,

dista n c e s an d k e e p o n th e ir o ut e r cl o thi n g It is g e n e rally suf .

c ie n t t o k e e p t he cars h e at e d t o a p o i n t which will b e c o mf o rt

abl e t o p e rs o n s in st r e e t attir e T his calls fo r i n t e ri o r t e mp e ra
.

tur e s o f ab o ut 5 5 t o 60 F F o r suburba n an d i n t e rurba n .

s e rvic e wh e r e t h e a v e rag e rid e is m uch l o n g e r t he pass e n g e rs

, ,

usually d e sir e t o r e m o v e th e ir wraps In this c as e t he t e m .

p e r a t ur e sh o uld b e fr o m 65 t o 70 F .

T he pr o p e r h e ati n g o f a car t o t he d e sir e d t e mp e ratur e is in it

s e lf in s uf c ie n t ; th e r e must b e at t he sam e tim e an ad e quat e sup
ply O f fr e sh air T his may b e i n tr o duc e d by m e a n s o f air ducts at
.

t he fr o n t e n d o f t he car o r by e xhaust v e n tilat o rs in t he r o o f o r

,

Oth e r c o n v e n i e n t l o cati o n In o rd e r t o g e t t h e air warm e d it

.
,

sh o uld b e pass e d o v e r t he h e at e rs fo r t he b e st distributi o n .

F o r t h e actual g e n e rati o n o f h e at th e r e ar e a v ailabl e at l e ast

th r e e di ffe r e n t syst e ms T he simpl e st is t h e use o f a small st o v e
.

in e ach c a r plac e d e ith e r o n t he fr o n t platf o rm o r in s o m e c o n

,

v e n ie n t l o cati o n i n sid e T his ar r a n g e m e n t is n o t v e ry satis

.
~

fact o ry si n c e it d o e s n o t distribut e t he h e at u n ifo rmly t hr o ugh

,

t he car . T his is r e m e di e d t o s o m e e xt e n t by placi n g t he st o v e

o n t h e f r o n t platf o r m T h e air is th e n f o rc e d o v e r it b e f o r e
.

admissi o n t o t he car T he car st o v e is in an y cas e da n g e r o us an d

.

di r ty It always r e quir e s att e n ti o n e v e n th o ugh that may b e

.
,

suppli e d by t he car cr e w Its pr i n cip al adva n tag e is in ch e ap n e ss

.

o f i n stallati o n an d O p e rati o n .

A m o r e ad e quat e f o rm o f h e ati n g is mad e by t he us e o f h o t wat e r

as a ci r culati n g m e dium it b e i n g h e at e d by a small fur n ac e l o
,

c at e d at s o m e c o n v e n i e n t p o i n t in t h e car T his g e ts rid o f t he .

u n e v e n distributi o n o f h e at an d thus is b e tt e r tha n t he st o v e

,
.
 C A R S A N D CA R E Q U I P M E N T 223

It is c o n sid e rably m o r e e xp en siv e t o i n stall c o sts s o m e what m o r e ,

t o Op e rat e an d d o e s n o t g e t rid o f t he da n g e r an d t he di r t i n ci
,

d e n t t o t he us e o f a c o al st o v e o n t he car .

T he third typ e o f h e at e r mak e s us e o f e l e ctric curr e n t in s pe

c ial ly d e sig n e d r e sist o rs T h e s e m ay b e l o cat e d at c o n v e n i e n t
.

p o i n ts in t he car usually b e i n g plac e d u n d e r t he s e ats o r al o n g t he

,

sid e walls T he distributi o n o f h e at is ab o ut as g o o d as in t he

.

ho t wat e r syst e m
-
T he h e at is cl e a n th e r e is n o n e e d fo r
.
,

att e n da n c e an d n o e xtra r e hazard d ue t o t he us e o f this ki n d o f

,

h e at e rs D i ff e r e n t d e gr e e s o f h e at may b e Obtai n e d by s ub d ivid

.

in g t h e c o ils o f t he r e sist o rs as d e si r e d It is h o w e v e r m o r e
.
, ,

e xp e n siv e t o i n stall than t h e plai n st o v e but s o m e what ch e ap e r ,

than h o t -wat e r h e at e r s T he c o st o f Op e r ati o n is d e cid e dly

.

high e r tha n for t he o th e r typ e s .

O n city r o ads t he n e e d fo r all o f t he availabl e spac e fo r pass e n

ge rs an d t he di fculty o f t he trai n c r e w n di n g tim e t o ca r e fo r
,
'
h e at e rs pr ac t ic al l y pr e c l ud e s t he us e o f an y typ e o f h e at but
,

e l e ctric . In this s e rvic e t h e n e e d fo r a high t e mp e ratur e is l e ast ,

s o t h e e xp e n s e Of o p e r ati n g e l e ctric h e at e rs is l e ss tha n fo r t h e

l o n ge r ru n s In s o m e cas e s e l e ct r ic h e at may e v e n be f o u n d
.
,

ch e ap e r o n l o n g r u n s tha n o th e r ki n ds .

Fo r i n t e rurba n s e rvic e t he us e o f e l e ctric h e at e rs calls fo r a

,

much larg e r e xp e n ditu r e o f e n e rgy tha n o n city r o ads T he .

t e mp e ratu r e n e e d e d is gr e at e r an d t he high car sp e e d caus e s

,

g r e at e r l o ss e s by c o n v e cti o n curr e n ts an d by radiati o n F o r m o st .

i n t e r u r ban r o ads t he ho t wat e r syst e m has pr o v e d t he m o s t satis

-

fact o ry an d e c o n o mical o f an y typ e o f h e at e r .

El e c t r ic H e at e r s E l e ctric h e at e rs fo r car s e rvic e all d e p e n d

.

o n t he sam e pri n cipl e t he dissipati o n O f e n e r gy in r e sista n c e ;

a n d si n c e t he en e r gy is tran sf o r m e d at a rat e e qual t o I R th e ir
2
,

e l e ct r ical e fci e n cy will always b e 10 0 pe r c e n t M e cha n ically .

,

th e r e may be c o n sid e rabl e di ff e r e n c e in h e at e r s T h e y are usu .

ally mad e o f r e sista n c e wir e c o il e d o n p o rc e lai n f o r ms an d th e ir ,

h e at st o rag e capacity is small S udd e n variati o n s in t he tr o ll e y

.

p o t e n tial will th e re f o r e caus e c o rr e sp o n di n g r apid uctuati o n s in

t he h e at pr o duc e d S o m e f o rms ar e mad e with t he e mb e dd e d
.

typ e o f r e sist o r in which t he h e at capacity is much gr e at e r an d

, ,

t he dist r ibuti o n is m o r e u n if o r m tha n with t h e plai n wir e typ e .

O n t he o th e r ha n d it t ak e s a l o n g e r tim e t o warm t he car wh e n

,

t h e h e at is tu r n e d o n an d it d o e s n o t c o o l s o rapidly wh e n t he
,

cu rr e n t is cut o ff .
 24 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

C ar Wirin g O n e o f t he m o st v ital an d at t he sam e tim e t he

.
-
,

m o st vul n e rabl e parts o f t he car e quipm e n t is t he mai n p o w e r

,

wi r i n g U p o n it d e p e n ds t he O p e rati o n o f t he m o t o rs an d th e ir
.

p r o p e r c o n tr o l It is e ss e n tial that t he wiri n g b e mad e in a pe r

.

ma n e n t ma n n e r s o that in spit e o f t he r o ugh ha n dli n g an d abus e

, ,

i n cid e n t t o railway s e rvic e it will n o t b e damag e d , .

T he i n sulati o n o f t he wiri n g o n t he e arli e st cars w as e xtr e m e ly

crud e t he wir e s b e i n g i n stall e d with o ut r e gard t o arra n ge m e n t
, ,

t he mai n id e a b e in g t o O p e rat e t he ca r s in s o m e fashi o n A fe w .

y e ars l at e r wh e n e quipm e n ts had b e e n stan dardiz e d t o s o m e

,

e xt e n t r e gular c abl e s w e r e mad e up o f t he r e quisit e n umb e r o f

,

wir e s draw n t o g e th e r thr o ugh a ca n v as h o s e T his m e th o d o f

, .

wi r i n g was us e d with c o n sid e rabl e succ e ss fo r a n umb e r o f y e ars .

T h e r e w as always da n g e r o f abrasi o n o f t he i n sulati o n an d

gr o u n di n g o f t he wir e s Fi n ally this typ e o f car wiri n g was
.

sup e rs e d e d by lat e r an d b e tt e r m e th o ds .

A fav o rit e m e th o d o f wiri n g o n w o o d e n Cars is t o i n stall t he

wi ri n g u n d e r t he car t he i n dividual wire s b e i n g i n sul at e d fo r t he
,

full p o t e n tial an d b e i n g h e ld t o t he frami n g by s e parat e w o o d e n

cl e ats T his l e av e s t he wiri n g O p e n fo r i n sp e cti o n an d s e parat e s
.
,

it s o w e ll that th e r e is but littl e da n g e r o f gr o u n ds an d sh o rt cir

c uits In s o m e cas e s t h e o p e n c o n structi o n is r e plac e d by wiri n g
.

r un in m e tal m o uldi n g T his giv e s a n abs olut e pr o t e cti o n agai n st

.

m e cha n ical i n j ury .

F o r all st e e l cars it is practically imp e rati v e that t he wir e s b e

-

r un in c o n duit In such ca se s it is agr e e d that t he b e st practic e

.

is t o bri n g t he wir e s o ut thr o ugh sta n dard j u n cti o n b o x e s and ,

fast e n th e m t o t he car u n d e rframi n g with asb e st o s b o ard o r pr o p

e rly tr e at e d w o o d e n cl e ats which ar e arra n g e d t o all o w a cl e ar
,

spac e b e tw e e n t he wir e s o f at l e ast 2 in 1

.

I n all ty pe s o f e quipm e n t it is n e c e ssary t o pr o v id e s o m e aut o

,

matic pr o t e cti o n o f t he m o t o rs agai n st o v e rl o ad T he o rdi n ary .

m e th o d is t o us e fus e s an d ci r cuit br e ak e rs F or t he small e st .

e quipm e n ts fus e s ar e us e d al o n e but th e ir e mpl o ym e n t is O p e n,

t o a n umb e r o f o p e rati n g o bj e cti o n s G e n e rally t w o aut o matic .

circuit br e ak e rs ar e plac e d in t he cir cuit o n e at e ach e n d o f t he ,

car In s o m e cas e s th e s e br e ak e rs are in s e ri e s whil e in o th e r s o ne

.
,

is us e d al o n e at e ach e n d Fo r larg e e quipm e n ts it is b e tt e r t o

.

hav e b o th t he circuit br e ak e r an d t he fus e t he latt e r b e i n g s e t t o ,

1
Se e E n gi n e erin g M an ua l ,
Am i
e r c an El e c t r i c R ail w a y A s s o c i at i o n ,
S e c t io n Ec 1 1 a .
 C A RS A N D C A R E Q U I P M E N T 225

o p e n at a slightly high e r curr e n t tha n t he br e ak e r so that ,

o rdi n a r ily it will n o t o p e rat e .

C ars fo r s e rvic e o n o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y li n e s sh o uld als o b e pr o

vide d with light n in g arr e st e rs an d ch o k e c o ils t o pr e ve n t a rush

o f c ur r e n t thr o ugh t h e m o t o rs an d c o n tr o l in cas e t h e c ar is stru c k

.

by light n i n g o r a h e a v y su r g e o c curs o n t he li n e .

R e sist o r s fo r railw ay s e rvic e hav e alr e ady b e e n c o n sid e r e d in

c o n n e cti o n with t he c o n tr o l Of railway m o t o r s an d with e l e ctric ,

braki n g If gr id r e sist o rs o f t h e o rdi n ar y typ e ar e us e d it is

.
,

e ss en tial t o hav e th e m plac e d in such a p o siti o n as will i n su r e

ad e quat e v e n tilati o n o r t he Op e rati n g t e mp e ratu r e may b e c o m e

,

s o high as t o bur n o ut a n d d e str o y t he g r ids .

all r o ads O p e rati n g with o v e rh e ad c o n tact

li n e s s o m e ki n d o f c o ll e ct o r must b e us e d t o mak e c o n tact with
,

FI G . 1 7
1
O rd. in a ry w he e l t ro ll e y .

l
T h e w h e e is c ar r ie d in a p
h ar as s how n . C u r r e n t is c o n d u c e t df
r o m t h e w h e e t o t h e h ar l p
g p gb p ec b g l xl
,

t hr o u h s ri n r as s c o n t ac t i es, e ar i n o n t h e en ds o f t h e w h e e a e .

t he tr ll e y wi
o re . T he
usual f o rm fo r l o w t e n si o n di r e ct curr e n t - -

r o ads is t he c o mm o n wh e e l tr o ll e y T his d e vic e is s o w e ll k n o w n .

that v e ry littl e d e scripti o n is n e c e ssary It c o n sists o f a swiv e l .

in g bas e t o which is hi n g e d a st e e l p o l e b e ari n g at t he upp e r e n d

,

a gr o o v e d wh e e l o f c o pp e r o r br o n z e as sh o w n in Fig 1 1 7 which ,
.
,

ru n s o n t he l o w e r sid e o f t he c o n tact wir e Alth o ugh this s e e ms .

t he Obvi o us m e th o d o f c o ll e cti n g curr e n t it was n o t i n v e n t e d fo r ,

s e v e r al y e ars aft e r t he o p e r ati o n o f e l e ctric cars had b e c o m e prac

tical ; an d wh e n n ally d e v e l o p e d w as t he subj ec t o f litigati o n
fo r a l o n g tim e T o k e e p t he wh e e l in c o n tact with t he wir e a
.

spri n g is pr o vid e d in t he bas e F o r l o w sp e e d r o ads t he pr e ssur e .

-

r e quir e d t o mai n tai n c o n tact is small : but as t he sp e e d is i n cr e as e d

15
2 26 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

t he d e d pr e ssu r e b e c o m e s rapidly g r e at e r T his is large ly

nee .

d ue t o t h e u n e v e n su r fac e o f t he wir e caus e d by t he sag b e tw e e n

,

susp e n si o n p o i n ts As t he car m o v e s al o n g t he track t o ward a

.

p o i n t o f supp o rt t he tr o ll e y wh e e l gradually ris e s u n til t he ha n g e r

,

is r e ach e d As it is pass e d a rapid cha n g e in t he alig n m e n t o f t he

.

wir e tak e s plac e an d t h e wh e e l s upward m o ti o n b e i n g sud de n l y

, ,

arr e st e d it strik e s a bl o w o n t he wir e

,
T h e f o rc e o f t he bl o w .

d e p e n ds o n t he sag in t h e wi r e t he sp ee d O f t he car an d t he sti ff

, ,

n e ss o f t h e spri n g in t h e tr o ll e y bas e If t he spri n g is t o o sti ff $

.

a h e avy bl o w is struck ; whil e o n t he o th e r ha n d if t h e pr e ssur e

, ,

1000

2 000 200

30 40
Mil es Der Ho ur .

p eed on ll e c t in g p ac it y l t ro ll e y s

FI G . 1 18 Eff e c t Of s c u rr e n t co ca of w he e .

is t oo small t he wh e e l may l e av e t he wir e e n tir e ly at tim e s

,
.

T his latt e r c o n diti o n is e sp e cially h ad si n c e it caus e s a succ e ssi o n

,

o f arcs which pit t h e wi r e an d t h e wh e e l P itti n g t he wh e e l has .

t he furth e r e ff e ct o f r o ugh e n i n g t he surfac e o f t he wir e at o th er .

p o i n ts .

T h e s e va r i o us fact o rs caus e a rapid d e cr e as e in t he am o u n t o f

curr e n t which a tr o ll e y wh e e l c an c o ll e ct as t he sp e e d is rais e d ,
.

'

Alth o ugh t he capacity o f t he c o n tact is quit e larg e at l o w sp e e ds ,

t h e cu r r e n t which c an b e succ e ssfully d e li v e r e d t o t h e car is m uch

l e ss wh e n t h e maximum sp e e ds r e ach e d in o rdi n ary i n t e rurba n
s e rvic e ar e attai n e d T he r e lati o n b e tw e e n sp ee d an d c urr e n t
.

c o ll e cti n g capacity is sh o w n in Fig 1 1 8 . .

C o i n cid e n t with t he r e ducti o n in curr e n t c apacity as t he sp e e d

is i n c r e as e d th e r e is a mark e d dimi n uti o n in t he life o f t he tr o ll e y
,
 CA R S A N D CA R EQ UIP M EN T 227

wh ee ls . The r e lati o n b e tw e e n t h e life o f wh e e ls an d t he ma x i

e e ds attai n e d is al s o sh o w n in F ig 1 1 8 . .

d r o ads
th e r f o rms Of c o n tact hav e b e e n tri e d
, o .

fo r us e o n o v e r h e ad li n e s t he b e st ar e th o s e which ,

wh e e l with s o m e fo rm o f slidi n g c o n tact The t w o .

p r i n cipal typ e s o f slidi n g c o ll e ct o r ar e t he b o w tr o ll e y an d t h e

pa n t o graph T h e ir succ e ssful o p e rati o n d e p e n ds t o a larg e e x
.

FI G . 1 1 9 B o w t r o ll e y
. .

is b et t er s u it e d l
t h an t h e w h e e t r o l l e fo r c ur r e n t co ll ect io n at g
hi h s pe ed s , o n
sm a ll er in e r t i a . I t is W i d e ly
u s e d in
ur o p e .

t e n t o n maki n g a str uctu r e o f such light w e ight an d small i n e r ti a

tha t h e avy bl o ws will n o t b e d e liv e r e d t o t h e wir e as t he car pass e s
b e n e at h
A At t h e sam e tim e it has b e c o m e cust o mary t o us e a
.

f o rm O f c o n st r ucti o n in which t he tr o ll e y wir e is h e ld m o r e n e arly

in a h o ri z o n tal pla n e 1
.

T he b o w c o n tact is mad e in t w o e n ti r e ly diff e r e n t f o r m s Th e .

b o w tr o ll e y pr o p e r F ig 1 1 9 r e plac e s t he tr o ll e y p o l e a n d h e avy

, .
,

w he e l with a light fr am e w o r k supp o r ti n g a h o riz o n t a l c o n ta c t

pi e c e Of st e e l o r alumi n um which is h e ld agai n st t he wir e by ,

m e a n s o f a spr in g o r in high p o t e n tial e quipm e n ts by a c o m

, , ,

p r e ss e d air cyli n d e r W ith t he latt e r ar ra n g e m e n t it is un n e c e s

.

1
Se e C h a p t e r X II ,

C a t e n a r y S u s p e n s io n .
228 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

FI G . 1 2 0 P a n t o g ra h t ro
. p ll e y .

Th i t yp
s e is in us e fo r c u rr e n t c o ll e c t io n in f as t , hea vy s er vi ce ,
s uc h as o n t r un k

FI G . 121 .

Ove r -ru n n in g t hi r d ra il sho e .

Thi s p
t yp e is in us e o n r a c t ic a ll y al l t he e e lv at e d r o ad s of t he c o un t r y. I t is on ly s uit e
t o the un pr o t e c t e d t op -c o n t a c t r ai l .
 C A RS A N D CA R EQ U I P M EN T 229

sary fo r t h e o c o m e in c o n tact with t h e liv e p o rti o n

p e rat o r to
o f t he circuit in a n y w ay si n c e t he air may b e appli e d by r e m o t e
,

c o n tr o l usually b e i n g w o rk e d by t he m o t o rma n fr o m a c o n n e cti o n

,

o n t h e mast e r c o n t r o ll e r .

T he pa n t o gr aph t r o ll e y Fig 1 2 0 c o n sists o f a light diam o n d , .

,

shap e d fr am e w o rk ca r ryi n g at its t o p t he c o n tact pi e c e which is ,

similar in f o r m t o that us e d with t h e b o w t r o ll e y T his typ e .

is alm o st i n var iably o p e r at e d by c o mp r e ss e d air .

O n third rail r o ads a sp e cial f o rm o f c o ll e ct o r must b e us e d

-
, .

S i n c e t h e r ail is ca r e fully ali g n e d with t h e t r ack th e r e is n o va r ia ,

tion in l e v e l an d t he n e e d Of a h e avy spri n g t o i n sur e c o n tact is

,

u n n e c e ssa r y F o r o v e r ru n n i n g rails a v e r y simpl e typ e o f c o l

.
1 -

l e ct o r may b e e mpl o y e d O n e o f t he c o m m o n ly us e d f o r ms is
.

sh o w n in Fig 1 2 1 It c o n sists o f a l o o s e ly j o i n t e d pa n t o graph o f

. .

FI G . 1 22 S li pp e r s h o e fo r u n d e r - r un n n g i th ir d ra il .

T h i t yp
s e is s t an d a r d fo r b ot t om -c l
o n t ac t r ai s , o r fo r p ro t ect ed t o p -c o n t a c t r ai s .l

small dim e n si o n s carryi n g at t he b o tt o m a c o n tact sh o e which is

,

h e ld o n t he rail by g r avity o r by a light spri n g C o n n e cti o n is .

mad e t o t he car wi r i n g by a e xibl e cabl e W h e n t he u n d e r .

ru n n i n g third rail is us e d a diffe r e n t fo rm o f sh o e is e mpl o y e d , ,

a c o mm o n typ e b e i n g sh o w n in Fig 1 22 T his sh o e k n o w n as . .

,

t he slipp e r typ e has a hi n g e d c o n tact pi e c e car r i e d fr o m
,

a light fram e w o rk attach e d t o t h e truck I ts acti o n i s o bvi o us .

f r o m t he diagram T his sh o e is als o e xc e ll e n t fo r o v e r ru n n i n g

.
-

rails ; an d it is p o ssibl e t o arra n g e it s o that it m ay b e us e d i n t e r

cha n g e ably fo r e ith e r t o p o r b o tt o m c o n tact .

C ar P a in t in g N O m att e r what t he mat e r ials o f which t he car

is built it is n e c e ssar y t o p r o vid e s o m e s o rt o f pr o t e ctiv e c o ati n g
, ,

usually pai n t fo r t he o utsid e an d var n ish fo r t he i n t e ri o r o v e r t he ,

n atural w o o d T he p r o p e r n ishi n g o f ca r s is a subj e ct which has

.

1
Se e C h a p t e r XI I ,

O ve r-run n in g Th i r d R ai l .
2 30 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

r e c e i v e d l e ss att e n ti o n tha n it m e rits fo r o n it d e p e n ds t o a c o n ,

s id e rab l e e xt e n t t h e lif e an d g e n e ral app e ara n c e o f t h e e quipm e n t ,

wh e th e r t he mat e rial b e w o o d o r st e e l A d e scripti o n o f t he .

m e th o ds e mpl o y e d is o ut o f plac e in this b o o k but may b e f o u n d ,

by r e fe r e n c e t o t he l e s o f t h e railway p e ri o dicals .

M is c e ll an e ous D e ta il s of C ar Equipm e n t I n additi on t o t he

apparatus alr e ady c o n sid e r e d th e r e ar e ma n y mi n o r parts o f t he ,

car e quipm e n t which ar e e ss e n tial t o suc c e ssful o p e rati on S e ats .

,

c urtai n s v e n tilat o rs d o o r o p e rati n g m e cha n ism d e sti n ati on an d

, ,
-
,

r o ut e sig n s h e adlights mark e rs an d a n umb e r o f o th e r parts ar e

, , ,

all n e c e ssary t o m ak e t he e quipm e n t c o mpl e t e Whil e a d e tail e d .

discussi o n o f th e s e parts o f t he car is u n warra n t e d it m ust n o t b e ,

f o rg o tt e n that th e r e is m o r e o r l e ss latitud e in th e ir s e l e cti o n an d ,

FI G . 1 23 .
S in g l e t ru c k ,
7-ft w h e e l b as e
. .

T r uc k s of t h is an d s im i l ar t yp e s ar e in us e o n p r ac t i all y
c al l o f t he s in gl e t r uc
- k c ar s in
O p er a t io n .

that c o n sid e rabl e c ar e sh o uld be tak e n t o o btai n pr o p e r an d

satisfact o ry m at e rial .

Tru c k s an d R un n in g G e ar T he o p e rati o n o f ra ilway v e hicl e s

.

m ak e s n e c e ssary s o m e ad e quat e f o rm o f ru n n i n g g e ar which will ,

carry t he b o dy in such a ma n n e r as t o pr e v e n t o bj e cti o n abl e

sh o c ks an d v ibrati o n T he m e th o d o f supp o rt di ffe rs wid e ly t he
.
,

pri n cipal v ariati o n d e p e n di n g o n wh e th e r t he car is m o u n t e d o n a

s i n gl e rigid fram e w o rk o r has t w o swiv e li n g trucks ,
.

S in gl e Truc k C ar s T he small e r cars fo r city s e rvic e havi n g

.
,

b o di e s n o t m o r e tha n ab o ut 2 0 ft l o n g c an b e carri e d with sat .

,

is fa c t io n o n a si n gl e rigid fram e truck T he c o n structi o n is o f

-
.

t he simpl e st charact e r c o n sisti n g o f a supp o rt fo r t h e car b o dy an d

,

p e d e stal b e ari n gs fo r t h e axl e s In g e n e ral a rigid m o u n ti n g o f .

,

t he car o n t h e truck is u n d e sirabl e s o that s o m e f o rm o f spri n g is ,

i n t e rp o s e d ; an d t he truck pr o p e r is supp o rt e d o n t he j o urn als by

h e lical spri n gs o v e r t he p e d e stals o r by an ar ra n g e m e n t o f
e lliptical o r s e mi e lliptical spri n gs
-
T he si n gl e trucks pr o duc e d by .

di ffe r e n t ma n ufactur e rs vary wid e ly in th e ir d e tails but all ar e ,

quit e similar in g e n e ral app e ara n c e A ty p ical si n gl e truck is .

sh o w n in Fig 1 2 3 . .
 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 23 1

Wh e n car b o dy is t o o l o n g difficult i e s a ri s e i n t he d e sig n

t he ,

o f si n gl e t r ucks In o r d e r t o o p e rat e satisfact o r ily o n city

.

track wh e r e t he curv e s ar e alm o st i n variably o f sh o rt radius

, ,

t he rigid wh e e l bas e m ust b e k e pt t o a mi n imum l e n g th o r bi n d ,

in g o f t he fla n g e s an d in s o m e cas e s m o r e s e r i o us tr o ubl e will

, ,

If t he wh ee l bas e is sh o rt th e r e will b e a larg e o v e rha n g ,

FI G . 1 24 . B rill
r a d ia l axl e t ruc k .

N ot e

t h e a c t io n o f t h e h an g ers B y t h is m e an s a l g wh l b
on er ee as e c a n be u s e d o n a s in gl e
k p o ss ble g
.

t r uc c a r t h a n is i t h t h e d es i n sh o w n in F i g . 123 .

at t he ds o f t he car givi n g a w e ak structur e an d causi n g l o n g i

en , ,

t udin al o scillati o n s if t h e car is Op e rat e d at hi g h sp e e ds T he .

o rdi n ar
y m e th o ds o f spri n g m o u n ti n g o f t h e b o dy d o n o t r e m o v e

this difculty but at c e rtai n sp e e ds may aggravat e it T h e sim

, .

pl e s t s o luti o n is t o u s e t w o swiv e li n g trucks u n d e r t he car ; but

this i n c r e as e s t he e xp e n s e an d may app e ar u n d e si r abl e if t he car
,

is o n ly slightly ab o v e t he limiti n g l e n gth An o th e r s o luti o n which .

23 2 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

has b e e n d e v e l o p e d is t o carry t he axl e s o n ha n g e rs wh ich may b e

swu n g at an a n gl e with t he car b o dy wh e n r o u n di n g curv e s .

With pr o p e r d e sign t he ha n ge rs c an pr o vid e fo r th r o wi n g

,

t he axl e s in a radial dir e cti o n as t he cur v e is r e ach e d r e st o ri n g ,

th e m t o t he parall e l r e lati o n aft e r g e tti n g back o n tan g e n t track .

O n e f o rm o f han g e r an d t he m e th o d o f o p e rati o n ar e sh o w n in
Fig 1 2 4
. .

S w ive lin g Truc k s . Fo r

l o n g cars an d fo r s o m e l o c o m o tiv e

,

s e rvic e it is n e c e ssary t o use t w o swi v e li n g trucks t o pr o v id e fo r

,

O p e rati o n ar o u n d cur v e s T he trucks ar e i n d e p e n d e n t structur e s

.
,

a n d ar e e ach c o n n e ct e d t o t he car b o dy by a si n gl e h e avy pin ,

or ki n g b o lt -
T h e y ar e th e n fr e e t o tur n an d all o w t he wh e e ls
.
,

t o alig n th e m s e lv e s o n an y track T his c o n structi o n is appli .

cabl e t o ca r s o f an y l e n gth In o rd e r t o pr e v e n t da n g e r o us sway

.

in g o f t h e car b o dy it is cust o mary t o pr o vid e b e ari n gs at t he

,

FI G . 125 .

R ig id b o l s t e r t ruc k .

S uit a bl e fo r l
s o w -s pe ed l ocom ot ve s vi
i er ce on ly .

sid e s o f t h e truck t o limit t he o scillati o n o f t he car at high sp e e ds .

T h e s e may b e e ith e r at plat e s o r ball b e ari n gs F o r t h e latt e r .

it is claim e d that t he fricti o n is re duc e d mat e rially si n c e t he

'
,

trucks ar e m o re fr e e t o align th e ms e l v e s with t he track .

T he pri n cipal di ff e r e n c e s in trucks ar e in t he m e th o ds by which

t h e c ar b o dy is hu n g T he simpl e st w ay is t o supp o rt t h e b o lst e r
.

rigidly fr o m t he truck fram e T he o n ly spri n g p o ssibl e is th e n .

that o v e r t he p e d e stal T rucks o f this typ e as sh o w n in Fig

.
,
.

1 2 5 ar e o n ly suitabl e fo r sl o w sp e e d l o c o m o ti v e s e r v ic e t he cush
,
-
,

io n in g b e i n g i n suffici e n t e v e n fo r fr e ight cars .

T he o ati n g b o lst e r c o n structi o n sh o w n in Fig 1 2 6 d e tach e s ,

.
,

t h e b o lst e r fr o m t h e rigid c o n n e cti o n with t h e sid e fram e s an d ,

supp o rts it thr o ugh e lliptical sp r i n gs acti n g in a v e rtical pla n e

tra n sv e r s e t o t he dir e cti o n o f m o ti o n o f t he truck t he b o lst e r ,

b e i n g all o w e d t o m o v e in ways pr o v id e d fo r that purp o s e Wh il e .

 C A R S A N D C A R E Q U I P M EN T 2 33

t he cushi o n i n g is b e tt e r tha n with t he rigid b o lst e r c o n structi o n ,

it is n o t sufci e n t fo r hi g h sp e e d pass e n g e r o p e rati o n but is -

,

chi e y c o n n e d t o fr e ight car an d l o c o m o tiv e s e rvic e -

.

A furth e r d e v e l o pm e n t is t h e swi n gi n g b o lst e r t r uck I n this .

typ e t he b o lst e r is m o u n t e d o n sp r i n gs trav e li n g in a guid e as ,

with t he o ati n g b o lst e r ; but t h e sp r i n gs i n st e ad o f r e sti n g di ,

r e c t l y o n t he sid e fram e s ar e car r i e d by a saddl e o r s e r i e s o f ha n g

,

FI G . 1 6
2 F . l o at in g b o lst e r ( ar c h b ar ) t ru c k .

S uit a bl e fo r f igh t
re c ar s , b ut no t x ibl
e e eno u gh f p or ass e n g e r c ar s .

e rs which all o w t he b o lst e r t o swi n g in a tra n sv e rs e dir e cti o n .

T his p e rmits t he car b o dy t o r o ll o r sway o n cur v e s a n d at hi g h

sp e e ds r e duci n g t he sh o ck t o a mi n imum T rucks o f this ki n d
, .

are sta n da r d fo r all st e am an d e l e ct r ic railway pass e n g e r cars ,

a n d ar e built in a multitud e o f f o r ms fo r e v e ry class o f s e rvic e .

A wid e ly us e d typ e is sh o w n in Fig 1 2 7 . .

FI G . l 2 7 S w in g in g b o l s t e r t r u c k
. .

bl
S u it a e g
fo r h i h -s p eed p as s e n g er c ar s T ruc k s o f t h is g e n er a l t yp e ar e m ad e in a w id e
g ff
.

r an e o or m s .

l
M axim um Trac ti o n Tru c k s has b e e n sh o w n that it is .
It

d e sir abl e t o us e a mi n imum n umb e r o f m o t o r s c o n sist e n t with

o btai n i n g t h e n e c e ssary t r activ e e ff o rt fo r car o p e r ati o n Fo r .

city s e rvic e this g e n e rally c alls fo r t w o m o t o rs pe r car If t h e c ar .

b o dy is t o o l o n g fo r a si n g l e t r uck o rdi n ary swiv e li n g typ e s c an ,

b e us e d ; a n d t he m o t o rs may e ith e r b e m o u n t e d b o th o n o n e truck ,

t he o th e r b e i n g with o ut e l e ctrical e quipm e n t o r o n e m ay b e ,

234 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

m o u n t e d o n e ach Wh e n t he c ars are t o b e o p e rat e d in e ith e r

.

di r e cti o n t h e latt e r m e th o d o f m o u n ti n g is pr e f e rabl e si n c e t he ,

w e ight tra n sfe r b e tw e e n t he t r ucks is th e n e qualiz e d fo r b o th

di r e cti o n s o f m o ti o n In cas e s wh e r e t h e ac c e l e r ati o n d e ma n d e d
.

is high t h e us e o f t w o m o t o rs may n o t giv e s ui c ie n t adh e si o n

, ,

si n c e o n ly ab o ut 60 pe r c e n t o f t he t o tal w e ight is carri e d o n t he . .

m o t o r e quipp e d axl e s ( a p o rti o n o f t he m o t o r w e ight is carri e d

-

dir e ctly acc o u n ti n g fo r t he i n cr e as e o v e r t he 50 per c e n t which

,
.

might b e e xp e ct e d ) T he w e ight distributi o n may b e cha n g e d

.

t o thr o w a gr e at e r p o rti o n o n t he drivi n g wh e e ls by placi n g t he

b o lst e r n e ar e r t h e drivi n g axl e In this w ay t he availabl e ad .

h e s io n may b e i n cr e as e d t o b e tw e e n 70 pe r c e n t an d 85 pe r c e n t . .

o f t h e t o tal car w e i g ht S i n c e t he trail e r wh e e ls are n o t carryi n g

.

FI G . 2
1 8 . M a x im um t ra c t io n t ru c k .

U s e d fo r c it yc ar s , in o rd e r to em pl y t w
o o -m o t o r e q u ip m e n t s w it h h igh a c le ce r a t io n s .

as much w e ight as t he o th e rs th e ir siz e m ay be c o n sid e rably r e ,

d uc e d with o ut di fficulty an d with o ut affe cti n g t h e ridi n g qual ,

iti e s In this f o r m t he maximum tracti o n truck has b e e n
.

sta n dardi z e d an d is us e d o n a n umb er o f r o ads O n e styl e is

, .

sh o w n in Fig 1 2 8 A f e atur e o f trucks o f t his class is that t he

. .

small wh e e ls may b e all o w e d t o e xt e n d u n d e r t he dr o p platfo rms

o f city cars thus i n cr e asi n g t h e t o tal wh e e l bas e b e y o n d what
,

w o uld b e p o ssible with sta n dard trucks T his t e n ds t o m ak e .

t h e car e asy ridi n g .

Al l maximum tracti o n trucks ar e subj e ct t o o n e o bj e cti o n .

S i n c e a larg e p o rti o n o f t h e t o tal w e ight has b e e n tra n sf e rr e d t o

t he drivi n g wh e e ls th e r e m ay n o t b e e n o ugh w e ight o n t he s m all
,

o n e s t o k e e p th e m o n t h e rails at sha r p cur v e s e sp e cially at high ,

sp e e ds For this r e as o n maximum t r acti o n trucks ar e c o n sid e r e d

.

u n safe at sp e e ds o v e r ab o ut 30 mil e s pe r hr If high e r sp e e ds .

a r e d e sir e d sta n dard t r ucks sh o uld b e us e d an d t he ac c e l e r a

, ,

ti o n k e pt d o w n t o a p o i n t wh e r e th e r e will b e n o dan g e r o f
 C A R S A N D CA R E Q UI P M E N T 35

xc e e di n g t he adh e si o n ; o r if t he high acc e l e r ati o n s ar e n e c e s

e ,

sa r y f o ur m o t o r e quipm e n ts sh o uld b e us e d
,
-
.

M o t or S u s pe n s i on s In adapti n g t r ucks fo r e l e ctric O p e ra

.

ti o n it is e ss e n tial t o mak e p r o visi o n fo r m o u n ti n g t he m o t o rs o n

,

th e m It has b e c o m e t he u n iv e rsal practic e t o g e ar t he m o t o rs

.

di r e ctly t o t he axl e s with o ut i n t e r m e diat e e xibl e c o n n e cti o n s s o ,

that it is n e c e ssa r y t o mai n tai n t he g e ar c e n t e rs at a c o n sta n t dis

FI G . 129 .
-
No s e s us p e n s io n (o u t s id e h un g m ot or ) .

Thi s m e t h od o f s u pp or t m a k es it p ossi bl e to c ar r y a po rt io n of t he m o t or w eigh t on s p r in g s.

Th e r e ar e s e v e al v
r ar i a t i o n s f r om t his a rr an ge m e n t .

t an c e t o sur e th e ir c o rr e ct O p e rati o n T his practically me a n s

-
en .

that a p o r ti o n o f t h e m o t o r w e ight must b e carri e d dir e ctly o n t he

axl e G e n e rally b e a r i n gs ar e pr o vid e d o n t he m o t o r cas e t o
.
, ,

gi ve t he n e c e ssa r y supp o rt fo r t he machi n e an d for t he purp o s e o f

alig n i n g t he g e ars T he r e mai n d e r o f t he m o t o r w e ight may b e
.

spri n g b o r n e by an y a v ailabl e m e a n s .

FI G . 1 30
Gibb s l
c r a d e s us p e n s io n .

W it h t h is a rr a n ge m e n t , t he m o t o rs m ut ua lly su pp o rt e ac h o t h er . Us e d for h e a vy
e q u ip m en t s.

simpl e st an d o ld e st arra n g e m e n t c o n sists in usi n g a lug o r

Th e
n o s e cast dir e ctly o n t he sid e o f t he m o t o r cas e O pp o sit e t h e axl e

b e ari n gs an d which is c o n n e ct e d t o t he sid e fram e s o f t he t r uck

,

by a t r a n sv e rs e bar t he supp o r t b e i n g thr o ugh h e lical spri n gs

,
.

A n umb e r o f v ar iati o n s in this f o rm o f c o n st r ucti o n may b e mad e .

O n e sta n dard typ e o f m o u n ti n g is sh o w n in F ig 1 2 9 . .

An o th e r m e t h o d o f sp r i n g supp o r t c o n sists in t he us e o f a cradl e

in which t h e t w o m o t o rs ar e hu n g T his all o ws th e m t o mutually .
2 36 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

ca rr y e ach o th e r thr o ugh sp r i n gs A susp e n si o n o f this typ e is .

sh o w n in Fig 1 3 0 . .

T he m o t o rs may b e plac e d e ith e r b e tw e e n t he axl e s o f t he truck

o r o utsid e In g e n e ral it is b e tt e r t o plac e th e m i n sid e si n c e
.
, ,

this d e cr e as e s t he o v e r all l e n gth o f t he truck an d give s b e t t e r

'

w e ight distributi o n whil e ac c e l e rati n g ; but in s o m e cas e s t he wh e e l

bas e r e quir e d is so sh o r t that th e r e is n o t sufci e n t r o o m fo r t he
m o t o rs It is th e n n e c e ssary t o plac e o n e o r b o th m o t o rs o ut
.

sid e o f t he axl e s T he m o u n ti n g o f a m o t o r in this w ay is sh o w n

.

in Fig 1 2 9 . T his c o n st r ucti o n is o rdi n arily us e d with t h e n o s e

.

susp e n si o n an d is ad o pt e d o n ly fo r light trucks si n c e l o n g h e avy

, , ,

ca r s ar e n o t w e ll suit e d fo r Op e rati o n a r o u n d cur v e s o f e xt r e m e ly

sh o rt radius .

M o tor G e arin g E v e r si n c e t he dir e ct f o r m o f driv e has b e e n

.

us e d fo r railway m o t o r s it has b e e n t he cust o m t o us e high

,

sp e e ds fo r t he m o t o r armatur e s with c o n sid e rably l o w e r axl e

sp e e ds T his r e duc e s t he w e ight o f t he m o t o r fo r a giv e n o utput
.
,

a n d p e rmits a m o r e e fci e n t c o n structi o n T he e arly m o t o rs .

w e r e d e sig n e d fo r e xtr e m e ly high sp e e ds 1 00 0 t o 1 5 00 r p m , . . .

be i n g ab o ut t he ra n g e e mpl o y e d S i n c e t he axl e s o f st r e e t cars

.

with 3 0 in wh e e ls r o tat e at 1 0 0 t o 2 00
-
. it f o ll o ws that t he
sp e e d r ati o is in t he n atur e o f T he S pac e li m i tati o n s mak e '

t he g r e at e st p r actical rati o fo r railway s e rvic e with a pair o f spur .

g e ar s ab o ut 3 % : 1 s o that th e s e high m o t o r sp e e ds call fo r a

,

d o ubl e r e ducti o n Aft e r a fe w y e ars e xp e ri e n c e with this ar

.

ra n g e m e n t it w as f o u n d b e tt e r t o r e duc e t he m o t o r sp e e ds s o m e
,

what s o that a si n gl e pair o f ge ar s c o uld b e us e d T he p r e s e n t

, _
.

s tr e e t railway m o t o rs hav e armatur e sp e e ds o f fr o m 5 0 0 t o 75 0

maki n g a si n gl e r e ducti o n e n tir e ly practical .

T he e arly g e ars w e r e o f cast ir o n o r mall e abl e i r o n an d t he ,

pi n i o n s o f rawhid e o r s o ft st e e l Aft e r a c o mpa r ativ e ly sh o r t

.

t r ial it w as f o u n d that rawhid e c o uld n o t sta n d t he s e v e r e

,

s e rvic e d e man d e d an d st e e l was e mpl o y e d e xclusiv e ly T he

,
.

us e o f st e e l pi n i o n s with cast ir o n g e ars caus e d t h e m o st o f t he

-

w e ar t o fall o n t he latt e r ; an d t o pr e v e n t rapid d e structi o n mall e

abl e ir o n w as substitut e d fo r cast i r o n T his mat e rial was m o r e .

e c o n o mical but it was s o o n f o u n d that a b e tt e r g e ar c o uld b e

,

mad e o f cast st e e l with g r e at e r st r e n gth an d l o n g e r life tha n f r o m

,

mall e abl e ir o n .

Alth o ugh cast st e e l has giv e n c o n sid e rabl e satisfacti o n it ,

has n o t p r o v e d u n if o rm e n o ugh in quality t o all o w o f its

 C A R S A N D CA R E Q U I P M E N T 2 37

b e i n g w o rk e d up t o it s limit o f st r e n gth Mo r e r e c e n t d e sig n s .

of g e a r s hav e b e e n mad e o f f o rg e d o r r o ll e d s t e e l which has ,

at o n c e gr e at e r u nif o rmity o f c o mp o siti o n an d a c ha n c e fo r

v ar yin g t he i n g r e di e n ts t o m e e t t he n e e ds o f a pa r ticular
s ervic e Hard e r st e e ls hav e b e e n us e d ; but it has b e e n fo u n d
.

t h at with t he ha r d st e e ls th e r e is m o r e t e n d e n cy t o brittl e n e ss ,

which may caus e t he t e e th t o b r e ak b e f o r e th e ir limit o f w e ar

is r e ach e d T o o bviat e this difficulty t w o m e th o ds hav e b e e n
.

e mpl o y e d In t he r st t he g e a r s hav e b e e n mad e o f a l o w

.

car b o n st e e l which is t o ugh A ft e r t he t e e th are cut t he g e ar

.

is t r e at e d t o a cas e har d e n i n g pr o c e ss givi n g a su r fac e which is

-
,

in t y an d w e ar r e sisti n g wh il e t he i n t e r i o r r e mai n s br o us a n d

-
,

t o u g h T he o th e r m e th o d is t o mak e t he g e ar s o f a m e tal
.

which will all o w surfac e t e mp e rin g T his r e quir e s a st e e l which .

is s o m e what high e r in carb o n but it is claim e d that t he h e at

,

t r e atm e n t l e av e s a hard w e a r i n g surfac e with a t o ugh c o r e .

B o th typ e s o f g e ar ar e in c o mm o n use n o w a n d ar e givin g ,

gre atly i n c r e a se d lif e in ma n y cas e s e quali n g t he l ife o f t he
axl e its e lf T he i n cr e as e d lif e with t h e impr o v e d f o rms o f ge ar
.

in g is f r o m th r e e t o ve tim e s that with t he cast st e e l g e ar an d -

machin e r y st e e l pi n i o n whil e t he c o st is fr o m o n e an d o n e half

-
,
-

t o t w o tim e s as g r e at In gur e s t he life has b e e n i n cr e as e d

.
,

fr o m ab o ut mil e s fo r a cast st e e l g e ar t o -
mil e s ,

fo r a t e mp e r e d o n e an d mil e s wh e n cas e hard e n e d -

.

W hil e t he w e ar o n g e ars is s e ve re that o n pi n io n s is still ,

w o rs e sin c e t he n umb e r o f t e e th is small e r S o m e o f t h e pi n i o n s

, .

ar e m a d e o f cas e hard e n e d st e e l a n d o th e r s o f h e at tr e at e d st e e l
-
,
-
.

A r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n t is t h e u s e o f t e mp e r e d t o o l st e e l fo r pin
i o n s It must n o t b e o v e rl o o k e d h o w e v e r that a gr e at in c r e as e
.
, ,

in hard n e ss o f o n e o f t he m e sh in g g e ars ab o v e that o f t he o th e r

may caus e w e ar o f t he s o ft e r m e t al .

T he e ar ly g e ars w e r e cast in hal v e s an d h e ld o n t he axl e with ,

b olts T his c o n st r ucti o n make s it e asy t o r e plac e dam ag e d g e a r s

.
,

but r e sults in a structu r al w e ak n e ss with c o rr e sp o n di n g liability ,

t o br e akage With t he lat e r high grad e g e ar s lasti n g ab o ut as

.
-
,

l o n g as t he axl e s t he n e e d fo r ha v i n g th e m split fo r e asy r e m o val

,

has d isapp e ar e d s o that it is pr e fe rabl e t o m ake t h e m s o lid an d

,

pr e ss th e m p e r ma n e n tly o n t he axl e s .

T o l e n gth e n t he life o f t he g e arin g it is always e n cl o s e d in a ,

sp e cial dust pr o o f cas e T he cas e s suppli e d by t he ma n u

-
.

fa c t ure r s are o r di n ar ily o f mall e abl e ir o n but in s o m e i n sta n c e s ,

238 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

th e y are mad e o f pi e c e s o f sh e e t st ee l r iv e t e d o r w e ld e d t o g e th e r .

S i n c e t he pri n cipal fu n ct io n o f t he cas e is t o pr o t e ct t he g e ars

fr o m di r t a n d it d o e s n o t carry an y o th e r parts its m e cha n ical ,

str e n gth is o f s e c o n dary imp o rta n c e T he b o tt o m o f t h e cas e

.

c o m e s withi n a fe w i n ch e s o f t he t o p o f t he rail ; an d if th e r e is
n o t su ffic ie n t str e n gth th e r e it may b e crush e d o r br o k e n wh e n
,

o bstructi o n s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d pr o j e cti n g ab o v e t he l e v e l o f t h e

rails .

A n imp o rta n t p o i n t is t he width o f fac e an d t h e thick n e ss o f

t o o th It is o n th e s e fact o rs that t he siz e o f g e ari n g is d e t e r
.

mi n e d S i n c e t he spac e a v ailabl e fo r t he m o t o r is limit e d t o t he

.

dista n c e b t w e e n t h e wh e e l h ubs l e ss that t ak e n by t he g e ars it

, ,

is im pe r at ve that t he width o f fac e b e k e pt a mi n imum S i n c e .

t he o n ly o th e r dim e n si o n which is capabl e o f cha n g e is t h e thick

n e ss o f t o o th t h e pitch must b e k e pt a m aximum
, T his has r e .

s ul t e d in diam e tral pitch e s o f 2 % t o 3 which ar e c o mm o n fo r

,

m o t o r g e ari n g O n c e this v alu e has b e e n x e d t he t o tal n u mb e r

.
,

o f t e e th which c an b e plac e d o n t h e g e ar an d pi n i o n is d e t e rmi n e d

by t he dista n c e b e tw e e n c e n t e rs Wh e n a m o t o r is d e sig n e d it is
.
,

n e c e ssary in o rd e r t o pr e v e n t e xtra c o st o f patt e r n s an d sp e cial

,

machi n i n g t o k e e p t he axl e c e n t e r e d at a fix e d dista n c e fr o m t he

,

armatur e shaft for all m o t o rs with t he sam e frame S i n c e t he .

f o rc e e x e rt e d at t he pitch li n e is appr o ximat e ly c o n sta n t fo r all

g e ar rati o s t he diam e tral pitch sh o uld b e k e pt u n if o rm fo r all
,

cha n g e s in s pe e d o f t he m o t o r T he v ari o us p o ssibiliti e s fo r

.

sp e e d r e ducti o n l ie in t he g e ars wh o s e t e e th t o tal t he sa m e F o r .

e xampl e if a c e rtai n m o t o r is d e sig n e d fo r a n o rmal g e ar re ducti o n

,

of t he o n ly all o wabl e cha n g e s fr o m this a re such as will

giv e t he sam e t o tal o f 79 t e e th o n t he ge ar an d t he pi n i o n P o s .

sibl e rati o s are th e n a n d s o o n ; a n d in all

th e s e c o mbi n ati o n s t he str e n gth o f t o o th will b e c o n sta n t .

T he limits in g e ar re ducti o n are o n t he o n e ha n d t h e mi n i

, ,

mum diam e t e r o f pi n i o n o r t he maximum siz e o f g e ar that c an b e

us e d ; an d o n t he o th e r t he dim e n si o n s o f t he g e ar cas e which c an
,

b e e mpl o y e d T h e small e st n umb e r o f t e e th which c an b e us e d

.

o n a pi n i o n with o ut u n d e rcutti n g t he t e e th t o a p o i n t wh e r e th e y

a r e mat e rially w e ak e n e d v ari e s with t h e f o rm o f t o o th but will ,

g e n e rally b e ab o ut 1 2 t o 1 5 T his gi v e s an abs o lut e m in

.

imum siz e t o t he pi n i o n an d a limit t o t he r e ducti o n in sp e e d

,
.

T he g e ar o n t he o th e r ha n d must n o t b e s o larg e that th e r e will

, ,

b e n o cl e ara n c e b e n e ath it o r th e r e will b e da n g e r o f t he g e ar cas e

,
 C A RS A N D CA R E Q UIP M E N T 239

T his limit is a r e al o n e fo r t he o rdi n ary

,

m i n i mum cl e ara n c e b e n e ath t h e g e ar cas e is o n ly 3 t o 4 in .

T he o th e r s e ld o m r e ach e d fo r t he maximum sp e e d
,
-

e quipm e n ts ar e n o t n e a r ly so much in d e ma n d an d a v e ry l o w
,

r e ducti o n c an be mad e with o ut e n cr o achi n g o n t he cl e ara n c e

limits .
 C HA P T E R I X

ELEC TR I C LO C O M O TIVES

D e ve l o pm en t
Th early e xp e rim e n tal applicati o n s o f e l e ctr i c
e

p o w e r t o tracti o n all c o n t e mplat e d t h e us e o f l o c o m o ti v e s T his .

was u n d o ubt e dly d ue larg e ly t o t he e xampl e se t by t he st e am l o c o

m o ti v e which was at that tim e t he acc e pt e d m o ti v e p o w e r fo r all
,

class e s o f railways e xc e pt str e e t car li n e s Wh e n t he p o ssibiliti e s

,
-
.

o f t h e e l e ct r ic m o t o r w e r e b e tt e r k n o w n it w as s e e n that sup e ri o r
,

r e sults c o uld b e o btai n e d by placi n g t h e e n tir e e quipm e n t o n t he

cars thus e limi n ati n g t he u n n e c e ssary d e ad w e ight i n cid e n t t o
,

l o c o m o tiv e O p e r ati o n T his arra n g e m e n t has b e c o m e sta n dard

.

fo r all str e e t cars an d fo r rapid t r a n sit li n e s s o that th e r e is n o

,
-
,

e ld fo r t h e e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e in th e s e class e s o f s e rvic e .

Advan ta g e s o f M o t o r C ar T r ain s F o r such ro ads as th o s e

.

m e n ti o n e d ab o v e th e r e ar e se v e r al adva n tag e s t o t he us e o f m o t o r
,

c ars which ca n n o t b e o btai n e d wh e n l o c o m o tiv e s are e mpl o y e d

,
.

W h e r e e xc e e di n gly high ac c e l e rati o n is a p rim e r e quisit e t he ,

drawbar pull o f a l o c o m o tiv e w o uld b e s o g r e at as t o mak e it a

p r actical imp o ssibi l ity F o r i n sta n c e t h e e xpr e ss trai n s in t he
.
,

N e w Yo r k subway c o n sisti n g o f s e v e n m o t o r c ars an d thr e e trail

,

cars w e igh appr o ximat e ly 3 60 t o n s T h e s e trai n s are acc e l e rat e d

,
.

at a rat e o f mil e s pe r hr pe r s e c up t o a sp e e d o f ab o ut 2 0 m il es
. .

p e r h r .t h,e maximum ru n n i n g sp e e d b e i n g in t h e n e ighb o rh o o d

o f 4 0 mi l e s p e r hr .T his s e rvic e c alls fo r a tractiv e e ff o rt at start
in g o n straight l e v e l track o f app r o ximat e ly
, ,
l b which .
,

must b e mai n tai n e d up t o ab o ut 2 0 mil e s pe r hr ; at t he maximum .

sp e e d t he tractiv e e ffo r t is r o ughly 44 00 lb Whil e t h e d r awba r .

p ull at starti n g is app r o ximat e ly that o f a c o n s o lidati o n l o c o m o

tiv e o f sta n da r d st e am railr o ad d e sig n th e r e ar e n o n e in s e rvic e ,

which c an mai n tai n it up t o t h e high sp e e d r e quir e d .

A n o th e r adva n tag e o f t he m o t o r car t r ai n is its e xtr e m e e x

-

ibilit y wh e n o p e rat e d with multipl e u n it c o n tr o l

,
T he n umbe r
-
.

o f cars may b e adj ust e d t o suit t h e traffi c si n c e e ach c an b e mad e ,

a n i n d e p e n d e n t u n it T he m o t o r e quipm e n t is j ust su fci e n t

.

240
 EL E C TR I C L OC OM O T I VE S 41

to giv e t he d e sir e d tractiv e e ffo rt s o that th e r e is n o qu e s

,

ti o n o f u n d e r l o adi n g o r o v e rl o adi n g as o ft e n happ e n s with

,

l o c o m o tiv e s .

Fie l d o f t h e El e c tric Lo c om o t ive

Wh e n c o st is c o n sid e r e d
.
,

m o t o r car s d o n o t c o mpar e s o fav o rably with l o c o m o tiv e s ; fo r

t he lar g e n umb e r o f c o mparativ e ly small m o t o rs with th e ir ,

c o mp l icat e d wiri n g an d c o n tr o l will usually c o st c o n sid e rably

,

m o r e tha n wh e n t he sam e p o w e r is c o n c e n t r at e d in a fe w l o c o m o
tiv e u n its T he e xibility d ue t o multipl e u n it c o n tr o l c an b e
.

o btai n e d t o s o m e d e gr e e with t h e latt e r fo r th e s e c an b e built ,

In s i z e s o f say o n e half t he n o r mal capacity

, ,
-
S uch u n its c an b e
.

o p e rat e d si n g ly o r in gr o ups s o as t o giv e appr o ximat e ly t he c o r

,

r e ct p o w e r fo r an y trai n in us e .

T he e xampl e cit e d ab o v e is o n e in which t he l o c o m o ti v e c o ul d

n o t b e us e d t o adva n tag e T his is g e n e rally t he cas e Wh e re t he
.

s e rvic e is s e ve r e an d t he acc e l e rati o n is high B ut wh e r e t he

, .

sch e dul e d o e s n o t call fo r s o gr e at t r activ e e ff o rt t he o bvi o us ,

adva n tag e o f t he l o c o m o tiv e may mak e it d e s irabl e i n st e ad o f t he

m o t o r car trai n S uch O p e rati o n is that o f tru n k li n e thr o ugh
.

trai n s in o rdi n ary pass e n g e r s e r v ic e an d in g e n e ral o f all fr e ight

, , ,

trai n s Alth o ugh t he us e o f i n dividual m o t o r cars for fr e ight

.

s e r vic e has b e e n pr o p o s e d th e r e is n o d o ubt but that an y e l e c

,

t ri c at io n i n v o lvi n g t he haulag e o f la r g e am o u n ts o f fr e ight will

call fo r l o c o m o tiv e s Op e rat e d as si n gl e u n its o r in gr o ups It is
,
.

in such s e rvic e that t h e e l e ct r ic l o c o m o ti v e has its e ld .

As c o m par e d w ith t h e st e am t he e l e ctric l o c o m o tiv e p o ss e ss e s

,

t he gr e at adva n tag e o f capacity S i n c e t he b o il e r with its w e i g ht

.
,

o f wat e r a n d t h e t e n d e r with a c o n sid e rabl e l o ad ar e abs e n t

, , , ,

t he e n tir e e quipm e n t may if d e sir e d b e us e d fo r adh e si o n T he .

l o c o m o ti v e b e i n g e ss e n tially a pulli n g machi n e an y w e ight which ,

is n o t us e d fo r adh e si o n is a d e ad l o ss ; an d this w e ight sh o uld

be k e pt a m i n imum .

It must b e r e m e mb e r e d that whil e t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e is c o m

p l e t e in its e lf t
,
h e e l e ctric e n gi n e is but o n e part o f t he e l e ct r ic
p o w e r syst e m Whil e t he o utput o f t he f o rm e r is li m it e d t o what
.

it c an d e v e l o p t he latt e r has b e hi n d it a s o ur c e o f p o w e r which is

,

much gr e at e r ; s o that t he e l e ctric l o c o m o ti v e c an carry o v e rl o ads

fo i a sh o rt p e ri o d which w o uld b e quit e b e y o n d t he capacity o f
t he e n gi n e an d b o il e r o f t he o rdi n ary st e am l o c o m o ti ve .

D ue t o t he i n h e r e n t charact e ristics o f e l e ctric m o t o rs t he l o ,

c o m o t ive is b e tt e r adapt e d t o haul trai n s at high sp e e ds wh e n

16
2 42 T H E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

d e v e l o pi n g maximum tractiv e e ff o rt tha n is t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e

, .

F o r this r e as o n it has t he ability t o pull larg e l o ads at c o n sid e r

ably high e r sp e e ds which t e n ds t o i n cr e as e t he capacity o f t he
,

t r ack The p o ssibility o f subdivisi o n mak e s t h e pr o p e r s e l e cti o n

.

o f u n its e asy t o gi v e t h e b e st c o mbi n ati o n fo r an y class o f

s e rvic e .

O n acc o u n t o f t he p o w e r pla n t apparatus b e i n g c o n c e n trat e d

-
,

t he sta n d b y l o ss e s i n cid e n t t o st e am Op e rati o n ar e larg e ly e lim i

- ~

n at e d. In a syst e m o f m o d e rat e s i z e t he av e rag e l o ad at an y

p e ri o d o f t he day c an b e mad e fai r ly c o n sta n t s o that t h e b o il e rs ,

a n d g e n e rati n g e quipm e n t ar e l o ad e d n e ar th e ir maximum capac

ity ; an d t he l o ss e s d ue t o c o al c o n sumpti o n whil e l o c o m o tiv e s are

r e ady fo r s e rvic e but n o t actually in us e are v e ry small T h e r e
, , .

is n o n e e d fo r l o n g p e r i o ds o f r e st such as th o s e due t o cl e a n i n g
,

o ut ue s washi n g b o il e rs a n d o th e r i n cid e n ts t o st e am Op e rati o n ;

, ,

n o r is th e r e t h e wast e o f fu e l in starti n g r e s at t h e b e gi n n i n g an d ,

dumpi n g th e m at t h e e n d o f t he r un T h e s e charact e ristics .

mat e riall y i n cr e as e t h e am o u n t o f tim e t he l o c o m o tiv e c an b e in

s e rvic e s o that t he t o tal n umb e r o f u n its r e quir e d is l e ss tha n fo r
,

st e am tracti o n .

Wh e e l C l as s i c at io n T h e r e ar e t w o m e th o ds o f n o tati o n in

.

u s e fo r r e pr e s e n ti n g t he arra n g e m e n t o f wh e e ls o n l o c o m o ti v e s .

T h e m e th o d m o st us e d in A m e ric a is t o giv e t h e n um ber s of w hee ls ,

rst fo r t he l e adi n g truck th e n fo r t he d r iv e rs an d n ally fo r t he

, ,

trail e rs A l o c o m o tiv e o f t he fa m iliar A m e rica n typ e 1 s sh o w n
.

by t he symb o l 4 4 0 th e r e b e i n g a f o ur wh e e l e d l e adi n g truck
-
, ,

f o ur d r i vi n g wh e e ls an d n o trail e rs In t he E ur o p e a n c l as s i c a
,
.

ti o n syst e m t he n um bers of ax les ar e r e f e rr e d t o t he l e adi n g a n d ,

t r aili n g wh e e ls by n umb e r a n d t h e d r ivi n g wh e e ls by l e tt e r A

, ,

b e i n g e quival e n t t o a si n gl e axl e an d s o o n T hus t he A m e rica n

,
.

typ e e n gi n e w o uld b e r e pr e s e n t e d in t he E ur o p e a n n o tati o n as

2 B 0

. S i n c e this m e th o d o f d e sig n ati o n is s o much m o r e e x
pr e ssi ve di ff e r e n tiati n g b e tw e e n drivi n g a n d idl e axl e s it will b e
, ,

us e d in this chapt e r .

Th e tabl e o n p ag e 2 4 3 sh o ws t he classicati o n o f sta n dard

,

A m e r ica n st e am l o c o m o tiv e s .

W hil e t h e wh e e l arran g e m e n ts o f e l e ctric l o c o m o tive s di ff e r

s o m e what fr o m th o s e gi ve n for st e am e n gi n e s t h e latt e r ar e us e ,

ful fo r r e f e r e n c e an d c o mparis o n .
 EL E C TR I C L OCOM O TI VE S 243

C L A S S I F I C ATI O N OF STEA M L O C O M O TI V E S

4 2 2
-
2 A 1 Lig ht p ass e n ge r
(o b s o l e t e ) .

Am i
e r c an 4 0 0 O 0 4 4 0

2 B 0 Light p as s e n g e r .

2 4 2

l
B l

Light p ass e n g e r
(o b s o l e t e ) .

At l an t ic . A0 0 O O 0 4 4 2 2 B -
1 High s p e e d
-
p as
s e n g e r.

0 B 2
50 6 5 S u b u r b an
0 4 4

(o b s o
l e s c en t ) .

O C O 1 00 S w it c h in g
h e lp e r .

2 6 0 l C O Lig h t f re igh t
(o b s o le s c e n t ) .

2 C 0 P as s e n g e r
f re ig h t .

2 6 2 l C l He av y p as s e n ge r
a n d f r e i g ht .

[ 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 C 1 Fas t he avy p as
,

s e n ge r .

C o n s o l id a A 0 O O O 0 2 8 0
-
1 D 0 88 Fre ig h t .

M as t o d o n . A0 0 O O O O 80 F re i g ht .

75 H e avy f re igh t .

70 Ve r y h e avy pas
s e n ge r .

2 1 0 0 1 E 0
~
90 H e av y f re ig h t .

2 10 2 1 E7 1

80 He avy f re ig h t .

M all e t l
. A 0 O 0 0 -
0 0 0 0 2 6 6
2 1 C+C
1 85 1 00

M o u n t ain s e rvic e .

El e ctr i c Lo c o m tive Type s T he e a rly e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e s

o

w er e n e a rly all di r e ct adaptati o n s o f m o t o r cars t h e m o t o r capac ,

ity b e i n g i n c r e as e d s o that o n e o r m o r e t r ail e rs c o uld be haul e d by

a car usually o f t he baggag e typ e T his p r actic e d e v e l o p e d un til
, .

it w as f o u n d that t he e quipm e n t c o uld b e m o r e adva n tag e o usly

disp o s e d by limiti n g t h e duty o f t he m o t o r v e hicl e t o pulli n g
o n ly . T his l e d t o c o n sid e r abl e v ariati o n in t he d e sig n o f t he
sup e rst r uctur e ; but t he fu n dam e n tal par t t h e trucks an d ru n n i n g ,

g e ar r e mai n e d t he s a m e as in o rdi n ary d o ubl e truck cars S i n c e

,
-
.

t he o bj e ct is t o d e v e l o p t he g r e at e st p o ssibl e tr activ e e ff o rt with

1
T h e w he e l a rr an g e m e n t s o f lo c o m ot ive s un d e r t he s e s am e n a m es v ar y
.

s o m e w ha t . T h o s e g iv e n are t yp ic a l .
2 44 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

t he a v ailabl e w e ight such l o c o m o ti v e s are i n v ariably e quipp e d

,

with fo ur m o t o rs T he g e n e r al arra n g e m e n t is sh o w n in Fig 1 3 1

. . .

T he m o t o rs ar e o f t h e o rdi n ary typ e with si n gl e r e ducti o n g e a r s ,

.

It is als o p o ssibl e t o us e g e arl e ss m o t ors o n this typ e o f l o c o m o

FI G . 13 1 .
B + B g e ar e d lo co m ot ive ,
S o u t h e rn Pa c i c .

Lo c o m ot v o f t hi g
i es l t yp e a
s e n er a re in u s e o n m an y in t e r ur b l
a n r ai r o a d s . No t e t h e c om

p a c t ar r a n g m e n t o f t h e e q u ip m e n t
e .

tiv e b ut t he adva n tag e is small an d t h e w e ight an d c o st c o n sid e r

,

ably gr e at e r fo r t he sam e o utput It is m e cha n ically w e ll suit e d .

fo r sl o w O p e rati o n ; but wh e n r un at high sp e e ds t he w e ight sup ,

p o r t e d di r e ctly o n t h e axl e s with o ut spri n gs is s o gr e at as t o

caus e p o u n di n g o f t he track .

FI G . 1 32 .
O B B O g e ar e d l o c om ot ive B al t im
,
o r e an d O h io .

T hi ls o com ot iv e is w ell s uit e d fo r sl o w p e e d

-s
, hea vy f e igh t
r s er v ic e .

It is e vid e n t that t he e n tir e draw bar pull swiv e li g truck - o f t he n -

l o c o m o tiv e must b e tra n smitt e d thr o ugh t he c e n t e r plat e s .

T his r e n d e rs t h e d e sig n u n suitabl e fo r h e avy l o ads a n d a m o di ,

c a t io n has b e e n mad e by articulati n g t h e trucks t o g e th e r an d

m o u n ti n g t he d r aft g e ar dir e ctly o n th e m as sh o w n in Fig 1 3 2 ,
. .
 EL E C TR I C L O C OM O T I V E S 245

T he cab is light in c o n structi o n a n d s e r v e s pri n cipally t o h o us e ,

t he c o n t r o l appa r atus .

Lo c o m o tiv e s o f t h e ab o v e typ e s c an b e m o di e d fo r high sp e e d -

o p e r ati o n by t h e additi o n o f l e adi n g a n d t r aili n g wh e e ls whi c h ,

s e rv e t o guid e t he h e a vy rigid st r uctu r e an d p r e v e n t n o si n g

, ,

1
.

g e ar l e s s l o c o m o t ive New Yo rk Ne w Have n an d

F I G 1 33 1 B B1
. .
+ ,

H art fo rd .

This d e s ig n h as p r v e d e x ll
o ce en t fo r h ig h p d h vy p
-s ee , g t i i t kl
ea as s e n er ra ns n r un -
in e
s er vi c e.

e sp e cially o n curv e s A l o c o m o tiv e o f this typ e is sh o w n in Fig

. .

1 33
. T hi s r e pr e s e n ts a g e arl e ss l o c o m o tiv e built fo r t he N e w
.

Yo r k N e w H a v e n an d H artf o rd si n gl e phas e li n e
,
A s o m e what -
.

s imil a r d e sig n in s e r vic e o n t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r al is sh o w n in

, ,

Fig 1 3 4 In this d e sig n a f o ur wh e e l e d l e adi n g an d a similar

.
-

traili n g truck ar e us e d .

FI G 1 3 4 .
. l l
2 D 2 g e a r e s s o c o m o t iv e , N e w Yo r C e n t r a k l .

T b
h is t yp e h a s e e n u s e d f o r h e avy t e r m in a p a s s e n e r s er v ic e l
T h e d e ad w e i h t g g on t he
xl l f l g
.

a e s is r a t h e r ar g e f o r s u c c e s s u O p e r a t io n a t h i h s p e e d s .

h e avy s e rvi c e e sp e cially at high sp e e d t h e ab o v e typ e s

Fo r , ,

hav e n o t p r o v e d e n ti r e ly s a tisfact o r y M a n y att e mpts hav e b e e n .

m a d e t o imp r o v e t he tra n smissi o n by t he us e o f c r a n ks a n d sid e

r o ds T h e s e d e si g n s hav e b e e n e mpl o y e d t o a c o n sid e r abl e e x
.

t e n t in E ur o p e an d t o a much sm a ll e r d e gr e e in A m e rica The

,
.
 246 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

m o st suc c e ssful o n e in t he U n it e d S tat e s is that o f t he Pe n n s y l

va n ia R ailr o ad fo r s e r vic e at its N e w Yo r k t e rmi n al T his e n
, .

gi n e is sh o w n in Fig 1 3 5 T he m o t o r s ar e spri n g supp o rt e d o n

. .
-

t he ru n n i n g g e ar a n d ar e c o n n e ct e d t o j ackshafts which in tur n

,

d r iv e t he wh e e ls th r o ugh parall e l r o ds .

Wh e n t he m o t o r sp e e d is t o o high fo r dire ct c o n n e ct i o n t he ,

m o t o r may be g e ar e d t o a j ackshaft A l o c o m o tiv e o f this class .

FI G . 1 35 .
2 B
+
B 2 g e a r l
e ss l o c om ot ive P e n n sy lvan i a
,
R ail r o a d .

g
A h i h -s p eed p g l o o m o t iv w it h
ass e n er c e, c r an d an d ids d d iv N t
e ro r e o e t h at t he m o t ors
g h ab v e t h e d ivi g w h e ls g t he g avi t y
.
.

ar e m o un t e d hi o r n e , r ai s in c e n t er o f r .

is sh o w n in Fig 1 3 6
r e pr e s e n ts t he lat e st d e sig n us e d o n
. . T his
t he LOt s c h b e r g R ailway in S witz e rla n d F l e xibility is a c c o m .

p lis h e d by c o n n e cti n g t h e m o t o rs t o t h e d r ivi n g wh e e ls th r o ugh

S c o tch y o k e s which p e rmit a ce rtai n am o u n t o f v e r tical m ov e
,

m e n t whil e th e r e is n o h o r iz o n tal play sav e that r e qui r e d fo r

,

t h e b e ari n gs .

FI G . 1 36
1 E 1 g e ar e d
. lo c o m ot ive , Sw is s F e d e r a l R ai l w a y s .

g
I n t hi s d e s i n t h e n e c e s s ar y pl y b a et w een t h e c r an k s an d t he s id e-r o d s is o bt a in e d by th e
us e o f

S c o t c h o es y k

.

Appli c ati o n tiv e Ty of F o r sl o w sp e e d s e rvic e

Lo c o m o pe s .
-
,

such as fr e ight an d switchi n g t h e p r i n c ipal r e qui r e m e n t is t o ge t ,

t he maximum t r activ e e ff o rt fr o m t h e availabl e w e ight F o r this .

purp o s e t he e n tir e mass sh o uld b e m o u n t e d o n t h e d r iv e r s l e adi n g ,

t o t he swiv e li n g truck o r articulat e d typ e s such as ar e sh o w n in ,

F ig 1 3 1 a n d F ig 1 3 2
. T h e s e d e sig n s ha v e p r o v e d e n tir e ly sat
. .

is fac t o ry in s e r vic e o f this ki n d .

 EL E C TR I C L O C OM O T I V E S 24 7

Fo r fast o p e rati o n it app e a r s alm o st e ss e n tial t o plac e a po r

,

ti o n o f t he t o tal w e ight o n l e adi n g trucks in o r d e r that t h e mai n ,

mass may b e guid e d al o n g t he track In additi o n th e r e s e e ms t o

.
,

b e gr o u n d fo r b e li e vi n g that t h e c e n t e r o f g r avity o f t he l o c o m o
tiv e sh o uld b e mad e as high as p o ssibl e Wh e n t he m ass is l o w .
,

th e r e is littl e cushi o n i n g o f t he o scillati o n s as t he l o c o m o tiv e

m o v e s fr o m sid e t o sid e o f t he t r ack d ue t o i r r e gula r iti e s in t he
,

align m e n t o f t he rails Th e pa r ts rigidly m o u n t e d o n t he ax l e s

.

a re e sp e cially d e structiv e in th e i r acti o n Th e r e sult is e xc e ssive .

mai n t e n a n c e c o sts ; an d si n c e t he f o rc e o f t he bl o w d e p e n ds o n
,

t he ki n e tic e n e r gy o f t h e m o vi n g parts t he e ffe ct i n c r e as e s as t he

,

squar e o f t he sp e e d O n t he c o n trary if t he mass o f t h e l o c o m o

.
,

tiv e is high ab o v e t he track t he r e sult o f variati o n s in t he alig n ~

,

m e n t is t o caus e t he sup e rst r uctur e t o sway whil e t he wh e e ls ,

f o ll o w t he small ir r e gulariti e s o f t he rails T h e l o c o m o tiv e is n o t .

s o e asy ridi n g ; but si n c e its fu n cti o n is t o d e v e l o p tractiv e e ff o rt

, ,

this d o e s n o t caus e an y o p e rati n g d ii c ul t y whil e t he w e ar o n ,

t he track is r e duc e d Fo r this r e as o n d e sig n s o f t he g e n e r al f o rm

.
,

sh o w n in Figs 1 3 5 an d 1 36 ha ve b e e n d e v e l o p e d fo r high sp e e d
.
-

pass e n g e r s e rvic e .

I n g e n e ral t o s e cur e a hi g h c e n t e r o f g r avity it is n e c e ssary t o

, ,

plac e t he m o t o r s o n t he sup e r structur e o f t he l o c o m o tiv e which ,

caus e s difficulty in maki n g a m e cha n ical c o n n e cti o n with t he dr iv

in g wh e e ls . T his i n e vitably l e ads t o a d e sig n e mb o dyi n g cran ks
a n d sid e r o ds O n e o f t he e arly argum e n ts mad e in fav o r o f
.

e l e ct r ic l o c o m o tiv e s as c o mpar e d with st e am w as t he abs e n c e o f

r e cipr o cati n g parts ; an d it n o w app e a r s t h at it may b e imp o ssibl e

t o e limi n at e th e m fr o m e l e ct r ic e n gi n e s T he e ffe ct o f t he r o ds is
.
,

h o w e v e r n o t s o d e structiv e in t he latt e r cas e fo r t he m o t o r has

, ,

a r o tary m o ti o n givi n g u n if o r m t o rqu e at all p o i n ts in t he r e v o

,

l ut io n
. In o rd e r t o t r a n smit t he m o ti o n with o ut s e v e r e twisti n g
strai n s it is e ss e n tial that c r a n ks b e plac e d o n b o th e n ds o f t he
,

armatur e shaft B y placi n g th e m 9 0 apar t t he t o r qu e will be
.
,

t r a n smitt e d u n if o r m ly at an y p o siti o n ; fo r t he acti o n is c o mpa r

abl e t o t he additi o n o f t w o si n e wav e s in quadratu r e as in a t w o ,

phas e e l e ct r ic ci r cuit T he sum o f t he t w o is always a c o n sta n t

.

q ua n tity . O n acc o u n t o f this u n if o r mity in tu r n i n g e ff o r t t he ,

st r ai n s o n t he t r ack ar e n o t s o s e v e r e as in st e am p r actic e an d t he ,

w e ar o n t he r e cipr o cati n g pa r ts is l e ss .

A m e cha n ical d ii c ul t y is i n t r o duc e d by t he cra n k an d sid e

r o d c o n structi o n which d o e s n o t e xist in st e am l o c o m o tiv e s B o th .
24 8 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

c r a n ks ar e attach e d t o t he sam e armatur e shaft a n d drivi n g

wh e e ls If t he parts ar e n o t in p e rfe ct alig n me n t t he t o rsi o n al
.
~ ,

st r ai n s in t he shafts an d c o n n e cti n g r o ds will b e gr e at In s o m e .

cas e s th e y ha v e b e e n s o s e v e r e as t o sh e ar o ff t he cra n ks o r t o
b r e ak t he S hafts whil e in o th e r s t h e b e ari n gs hav e e x c e s s 1 ve
,

w e ar T h e o bvi o us r e m e dy is e xtr e m e ac curacy in alig n m e n t o f

.

t he cra n ks an d b e ari n gs ; but this calls fo r car e f u l mai n t e n an c e ,

which c a n n o t always be o btai n e d in t he o r di n ary railr o ad

sh o p .

36 48 60 72
Dia m et e r of Whe e l , l n che s .

FI G . 1 37 R e vo l ut io n s of d rivin g w h e e l s p e r m il e .

G e ar e d an d M o t o r s The pr o p e r sp e e d o f t he m o t o r
G e ar l e s s .

armatur e an d o f t he drivi n g wh e e ls has an imp o rtan t b e ari n g o n

t he d e sig n o f t he m e cha n ical tra n smissi o n in t he l o c o m o tiv e .

T he e l e ctric m o t o r is in g e n e ral e ss e n tially a high sp e e d machi n e

, ,
- .

If it is t o be dir e ctly c o n n e ct e d t o t he driv e r s t he wh e e l diam e t e r

sh o uld b e ch o s e n t o giv e t he pr o p e r armatur e sp e e d fo r e c o n o m
ical Op e rati o n In l o c o m o tiv e s fo r fast s e rvic e this is n o t ve ry
.
,

difcult T he r e lati o n b e tw e e n t he diam e t e r o f driv e rs an d t he

.

r e v o luti o n s pe r mil e is sh o w n in Fig 1 3 7 At a sp e e d o f 60 mil e s

. .

p e r h r . t h
, e r e v o luti o n s pe r mil e an d pe r mi n ut e will b e t h e sam e .
 EL E C TR I C L OC OM O T I VES 2 49

W ith 4 4in driv e rs as ar e us e d o n t he N e w Yo r k C e n t r al g e arl e ss

.
,

l o c o m o ti ve s t he a r matur e r e v o lv e s at 4 60 r p m at this trai n

,
. . .

sp e e d T his is a fair v alu e fo r m o t o rs o f t he siz e us e d E ve n

. .

with 72 in d r iv e rs as o n t he P e n n sylva n ia l o c o m o tiv e s t he spe e d

.
, ,

is 2 80 which is n o t e xc e ssiv e ly l o w si n c e t he e n tir e l o c o ,

m o tive capacity is c o n c e n trat e d in t w o m achi n e s B ut if similar .

g e a r l e ss l o c o m o tiv e s w e r e t o b e us e d fo r n o rmal sp e e ds o f 2 0 t o
3 0 mil e s pe r hr t he armatu r e sp e e ds w o uld b e s o l o w as t o be
.
,

e l e ctrically i n e fci e n t an d t he w e ight w o uld be e xc e ssi ve fo r t he

,

o utput .

It is appar e n t that if t he n o rmal sp e e ds ar e t o b e l o w t he whe e l ,

diam e t e r must be r e duc e d fo r a g e arl e ss l o c o m o tiv e I f t he m o .

t o rs ar e m o u n t e d dir e ctly o n t he axl e s this will pr o bably b e im ,

p o ssibl e si n c e t he armatur e diam e t e r with t he high sp e e d m o t o rs

,
-

is s o larg e that th e r e is littl e e xc e ss cl e ara n c e ab o ve t he trac k .

F o r m o t o r s driv e n thr o ugh cra n ks t he wh e e l siz e may b e r e duc e d

,

s o m e what ; but si n c e o n e o f t he ad v a n tag e s t o b e o btai n e d by

cra n k c o n n e cti o n is t h e raisi n g o f t he c e n t e r o f mass this will l e ad ,

t o an awkward d e sig n T he difculty c an be o v e rc o m e by g e ar

.

in g t he m o t o rs fo r th e n t he m o t o r sp e e d may b e ch o s e n t o give
,

g o o d e fci e n cy whil e t he wh e e l diam e t e r may b e such as de

,

m an d e d by t he o p e rati n g charact e ristics T h e r e ar e man y r e a .

s o n s w hy larg e dri ve rs ar e t o b e pr e fe rr e d T h e y gi ve m o re .

surfac e o f c o n tact b e tw e e n wh e e l an d rail with c o n s e qu e n tly ,

gr e at e r adh e si o n Th e sh o cks whil e climbi n g small i n e qualiti e s

.

in t he rails a n d in passi n g bad j o i n ts ar e mat e rially l e ss an d t he

, , ,

w e ar o n t he wh e e ls th e ms e lv e s is small e r A g e ar rati o o f 2 : 1 .

mak e s p o ssibl e t he us e o f a m o t o r o f say 500 r p m with 4 0 in , ,

. . .
-
.

d r iv e rs at a n o rmal sp e e d o f 30 mil e s pe r hr T his is withi n t he .

limits o f e c o n omy .

T he applicati o n o f g e ar ed m o t o rs fo r l o w sp e e ds may be mad e

e asily in t h e swiv e li n g truck d e sig n s ; o r if it is d e sir e d t o c o n c e n ,

trat e t he p o w e r in o n e o r t w o large m o t o rs a c o mbi n ati o n o f ,

g e ars an d sid e r o ds may be mad e as in Fig 1 36 By this m e a n s ,

. .

t h e adva n tag e s o f high c e n t e r o f gravity may b e o btai n e d W hil e .

t he c o mplicati o n is s o m e what g r e at e r it app e ars t o be j usti e d , ,

if o n e may j udg e by r e c e n t E ur o p e a n d e sig n s .

N um b e r an d C o upl i n g o f D riv e r s
An e xami n ati o n o f e xisti n g
.

d e sig n s o f l o c o m o tiv e s b o th e l e ctric an d st e am s h o ws a wide

, ,

ra n g e in t he n umb e r o f driv e r s l e n gth o f wh e e l base an d m e th o ds

, ,

o f c o upli n g wh e e ls t o e th e r T h e primary limitati o n o f t he trac k

g .
2 50 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

is t he maximum l o ad which c an b e safe ly imp o s e d by a si n gl e

wh e e l T he b e st A m e rica n practic e with rs t class r o adb e d an d
.
,
-

t r ack limits t h e l o ad pe r axl e t o fr o m

, lb t o lb . .

T h e s e valu e s ar e e xt r e m e a n d sh o uld b e us e d o n ly wh e n t he track

,

c o n structi o n is t he b e st T his limit will th e n d e t e r m in e at o n c e

.

t he n umb e r o f dri v i n g wh e e ls n e c e ssary t o gi v e t he d e sir e d tract

ive e ff o r t if t he adh e si o n c o e fci e n t is kn o w n
, T his latt e r is .

usually assume d , fo r purp o s e s o f d e sig n at 2 2 pe r c e n t t o 2 5 pe r , .

c e n t A d r i v i n g axl e l o ad o f
. lb will th e n giv e a m aximum .

t r activ e e ff o rt o f 1 2 500 1b ; so that t he w e ight o n t he dri ve rs m ay

,
.

b e d e t e rmi n e d .

T h e w e ight t o b e carri e d o n t h e idl e axl e s d e p e n ds larg e ly o n

t h e maximum sp e e d cha r act e r o f t he r o adb e d an d m e th o d
, ,

o f e qualizati o n A n i n sp e cti o n o f t he tabl e o n p 2 43 sh o ws t he

. .

A m e rica n practic e fo r st e am l o c o m o tiv e s F o r e l e ctric s e r v ic e .

t h e pr o p o rti o n o f t he w e ight o n d r iv e rs may b e s o m e what gr e at e r ,

s in c e th e r e is n o n e c e ssity fo r traili n g wh e e ls which ha v e b e e n ,

in tr o duc e d in st e am l o c o m o tiv e d e sign s t o all o w an i n cr e as e in t he

siz e o f r e b o x fo r larg e capaciti e s
- .

T h e n umb e r o f drivi n g wh e e ls which c an b e c o upl e d t o g e th e r is

limit e d by t he t o tal rigid wh e e l bas e p e r mitt e d T his is d e t e r .

mi n e d by t he radius o f t he m aximum cur v e s e n c o u n t e r e d , s i n c e

t he sid e play in t he axl e b e ari n gs is r e strict e d T he l e n gth o f .

rigid wh e e l bas e may b e i n cr e as e d s o m e what for sl o w-sp e e d s e r v

ic e by m aki n g s o m e o f t he i n t e rm e diat e dri v e rs with o ut a n g e s ;
but o n ac c o u n t o f dan ge r o f d e rail m e n t at high sp e e ds this is n o t
, ,

t o b e c o mm e n d e d fo r pass e n g e r l o c o m o tiv e s In st e am practic e .

,

t he rigid wh e e l bas e will b e fr o m 1 0 ft t o 1 3 ft fo r pass e n g e r . .

l o c o m o tiv e s an d fr o m 1 0 ft t o 1 7 ft fo r fr e ight e n gi n e s Lo n g e r
,
. . .

rigid wh e e l bas e s ha v e b e e n f o u n d d e structi v e b o t h t o t he track ,

a n d t o t he d r iv e rs In st e am s e r v ic e l o n g e r wh e e l bas e s ha v e b e e n
.

mad e p o ssibl e by t he us e o f M all e t articulat e d l o c o m o ti ve s in ,

which t he d r ivi n g wh e e ls ar e ass e mbl e d in t w o s e parat e u n its t he ,

f o rwa r d e n gi n e b e i n g m o u n t e d o n a swiv e li n g truck In e l e ctri c .

l o c o m o tiv e s t h e r e sult may b e attai n e d m o r e simply by t he us e

,

o f s e parat e u n its o p e rat e d t o g e th e r by multipl e u n it c o n tr o l

,
-
.

E vid e n c e h as b e e n i n tr o duc e d t o sh o w that t he tracti v e e ffo rt

which c an b e d e v e l o p e d by a l o c o m o ti v e will b e i n c re as e d if s e v
e ral d r ivi n g axl e s ar e c o upl e d t o g e th e r
1
T his is t o b e e xp e ct e d
.
,

si n c e th e r e is a c e rtai n am o u n t o f w eight tra n sf e r b e tw e e n t he

E L M ER A S P ERR Y Tr an s a c t ion s A I E E Vo l XX I X p 1 4 53
'
1
. . . . .
.
,
. .
, ,
 EL E C TR I C L O C OM O T I VE S 251

d r ivi n g axl e s duri n g acc e l e rati o n an d r e ta r dati o n T his p o i n t .

has al r e ady b e e n c o n sid e r e d in c o n n e cti o n with trai n braki n g .

F o r this r e as o n it w o uld s e e m advisabl e if s e v e ral axl e s a r e ,

m o u n t e d o n a rigid fr am e t o c o upl e t h e wh e e ls t o g e th e r by
, ,

m e an s o f sid e r o ds o r by g e arin g T his acti o n b e c o m e s a p .

p ar e n t o n ly whil e acc e l e rati n g o r r e tardi n g s o that fo r c e rtai n ,

class e s o f s e rvic e it may n o t b e o f gr e at imp o r ta n c e .

Int e r c h an g e ab il ity O f Lo c o m o tiv e s In ma n y cas e s it is d e

.

sirabl e t o b e abl e t o us e t he sam e l o c o m o ti ve u n its fo r b o th f r e ight

a n d pass e n g e r s e r vi c e .Wh e n this c an b e d o n e t he t o tal in ,

v e stm e n t in m o tiv e p o w e r is d e cr e as e d an d t he n e c e ssary r e pair ,

w o rk i s simpli e d The fact o rs a ffe cti n g t he d e sig n as it has

.
,

b e e n p o i n t e d o ut in this chapt e r mak e it s o m e what dii c ul t t o

,

build a u n i v e rsal l o c o m o tiv e If satisfact o ry fo r sl o w sp e e d
.
,

it may n o t ha v e t he pr o p e r ridi n g qualiti e s fo r fast s e rvic e ; an d

if p r o p e rly d e sig n e d fo r high sp e e d it will b e e xc e ssiv e in w e ight
,

an d c o st wh e n appli e d t o sl o w sp e e d w o rk

-
.

W h e n g e ar e d m o t o rs are us e d it may b e p o ssibl e t o appr o ach

,

t h e d e sir e d c o n diti o n by usi n g di ff e r e n t g e ar rati o s fo r high sp e e d

an d l o w sp e e d s e rvic e t h e m e cha n ical d e sig n b e i n g o th e r wis e t h e
-
,

sam e T his r e duc e s t h e n umb e r o f s e parat e parts but d o e s n o t

.
,

mak e t he e quipm e n t i n t e r cha n g e abl e A c o mpr o mis e may b e .

mad e in s o m e cas e s by o p e rati n g t he m o t o rs at di ff e r e n t p o t e n tials

fo r t he v ari o us cl ass e s o f s e rvic e F o r i n sta n c e o n a 60 0 v o lt
.
,
-

dir e ct curr e n t l o c o m o tiv e t he m o t o rs m ay b e plac e d in parall e l

-
,

fo r hi gh sp ee d pass e n g e r o p e r ati o n an d in s e ri e s parall e l fo r

-
,
-

fr e ight s e rvic e It must b e r e m e mb e r e d that t he curr e n t capac

.

ity o f t he m o t o rs is no t i n cr e as e d by this pr o c e dur e s o that ,

wh e n ru n n i n g in s e ri e s e ach m o t o r is o n ly givi n g ab o ut o n e half -

its n o rmal rati n g O n r o ads wh e r e m o st o f t h e trai n s are in

.

pass e n g e r o r fast fr e ight Se r vic e this m e th o d may gi ve satis ,

fact o ry r e sults The fact r e mai n s that fo r t he b e st O p e rati n g

.
,

e fci e n cy , t he l o c o m o tiv e s sh o uld b e d e sig n e d particul a rly fo r

t h e s e rvic e th e y ar e t o b e us e d o n ; an d if a c o mpr o mis e is
n e c e ssary it must b e e ff e ct e d at s o m e l o ss .

T r ac t o r s A r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n t in e l e ctric l o c o m o ti v e pra o
tic e is t o i n cr e as e t h e capacity o f t he e quipm e n t by t he us e o f
auxiliary tract o rs T h e s e as us e d o n o n e Am e rican railr o ad
.
,
1
,

ar e f o ur -wh e e l e d m o t o r trucks which ar e O p e rat e d in c o n j un c

,

1
T r ac t o r T ru c k s an d Ad d it io n al L o c o m o t ive s fo r B u t t e 2 400 V o l t R ail w a y -
,

E l e c t r ic R a ilw a y J o ur n a l V o l XLIII p 1 3 4 9 Jun e 1 3 1 9 1 4

,
.
,
.
, , .
 52 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

ti o n with t he l o c o m o ti v e s T h e r e is n o c o n tr o l e quipm e n t o n
.

t he trucks but t h e m o t o rs ar e plac e d in s e ri e s with th o s e o n

,

t he l o c o m o tiv e T h e f o ur mai n m o t o rs ar e w o u n d for 1 2 0 0

.

v o lts an d are O p e rat e d t w o in s e ri e s in n o rmal s e r vic e Wh e n

, .

t he tract o rs ar e us e d t he additi o n al m o t o rs ar e c o n n e ct e d o n e in
,

s e ri e s in e ach circuit makin g thr e e m o t o rs in s e ri e s an d o p e rat

, ,

in g at appr o ximat e ly t w o thirds n o rmal sp ee d in parall e l an d

-
,

o n e third sp e e d wh e n all t h e m o t o rs ar e plac e d in s e ri e s

-
E ach .

t r act o r w e ighs appr o ximat e ly o n e half as m uch as a sta n dard

-

l o c o m o tiv e s o that t he drawbar pull is i n cr e as e d 5 0 pe r c e n t by

, .

its additi o n U si n g this m e th o d t he e xibility o f t he e quip

.

m e n t an d its t o tal capacity m ay b e c o n sid e rably e xt e n d e d

at a fairly l o w c o st N o o p e rati n g data ha ve b e e n publish e d t o
.

sh o w t he suc c e ss o f this arra n ge m e n t .

Lo c o m o t iv e Eq uipm e n t T h e e quipm e n t r e quir e d fo r e l e ct r i c

l o c o m o tiv e s is in g e n e ral t h e sam e as that in us e o n m o t o r
, ,

cars Th e pri n cipal diff e r e n c e is in t he capacity o f t he m o t o rs

. .

T he l o cati o n o f t he m o t o rs d e t e rmi n e s larg e ly t h e p o siti o n o f

t he auxiliary apparatus o n t h e l o c o m o ti v e W h e n g e ar e d o r
.

g e arl e ss m o t o rs ar e us e d m o u n t e d dir e ctly o n t he axl e s th e r e is

, ,

t h e e n tir e spac e ab o v e t he mai n fram e a v ailabl e fo r c o n t r o l

e quipm e n t . T his d o e s n o t o r di n arily tak e up all t he spac e s o ,

that ma n y l o c o m o ti v e s o f this class ar e d e sig n e d with t he s o

call e d st e e pl e cabs as sh o w n in Figs 1 3 1 1 3 2 an d 1 34
,
.
,
.

W h e n t he m o t o rs ar e m o u n t e d o n t he fram e an d c o upl e d t o ,

t h e drivi n g wh e e ls with c o n n e cti n g ro ds t he spac e l e ft fo r t h e

,

apparatus is much l e ss an d t he cab is usually b ui lt o v e r t he e n

,

ti r e l o c o m o ti v e fram e S uch d e sig n s ar e s h o w n in Figs 1 33

. .
,

1 35 an d 1 36 .

T he auxiliary e quipm e n t which is n e c e ssary o n t he o rdi n ary

l o c o m o tiv e c o n sists o f t he c o n tr o ll e r , t he r e sist o rs (if us e d ) air ,

c o mpr e ss o r an d g o v e r n o r tran sf o r m e r (for alt e r n ati n gcurr e n t

,

l o c o m o tiv e s ) an d t he misc e lla n e o us apparatus n e e d e d fo r e as e

,

in o p e rati o n For us e in c o n n e cti o n w ith sta n dard pass e n g e r

.

cars a b o il e r fo r supplyi n g st e am fo r h e ati n g is a n e c e ssity Al l

,
.

o f this e quipm e n t is c o mparativ e ly bulky ; an d in t h e lat e st

d e sig n s t h e e n tir e cab is ll e d with it th e r e b e i n g o n ly a n arr o w

,

passag e way o n e ach sid e .

Lo c o m o tiv e C o n tr o l D ue t o t he d e man d fo r i n d e p e n d e n t
.

u n its which m ay b e o p e rat e d t o g e th e r fo r i n cr e as e d o utput ,

p r actically all l o c o m o ti v e s are pr o v id e d with m ultipl e u n it -

 EL E C TR I C L O C O M O T I VE S 2 53

c o n tr o l O n acc o u n t o f t he larg e am o u n ts o f p o w e r ha n dl e d
.
,

c o n t r o ll e r s o f this typ e are alm o st e ss e n tial in an y cas e si n c e ,

t he capaciti e s o f ha n d O p e rat e d o n e s ar e n o t by an y m e a n s a de
-

quat e It is i n t e r e sti n g t o n o t e that in a r e c e n t E ur o p e a n d e s ig n

.
,

t he c o n tr o ll e r is o f t he drum typ e ; but this is an e xc e pti o n t o t he

usual arr a n g e m e n t .

Fo r h e a vy l o c o m o tiv e s e rvic e t he v ariati o n s in tractiv e

,

e ffo r t which ar e all o wabl e with m o t o r cars w o uld caus e d e

str uctiv e j er ki n g duri n g acc e l e r ati o n F o r this r e as o n t h e

.

n umb e r o f st e ps o n t h e c o n t r o ll e r is i n va r iably gr e at e r Sin c e .

t he ac c e l e r ati o n m ay n e e d t o b e v a r i e d t o suit t h e r e qui r e m e n ts o f

e ac h p a r t ic ul ar trai n
.
, aut o matic c o n t r o l is s e ld o m us e d it b e i n g ,

c o n sid e r e d b e tt e r p r actic e t o plac e t he O p e rati o n e n ti r e ly in

~

c o mma n d o f t h e m o t o rma n With high class e mpl o y e e s this

.
-
,

m e th o d giv e s c o n sist e n tly g o o d r e sults .

C h o i c e of Lo c o m o t iv e s It may app e ar at rst sight that t he

.
, ,

s e l e cti o n o f t he p r o p e r typ e o f l o c o m o tiv e for a particular s e r vic e

is subj e ct t o e xact rul e s S uch d o e s n o t app e ar t o b e t he cas e
. .

T he l o c o m o tiv e s o f c o mp e ti n g ma n ufactu r e rs fo r alm o st id e n tical

s e r vm e ar e s o wid e ly at v aria n c e that th e r e c an b e n o g e n e r al

agr e e m e n t ; an d in s o m e cas e s t h e sam e man ufactur e r has us e d

e n tir e ly di ff e r e n t d e sig n s fo r similar c o n diti o n s .

El e ctric l o c o m o tiv e s a r e still subj e ct t o gr e at d e v e l o pm e n t ;

a n d it is quit e p o ssibl e that th e y may b e sta n dardiz e d It must
.

b e r e m e mb e r e d that p r actically all o f th e m in s e r v ic e hav e b e e n

d e sig n e d withi n t he past t e n y e ar s whil e t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e s
,

ar e t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f a c e n tury s study

It will n o t b e r e
.

mar kabl e if ma n y y e ars pass b e f o r e t he e l e ctric l o c o m o tiv e

r e a c h e s t h e sam e c o n diti o n o f sta n dardizati o n as its st e am
c o mp e tit o r ; an d it is d o ubtf ul if this is d e sirabl e fo r s t an d ar diz a
,

ti o n o n a large scal e is liabl e t o m e an stag n ati o n .

 C H AP T E R X

S ELF PR O P EL
- LED CAR S

Fi e l d of S e lf Pr ope ll e d C ar s
- A n
rai lr o ad wh e th e r st e am o r
.
y ,

e l e ctric has a c o mparati v e ly high c o st o f c o n structi o n T he

,
.

g r o ss r e c e ipts must b e su f ci e n t t o c o v e r t he O p e rati n g e xp e n s e s ,

a n d l e av e e n o ugh margi n t o pay i n t e r e st o n t he i n v e stm e n t b e ,

fo r e an y p r o t c an b e r e aliz e d A c e rtai n class o f ro ads e xists

.

in which o p e r ati o n by an y o f t h e o rdi n a r y m e th o ds such as ,

s t e am l o c o m o tiv e s o r e l e ct r ic m o t o rs fe d fr o m a c e n t r al p o w er
,

stati o n will n o t c o v e r t h e e xp e n s e T he st e am l o c o m o tiv e as

,
.
,

has b e e n sh o w n is at its b e st o n ly in larg e u n its ; an d if s e v e ral

, ,

t r ai n s pe r day ar e t o b e r un t he c o st o f o p e r ati n g in e i c ie n t
,

small l o c o m o tiv e s may b e pr o hibitiv e O n t he o th e r ha n d .

,

t he e l e ctri c dist r ibuti n g circuit will b e as e xp e n siv e in ma n y ,

cas e s wh e n but o n e car is r un as wh e n s e rvic e is giv e n e v e ry

,

h o ur T he i n t e r e st o n t he i n v e stm e n t an d mai n t e n a n c e cha r g e s

.

will in this cas e pr o hibit succ e ssful o p e r ati o n .

It is fo r this class o f r o ads that s o m e f o rm o f l o w c o st fai r ly -

,

e fci e n t s e rvic e must b e giv e n if a railway is t o Op e r at e at all .

S uch is t h e cas e o f ma n y st e am r o ad bra n ch e s wh e r e in o rd e r t o

-
,

d e v e l o p trafc t he li n e has b e e n built with o ut su fci e n t kn o wl

,

e dg e o f l o cal c o n diti o n s An o th e r i n sta n c e is that w h e r e a rail

.

r o ad is d e sir e d t o d e v e l o p a n e w t e rrit o ry but wh e r e t he r e tu r n,

may fo r s e v e r al y e a r s b e i n ad e quat e t o pay e xp e n s e s S uch a

, ,
.

li n e is usually a f e e d e r t o a lar g e st e am o r e l e ctric railway syst e m .

In o th e r cas e s t h e c o st o f c o n st r ucti o n may b e e xc e ssiv e An .

e xampl e o f this is t h e cr o ss t o w n su r fac e li n e s in N e w Y o r k C ity

-
,

wh e r e t he o v e r h e ad tr o ll e y is p r o hibit e d by law To build .

u n d e r gr o u n d c o n duit r o ads o f t he typ e us e d o n t h e mai n th r o ugh

r o ut e s w o uld c o st much m o r e tha n t h e t r afc w o uld j ustify In .

e ach o f th e s e cas e s t h e d e ma n d is fo r a ch e aply c o n st r uct e d

t r ack an d a m o tiv e p o w e r which will giv e satisfact o r y s e r vic e at

,

c o mpar ativ e ly l o w c o st It is fo r this r e as o n that t he va r i o us

.

S e lf p r o p e ll e d ca r s hav e b e e n d e v e l o p e d
-
.

25 4
 S ELF -P R OPELL ED C A R S 2 55

S e lf p r o p e ll e d cars c an als o b e us e d du r i n g h o urs o f light l o ad

-
,

such as at n ight W ith i n fr e qu e n t o p e r ati o n o f this s o rt it may

.

pr o v e e c o n o mical t o shut d o w n t he e l e ctric p o w e r pla n t e n tir e ly ,

givi n g t he r e quir e d s e r vic e with s e lf pr o p e ll e d car s In this -

.

w ay t h e n o l o ad l o ss e s i n cid e n t t o a la r g e syst e m may b e

-

e limi n at e d whil e at t h e sam e tim e an o pp o rtu n ity is p r e s e n t e d

,

fo r i n sp e cti o n an d r e pair t o t he p o w e r plan t an d substati o n

appar atus .

At t h e p r e s e n t tim e th e r e ar e in us e th r e e di ff e r e n t typ e s o f
,

s e lf p r o p e ll e d cars which c o v e r t he e n ti r e ra n g e o f s e r vic e n e e d e d

-
,
.

T h e y ar e t he gas o li n e typ e with m e cha n ical driv e gas o li n e with ,

e l e ctric d r iv e a n d t h e st o r ag e batt e r y car

,
.

G as o lin e C ar s
Al l o f t he st r aight gas o li n e cars in t he Un it e d
.

S tat e s ar e o f t he sam e g e n e ral class b e i n g t he pr o duct o f o n e ,

build e r T he r st o f th e m w e r e i n tr o duc e d ab o ut e l e v e n y e a r s
.

a go fo r us e o n u n p r o tabl e bra n ch li n e s o f t h e U n i o n P acic

FI G . 1 38 .
55-ft .
g as o l in e c ar , m e c h an c a i l t r an s m is s io n .

I n t h is c ar t he f ront a xl e i s v
t he dri er , t he en gin e b e in g m o un t e d l
d ir e c t y a b v
o e. N ot e
f
t he or m of t he c ar to r educe air r es is t a n c e .

R ail r o ad .succ e ss m e t with in this s e r vic e w as s o gr e at that

T he
ca r s o f similar typ e ha v e b e e n built fo r a n umb e r o f r o ads in
var i o us parts o f t he c o u n try .

T he gas o lin e d r iv e n cars are o f s o m e what sp e cial c o n structi o n ,

as sh o w n in Fig 1 3 8 T he f o rward e n d is r e s e r ve d fo r t he
. .

p o w e r plan t which c o n sists o f a 2 00 h p i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n

,
-
.

e n gi n e di r e ctly g e ar e d t o t he fr o n t axl e o f t he f o r wa r d truck

,
.

S p e e d c o n tr o l is o btai n e d in t he sam e ma n n e r as in t he gas o li n e

aut o m o bil e by m e a n s o f g e ars an d a fr e e e n gi n e clutch V a r ia
, .

ti o n s in t he cha r g e an d t he ig n iti o n all o w still furth e r r an ge in t he

c o n tr o l .
2 56 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

The cars which ar e in o p e rati o n are fr o m 5 5 ft t o 70 ft in . .

l e n gth an d ar e s o m e what similar t o th o s e fo r sta n dard e l e ctric

,

i n t e r urban railways It is i n t e r e sti n g t o n o t e that this d e sig n

.

o f car is t h e o n ly o n e in r e gular s e r vic e which has tak e n adva n tag e

o f t h e e xp e rim e n tal r e sults f o u n d in c o n n e cti o n with air r e sista n c e

at high sp e e ds The fr o n t is w e dge shap e d whil e t he r e ar e n d

.
,

is r o u n d e d Th e r oo f is o f t he plai n arch typ e an d all o f t he

.
,

tti n gs such as wi n d o ws an d d oo r s ar e s o d e sig n e d as t o gi v e

, ,

t he m o st r e gular c o n t o ur p o ssibl e T he build e rs claim a mat e r .

ial l y r e duc e d trai n r e sista n c e d ue t o t he c o n structi o n .

G a El e c t ric C ar s
s - T h e r e are t w o disti n ct typ e s o f gas o l i n e
.

e l e ctric cars in us e in Am e rica b o th o f which e mb o dy t h e sam e ,

g e n e r al fe atur e s O n e o f t he car s o f t he G e n e ral E l e ctric C o m

.

pa n y is sh o w n in Fig 139 an d a simila r o n e ma n ufactur e d by t he

.
, ,

FI G . 1 39 .
70ft . G e n e r al El e c t r i c g ase l e c t r i c c ar .

Th e g as ol i e e n g i e d iv e s a
n n r d ir e c t -c ur r e n t g en e rat o r f r om w h ic h c ur r e n t i s o bt a in e d fo r
o p r at n g t h e ailw y m t s
e i r a o or .

D rak e R ailway A ut o m o tric e C o mpan y , is sh o wn in Fig 1 4 0 . .

I n e ith e r t h e p o w e r pla n t c o n sists o f an i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n e n

gi n e drivi n g a dire ct cu r r e n t g e n e rat o r curr e n t fr o m which is
,
-
,

us e d t o o p e rat e sta n dard 60 0 v o lt m o t o rs A sp e cial fo rm o f -

.

s e r i e s parall e l c o n tr o ll e r is us e d which i n st e ad o f i n s e r ti n g re
-
, ,

s is t an c e in s e ri e s with t h e m o t o rs v ari e s t h e e ld str e n gth o f t h e ,

g e n e r at o r B y this m e th o d t he c o n tr o l is mad e m o r e e fci e n t

.

tha n with t he dir e ct m e chan ical dri v e ; an d si n c e t he m o t o rs ar e ,

abl e t o d el i v e r maximum tracti ve e ff o rt at l o w sp e e ds with c o rr e

s p o n din gl y r e duc e d p o w e r i n put t he t o tal capacity o f t h e p o w e r ,

pla n t c an b e l e ss than fo r t he dir e ct dri ve T hi s all o ws a light e r .

gas o li n e e n gi n e ; but t he w e ight o f t he e n tir e e quipm e n t must

n e c e ssarily b e s o m e what h e a vi e r fo r t h e e l e ctric tra n smissi o n ,

si n c e a g e n e rat o r an d a s e t o f m o t o rs must b e add e d .

 S ELF -
P R OP ELL E D CA R S 2 57

In practic e t he o p e rati n g c o sts fo r t he thr e e typ e s o f gas o li n e

,

car s ar e app r o ximat e ly t he sam e va r yi n g with t he s e v er ity o f t he ,

s e rvic e an d t he w e ight o f t h e e quipm e n t Eith e r typ e is fully .

capabl e o f hauli n g o n e o r m o r e trail e rs wh e n r e quir e d s o that t he ,

appar atus is e xc e e di n gly e xibl e .

S to ra g e B a tt e ry C ar s T he st o rag e batt e ry car is o n e o f t he

.

o ld e st d e v e l o pm e n ts in t h e hist o r y o f e l e ctric t r acti o n b e in g ,

a n t e dat e d o n ly by th o s e d r iv e n by p r imary batt e ri e s In t he .

e a r ly e xp e r im e n ts batt e r i e s o f t h e typ e s o btai n abl e at that tim e

,

w e r e tri e d an d aba n d o n e d l ar g e ly o n acc o u n t o f t he gr e at w e ight

,

o f t he e quipm e n t T h e r e c e n t imp r o v e m e n ts in st o rag e batt e ry

.

d e s ig n an d ma n ufactu r e d ue lar g e ly t o t he ad v e n t o f t he e l e ct r ic
,

aut o m o bil e hav e mad e it p o ssibl e t o o btai n batt e ri e s h avm g

,

FI G . 1 40 .
70 ft-
. D rak e
a ut o m o t r c e i .

This c ar is s im l
i ar t o t hat sho w n in F ig . 1 3 9 , b u t is o f s om ew hat l ig h t er c ons t r u c t io n .

mu c h gr e at e r o utput pe r p o u n d o f w e ight with i n cr e as e d life ,

.

T his d e v e l o pm e n t has mad e th e ir us e practical for pr o p e lli n g

railway car s with a r e as o n abl e e fci e n cy .

T h e r e ar e s e v e ral diff e r e n t ki n ds o f st o rag e batt e ry car in us e

at t he pr e s e n t tim e di ffe r i n g pri n cipally in t h e typ e o f c e lls e m
,

pl o y e d B o th t he l e ad an d t he E dis o n n ick e l ir o n batt e r i e s a r e

.
-

us e d an d app e ar t o b e givi n g satisfacti o n O n e typ e o f car

,
.
,

fo ll o wi n g larg e ly t he d o ubl e t r uck st e pl e ss d e sig n o f t he N e w

Yo r k R ailways an d in us e o n t h e sam e r o ad is sh o w n in Fig 1 4 1

, ,
. .

In an y o f t h e st o r ag e batt e ry ca r s succ e ssful Op e r ati o n d e p e n ds ,

o n havi n g t h e b o dy as light as p o ssibl e si n c e t he siz e o f batt e r y ,

t o b e us e d is a dir e ct fu n cti o n o f t he w e ight haul e d M uch at .

t e n ti o n has b ee n paid t o this f e atu r e an d e xc e e di n gly l o w w e ights ,

p e r s e at hav e b e e n attai n e d I n add iti o n t h e b e ari n gs .a r e o f ,

t he a n ti fr icti o n typ e s such as r o ll e r o r ball b e ari n gs

-
, S i n c e t he .

17
258 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

car sp e e ds in t he s e rvic e fo r which st o rag e batt e ry cars ar e b e st

tt e d ar e l o w t he trai n r e sista n c e c o n sists lar g e ly o f j o ur n al fric
,

ti o n ; a n d by t he us e o f such b e ari n gs it may b e dimi n ish e d c o n

s ide r ab l y S o m e o f t he mak e rs g o a st e p fu r th e r an d us e a rigid
.

axl e with t w o i n d e p e n d e n t wh e e ls as in o rdi n ary wag o n s It is , .

claim e d that this r e duc e s t he fr icti o n still m o r e e sp e cially o n ,

curv e s N o e xt e n d e d e xp e rim e n ts ha v e b e e n mad e t o p r o v e this

.
,

a n d it is p o ssibl e that t h e l o w e r f r icti o n o n cur v e s may b e o ffs e t

by i n cr e as e d o scillat o ry r e sista n c e .

T h e r e ar e t w o di ffe r e n t m e th o ds o f o p e r ati n g t he batt e r i e s .

O n e mak e r advis e s that th e y b e o f sufci e n t capacity t o a

FI G . 14 1 .
S t e pl e s s s t o r ag e b at t e r y c ar .

T he b a t t e r ie s a r e placed u n d er t he s e at s T he m o t o r s ar e c o n n e c t e d in d e p e n de n t ly to
l by v F b g b ll ll b g
.

t he w h e e s c h ai n d ri e . r ic t io n is r e d u c e d y us in a or ro er- e a ri n s .

wh o l e day s r un with o ut r e chargi n g whil e o th e r s r e c o mm e n d a

,

small e r b att e r y with a full char g e o n c e a day an d sh o rt b o o st
, ,

in g charg e s at t h e e n d o f e ach trip Whil e this latt e r m e th o d .

all o ws t he us e o f a batt e ry o f l e ss capacity it d o e s n o t giv e such ,

e xibility in s e r vic e Fo r i n sta n c e if a car is lat e in arrivi n g at

.
,

t he cha r gi n g stati o n it will n o t r e c e iv e sufci e n t charg e an d t h e

, ,

batt e ry may b e e xhaust e d b e fo r e t he day is o v e r o r e ls e t he ,

sch e dul e will b e disarra n g e d T r o ubl e has r e sult e d in a n umb e r

.

o f c as e s fr o m this caus e a n d has mad e it a n Op e n qu e sti o n as t o

,

which is t he b e tt e r m e th o d o f o p e r ati o n .

T he m o t o rs fo r st o rag e batt e ry cars ar e much small e r tha n th o s e

fo r sta n da r d e l e ct r ic railway s e rvic e with e quipm e n t o f e qual
w e ight T his is la r g e ly d ue t o t he fact that t h e acc e l e r ati o n
.
 S ELF -P R OP ELL E D C A R S 2 59

an d t he maximum sp e e ds ar e l o w W ith high acc e l e rati o n t he

.

siz e o f batt e ry r e quir e d b e c o m e s s o gr e at as t o r e n d e r its use

impractical .

S t o rage batt e ry cars ar e c o n tr o ll e d by s e ri e s parall e l c o n n e c -

ti o n s o f t he batt e ri e s i n st e ad o f t he m o t o rs alth o ugh by c o m

, ,

bi n i n g t he t w o m e th o ds th r e e e c o n o mical ru nn i n g sp e e ds may
b e o btai n e d O th e rwis e t he arr an g e m e n t is t he sam e as fo r
.

sta n dard railway eq uipme n t T h e car s may e asily b e ar r a n ge d

.

fo r multipl e u n it c o n t r o l ; an d in s o m e cas e s are s o Op e r at e d

-
.

C o m par i s o n o f S e lf Pr o pe l l e d C ar s
-
It is e vid e n t that t h e
.
-

var i o us typ e s o f s e lf pr o p e ll e d cars ha v e di ffe r e n t e lds o f s e rvic e

-
.

An y o f t he gas o li n e d r i v e n cars ar e capabl e o f o p e r ati o n o v e r an y

-

l e n gth o f li n e an d ar e limit e d o n ly by t he r e qu ir e m e n ts o f o h
,

tai n i n g fu e l an d havi n g sufci e n t tim e at t e rmi n als fo r i n sp e cti o n

a n d r e pair . S t o r ag e batt e ry ca r s o n t he o th e r han d ar e re
, ,

s t r ic t e d in acti o n by t he am o u n t o f charg e a n d must r un o n ly ,

b e tw e e n p o i n ts wh e r e e l e ct r ic curr e n t is a v ailabl e Th e r e must .

b e a c e rtai n tim e o f i n acti o n duri n g chargi n g wh e th e r it is fo r ,

a si n gl e l o n g p e ri o d pe r day o r at t he e n d o f e ach t r ip
, .

T he gas o li n e driv e m ay b e suit e d t o t he we ight haul e d s o that ,

th e r e is n o limitati o n t o t he siz e o f c ar which c an b e e quipp e d with

this typ e o f m o ti ve p o we r while t he st o rag e batt e ry i n cr e as e s in
,

bulk quit e rapidly w ith t he w e ight T his c o n diti o n is i n h e r e n t

.
,

a n d ca n n o t b e o ve rl o o k e d in an y c o mparis on .

It app e ars that t he gas o l i n e driv e is b e st suit e d t o u n it s o f

c o mparativ e ly larg e w e ight which must r un o v e r c o n sid e rabl e
,

dista n c e s an d at fairly high sp e e ds T he ch o ic e b e tw e e n t he

, .

m e cha n ical an d t he e l e ctric driv e s d e p e n ds o n t he n e e d fo r sm o o th

acc e l e r ati o n an d e f ci e n t o p e rati o n o ve r a wid e ra n g e o f sp e e ds
, .

T he ru n n i n g e xp e n s e s ar e n e arly t he sam e fo r b o th typ e s ; but

t he rst c o st o f t he gas e l e ctric cars is s o m e what high e r o wi n g
-
,

t o t he gr e at e r am o u n t o f e quipm e n t T h e y ar e als o slightly

.

h e avi e r fo r t he sam e capacity T he wid e use o f gas e l e ctric cars

.
-

at t he pr e s e n t time w o uld i n dicat e that t he sm o o th e r O p e rati o n is

o f sufci e n t v alu e t o warra n t t he e xtra c o st a n d w e ight S t o rag e .

batt e ry car s ar e b e tt e r fo r l o cal s e rvic e wh e r e trafc is spa r s e ,

o r wh e r e c o n diti o n s are such as t o pr o hibit t he us e o f o v e rh e ad

tr o ll e ys
.

It is n o t t o be e xp e ct e d that t he us e o f in d e p e n d e n t u n its
will e v e r sup e rs e d e t he o rdi n ary e l e ctric railway with a c e n tral
p o w e r pla n t fo r g e n e r al s e rvic e fo r a limit t o t he e ld o f t he s e lf
,
 60 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

pr o p e ll e d car is r e ach e d with a c o mparativ e ly l o w tra fc d e n sity .

T his c an b e d e t e rmi n e d by calculati n g t h e x e d cha r g e s an d r un

n i n g e xp e n s e s o f t he t w o m e th o ds O n c o mparis o n it will b e
.

s e e n that t he O p e rati n g c o st o f an y f o rm o f s e lf pr o p e ll e d car is

-

high e r tha n that fo r sta n dard e l e ct r ic e quipm e n t ; a n d t he rs t

c o st is als o gr e at e r As t he n umb e r o f ca r s in us e i n c r e as e s t h e
.
,

x e d charg e s o n t he p o w e r pla n t an d distributi o n syst e m b e c o m e

pr o p o rti o n ally l e ss ; an d wh e n t he t o tal c o st b e c o m e s e qual in t he
t w o cas e s t he adva n tag e o f t he i n d e p e n d e n t u n its disapp e a r s
, .

A ctual c o mpar is o n s sh o w t he e ld o f this class o f v e hicl e t o b e

limit e d t o that stat e d at t he b e gi n n i n g o f t he chapt e r F o r th e s e .

sp e cial f o rms o f s e rvic e t he s e lf pr o p e ll e d car fur n ish es a valuabl e

-

auxiliary t o a larg e railway syst e m an d may i n cr e as e t h e e a r n i n gs

,

o r d e cr e as e t h e e xp e n s e by a c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t .

G as o l in e a n d S pe c i a l Lo c o m o t iv e s T h e argum e n ts in fav o r
.

o f s e lf pr o p e ll e d cars d o n o t apply with e qual f o r c e t o l o c o m o tiv e s

-
,

si n c e t he st e am l o c o m o tiv e is quit e satisfact o ry fo r n e ar ly all

class e s o f s e rvic e T he succ e ss o f t he i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n m o t o r
.

has l e d e n gi n e e rs t o b e li e v e that th e r e is a e ld fo r e n gi n e s o f this

class an d s e v e ral d e sig n s hav e b e e n mad e At pr e s e n t a fe w
,
.

l o c o m o ti v e s with i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n m o t o rs ar e in s e rvi c e .

A r o ad havi n g a small am o u n t o f fr e ight b u s in e s s a n d O p e r at e d

e ith e r by t h e e l e ctric syst e m o r by s e lf pr o p e ll e d cars may hav e

-
,

n e e d o f such a u n it .

T he m e cha n ical a n d t h e e l e ctric dri v e hav e b o th b e e n appli e d

t o i n t e r n al c o mbusti o n l o c o m o tiv e s O n e typ e o f t he latt e r in
.
,

c o n j u n cti o n with t he D i e s e l crud e o il e n gi n e has b e e n us e d in

,

E ur o p e fo r s o m e tim e .

In c o n n e cti o n with t he e l e ctricati o n o f t he rail r o ads e n t e ri n g

C hicag o a pr o p o siti o n was mad e s e v e ral y e ars a go t o u s e st o r ag e
,

batt e ry l o c o m o tiv e s Whil e th e r e is n o qu e sti o n but that such

.

e quipm e n t is a p o ssibility it is e xtr e m e ly d o ubtful w he th e r it

,

c o uld sh o w sufci e n t e c o n o my in o p e rati o n t o j ustify its e lf U n .

d o ubt e dly t he t o tal ru n n i n g c o st w o uld b e much gr e at e r tha n

fo r an y sta n dard f o rm o f e l e ctric syst e m w o rki n g o n a distributi n g
circuit fr o m a c e n tral p o w e r plan t .
 C H AP T E R X I

ELE C TR I C R AILW AY TRAC K

Trac k C o n s t ru c ti on . Alth o u g h t he
r e qui r e m e n ts o f all rail
w ay t r ack are e ss e n tially t he sam e th e r e a r e t w o disti n ct typ e s
,

o f c on st r ucti o n us e d d e p e n di n g o n wh e th e r t he r a il r o ad is laid
,

t o fway o r in pav e d st r e e ts
- A la r g e p o rti o n o f .

ro ads ar e built o n p r ivat e p r o p e r ty ; a n d in all

o r di n ary c o n st r u c ti o n ad o pt e d by st e am r o ads

adva n tage T he rails ar e o f sta n da r d T S e cti o n

.
-
,

ch o s e n with r e gard t o t he am o u n t o f trafc an d

In t r ack Co n st r u c ti o n t he primary c o n sid e rati o n is g o o d

d r ai n a g e T h e r e s h o uld b e a w e lls e ttl e d f o u n d ati o n o f t he
.

n atu r al s o il ab o v e which is plac e d a lay e r o f br o ke n st o n e o r

,

FI G . 1 4 2 S t an d a r d
. in t e ru rb an t ra c k i
c o n s t ru c t o n .

gr av e l ballast fr o m 8 t o 1 2 in in thick n e ss O n this ar e plac e d

, . .

t h e c r o ss ti e s an d t h e spac e b e tw e e n th e m ll e d with t h e ballast

, ,

which sh o uld b e w e ll tamp e d b e n e ath t he ti e s t o s e cur e th e m

r mly in plac e W ith this c o n structi o n t he p o r o us st o n e ballast
.
,

will all o w su r fac e wat e r t o drai n o ff r e adily an d s o k e e p t he ,

f o u n d a ti o n d ry It is n e c e ssa r y t o pr o vid e ditch e s al o n g t he

.

sid e o f t h e r o adb e d at a l e v e l b e l o w t h e b o tt o m o f t he ballast

, ,

in o r d e r t o d r ai n o ff t h e wat e r whi c h has c o ll e ct e d o n t h e t r ack .

I n this way t h e e n ti r e st r uctu r e will b e m o r e p e rma n e n t an d

w ill r e qui r e l e ss mai n t e n a n c e tha n wh e r e t h e r o adb e d has b e e n
p o o r ly built A typi c al fo r m o f railway r o adb e d is sh o w n in
.

F ig 1 4 2
. .

The ti e s in us e ar e g e n e r ally o f ha r d w o o d such as c e dar

, ,

o ak o r c h e st n ut . At t h e p r e s e n t tim e it is s o m e what difcult

2 61
2 62 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

to s e cur e a g o o d grad e o f such mat e rials ; an d t he practic e o f

usi n g s o ft w o o d ti e s such as pi n e an d h e ml o ck but impr e gn at e d
, ,

with s o m e pr e s e rvativ e c o mp o u n d has S p r e ad rapidly T he , .

ch e micals in g e n e r al us e ar e cr e o s o t e an d zi n c chl o rid e T h e s e .

a r e appli e d in liquid f o rm t he ti e s b e i n g t r e at e d e ith e r in t he

,

o p e n air o r in vacuum ta n ks Whil e t he latt e r pro c e ss is m o re

e xp e n siv e it gi v e s a m o r e u n if o rm applicati o n o f t h e pr e s e rvativ e

, ,

an d caus e s it t o si n k much d e e p e r i n t o t h e b e r o f t h e w o o d .

T r e at e d ti e s ar e c o n sid e rably m o r e e xp e n siv e tha n u n tr e at e d

one s ; but t he s o ft w o o d ,0

wh e n pr o p e rly imp r e g n at e d ,

has at l e ast as g o o d life as

t he n atural hard w o o d an d ,

t he c o st is n o gr e at e r Wh e n .

hard w o o d is tr e at e d in t he
same ma n n e r its life may ,

als o b e pr o p o rti o n ally pr o

l o n g e d at a c o mparati v e ly l o w
c o st I n d e e d it has b e e n .
,

p o ssibl e t o pr e v e n t d e cay t o
such an e xt e n t that t he l ife
o f t he t ie is d e t e rmin e d by

m e cha n ical w e ar fr o m t he
cha n g o f t he rails an d t he ,

F I G 1 4 3 S t an dard 1 00 l b Tr ai l
. .
d e st r ucti o n O f t he b e rs by
-
. .

T h i i t h t d d T il d p t d b y t h
s s e s an ar -
ra a o e e
A i
m er c an El t R il w y A
ec ri C ti a O t h dri v i n g S pike S
a ss o c i a on. er
l
.

q t
S i z es a r e h p
O

ui e S i m i ar i n s a e
In t he 0 1de r track c o n struc
.

ti o n t he rails ar e laid dir e ctly o n t he ti e s an d ar e f ast e n e d in ,

plac e by c o mm o n spik e s T he m e cha n ical w e ar o n t he ti e s in .

such c o n structi o n is s e v e r e an d e v e n u n tr e at e d o n e s may be ,

r e n d e r e d u n t fo r furth e r s e r v ic e b e fo r e th e y hav e d e cay e d .

W ith t he use o f p r e s e r v ativ e s an d t he c o n s e qu e n t i n cr e as e in ,

lif e ma n y r o ads ha v e ad o pt e d t he practic e o f placi n g t ie plat e s

,

u n d e r t he rails t o tak e t he w e ar An o th e r adva n c e is in t he .

u s e o f scr e w spik e s i n st e ad o f t h e c o mm o n drivi n g spik e s T his .

furth e r i n cr e as e s t he life o f t he ti e s .

Tr ac k R ail s
Th e rails in us e are o f t he sta n dard s e cti o n s
.

ad o pt e d by t he Am e r ica n S o ci e ty o f C ivil En gi n e e r s t he Ame rica n ,

R ailway Ass o ciati o n o r t he Am e rica n El e ctric R ailway En gi n ee r

,

in g A ss o ciati o n A s e cti o n o f t he sta n dard 1 00 l b rail ad o pt e d

.
-
.

by t he latt e r is sh o w n in Fig 1 43 The w e ights us e d v ary . .

 EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TR A C K 2 63

fr o m ab o ut 60 lb pe r yd t o 1 00 l b t he maj o rity o f rails b e i n g

. . .
,

fr o m 70 t o 80 lb fo r i n t e rurban c o n structi o n
. .

T he ch e m ical c o mp o siti o n o f rails has a mark e d e ff e ct o n th e ir

physical pr o p e r ti e s an d o n t he r e sults which may b e o btai n e d
,

fr o m th e m in s e r vic e Wh e r e t h e r o adb e d c o n structi o n p o ss e sse s

.

sufci e n t e xibility t he c o mp o siti o n may b e such that t he m e tal

,

is t o ugh but fairly s o ft F o r us e in pav e d str e e ts wh e r e t h e sub

, .
,

bas e o i t he t r ack is rigid as wh e n laid with c o n cr e t e a hard e r , ,

rail p o ss e s s i n g gr e at e r r e sista n c e t o w e ar is d e si r abl e T he

, ,
.

hard n e ss d e p e n ds t o a large d e gr e e o n t h e c o n t e n t o f carb o n ,

alth o ugh a n umb e r o f diff e r e n t e l e me n ts such as ma n gan e s e , ,

tita n ium n ick e l chr o mium silic o n e t c may b e add e d t o vary

, , , , .
,

t he pr o p e rti e s o f t he st e e l In g e n e ral si n c e t he wh e e l l o ads

.
,

o n e l e ct r ic railr o ads ar e much l e ss tha n fo r st e am tru n k li n e s t he ,

c o mp o siti o n may be s e l e ct e d t o giv e g r e at e r hard n e ss e v e n ,

th o ugh t he m e tal may b e m o r e brittl e T he r e c o mm e n dati on s .

o f t h e A m e rica n El e ctric R ailway En gi n e e ri n g Ass o ciati o n fo r

rail m e tal are as fo ll o ws 1

Per c en t .

El e m en t s

C l as s A C l as s B

R ail o in s T he f v i
J t c o n.n e cti o n b e tw e e n rails is o ital m

p o rta n c e R ail j o i n ts are e ith e r susp end e d o r supp o rt e d de

.
,

p e n di n g o n wh e th e r t he j o i n t is plac e d b e tw e e n t w o adj ac e n t
ti e s o r o n t o p o f o n e t ie T he f o rms in c o mm o n us e are n um e r
.

o us ,an d b o th m e th o ds o f supp o rt ar e us e d The c o n n e cti o n .

b e tw e e n rails is mad e by m e a n s o f t w o plat e s kn o w n s e ve rally ,

as j o i n t plat e s splic e bars ,
a n gl e s or sh plat e s ,
.

T h e s e ar e o f sp e cial r o ll e d s e cti o n s an d ar e plac e d o n e o n e ith e r

'

sid e o f t he rail e n ds b e i n g b o l t e d t o e ach rail T he simpl e r

,
.

fo rms such as sh o w n at (a) in Fig 1 44 c o n sist o f a pair o f plat e s

, .
,

which ar e d r aw n in agai n st t he bas e an d h e ad o f t he rail by

b o lts T his f o r m o f j o i n t may b e e ith e r susp e n d e d o r sup
.

1
E n gin e er in g M an ua l Am ,
i
e r c an El e c t ri c R ail w a y En gin e e rin g Ass o c ia
t io n , Se c t io n Wr 2c .
 64 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

p o r t e d T he c o n ti n u o us rail j o i n t is sh o w n in Fig 1 44 ( b)
.
. .

I n this t he plat e is c o n ti n u e d d o w n b e n e ath t he bas e o f t h e rail

,

f o rmi n g a chair A n umb e r o f j o i n ts o f this g e n e ral d e sig n ar e

.

in us e b o th o n st e am a n d o n e l e ct r ic r o ads .

Tr a c k C o n s tr u c ti o n o n P ave d S tr e e t s In citi e s wh e r e t h e .
-
,

st r e e ts are pa v e d it is n e c e ssary t o build t he track in such a

,

ma n n e r as t o i n t e rfe r e as littl e as p o ssibl e with t he surfac e o f

h e ad o f t he rails . Sin c e it is n e c e ssary t o all o w spac e fo r t he

wh e e l a n g e s o n t he i n sid e of t he track sp e cial pavi n g bl o cks
,

FI G . 1 44 Typ e s
. Of ra i l j o in t s .

( ) C om
a m on s h- p la t e j o in t .
( b) C o n t in u o u s r ai lj o in t .

ar e s o m e tim e s us e d t o gi v e t he n e c e ssary gr o o v e W hil e this is .

satisfact o ry wh e r e t he trav e l is n o t ve r y h e a vy it is n o t s o g o o d ,

o n str e e ts which ar e much us e d fo r h e a vy t e ami n g T he h e ight .

o f t h e o rdi n ary T r ails is n o t sufci e n t t o us e sta n dard pav in g

-

bl o c ks with a cushi o n o f sa n d d e e p e n o ugh t o gi v e g o o d w e ar .

T his d e f e ct may b e r e m e di e d t o s o m e e xt e n t by usi n g sp e cial

rails with a high w e b an d ha vi n g t he h e ad an d bas e t he sam e as
,

t he sta n dard T s e cti o n

-
In ma n y o f t he larg e citi e s p r o visi o n
.

is mad e that t he str e e t railway tracks must b e a v ailabl e fo r wag o n

t r a i c ; in s o m e it is pr o v id e d by law that a rail o f a tram s e c
ti o n , such as that sh o w n in Fig 1 4 5 must b e us e d In o th e rs
.
,
.
,

wh e r e such r e gulati o n s are n o t in e ffe ct t he rail r o ads ha ve s o m e

,

tim e s laid rails with a gr o o v e d h e ad as in Fig 1 4 6 T his pr o ,

. .
?

vi d e s n o path fo r v e hicl e s which is a g o o d thi n g fr o m t he

,

sta n dp o i n t o f t he railway W h e n t he tram s e cti o n o f rail

.

is us e d it m ak e s an e xc e ll e n t r o adway fo r v e hicl e s t he wh e e l
, ,

tr e ads ru n n i n g o n t he pr o j e cti n g lips o f t he rails Th e .

difculty in its us e is that if t he lip is b e l o w t h e rail h e ad a

 EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y TR A C K 2 65

k 5

FI G . 1 4 5 T ram s e c t io n FI G . 1 46 .
G r o o ve d s e c t io n

g ir d e r r ail rai l
.

.
g ird e r .

s e c t io n s ha v b ee
e n us e d to a c o n s id e r a bl x t t
e e en l y
fo r s t r eet r a i w a t r a c k , bu t
l
a m ost e nt ir e ly su p ers e d e d by l
r ai s o f t he g l t yp
e n era e s ho w n i n Fi g . 147 .

I 6
. .

FI G . 1 4 7 9-in
. . Gi r d e r ra il an d j o in t pl at e s .

U s e d in c it y c o n s t r u c t io n o n p v e d s t r e et s
a .
266 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

su f ci e n t dista n c e t o all o w t he us e o f a sta n dard wh ee l a n g e it ,

is hard t o ge t v e hicl e s o ut o f t he path o f car s thus d e lay i n g ,

trafc A c o mpr o mis e has b e e n e ffe ct e d by t he use o f t he gr o o v e d

.

rail in such a f o rm that t he lip is far e n o ugh b e l o w t he h e ad t o

pr o vid e a ru n way fo r v e hicl e s an d at t h e sam e tim e m ak e it
,

e asy fo r th e m t o l e a v e t he tracks Th e d e sig n fo r a 9 in gird e r

.
-
.

rail with j o i n t plat e s as sta n dardiz e d by t he A m e rica n El e ct ri c

,

R ailway En gi n e e ri n g A ss o ciati o n is sh o w n in Fig 1 4 7 ,

T his . .

o r similar d e sig n s ha v e b e e n ad o pt e d in ma n y o f t he lar g e citi e s

o f t he c o u n t r y a n d ha v e pr o v e d satisfact o ry
,
.

S pe c i al Fo rm s of R ail Jo in t s Whil e t he v ari o us f o rms o f

m e cha n ical j o i n ts m ad e by splic e bars an d j o i n t plat e s ar e
e n tir e ly satisfact o ry in o p e n c o n structi o n th e y must b e ca r e ,

fully mai n tai n e d an d tight e n e d as t he b o lts w e ar l o o s e T his .

r e qui r e s c o n sta n t i n sp e cti o n It is e vid e n t that wh e r e t h e t r ack

.

is laid in city str e e ts an d c o mpl e t e ly surr o u n d e d with pavi n g

, ,

such car e is imp o ssibl e It is e ss e n tial that t he j o i n ts r e mai n

.

in g o o d c o n diti o n with n o i n sp e cti o n what e v e r an d that t he ,

r e pai r s b e v e ry fe w si n c e e ach tim e o n e is mad e it m e a n s t o t e ar

,

up an d r e plac e t h e pavi n g ar o u n d t he j o i n t .

A m e th o d which has b e e n us e d in man y citi e s is t o w e ld t he

rail e n ds t o g e th e r thus f o r m i n g a c o n ti n u o us structur e T his
, .

arra n g e m e n t ca n n o t b e us e d in o p e n track si n c e t he e xpa n si o n ,

a n d c o n tracti o n will t e ar t he track l o o s e fr o m t h e ballast with

e v e ry cha n g e in t e mp e ratur e ; but in city str e e ts it c an b e e m

pl o y e d t o adva n tag e si n c e t he rails c an b e a n ch o r e d rmly by

,

t h e pa v i n g s o that t he t e mp e ratur e cha n g e s c an o n ly plac e t he

,

rails in t e n si o n o r c o mpr e ssi o n As t he rails ar e usually laid.

in t h e h o tt e st days o f summ e r t he track will b e in t e n si o n fo r

,

n e arly t he e n tir e y e ar , an d th e r e will be practically n o t e n d

e n cy t o buckl e .It is e v id e n t that this c o n structi o n ca n n o t b e

us e d t o adva n tag e o n curv e s .

C a s t W e l d e d Jo in t s T h e r e ar e thr e e m e th o ds o f track w e ld
in g which are in g e n e r al us e T he o ld e st is t he cast w e ld
. I n this .

c o n structi o n sh o w n in Fig 1 4 8 t he rail e n ds ar e j o i n e d by a mass

,
.
,

o f cast ir o n su r r o u n di n g th e m T h e ir o n is m e lt e d at a high
.

t e mp e ratur e an d p o ur e d i n t o ir o n m o ulds ar o u n d t he rail e n ds .

T his chills t h e o utsid e surfac e o f t he cast m e tal s o that t he in ,

t e r io r has its t e mp e ratur e rais e d t o a w e ldi n g h e at an d an actual ,

w e ld is mad e with t he st e e l o f t he rails T his f o rm o f j o i n t is .

quit e satisfact o ry t h e pri n cipal o bj e cti o n b e i n g that e xtr e m e c o ld

,
 EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TR A C K 67

w e ath e r may strai n t he cast m e tal b e y o n d its t e n sil e limit an d

crack t he w e ld Fr o m o n e t o t w o pe r c e n t fail in this ma n n e r
. . .

Th e rm it W e l d An o th e r m e th o d o f rail w e ldi n g is by t he us e o f
.

Th e rmit T his is a pat e n t e d mixtur e c o n sisti n g o f m e tallic

.

alumi n um an d i r o n o xid e in pr o p e r pr o p o rti o n s with o th e r ,

mat e r ials add e d t o o btai n a m e tal o f t h e r e quir e d c o mp o siti o n .

T his is suppli e d in t he f o rm o f a p o wd e r which wh e n ig n it e d , , ,

u n d e rg o e s a ch e mical r e acti o n t he alumi n um c o mbi n i n g with t h e

,

o xyg e n t o p r o duc e alumi n a an d m e tallic ir o n at a high t e mp e ra

tu r e T he p o wd e r is plac e d in crucibl e s dir e ctly ab o v e t h e rail

.

j o i n ts which ha v e b e e n pr e vi o usly h e at e d by s o m e e xt e r n al m e an s
, .

The mixtur e is ig n it e d an d wh e n t he r e acti o n is c o mpl e t e t he

,

m o lt e n ir o n is tapp e d i n t o m o ulds ar o u n d t he rail e n ds T he w e ld .

FI G . 1 48 C as t w e d
. l . FI G . 1 49 Th e r m i t w e l d .

p r o duc e d is n o t u n lik e t he cast w e ld ; but t he m e tal is o f a diff e r e n t

c haract e r b e i n g o f t he c o m po siti o n o f wr o ught ir o n or st e e l
, ,

d e p e n di n g o n t he i n gr e di e n ts o f t h e mixtur e e mpl o y e d T he .

t e mp e ratur e o f t he m o lt e n m e tal is much high e r s o that a m o r e ,

p e rfe ct w e ld is o btai n e d an d t he am o u n t o f ir o n r e quir e d is

,

c o n sid e rably l e ss than fo r t he o rdi n ary cast w e ld T he app e ar .

a n c e o f a th e rmit w e ld is sh o wn in Fig 1 4 9 . .

El e c t ric W e l din g T he third w ay o f w e ldi n g is with t he aid o f

t he e l e ctric c urr e n t T h e r e are t w o disti n ct m e th o ds which may
.

b e us e d . In t he rst which has t he wid e st applicati o n j o i n t

, ,

plat e s are w e l de d t o t he sid e s o f t he rail e n ds by t h e i n ca n d e sc e n t

'

o r r e sista n c e pr o c e ss T his c o n sists in taki n g curr e n t fr o m t h e

.

c o n tact li n e c o n v e rti n g it t o alt e r n ati n g curr e n t by a r o tary

,

c o v e rt e r o r m o t o r g e n e rat o r s e t an d cha n gi n g t o a l o w p o t e n tial

n
,

thr o ugh a stati o n a r y tra n sfo rm e r wh o s e s e c o n dary wi n di n g c o n

,

sists o f a si n gl e tur n o f h e a vy bar an d t e rmi n at e s in j aws which

ar e plac e d agai n st t h e parts t o b e w e ld e d The diagram o f c o n .
2 68 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

is sh o w n in Fig 1 50 T he r e sista n c e in t he s e c o n dar y

n e c t io n s . .

circuit is practically all c o n c e n trat e d at t he j u n cti o n b e tw e e n t he

rail an d t he j o i n t plat e ; s o that a c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t o f h e at
is g e n e rat e d th e r e an d t he t e mp e ratu r e is rais e d t o t he w e ldi n g
,

p o i n t B y applyi n g a suitabl e p r e ssur e t o t he j aws an ac t ual

.
,

u n i o n o f t he m e tals is o btai n e d T he e n tir e rail s e cti o n is n o t .

w e ld e d ; but t w o o r thr e e plac e s o n t he e n d o f e ach rail sufc e

t o mak e a m o r e p e rma n e n t c o n n e cti o n tha n is p o ssibl e
o f t h e usual f o rms o f m e ch a n ical j o i n ts .

FI G . 1 50 Di ag ra m of con nect ons i fo r l

e ect r c i w eld in g o ut t .

F r l
w e d in g rai l j o in t s A s im l
i ar s et e xc ept of s m a ll er ca p a c it y is us e d fo r l
w e d in g
b g
.
, ,

on s .

W ithi n t he last fe w y e ars a n o th e r syst e m o f w e ldi n g has b e e n

d e v e l o p e d usi n g t h e arc m e th o d In this t he rail is mad e o n e
,
.

t e rmi n al o f t he e l e ctric circuit an d a r o d o f ca r b o n t he o th e r ,

.

T h e h e at g e n e rat e d wh e n an arc is struck b e tw e e n t h e c arb o n

e l e ctr o d e an d t h e rail is sufci e n t t o rais e t h e m e tal t o a w e ldi n g .

t e mp e ratur e an d e v e n t o m e lt it B y this m e a n s plat e s may b e

,
.

w e ld e d t o t he rails thus fo rmi n g p e rma n e n t j o i n ts

,
.

O f t he f o ur m e th o ds o f w e ldi n g t he T h e r mit pr o c e ss r e ,

quir e s t he l e ast e xp e n siv e apparatus an d fo r that r e as o n is ap ,

plicabl e t o r o ads which c o uld n o t a ffo rd t h e m o r e c o stly e quip

m e n t T he arc t he cast an d t he r e sista n c e w e lds r e quir e m o r e
.
, ,

e xp e n si v e apparatus in t h e o rd e r n am e d T he actual c o st o f .
 EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y TRA C K 9

ea ch j o i n t d e p e n ds larg e ly o n t he n umb e r t o b e mad e T he e quip .

m e n t fo r e l e ctric r e sista n c e w e ldi n g is s o e xp e n siv e that it is

o r di n arily n o t purchas e d o ut r ight by t he railway c o mpa n y ,

but is r e n t e d fr o m rms maki n g a sp e cialty o f t he busi n e ss T he .

c o st o f maki n g j o i n ts v a r i e s fr o m ab o ut fo r e as t w e lds t o
fo r T h e r m i t a n d for e l e ctric w e lds by t h e r e sista n c e
p r o c e ss .

S pe c i al W o rk
In an y railr o ad it is n o t su fci e n t t o p r o vid e
.
,

a si n gl e t r ack al o n e but switch e s tur n o uts an d c r o ssi n gs must b e

, ,

us e d th e ir n umb e r an d c o mpl e xity va r yi n g with t h e n atu r e o f

,

t he t r ack S uch pi e c e s ar e alm o st i n var iably built by ma n u

.

fac t ur e r s w h o mak e a sp e cialty o f this busi n e ss an d ar e i n stall e d ,

by t he r ailr o ads as c o mpl e t e u n its Fo r i n t e r urba n r o ads t h e

.
,

n umb e r o f di ff e r e n t pa r ts is r e lativ e ly fe w an d th e y may b e k e pt

,

in st o ck by t h e us e r B ut fo r railways wh o s e t r acks are built in

.

city st r e e ts it is e ss e n tial that t he c o n structi o n be such that t h e

,

parts c an b e i n stall e d with a mi n imum o f di fculty an d that th e y ,

will g iv e a maximum life si n c e t h e r e plac e m e n t is a difcult pi e c e

,

o f w o r k r e q ui r i n g that t h e t r afc b e st o pp e d a n d t h e pavi n g r e

,

m o v e d T o mak e t h e i n stallati o n as simpl e as p o ssibl e t he e n ti r e

.
,

trac k lay o ut fo r a switch o r c r o s s in g is built c o mpl e t e by t he ma n u

fact ur e r a n d ass e mbl e d in his yards pri o r t o shipm e n t
, Wh e n .

it is d e si r e d t o r e plac e o n e pi e c e o f sp e cial w o rk by a n o th e r t he ,

parts ar e s e t up in t he st r e e t n e ar t he n al l o cati o n whil e t h e

,
,

pavi n g is r e m o v e d fr o m ar o u n d t he o l d t r ack At a p e r i o d o f .

light t r afc usually at n i ght t h e o l d t r ack is r e m o ve d an d t he n e w

, ,

slid i n t o p o siti o n it havi n g b e e n tt e d pr e vi o usly by m e asur e m e n t

,

s o that a mi n imum o f adj u s tm e n t is n e c e ssary .

T he fr o gs switch p o i n ts an d mat e s ar e t he parts which r e c e iv e

,

t he gr e at e st w e a r In r e c e n t y e a r s it has b e e n f o u n d p o ssibl e t o
.

i n cr e as e t h e lif e o f t he sp e cial w o rk by maki n g th e s e w e a r i n g

parts o f sp e cial mat e rials ma n ga n e s e st e e l b e i n g us e d v e r y la r g e ly

,

fo r t he pu r p o s e T h e har d i n s e rts may b e cast p e rma n e n tly in

.

p o siti o n o r may b e mad e in such f o rm that th e y ar e b o lt e d an d

,

w e dg e d in s o that th e y may b e r e m o v e d an d r e plac e d T h e r e is

,
.

always s o m e da n g e r o f th e s e parts b e c o mi n g l o o s e u n d e r t h e r e
pe at e d hamm e r i n g o f t h e wh e e ls ; a n d at t h e p r e s e n t tim e this is
o n e o f t h e difcult p r o bl e ms o f t r ack mai n t e n a n c e It is b e y o n d .

t he s c o p e o f this b o o k t o tak e up t h e d e tails o f sp e cial w o r k

d e si g n ; but much i n f o r mati o n o n t he subj e ct may b e f o u n d in t he
curr e n t e n gi n e e r i n g p e ri o dicals .
 C H A PT E R X I I

T H E D I S TR I B UT I N G C IR C U IT

Th e El e c tri c R ail w ay pr o bl e m o f distributi n g

C ir c ui t
T he
e l e ctrical e n e r gy fo r railway s e rvic e by m e a n s o f a c o n sta n t p o t e n

tial syst e m is th e o r e tically t he sam e as fo r lighti n g an d p o w e r ,

but it di ffe rs th e r e fr o m d ue t o t he cha n gi n g l o cati o n o f t he l o ad .

It is this charact e ristic which di ffe r e n tiat e s railway distributi o n

m o st radically fr o m o th e r c o n sta n t p o t e n tial circuits .

N o matt e r wh e th e r t he g e n e rati n g syst e m is c o n n e ct e d d ir e ct l y

t o t he distributi n g ci r cuit o r thr o ugh a t r a n smissi o n syst e m a n d
,

substati o n s t he e l e c trical r e lati o n s in t he c o n tact li n e an d t he

,

Dist a nce f rom St at ion

FI G . 151 .
S im pl e d is t rib ut io n c i rc uit .

The g e ne rat o r is at o ne end of t he li f d i g d i t l y i t t h t ll y

ne, ee n re c n o e ro e w ir e T h e d ia
g gh t p l po k
.

ram at t he ri s ho w s t he o t ent i a at a n y int w hen t h e c ar is at t h e f ar e n d o f t h e t ra c .

auxiliary c o n duct o rs ar e e ss e n tially t he sam e In t he f o ll o w in g .

disc ussi o n it is u n d e rst o o d that t he t e rms substati o n an d

p o w e r stati o n may be c o n sid e r e d sy n o n ym o us s o far as t he dis
tributi n g circuit is c o n c e r n e d t h e di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m r e lat
,

in g t o o th e r parts o f t he c o mpl e t e p o w e r syst e m which w ill b e

disc uss e d e ls e wh e r e .

T he g e n e ral c o n sid e rati o n s o f t he c o n sta n t p o t e n tial circuit

n e c e ssitat e at l e ast t w o c o n duct o rs b e tw e e n which t he l o ad may

be c o n n e ct e d S i n c e t he p o i n t o f applicati o n o f t he l o ad is c o n
.

s t a n t l y cha n gi n g it is e ss e n tial that th e s e c o n d uct o rs be bar e t o

,

all o w t h e m o vi n g c o n tacts fr e e acc e ss t o t he surfac e In a ve ry .

larg e pr o p o rti on o f all e l e ctric railways t he track rails are utiliz e d

fo r o n e sid e o f t he circuit c o n tact b e i n g mad e thr o ugh t he wh e e ls
, ,

whil e a wir e o r rail is u s e d fo r t he o th e r c o n duct o r T his arra n ge .

2 70
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I NG C I R C U I T 2 71

m e n t caus e s such wid e di ffe r e n c e s in t he t w o sid e s o f t he circuit

that it is ge n e rally simpl e r t o c o n sid e r th e m s e parat e l y .

T he simpl e st railway distributi o n c o n sists o f that fo r a si n gl e

t r ack r o ad fe d fr o m o n e e n d as sh o w n in Fig 1 5 1 If w e c o n sid e r
,
. .

this li n e Op e rati n g a si n gl e car it will b e s e e n that at t he substati o n

,

t he full p o t e n tial o f t he g e n e rati n g machi n e is dir e ctly availabl e ,

si n c e t he dr o p in t he wiri n g is p r actically n e gligibl e As t h e car .

g o e s farth e r fr o m t he stati o n t he dr o p in p o t e n tial i n cr e as e s

, ,

b e i n g gr e at e st at t he dista n t e n d o f t he li n e If a c o n s ta n t p o t e n .

[000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 3000

Dist anc e f rom S t a+ion, Fc c+

l 52 . Li n e
d ro p fo r s m i pl e d is t rib u t in g i
c rc u it su pplyin g se ve r a l c a rs .

T h e c ir c uit is t h e s a m e as t h at s ho w n in F ig 1 5 1 , b u t a n um b er o f c ars ar e b e in g pe
o r at e d ,
f
.

in s t e a d o f o n e a s in t h e o r m e r c as e .

tial is d e liv e r e d t he dr o p will i n cr e as e dir e ctly with t he dista n c e

,

fro m t he stati o n its v alu e b e i n g d e t e rmi n e d by t he cu r r e n t a n d t he

,

r e sista n c e o f t h e c o n duct o r A p o t e n tial diag r am is sh o w n in t h e

.

gu r e If t he stati o n p o t e n tial is 60 0 v o lts an d t he car is at t he

.

e n d o f t he li n e drawi n g such curr e n t as t o gi v e a li n e dr o p o f 1 1 0

,

v o lt s t h e av e rag e pr e ssur e suppli e d t o t he car is e vid e n tly 4 90

,

v o lts if t he curr e n t d e ma n d is u n if o rm Alth o ugh t he curr e n t .

will vary withi n wid e limits its av e rag e valu e will f o ll o w this law
,
.

T he limiti n g c o n diti o n will th e n b e t o d e t e r mi n e t h e g r e at e st

2 72 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

p e r missibl e d r o p with t he maximum cu r r e n t ; fr o m which by ,

O hm s law t he siz e o f t he c o n duct o r r e qui r e d may b e f o u n d

.
,

T eh si n gl e car li n e is s e ld o m m e t with in p r actic e

U sually .
,

a n umb e r o f ca r s will b e O p e r at e d o n t he r o ad ; an d if th e y ar e all

d e ma n di n g c urr e n t in e qual am o u n ts t he dist r ibuti o n o f t he ,

p o t e n tial d r o p will b e quit e diff e r e n t fr o m that in t h e e xampl e j ust

giv e n C o n sid e r t e n cars e qually spac e d al o n g a li n e ft

. .

l o n g If e ach is d e ma n di n g a curr e n t o f 1 00 amp t he t o tal t o b e

. .

d e liv e r e d o r 1 000 amp will b e car r i e d fr o m t he stati o n t o t he

,
.
,

rst car 9 00 amp fr o m that p o i n t t o t he s e c o n d car an d s o o n

,
.
, ,

u n til at that p o r ti o n o f t he li n e b e y o n d t h e n i n th car t he cur r e n t

is but 1 00 amp If t he t o tal r e sista n c e o f t h e li n e is
. ohm ,

t h e dr o p in p o t e n tial will b e as sh o w n in F ig 1 5 2 b e i n g gr e at e st .
,

n e ar t he stati o n a n d l e ast at t h e e n d o f t h e li n e .

Had t he e n ti r e l o a d b e e n plac e d at t h e e n d o f t h e li n e t h e ,

t o tal dr o p w o uld hav e b e e n

X 1 0 00 2 00 v o lts
an d t he p r e ssu r e at t he en d of t he ci r cuit
60 0 2 00 40 0 v o lts
as sh o w n by t he d o tt e d li n e o n t he diag r am It may als o be .

s e e n that with t h e e n tir e l o ad c o n c e ntrat e d at a p o i n t 550 0 ft .

fr o m t he stati o n t he d r o p w o uld b e t he sam e as in t he actual

,

distributi o n An i n sp e cti o n o f t h e gu r e sh o ws that this is t he

.

av e rag e dista n c e o f t he l o ad fr o m t h e stati o n .

In t he g e n e r al cas e if t h e t o tal l o ad is mad e up o f a n umb e r o f

,

curr e n ts I 1 I 2 1 3 e t c l o cat e d at dista n c e s d l d 2 d 3 e t c fr o m t he

, , ,
.
, , , ,
.
,

stati o n al o n g a c o n duct o r wh o s e r e sista n c e per un it of le n gt h

,

is r t he t o tal d r o p 6 at t he farth e st p o i n t is
,

+ T (d 2 '
di) (1 2 4 1 3 +
-

r (d u d n 1 )I n

E quati o n (1) may als o b e writt e n in t h e form

e ( )
2

It is o ft e n d e si r abl e t o g e t t h e c e n t e r o f gravity o f t h e l oad ,

which is usually d e n e d as t he p o i n t d at which if t h e l o ad , , ,

w e r e c o n c e n trat e d t he d r o p w o uld be t he sam e as with t he

,

actual distributi o n o r ,

l

 TH E D I S TR I B U TI N G C I R C U I T 2 73

T he last t e rm of this e xpr e ssi o n is e vid e n tly t he t o tal cu r r e n t ,

I d e liv e r e d t o
,
t he syst e m U si n g this valu e, an d e quati n g ( 2 )
.

an d giv e s
.

l a
-
n
d
I
In t h e sp e cial cas e wh e r e t he l o ads ar e all of e qual am o u n t ,

a n d are u n ifo rmly spac e d this b e c o m e s,

d 1 I 1 + 2 dl I 1 3 d1 I 1 + .

n + 1
d = a a)
2

g
n 1
As t h e n umb e r o f divisi o n s n is i n cr e as e d i n d e n it e ly ,

b e c o m e s e qual t o o n e half t he t o tal n umb e r o f di visi o n s an d t he

-
,

s e co n d m e mb e r o f e quati o n ( 5) appr o ach e s a v alu e o f d o f o n e

ha lf t he t o tal l e n gth o f t he distributi o n T his is a sp e cial cas e ; .

b ut o n r o ads O p e rati n g a c o n sid e rabl e n umb e r o f cars o n a

u n if o rm h e adway it is v e ry n e arly r e ach e d T his is sh o w n by .

r e f e r e n c e t o Fig 1 52 If t he l o ad w e r e u n ifo rmly distribut e d in

. .

th is c as e t he av e rage dista n c e w o uld b e 500 0 ft ; with t he gi v e n

,
.

arra n g e m e n t it is 5 50 0 ft If t he cars e ach m o v e d 1 000 ft

. .

t o ward t he stati o n th e r e w o uld be n o dr o p fo r t he rst o n e an d

, ,

t h e av e rag e dista n c e ( c e n t e r o f gra v ity ) w o uld b e 50 00 ft .

U s e o f G raphi c al Tim e Tab l e

- T he applicati o n o f this p r i n cipl e
.

d e p e n ds o n k n o wl e dg e o f t he actual distributi o n o f t he l o ad ;
in pr e limi n ary w o r k it ca n n o t b e k n o w n an d must b e assum e d ,
.

Aft e r t he e quipm e n t has b e e n t e n tati v e ly d e cid e d o n t he sp e e d ,

tim e cu r v e s fo r t he v ari o us ru n s may be calculat e d an d fr o m ,

th e m t he sch e dul e mad e up In practic e t he tim e tabl e is .

-

laid o ut graphically as in Fig 1 53 , usi n g tim e as absciss ae an d

,
.

distan c e as o rdi n at e s It may be s een at o n c e that this c o n

.

sists o f a s e t o f dista n c etim e cur ve s which may be r e adily ,

d e t e rmi e d fr o m t he sp e e d time cur v e s by i n t e grati o n C o rr e

n .

s po n d in g t o t h e v ari o us absciss ae t he curr e n ts b e i n g tak e n

,

by t he ca r s may be fo u n d an d t he t o tal gi ve s t he l o ad t o b e
,

dist r ibut e d o v e r t h e s e cti o n in qu e sti o n .

Li m itin g D ro p T he d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he pr o p e r v alu e fo r

.

t he limiti n g dr o p is t he m o st difficult part o f t he pr o bl e m .

18
2 74 TH E EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y

D ir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o rs will o p e rat e with s o m e d e gr e e o f

-

satisfacti o n e ve n th o ugh t he li n e pr e ssur e b e far b e l o w t he rat e d

,

m o t o r p o t e n tial but will r un at l o w e r sp e e d It is simply a

, .

qu e sti o n o f ho w much sp e e d r e ducti on will be t o l e rat e d u n d e r

t he w o rst c o n diti o n s o f l o ad an d distributi o n With alt e r n at .

in g curr e n t in ducti o n m o t o rs t he sp ee d is n o t chan g e d gr e atly

-
,

with r e duc e d p o t e n tials but t he m axi m um t o rqu e an d t h e pe r

,

fo r m anc e o f t he machi n e s will b e much m o r e s e ri o usly a ff e ct e d .

S i n gl e phas e c o mmutat o r m o t o r s ha v e ab o ut t he sam e r e lati o n s

-

8 9 IO 9 ll 7
1 .

FI G . 1 53 .
-
G ra p h ic al t im e -t ab e l .

S h o w in g th l
e o c at io n o f a ll c ars o n a d ivis io n at
a ny ins t a n t of t im e. T hi s is t a ken f rom

t he t im e- at ble o f a 3 0 -m i l e in t e r ur b a n r ailw y l a IS I O D .

to cha n g e in p o t e n tial as dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs ; an d si n c e th e y-

,

may b e c o n n e ct e d t o di ffe r e n t taps o n t h e tra n sf o r m e r t he n e t ,

e ff e ct will b e still l e ss In g e n e ral t he p e rmissibl e dr o p is

.
,

usually gi v e n as ab o ut 1 0 pe r c e n t fo r city syst e ms 1 5 pe r .

,

c e n t fo r suburba n syst e ms usi n g dir e ct curr e n t 2 5 pe r c e n t fo r

.
,
.

dir e ct curr e n t i n t e rurba n r o ads an d 1 0 pe r c e n t fo r alt e r n ati n g

-
,
.

curr e n t li n e s T h e s e v alu e s ar e ve ry o ft e n e xc ee d e d
. .

If t he m o t o rs w e r e t he o n ly apparatus usi n g t he tr o ll e y curr e n t ,

t he dr o p w o uld b e o f littl e m o m e n t e xc e pt as it cha n g e st he m o t o r

charact e ristics B ut th e r e is a c e rtai n am o u n t o f auxiliar y e quip
.

m e n t such as air pumps lights an d h e at e rs which must als o r e

, , ,

c e ive its e n e rgy fr o m t he li n e an d wh o s e p e rf o rma n c e is ,

 TH E D I S TR I B U TI N G C I R C U I T 2 75

m o r e s e ri o usly a ffe ct e d Air c o mpr e ss o rs b e c o m e o v e rl o ad e d

.

wh e n O p e r at e d o n r e duc e d pr e ssur e lamps hav e th e ir ca n dl e

,

p o w e r l o w e r e d as ab o ut t he f o urth p o w e r o f t he p o t e n tial an d ,

h e at e r s th e ir h e ati n g capacity as t he squar e o f t h e p o t e n tial .

F o r th e s e r e as o n s it is d e si r abl e t o hav e fai r ly g o o d r e gulati o n .

I n c e r tai n cas e s t he s e cti o n o f c o n duct o r calculat e d t o giv e t he

m aximum all o wabl e dr o p will b e f o u n d wast e ful f r o m t h e sta n d

p o i n t o f e n e r gy l o ss T he m o st e c o n o mical s e cti o n may b e d e

.

t e r m in e d w ith t he aid o f K e lvi n s law which is in e ffe c t that t he

, , ,

mi n imum a n n ual c o st o f t he li n e is r e ach e d wh e n t h e c o st o f t h e

a n n ual p o w e r l o ss is e qual t o t he valu e o f t he i n t e r e st an d d e
pr e ciati o n o n t he i n v e stm e n t T h e applicati o n o f this l aw t o
.

a n y c o mplicat e d distributi o n syst e m such as that fo r a city rail

,

w ay ,
is e xc e e di n gly di f cult ; but fo r a simpl e si n gl e track -

i n t e rurba n li n e it admits o f s o lu t i o n Un fo rtu n at e ly in t h e latt e r

.
,

cas e t he m o st e fci e n t s e cti o n o f c o n duct o r is alm o st i n var iably

,

s m all e r tha n that warra n t e d by t he maximum p e rmissibl e dr o p .

M e t h o d s o f F e e din g A furth e r r e f e r e n c e t o Fig 1 5 2 sh o ws

.

that wh e n t he l o ad is e v e n ly distribut e d al o n g t h e li n e t he dr o p ,

is n o t by a n y m e a n s u n if o rm b e i n g much gr e at e r n e ar t h e stati o n
,
.

It w o uld s e e m p r e fe rabl e t o e n lar g e t he c o n duct o r s e cti o n n e ar

t he stati o n e v e n if t he r e sista n c e at t he far e n d o f t he li n e had
,

t o b e i n c r e as e d si n c e th e r e t he maximum p o ssibl e cu rre n t is quit e

,

small If t he sam e amo u n t o f c o n duct o r mat e r ial is pr o p e rly

.

a r ran g e d with r e fe r e n c e t o t h e curr e n t it must carry it will b e ,

o f a maximum s e cti o n at t h e stati o n gradually tap e r i n g d o w n t o

,

a small siz e at t he e xtr e m e e n d o f t he li n e Practical c o n sid e r a

.

ti o n s m ak e t he c o mpl e t e fullm e n t o f this arra n ge m e n t o ut o f

t he qu e sti o n ; th e r e must b e a c o n tact li n e o f fai r ly lar g e s e cti o n t o

withsta n d t he w e ar i n cid e n t t o cu rr e n t c o ll e cti o n If this is t he .

o n ly c o n duct o r which n e e d be i n stall e d t o g iv e t h e r e qui r e d

s e cti o n th e r e is n o re m e dy fo r this c o n diti o n ; but usually a sup

,

p l e m e n t a r y c o n duct o r must b e a d d e d t o limit t h e d r o p t o t h e

am o u n t d e t e rmi n e d as t h e maximum all o wabl e .

T he simpl e st m e th o d o f distributi o n fr o m a p o w e r pla n t o r

substati o n is that sh o w n in Fig 1 5 1 wh e r e t he g e n e rat o r is c o n
.
,

n e c t e d dir e ctly t o t he c o n tact li n e th e r e b e i n g n o au x iliar y

,

c o n duct o r A c o n sid e r ati o n o f t he pr e c e di n g parag r aphs will

.

sh o w that this is u n e c o n o mical o f c o pp e r si n c e t he s e cti o n sh o uld

,

b e i n c r e as e d wh e r e t he dr o p is t he gr e at e st It has b e e n i n ti
.

mat e d that t h e b e st c o n duct o r is o n e gradually tap e r i n g fr o m a

2 76 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

maximum at t he stati o n t o a mi n imum at t he e n d o f t he s e cti o n ;

but such an arra n g e m e n t is n o t c o mm e rcial an d ca n n o t b e appli e d
dir e ctly .

The m o st usual m e th o d of fe e di n g e sp e cially fo r in t e ru rba n ,

r o ads is t o plac e a suppl e m e n tary c o n du ct o r in parall e l with t he

c o n tact li n e c o n n e cti o n b e i n g mad e at fr e qu e n t p o i n ts as sh o w n

, ,

in Fig 1 54 . T his arra n g e m e n t is but littl e b e tt e r tha n i n cr e as i n g

.

t he s e cti o n o f t he c o n tact li n e alth o ugh t he suppl e m e n tary wir e ,

FI G . 15 4 S im
. pl e fe e d e r s y s t e m .

T h is is it t el l m ore t han t h e e q u ivale n t of in c r e as in g th e s e c t io n o f t he c o nt ac t li

ne. I t is
W l
.

i d e y us e d o n i n t e r ur b a n r ai lw a ys .

c an bepr o t e ct e d fr o m We ar an d th e r e f o r e ha v e a mi n imum rat e

o f d e pr e ciati o n In i n t e rurba n syst e ms taps ar e mad e fr o m t he
.
,

f e e d e r at fr o m e v e ry 500 ft t o e ve ry 2 0 0 0 ft d e p e n di n g o n t he . .
,

charact e r o f t he r o ad T aps ar e mad e m o r e fr e qu e n tly o n grad es

.

a n d at p o i n ts wh e r e t he cars must b e acc e l e rat e d .

An o th e r m e th o d o f f e e di n g is t o s e parat e t he c o n tact li n e in t o
a n umb e r o f s e cti o n s e ach suppli e d fr o m t he sam e fe e d e r as
, ,

FI G . 1 55 .
S e bt io n e d c o n d u c t o r .

Thi s a rr a n g em e nt d iff e r s f ro m t hat s ho w n in F ig 1 5 4 in t h at t h e t r o e ll y

w ir e is c u t in t o
p l W h il g v g p
.

s e c t io n s w h i c h ar e s e ar at e b y in s u a t o r s
d e i in r o t e c t i o n i n c as e a s e c t i o n o f
g l bl y g
.

t h e c i r c ui t i s d a m a e d , t h e o s s is c o n s i d e r a re at er .

sh o w n in Fig 1 5 5 T his ar r a n g em e n t has t he adva n tage o v e r

. .

t he syst e m sh o w n in Fig 1 54 that c o n tact li n e tr o ubl e c an b e .

l o caliz e d by placi n g fus e s o r circuit br e ak e rs in t he f e e d e r taps .

O n t he o th e r ha n d t he c o n ducti v ity o f t he c o n tact li n e is n o t us e d

,

t o its full e st e xt e n t s o that a larg e r am o u nt o f c o pp e r is n e e d e d

,

t o gi v e t he sam e t o tal dr o p .
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 2 77

A m o dicati o n o f t he rst m e th o d is sh o w n in Fig 1 56 T his . .

diffe rs fr o m t he simpl e syst e m in that t he fe e d e rs are r un s e pa

rat e l y , th e ir c o n ducti v ity b e i n g ch o s e n t o e qualiz e t he dr o p t o

s o m e e xt e n t B y ca r e ful ch o ic e o f t he siz e o f c o n duct o rs

. , t he
d r o p may b e mad e fai r ly u n ifo rm o v e r t he e n tir e s e cti o n .

FI G . 1 56 M ul t ipl e f e e d e r s ys t e m .

I n t h is ys t e m
s f
t h e e e d e rs ar e pl d i p ll l T h i i
ac e n a ra e e r s ze is so pro po r t io n e d as to
q u li W t h t h t ll y w
.

e a ze t he d o p r a t t h e p o in t s o f ti
c onnec on i e ro e xr e .

A s o m e tim e s us e d is sh o w n in Fig 1 5 7 He r e t he
m e th o d . .

fe e d e rs are arra n g e d as in t he last syst e m but t he c o n tact li n e ,

is s e cti o n e d as in Fig 1 55 T he O bj e cti o n is t he am o u n t o f c o pp e r

. .

r e qu ir e d fo r a gi v e n dr o p ; whil e t he adva n tag e i s in a m o r e un i

f o rm dr o p over t he e n tir e s e cti o n an d t he ability t o l o caliz e

tr o ubl e s It is e vid en t that in this arran g e m e n t switch e s t o t he
.

FI G . 1 5 7 S ec t i o n al fe e de r
. s ys t e m .

T hi s is s im l ll y v
i ar t o F ig 1 56 ; b u t t h e t r o e is d i id e d in t o s e c t io n s s e ar at e d in s u a t o r s p by l
T g l p by k g p bl
. .

h e y m a y b e c p n n e c t e d t o e t h e r fo r n o r m a o e r a t io n s w it c h e s , m a in it o ssi e to
c u t o ut O f g .

c i r c ui t a d am a e d po r t i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t l
in e , a n d t h us m a in t ain ar t ia s e r ic e p l v .

vari o us f e e d e rs c an be pr o v id e d o n t he switchb o ard an d wi t h , ,

aut matic circuit br e ak e rs an y damag e d s e cti o n c an be cut o ut o f

o -
,

t he circuit with o ut a ff e cti n g trafc o n o th e r p o rti o n s o f t he li n e .

Us e O f B o o s t e r s O u c e rtai n l o n g li n e s t h e o rdi n ary limita

.
,

ti o n s o f maximum dr o p w o uld r e quir e t he us e o f v e ry large fe e d

e rs . T his may be o b v iat e d t o an y d e sir e d d e gr e e by i n s e rti n g
2 78 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

in o ne o r m o r e o f th e m a s e para t e s e rie s g e n e rat o r kn o w n as a

,

b o o st e r
. S uch an arra n g e m e n t is sh o w n in Fig 1 58 He r e a . .

simpl e f e e d e r syst e m is us e d fo r a p o rti o n o f t he s e cti o n but ,

in o rd e r t o k e e p up t he pr e ssur e at t h e far e n d a b o o st e r is i n s e rt e d ,

in t he l o n g e st li n e .

As us e d o n e l e ctric railway distributi on circuits t he b o o st e r ,

is a s e ri e s w o u n d g e ne rat o r dri v en by an e n g i n e o r a m o t o r
-
, ,

an d havi n g its e ld an d armatur e c o n n e ct e d dir e ctly in t he

fe e d e r circuit as sh o w n in Fig 1 58 T he n umb e r o f t ur n s o n

,
. .

t he e ld windi n g is ch o s e n t o giv e t h e pr o p e r e m f at full l o ad . . .

t o c o mp en sat e for t he dr o p in t he f e e d e r o r if d e sir e d t o o v e r , ,

c o mp o u n d an d rais e t he pr e ssur e with t he l o ad S uch an ar .

ra n g e m e n t is aut o matic in acti o n for t he amp e r e tur n s o n ,

e ld i n cr e as e dir e ctly with t he curr e n t an d if t h e e ld is , ,

FI G . 1 58 U s e of b o o s t e r fo r f e e din g s y s t e m .

saturat e d t he e m f g e n e r at e d in t he a r matur e is in pr o p o rti o n

,
. . .

t o t he l o ad T he c o mp e n sati o n fo r li n e dr o p at t he e n d o f t he
.

fe e d e r may th e r e f o r e be tak e n car e o f u n d e r all c o n diti o n s o f

o p e rati o n with o ut t he n e c e ssity o f c o n sta n t att e n ti o n by t h e sta
,

ti o n att e n da n t B o o st e rs may b e l o cat e d a n ywh e r e o n t he

.

f e e d e rs in w hi ch th e y are i n s e rt e d ; but ar e c o mm o n ly plac e d in

t he substati o n si n c e th e r e th e y ar e u n d e r t he sup e rvisi o n o f t he
,

o p e rat o r
. T he us e o f a b o o st e r d o e s n o t r e duc e t he dr o p T he .

t e n d en cy is rath e r t o augm e n t it ; but by i n cr e asi n g t h e e m f o n . . .

t he fe e d e r t he pr e ssur e at t he e n d o f t he li n e is k e pt at t he d e
sir e d v alu e At t he pr e s e n t tim e b o o st e rs ar e b e i n g aba n d o n e d
.
,

in fa v o r o f b e tt e r l o cati o n o f substati o n s .

R e q uir e m e n t s of t h e C o n t ac t Lin e We ha ve s e e n that t he .

distributi n g ci r cuit fo r an e l e ctric railway di ffe rs fr o m that fo r

a n y o th e r applicati o n o f e l e ctricity pri n cipally in that t h e l o ad
 THE D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 2 79

is n e v e r x e d in l o cati o n The e ffe ct o f this apart fr o m all

.
,

que sti o n s o f capacity is that a sp e cial f o rm o f c o n structi o n must

,

b e e mpl o y e d t o p e rmit o f e fci e n tly c o n n e cti n g t he l o ad with

t he s o urc e o f p o w e r T his m o vabl e c o n tact must ha v e as
.

littl e r e sista n c e as is practicabl e an d it must b e r e liabl e u n d e r

,

all c o n diti o n s o f l o ad an d w e ath e r T o attai n th e s e d e sire d .

c r it e r ia has b e e n t he aim o f d e sig n e rs o f e l e ctric ra ilway apparatus

fr o m t he b e gi n n i n g an d at t he pr e se n t time a gr e at d e al has b e e n
,

a c c o mplish e d t o ward th e se e n ds C o n tact li n e mat e rial may

.

be mad e as r e liabl e as c o n diti o n s warra n t , an d failur e s o f r s t

c la s s c o n structi o n ar e n o w rar e .

For m s o f C o n t ac t Lin e T h e r e ar e in g e n e ral us e at t h e

.

p r e s e n t time t w o m e th o ds o f dist r ibuti n g e l e ctrical e n e rgy t o

t he m o v i n g trai n : t he o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y an d t he third rail In .

additi o n t o th e s e t w o o th e r f o rms , t he u n d e rgr o u n d c o n duit

,

a n d t he surfac e c o n tact syst e m ha v e b e en us e d t o a small

,

e xt e n t . T he rst t w o ar e t he o n ly o n e s which hav e an y

e xt e n d e d appli cati o n an d ,
ar e t o b e l o o k e d t o fo r futur e
d ev e l o pm e n ts .

Th e O v rh e ad Tr o ll e y
e The simpl e st m e th o d o f dis t r ib ut
.

in g e n e rgy t o a m o vi n g trai n is by m e a n s o f o n e o r m o r e ba r e
wir e s stru n g ab o v e an d parall e l t o t he track If a dir e ct curr e n t .
-

o r si n gl e phas e circuit is us e d t h e track may b e mad e t he r e tur n

-
,

c o n duct o r B y this m e a n s t he c o n tact li n e is r e duc e d t o its

.

simpl e st t e rms : a si n gl e wir e arra n g e d t o mak e c o n n e cti o n

,

with t he m o vin g trai n thr o ugh o n e o r m o r e r o lli n g o r slidi n g

c o n tacts I n this f o rm t he o v e r h e ad tr o ll e y has b e c o m e sta n d
.

ar d o n a v e ry lar g e pr o p o rti o n o f all t he e l e ctric r o ads o f t h e

w o rld .

M t d o S us pe n d g Tro e y Wir
e h o s f in ll e Practically all o v e r .

h e ad tr o ll e y wir e s are arra n g e d t o ha ve t he m o vi n g c o n tac t

mad e o n t he bo t t om sid e o f t he c o n duct o r T o make this sch e m e .

succ e ssful it is n e c e ssary t o hav e an u n i n t e rrupt e d s urfac e o n

,

whi c h t he car c o n tact may tra v e l s o that sp e cial m e th o ds o f,

ha n gi n g t he w ir e hav e b e e n d e vis e d .

An y e xibl e wi r e o r cabl e fr e e ly susp en d e d at t w o p o i n ts ,

an d supp o rti n g its o w n w e ight al o n e will assum e a d e n it e

,

curv e k n o w n as t he c a t en ar y
, T he e quati o n o f this curv e i s
.

o r di n arily stat e d as
2 80 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

or in t e rms o f hyp e rb o lic fu n cti o n s

y a c o sh

wh e r e x an d y are t he c o o rdi n at e s o f an y p o i n t o n t he c urv e

r e fe rr e d t o ax e s as sh o w n in Fig 1 5 9 a is a c o n sta n t d e p e n di n g
.
,

o n t he l e n gth o f spa n an d t he sag in t he wir e an d e is t h e b as e o f ,

t he n atural syst e m o f l o garithms T he l e n gth o f spa n b e i n g

.

L an d t he sup p o rts at t h e sam e l e v e l e quati o n ( 1 ) b e c o m e s

, ,

L L
a _ _

FI G . 1 59 q
E uat io n of fr e e ly s us p e n d e d w ir e .

or, fr o m e quati o n ( 2)
L
a D a c o sh
T he c o rr e sp o n di n g l e n gth o f arc C is , ,

L L
C =
a ( e2 a 3 2a
)

C 2a sm h
2a

K no wi n g t he l e n gth o f arc an d t he d e e cti o n , t he

may be d e t e rmi n e d by t he fo ll o wi n g e quati on :
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 28 1

If o nly t he l e n gth o f spa n an d t he d e e cti o n are k n o w n t he ,

c o n sta n t a must b e d e t e rmi n e d by m e a n s o f succ e ssiv e ass um p

ti o n s a n d app r o ximati o n s .

s s in t h e dir e cti o n of t he curv e at any p o i n t S an d its , ,

an d v e r tical c o mp o n e n ts H an d V may b e d e t e r mi n e d
, ,

as fo ll o ws : t he o n ly v e rtical stre ss must o f n e c e ssity b e that o f

If t he w e ight of t he w ir e
'

t lie weight o f o n e half t he t o tal wi r e

- .

an d fr o m t he p a r all e l o g r am of fo r c e s ,

V
ta n d

(a + D) W

s oluti o n o f t he ab o v e e quati o n s fo r a wire an d a sp a n

4 0
with di ffe r e n t valu e s o f a is giv e n in t he fo ll o wi n g
,

S TRE S S E S IN A 4 0

W I RE ,
1 0 0-F T . S P AN

T e mp e r atur e affe cts t he curv e in which t he wir e ha n gs by

cha n gi n g its l e n gth Fo r a giv e n l e n gth o f wir e at an y t e m
.

p at ur e , that at a n o th e r t e mp e ratur e m ay be fo u n d by t he
e r

r e lati on
lg t )$ o
2 82 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

wh e r e l is t he l e n gth at an y t e mp e ratur e t lg that at an o th e r

, o,

t e mp e ratur e t an d a t he li n e ar c o e fci en t o f e xpa n si o n o f t he

,

wir e .

In t he cas e o f a w ir e carr yi n g a c o ati n g o f ic e o r s n o w e q uati o n s ,

( )
5 a n d (6) may be us e d by chan gi n g t he v alu e o f W t o in
c l ude t he w e ight o f add e d l o ad pe r u n it o f l e n g th .

T he ab o v e e quati o n s will giv e acc urat e ly t he r e lati o n s e xisti n g

in an y susp e n d e d wir e carryi n g its o w n w e ight al o n e as in t he ,

cas e o f a tra n smissi o n li n e o r a simpl e tr o ll e y wir e It may be .

n o t e d that t o k e e p t h e sag d o w n t o v alu e s p e rmissibl e fo r c o n tact

li n e s t he t e n si o n must b e c o n sid e rabl e If t he sags ar e t o o small .

du r i n g h o t w e ath e r th e y may r e duc e t o such a p o i n t wh e n t he

,

t e mp e ratur e falls as t o strai n t he wir e .

As a n e xampl e c o n sid e r a 4 0 hard draw n c o pp e r tr o ll e y wir e

,
-

stru n g at a t e mp e ratur e o f 1 00 F with a sag o f ft T he
. .

t e n si o n at t he supp o rts as gi v e n by t he tabl e is ,

lb , .
,

e e f
which is b ut a m o d rat e l o ad o n a wir o this cr o ss s e c ti o n .

If t he th e rm o m e t e r sh o uld dr o p t o 2 3 b e l o w z e r o a t e mp e ratur e ,

n o t i n fr e qu e n tly m e t with in o ur n o rth e r n stat e s t h e l e n gth o f ,

t he wir e d e t e rmi n e d by e quati o n

,
is which giv e s a
str e ss o f lb at t he supp o rts T his is ab o ut t he e lastic
. .

limit fo r hard d r aw n c o pp e r an d th e r e is da n g e r o f str e tchi n g t he

-
,

wir e If th e r e w e r e an y c o n sid e rabl e ic e l o ad o ccurr i n g at t he

.

sam e tim e t he st r ai n might r e ach t he br e aki n g p o i n t

,
.

C at e n ary S us pe n s i o n An att e mpt t o o bviat e this c o n diti o n

.
,

which r e n d e rs high sp e e d O p e rati o n dii c ul t in h o t w e ath e r o n

-

acc o u n t o f t he e xc e ssi v e sag has b ee n succ e ssfully mad e by t he

,

us e o f t he s o call e d c at e n ary susp en si o n ( Fig

-
T his c o n .

sists in supp o rti n g t he c o n tact li n e fr e qu e n tly fr o m an auxiliary

o r m e ss e n g e r wir e usually a st e e l cabl e o f high t e n sil e str e n gth
,
.

T he tr o ll e y wir e is thus divid e d i n t o a n umb e r o f sh o rt spa n s in ,

which t he sag c an b e r e duc e d t o a v alu e which will n o t i n te rfe r e

with high sp e e d Op e rati o n o f t he trai n s
-
.

A wir e o r e xibl e c o rd u n if o rmly l o ad e d al o n g its h o riz o n tal

,

p r o j e cti o n will assum e t he curv e o f a parab o la T hi s c urv e

,
.

' '

di ffe rs but slightly fr o m t e c h a t e n ar y w h e n t h e sag is c o m p a r af

t ive l y small s o that t he c o mbi n ati o n o f m e ss e n g e r an d c o n tact

,

wire may b e c o n sid e r e d as th o ugh t he f o rm e r w e r e u n if o rmly

l o ad e d al o n g t he h o r iz o n tal with o ut i n tr o duci n g an appr e ciabl e
,

e rr o r . T he appr o ximat e d e e cti o n o f a wir e , calc ulate d by this

m e th o d is ,
 THE D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C UI T 2 83

WL 2

8H
( )
1 2

t he valu e s o f D W L an d H b e i n g t he same as in e quati o n s ( 1 )

, ,

to T he l e n gth o f a c o n du ct o r havi n g a gi ve n d e e cti o n is

C = L (1 +
if )
?
applicati o n o f th e s e e quati o n s it is p o ssibl e t o d e t e rmi n e
B y t he ,

t he d e e cti o n o f t he m e ss e n g e r cabl e at an y p o i n t o f t he spa n ,

an d c o n st r uct a s e t o f ha n g e rs o f such l e n gths that t he c o n tact

be main tai n e d h o riz o n tal at all p o i n ts o f supp o rt .

FI G . 1 60 C at e n a ry p e n s io n
s us .

T he c o n t ac t w ir e is n o t c a r r ie d d ir e c tly b t i u s s us p d df
en e ro m a s e r ies o f h an g er s a t t a c h ed
g W b kt
,

t o a m es s e n er ir e s u pp o r t e d o n t he ra c e s .

The us e o f t he
c at e n ary Susp e n si o n make s p o ssibl e a mat e r ial
l e n gth e n i n g o f t he spa n with o ut i n c r e asi n g t he sag o f t he c o n tact
wir e ; i n d e e d with a p r o p e rly d e sig n e d se t o f ha n g e r s t he l e n gth
, ,

o f spa n may b e d e t e rmi n e d by e n tir e ly di ff e r e n t c o n sid e r a

ti o n s than t he sag An imp o rta n t p o i n t t o n o t e is that v a r ia

.

ti o n s of t e mp e ratur e hav e a mi n imum e ffe ct o n t he l e v e l o f t he

c o n tact lin e A r e ducti o n in t e mp e ratur e t e n ds t o d e cr e as e
.

t h e sag o f t he m e ss e n g e r wir e but at t he sam e tim e it sh o rt e n s

,

t he ha n g e rs in pr o p o rti o n t o th e ir o rigi n al l e n gths T he l o n g .

e s t ha n g e rs ar e th o s e adj ac e n t t o t h e supp o rts in which l o c ati o n ,

t he d e cr e as e in t he sag is l e ast B y adj usti n g t h e t e n si o n in t he

.
 84 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

m e ss e n g e r cabl e fo r an av e rag e p o i n t it is p o ssibl e t o r e duc e

,

t he variati o n s in h e ight o f t he tr o ll e y wir e at an y o th e r t e m

p e ra t ur e t o a mi n imum alth ,o ugh t h e e n tir e c o n tact li n e will

ris e s o m e what in c o ld w e ath e r an d fall in h o t w e ath e r
, .

A wid e variati o n e xists in t h e n umb e r o f ha n g e r s e mpl o y e d with

t he cat e n ary c o n structi o n I n s o m e o f t h e e a rly i n stallati o n s as
.
,

ma n y as ft e e n t o n i n e t e e n w e r e us e d fo r a si n gl e spa n o f f r o m 1 50
t o 30 0 ft E xp e ri e n c e has sh o w n that such a n umb e r o f ha n g e rs
.

is e xc e ssi ve an d that a mat e rial r e ducti o n c an b e mad e w i t h

,

o ut a ff e cti n g t h e g e n e ral r e sults o f e mpl o yi n g this typ e o f sus

p e n si o n B ut in a fe w i n sta n c e s t he d e sir e t o g e t a mi n imum

.
,

c o st has l e d t he d e sig n e rs t o cut d o w n t he n umb e r o f susp e n si o n

p o i n ts t o wh e r e t he ad v a n tag e o f t he c o n structi o n has b e e n
larg e ly elimi n at e d Fo r e xampl e a fe w i n stallati o n s hav e b e e n
.
,

mad e with thr e e susp e n si o n p o i n ts fo r a 1 50 ft p o l e spaci n g -

. .

T his mak e s t he e ff e ctiv e spa n o f t h e c o n tact wir e 5 0 ft o r ab o ut .

,

half that us e d with t he o rdi n ary brack e t c o n structi o n an d ,

t he l e n gth b e tw e e n ha n g e rs is t o o g r e at t o s e cur e a l e v e l wir e .

T he p r i n cipal ad v a n tag e r emai n i n g with this mi n imum n umb e r o f

ha n g e rs is that t he supp o r t is e xibl e i n st e ad o f rigid as with ,

plai n brack e t susp e n si o n In m o d e r n cat e n a r y c o n structi o n

.
,

t he n umb e r o f ha n g e rs fo r a 1 50 ft spa n is fr o m v e t o n i n e de
-
.
,

p e n di n g o n t h e sp e e d o f t he e quipm e n t an d typ e o f c o ll e ct o r us e d .

M e t h o d s of S uppo rt in g W ir e s T h e r e are in g e n e r al t w o

, ,

m e th o ds o f supp o rti n g t he c o n tact li n e : t he span wir e an d

t he sid e o r c e n t e r brack e t -
T he f o rm e r c o n st r ucti o n sh o w n
.
,

in Fig 1 61 c o n sists o f a d o ubl e r o w o f p o l e s carryi n g st e e l o r

.
,

ir o n c abl e s plac e d tra n s v e rs e ly t o t he track T he c o n tact li n e .

is susp e n d e d fr o m i n sulat o r s attach e d t o th e s e cr o ss wir e s T he .

c o n structi o n is e qually suit e d t o si n gl e o r d o ubl e track t he o n ly ,

diffe r e n c e b e i n g in t he dista n c e b e tw e e n t he p o l e s an d t he c o r r e
s p o n d in g l e n gth Of t he spa n T his arra n g e m e n t giv e s a fairly
.

e xibl e supp o rt fo r t he c o n tact W i r e an d mi n imiz e s t he p o u n d

,

in g at t he i n sulat o r s d ue t o t he passag e o f t he c o ll e ct o rs o n t he
m o vi n g cars .

B rack e t c o n structi o n c o n sists e ss e n tially o f a si n gl e li ne o f

p o l e s o n e ach o f which is plac e d a c r o ss arm c arryi n g a n i n sulat o r
,
.

T he arra n g e m e n t may b e adapt e d e qually w e ll fo r si n g l e o r fo r

d o ubl e trac k Fo r t he latt e r t he p o l e s ar e plac e d o n t he c e n t e r
.

li n e b e tw e e n t he tracks T he b r acke t c o n structi o n is s o m e

, .

what ch e ap e r tha n t he spa n wi r e , but has n o t t he sam e e xibility .

 THE D I S TR I B U T I NG C I R C U I T 2 85

FI G . 161 S . p an w ir e c o n s t ru c t o n i .

T he c o n s t r u c t io n is f lf
us e u o r e it her i gl
s n e or dou bl e t ra c k us in g t he a r ran ge m e nt s ho w n
li p e c t v e ly
,

n es , res i .

FI G . 1 62 C e n t e r b ra c k e t c o n s t ru c t io n .

Thi s c o n s t r uc t io n is e q ual ly w el l s uit ed for s in gl e t r ac k , om it t in g t he p o r t io n s s ho w n in

d o t t e d h u es .
2 86 TH E EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y

T h e re is a t e n d e n cy fo r t he c o ll e ct o rs o f t he cars o r l o c o m o tiv e s
passi n g b e n e ath t o d e li ve r a hamm e r bl o w at e ach p o i n t o f
s usp e n si o n . T his typ e is sh o w n in Fig 1 62 fo r a d o ubl e track .
-

r o ad For a si n gl e track t he brack e t o n o n e sid e is o mitt e d

.
, ,

t he r e st o f t he c o n structi o n r e mai n i n g t he sam e .

Eith e r t he brack e t o r t he spa n wir e r e adily l e n ds its e lf t o t he

cat e n ary susp e n si o n T he m e ss e n g e r cabl e is hu n g fr o m t he
.

bracke t o r fr o m t he spa n wir e an d t he c o n tact li n e is attach e d

,

t o t he m e ss e n g e r by ha n g e rs o f suitabl e l e n gths S i n c e e n o ugh.

e xibility is s e cur e d by t he cat e n ary susp e n si o n t he dis ad ,

v a n tage s o f t he brack e t c o n structi o n disapp e ar ; an d o n acc o un t

o f its l o w e r rst c o st it is t h e typ e usually e mpl o y e d fo r si n gl e

track o r d o ubl e track r o ads If a gr e at e r n umb e r o f tracks

-
.

ar e e quipp e d t he spa n wir e is ch e ap e r

,
I n s o m e cas e s wh e r e
.

th e r e ar e ma n y tracks as in a yard a cr o ss c at e n ary susp e n si o n

, ,
-

is us e d t o k e ep t he spa n wir e l e v e l th e r e by i n sur in g that all o f

,

t he c o n tact li n e s ar e t he sam e dista n c e fr o m t he gr o u n d .

U s e o f S ppo rt g Br dg e s
u in i Fo r h e a v y w o rk as in railr o ad ,

e l e c t ri c at io n s a m o r e p e rma n e n t f o rm o f supp o rt has b e e n

,

us e d T he o rigi n al c o n structi o n o f t he N e w Yo rk N e w Hav e n

.
,

a n d H artf o rd c o n sists o f light bridg e s b uilt o f structural st e e l ,

plac e d appr o ximat e ly 300 ft apart an d c arryi n g t he tr o ll e y

.
,

wir e fr o m a d o ubl e cat e n ary T he latt e r c o n sists o f t w o m e s

.

s e n ge r cabl e s arra n g e d t o f o rm an e quilat e ral tria n gl e with t he

,

c o n tact wir e which is at t he b o tt o m E ach p o i n t o f supp o rt

, .

o f t he tr o ll e y wir e is hu n g fr o m b o th susp e n si o n cabl e s an d ,

th e s e ar e k e pt t he pr o p e r dista n c e apart by a sp ac e r T he .

w e ar o n t he o rigi n al tr o ll e y wir e was s o gr e at that it w a s d e cid e d

t o i n stall an auxiliary c o n tac t c o n duct o r b e n e ath t he c o pp e r
one . T his n e w c o n tact li n e is o f st e e l an d is c o n n e c t e d t o t he
,

c o pp e r wir e at p o i n ts midway b e tw e e n t he mai n ha n ge rs B y .

this m e a n s an e xtr e m e e xibility in t he v e rtic al pla n e is o b

t ain e d c o mbi n e d with c o n sid e rabl e rigidity in t he h o riz o n tal
,

dir e cti o n .

T he d o ubl e c at en ary susp en si o n has b e e n f o u n d b e tt e r tha n t he

r e quir e m e n ts o f t he h e avi e st tru n k li n e s e rvic e d e ma n d
-
T he .

lat e r c o n structi on o f t he N e w H av e n an d that o f o th e r mai n li n e s

, ,

has b e e n mad e with a si n gl e c at e n ary , light st e e l p ol e s o r bridg e s

b e i n g us e d for supp o rt .

S iz e o f C o n t ac t C o n d uc t o r The pr o p e r s iz e o f t he c o n tact li n e
.

m ay b e d e t e rmi n e d fr o m e l e ctrical r e l ati o n s ; but it is imp o rta n t

 THE D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 287

to ha v e it of su fci e n t se cti o n t o withsta n d t he m e cha n ical

strai ns which are imp o s e d o n it Fo r in t e r ur b an c o n s t r uc t ion .
'

t he m o st us e d siz e o f c o n tact c o n duct o r fo r o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y

li n e s is 4 0 wir e whil e fo r city c o n structi o n 2 0 is quit e o ft e n us e d

,

.

T he o dd siz e s o f w ir e 0 an d 3 0 , ar e but ra r e ly e mpl o y e d

, T he .

us e o f wir e fo r t he c o n tact li ne i n v o lv e s s o m e m e th o d o f supp o rt

which w il l n o t i n t e rfe r e with t he sm o o th Op e rati o n o f t he c o ll e ct

in g d e vic e Wh e n t he o r di n ary r o u n d s e cti o n o f wire is e mpl o ye d
.
,

it is ne c e ssary t o h o ld t he wi r e by e ar s partially sur r o u n di n g it .

T his caus e s hard sp o ts s o m e tim e s r esulti n g in damag e t o t he
,

o v e rh e ad c o n structi o n aft e r l o n g p e ri o ds o f us e V ari o us n o n .

circular s e cti o n s o f wir e hav e b e e n us e d fr o m time t o tim e ; but t he

FI G . 1 63 .
S t an dar d 4 0 g r o ove d t r o ll e y w ir e .

T hi s is s t an d ard wit h t h e A m er ic an E le c t ric l

Ra i w a y E n gin ee rin g A s s o c ia t io n . Ot h er
S iz es ar e o f s im il a r se ct ion .

on ly o n e which has m e t with wid e ad o pti o n is t he g r o o v e d typ e ,

as that sh o w n in Fig 1 63 which r e pre s e n ts a s e cti o n o f t he

.
,

sta n dard 4 0 gr o o ve d wir e ad o pt e d by t he Am e rica n El e ct r ic
R ailway En gi n ee ri n g A ss o ciati o n T h e cr o ss -s e cti o n o f o th e r .

siz e s is similar in shap e T his typ e o f wire is h e ld by e ars which

.

grip it in t he gr o o v e s an d th e r e fo r e o ff e r n o o bstructi o n t o t he
,

m o ve me n t o f t he c o lle ct o r It is us e d e xt e n si ve ly in i n t e rurba n
.

an d in city c o n structi o n .

h
T e Thir d R ai1 In cas e s wh e r e larg e am o u n ts o f curr e n t must
.

be c o ll e ct e d e sp e cially at high sp e e ds t he o ve rh e ad tr o ll e y h as
, ,
2 88 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

not b e e n f o u n d e n tir e ly satisfact o ry P art o f this is d ue t o t he .

r e strict e d are a o f c o n tact b e t w e e n t he m o v i n g c o ll e ct o r an d t he

wir e an d t he r e mai n d e r t o t he i n e qualiti e s o f t he su r fac e caus e d
,

by t he v ariati o n in h e ight o f t he wir e Fo r such r o ads t he use o f .

t he s o call e d third rail giv e s b e tt e r r e sults
-
T his is e ss e n tially .

a st e e l c o n duct o r supp o rt e d o n i n sulat o rs c o n tigu o us t o an d

parall e l with t he track In m o st cas e s it is plac e d at o n e sid e o f
.

a n d a fe w i n ch e s ab o v e t he ru n n i n g rails O ccasi o n ally it is .

l o cat e d o n t he c e n t e r li n e o f t he track an d still m o r e i n fr e qu e n tly ,

is susp e n d e d ab o ve t he track in a p o siti o n similar t o th at o f t he

o rdi n ary tr o ll e y wir e T h e s e latt e r disp o siti o n s o f t he third rail
.

ar e quit e rar e an d ar e ad o pt e d t o m e e t sp e cial c o n diti o n s

, In t he .

f o ll o wi n g paragraphs t he l o cati o n o f t he rail at o n e sid e o f t he

track is t he o n ly o n e c o n sid e r e d T h e r e ar e t w o typ e s o f .

third rail in us e acc o rdi n g t o t he l o c ati o n o f t he c o n tact surfac e

, .

O v e r -R unn in g Th ir d R ail The o ld e r f o rm o f third rail .

c o n structi o n an d t he o n e m o st c o mm o n ly us e d is that in which

, ,

FI G . 1 64
. Un p r o t e c t e d o ve r -
ru n n n g i th ir d ra il .

T hi
s c o n s t r u c t io n is us e d o n a ll t h lv t d d
e e e a e roa s ; t he e xa c t p o s it io n Zo f t h e c o n t ac t l
r ai
var ie s s o m e w h a t .

t he c o n tact surfac e is t he t o p o f t he r ail In this typ e o f c o n .

stru cti o n Fig 1 64 t he ra il is m o u n t e d o n i n sulat o rs o f p o rc e lai n

,
.
, ,

r e c o n struct e d gra ni t e o r o th e r suitabl e mat e rial An o rdi n ary

, .

rail s e cti o n is m o st o ft e n e mpl o y e d alth o ugh in a fe w c as e s ,

sp e cial d e sig n s h a v e b e e n us e d t o r e duc e t he c o st o f man ufac tur e

an d t o gi v e a rail m o r e r e adily m o u n t e d .

M an y p e rs o n s l o o k o n t he third rail as a s o urc e o f dan g e r d ue ,

t o t he p o ssibility o f accid e n tal c o n tact fr o m p e rs o n s w o rki n g al o n g

t he track T o pr e v e n t such o ccurr e n c e it has b e c o m e c ust o mary
.
,

to pr o t e ct t he rail by maki n g t he m e tal i n acc e ssibl e At t he .

sam e tim e t he c o n tact surfac e must b e k e pt fr e e fo r t he passag e

,

o f t he c o ll e ct o r It is quit e dii c ult t o e ffe cti ve ly pr o t e ct t he

.

third rail wh e r e t h e t o p c o n tact is us e d A n umb e r o f d e vic e s .

,

such as t he m o u n ti n g o f b o ards parall e l t o t he rail at o n e sid e a n d ,

ab o ve it ha ve b e e n tri e d with i n diffe r e n t s uc c e ss Fo rms o f

, .
 THE D I S TR I B UT I N G C I R C U I T 2 89

p r o t e cti o n are sh o w n in Fig 1 65 A tr o uble with t he un pr o . .

t e c t e d r ail is that it is liabl e t o hav e a thi n c o at o f ic e f o rm o v e r

its c o n tact su r fac e du r i n g sl e e t st o rms T his lm alth o ugh s o m e .
,

time s v e r y thi n is a g o o d i n sulat o r a n d o c ca s i o n ally pr e v e n ts

, ,

t ra i n m o v e m e n ts e n tir e ly V a r i o us m e th o ds hav e b e e n tr i e d.

t o Co mbat t he difculty S o m e r o ads use st e e l scrap e r s attach e d

.

t o t h e trucks passi n g o v e r t he rail surfac e ah e ad o f t h e c o n tact

,

s hoe s .O th e rs spray t he ra il with an ic e r e s isti n g liquid such as -

,

FI G . 1 65 F o rm s of p ro t e c t io n fo r o ve r ru n n in g t hi rd r ail
-
.

Th e s e ar e u s e d to p e v e nt
r t l
a c c id e n a t t f p
c o n ac o w lki g l
e rs o n s g t h t k w it h t h
a n a on e rac e
lv
i e c o n d uc t o r .

salt o r calcium chl o rid e s o luti o n T he rst e xp e di e n t is n o t .

e n ti r e ly succ e ssful an d t h e s e c o n d may a ffe ct t h e i n sulati o n

,
.

Un d e r R un nin g Thir d R ai1

- In o r d e r t o m o r e c o mpl e t e ly .

pr o t e ct t he third rail an d at t h e sam e tim e t o l e sse n tr o ubl e fr o m

,

s n o w an d sl e e t t h e u n d e r ru n n i n g c o n tact has c o m e i n t o u s e in
,
-

t he last fe w y e ars T he rail is susp e n d e d fr o m ha n g e r s as

.
,

sh o w n in Fig 1 66 with i n sulati o n at t he supp o r ts It is a

.
,
.

simpl e matt e r t o pr o t e ct agai n st o rdi n ary accid en ts by c o v e r

FI G . l 66 .
-
Un de r -
r un n n gi th ird -
ra il c o n s t ruc t o n i .

in g t he t o p surfac e with a w o o d e n tr o ugh o r with a sp e cial ,

clay til e S l e e t d o e s
. n o t f o r m s o e asily o n t h e u n d e r surfac e o f

t he rail an d littl e o r n o tr o ubl e has b e e n e xp e r i e n c e d fr o m this

,

s o urc e T he pri n cipal o bj e cti o n t o t he u n d e r r u n n i n g thi r d

.
-

rail is that it e n cr o ach e s m o r e o n t he cl e a r a n c e limits o f o rdi n a r y

r o lli n g st o ck ; s o that u n l e ss sp e cial car e is tak e n t o e limi n at e
,

c a r s havi n g parts o utsid e t he cl e ara n c e limits fo uli n g will r e ,

s ult w ith c o n s e qu e n t i n t e r rupti o n o f s e r vic e

, .

19
2 90 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

In o s m e cas e s rails o f t h e sam e ch e mical c o mp o siti o n as t h e

track rails are e mpl o y e d ; but fr e qu e n tly th e y are mad e o f a

sp e cial c o mp o siti o n s e l e ct e d t o gi ve maximum c o n ductivity .

h
T e pri n cipal p o i n t is t o ha v e a s o ft st e e l with a m i n i mum,

am o u n t o f impurity S uch a c o mp o siti o n w o uld b e t o o s o ft fo r a

.

ru n n i n g rail but its c o n ducti v ity c an b e i n cr e as e d fr o m o n e third

,
-

to o e
n -h alf ab o v e that o f t h e rail st e e l ; a n d its hard n e ss is s u i c ie n t '

to s ta n d t h e w e ar that is pr o duc e d by t h e rubbi n g o f t h e c o n tact

We ig ht , Po und s pe r Ya rd

FI G . 1 67 .
-
R e s is t an c e o f ra il s i
w t h bo n ds .

sh o e s o n its su r fac e T he r e sista n c e o f rails c o mpl e t e

. ,

b o n ds is sh o w n in F ig 1 67
,
.

W ith t he third rail h

t e c o
,
n ductivity e v e n fo r c o mparativ ,
e ly
light cr o ss s e cti o n s is s o gr e at that littl e additi o n al fe e di n g
-
,

capacity is n ee d e d e xc e pt o n v e ry h e a v y syst e ms
,
.

Un d e r gr o un d C o n d uit S s y t e m s I n a fe w citi e s. t h e O pp o si ,

ti o n t o t he o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y fo r e sth e tic r e as o n s has b e e n s o g r e at

that it has b e e n abs o lut e ly pr o hibit e d In t he U n it e d S tat e s t he .

on ly i n sta c
n e s ar e N e w Yo rk a n d W ashi n gt o n I n th e s e citi e s .

it has b e e n n e c e ssary t o fur n ish l ctric str t r i way

e e ee a l s e r vw e

with o ut t he us e o f o v e rh e ad c o n structi o n T he third rail as . ,

 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 29 1

or di n ar ily us e d is o f c o urs e o ut o f t he qu e sti o n fo r use o n city

,

st r e e ts T w o alt e r n ativ e s r e mai n : t o plac e t he c o n duct o rs u n d e r

.

g r o u n d c o n tact b e i n g mad e thr o ugh a sl o tt e d c o n duit o r e ls e

, ,

by a syste m o f surfac e c o n tac t B o th hav e b e e n tri e d but

. ,

t he o f rm e r has b e e n us e d t o t he e n tir e e xclusi o n o f t h e o th e r .

S ect io n C D

FI G . l 68
.
Un d e rg ro u n d c o n du it s y s t e m .

I n t heu n d e r gr o u n d c o n duit syst e m as i n stall e d in t he t w o

,

citi e s n ame d t he c o n duct o rs ar e plac e d in a c o n ti n u o us tr o ug h o r

,

c o n duit as sh o w n in Fig 1 68 T h e y c o n sist o f t w o T rails o ne

, . .
-
,

p o sitiv e an d o n e n e gativ e t h e track n o t b e i n g us e d fo r a c o n

,

duct o r T h e s e rails are e n tir e ly i n sulat e d fr o m t he gr o u n d by

.
292 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

p o rc e lai n i n sulat o r s C o n n e cti o n is mad e t o t he c ar e quipm e n t

.

thr o ugh a d e tachabl e pl o w which is c arri e d o n o n e o f t he trucks

, ,

a n d has o n its l o w e r e n d a pair o f sh o e s maki n g c o n tact with

t he t w o c o n duct o r rails T his syst e m has giv e n e xc e ll e n t s e rvic e

.

wh e r e it is us e d b o th in t he U n it e d S tat e s an d abr o ad ; t he
,

p r i n cipal o bj e cti o n is t he v e ry high c o st o f i n stallati o n .

S ur f ac e C o n t ac t S y s t e m s Fr o m tim e t o tim e e xp e rim e n ts ,

hav e b e e n mad e with syst e ms o f curr e n t supply which d o n o t

d e p e n d o n o v e rh e ad wir e s an d ar e l e ss e xp e n siv e t o i n stall tha n
,

t he u n d e r gr o u n d c o n duit T h e s e surfac e c o n tac t syst e ms all
.

o p e r at e by havi n g a s e ri e s o f c o n tact studs i n sulat e d fr o m t h e

,

gr o u n d but plac e d practically ush with t he str e e t surfac e

, .

T h e s e studs ar e n o rmally n o t in t he f e e d e r circuit ; b ut may b e

c o n n e ct e d by a s e ri e s o f mag n e tic o r o f m e cha n ical switch e s ,

Op e rat e d aut o matically by t he passag e o f a c ar in su c h a ma n n e r

that o n ly th o s e studs u n d e r it ar e e n e r g iz e d C u rr e n t is c o l .

l e c t e d by s o m e f o rm o f sh o e o r skat e o f m e tal c o n n e ct e d
t o t he car an d rubbi n g o n t he c o n tact studs
,
.

O wi n g t o t he gr e at difculty o f mai n tai n i n g t he i n sulati o n

o f t h e studs an d k e e pi n g in o p e rati o n a la r g e n umb e r o f aut o
,

matic switch e s t he failur e o f an y o n e o f which will e ith e r l e av e

,

t he c ar stall e d o r e ls e all o w a liv e c o n tact t o r e mai n u n pr o

t e c t e d t he syst e ms o f this typ e ha v e n e v e r b e e n p o pular
, Al .

th o ugh th e r e ar e a fe w li n e s o f surfac e c o n tact r o ad in Op e ra

ti o n its us e is n o t b e i n g e xt e n d e d ; an d in n e arly all o f t he plac e s
,

wh e re it has b e e n tri e d it has b e e n aba n d o n e d in fav o r o f t he

o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y o r o f t he u n d e rgr o u n d c o n duit syst e m .

Th e R e t urn Cir c uit In a c o n sta n t p o t e n tial circuit , t h e

.
-

e l e ctri cal r e lati o n s a r e t he sam e o n e ith e r sid e o f t he li n e Whe n .

t he syst e m is u n gr o u n d e d t he c on duct o rs may b e mad e t he sam e

,

in cr o ss s e cti o n an d t he dr o p in p o t e n tial will b e e v e n ly dis

-
,

tribut e d T his is t he cas e with t he d o ubl e tr o ll e y c o n structi o n

.
-
,

which is us e d in a fe w plac e s in this c o u n try an d abr o ad a n d in ,

t he u n d e rgr o u n d c o n duit syst e m as i n stall e d in N e w Y o rk an d

W ashi n gt o n I n th e s e t h e o utg o i n g an d t h e r e turn circuits ar e
.

m a d e id e n tical an d t he l o ss e s ar e e v e n ly divid e d o n t he t w o
,

sid e s T h e r e is n o r e as o n sav e fo r c o n ve n i e n c e w hy th e y sh o uld

.
, ,

b e thus distribut e d .

U s e o f R ail s a s a C o n duc t o r In a n y railway it is n e c e ssary

.
,

t o us e rails o f ir o n o r st e e l fo r t he t r ack E v e n in t he light e st

.

s e cti o n th e s e f o rm an e xc e ll e n t c o n duct o r if pr o p e r ly c o n n e ct e d
,
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 2 93

t o g e th e r an d if th e r e is n o o bj e cti o n t o O p e rati o n o n a gr o u n d e d
, ,

circuit fu r n ish a simpl e m e a n s o f o btai n i n g o n e o f t he mai n

,

c o n duct o rs o f t he e l e ct r ic syst e m T he c o n tact b e tw e e n t he rail

.

an d t he e l e ctrical appa r atus o n t h e car is u n iv e rsally mad e

thr o ugh t he wh e e ls t he m o t o rs an d o th e r e quipm e n t b e i n g
,

g r o u n d e d t o t he axl e s In this way a m o vi n g c o n tact at l e ast

.

e qual t o that b e tw e e n t he c o n tact li n e an d t h e c o ll e cti n g d e vic e

c an b e mai n tai n e d with o ut e xp e n s e .

Tra c k B o n d in g In o rd e r t o utiliz e t he track fo r o n e o f t he

m a i n c o n duct o rs it is n e c e ssar y that a c o mpl e t e e l e ct r ic circuit
,

be mai n tai n e d th r o ugh it Alth o ugh o rdi n ar y track wh e n

.
,

n e wly laid ,
may be a fai rly g o o d c o n duct o r it d e t e ri o rat e s ,

rapidly th r o ugh rusti n g at t he rail j o i n ts an d t he r e sista n c e b e ,

c o m e s s o high that t he l o ss is e xc e ssiv e T o pr e v e n t this c o n .

FI G . 1 69 C hi c ag o t yp e un p r o t e c t e d il
ra bo n d .

diti o n a r isi n g it is cust o ma ry t o mak e a p e r man e n t e l e ctric al

,

c o n n e cti o n b e tw e e n t he e n ds o f e ach pair o f abutti n g rails T his .

p r o c e ss is k n o wn as b o n di n g t he t r ack .

T he e a r ly e l e ctric r o ads w e r e Op e r at e d with o ut b o n di n g u n til ,

it w as f o u n d that t he p o w e r stati o n s c o uld n o t supply e n o ugh

e n e rgy t o pr o p e rly d r iv e t he ca r s O n disc o v e ri n g t he caus e
.
,

b o n ds o f i r o n wir e o f light s e cti o n w e r e us e d ; but th e s e did n o t

make t he track r e sista n c e l o w e n o ugh fo r succ e ssful Op e rati o n .

T h e y hav e b e e n sup e r s e d e d by b o n ds o f c o pp e r wir e o r e xibl e

st r ap p e rma n e n tly fast e n e d t o t he rails T he simpl e st typ e o f
, .

b o n d in us e c o n sists o f a pi e c e o f h e a vy c o pp e r wir e ri ve t e d ,

thr o ugh h o l e s dri ll e d in t he rails far e n o ugh fr o m t he e n ds t o

mak e t he co n n e cti o n outsid e t he splic e bars T his typ e o f b on d .

is fairly satisfact o r y but in practic e it has b ee n f o u n d b e tt e r t o

,

us e a sp e cial t e rmi n al o n t he wir e as sh o w n in Fig 1 69 which c an

,
.
,

be e xpa n d e d i n t o t he h o l e s in t he rails i n st e ad o f riv e t e d

, T his .

mak e s a b e tt e r m e cha n ical c o n n e cti o n an d p r e v e n ts t he e n tra n c e

,
294 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

of wat e r i n t o t he j u n cti o n s o that th e r e is l e ss liability o f rusti n g

,

a n d d e t e ri o rati o n o f t he b o n d B o n ds o f this typ e ar e O p e n t o a .

s e r i o us c o mm e rcial O bj e cti o n in that th e y ar e a c o n sta n t t e m pt a ,

ti o n t o c opp e r thi e v e s T o pr e v e n t this tr o ubl e b o n ds ar e m o r e

.
,

fr e qu e n tly i n stall e d b e n e ath t he splic e bars wh e r e th e y are pr o ,

t e ct ed A b o n d o f this typ e is sh o w n in Fig 1 70

. . .

FI G . 1 70 Pr o t e c t e d ra il b o n d .

A
typ e which has b e e n us e d t o s o m e e xt e n t is t he s o ld e r e d
b o n d T his is h e ld t o t he rail by s o ft s o ld e ri n g s o that n o drill
.
,

in g is r e quir e d I t is difcult t o s o ld e r c o pppe r t o s t e e l , an d th e re

.

is always da n g e r o f imp e rfe ct j o i n ts which will br e ak aft e r a ,

sh o rt p e ri o d O n this acc o u n t it has n o t b ee n v e ry p o pular

. .

A m e th o d o f b o n di n g which has m e t with c o n sid e rabl e fav o r is

t o w e ld t he b o n d t e rmi n als dir e ctly t o t he rails by a m e th o d lik e ,

FI G . 1 7l El e c t ri c a lly w e l d e d b o n d
. .

Th e so ld er e d ty pe b ond is p r e c is e ly s im ila r in a pp e ar a n ce ; t h e d if f eren ce is t h at t h e j o in t s

b et w ee n t he
.

r ail a n d t he b o n d ar e m a d e W f
it h s o t so ld er .

that us e d fo r r e sista n c e w e ldi n g o f track T he e quipm e n t is .

alm o st id e n tic al but is o f small e r capacity T he c on n e cti on is

,
.

v e ry similar t o a br a z e d j o i n t an d c an be mad e e n tir e ly p e rman e n t

,

if care is us e d T his typ e o f b o n d ( Fig 1 71 ) is n o t subj e ct t o

. .

d e t e ri o rati o n as with t he e xpa n d e d t e rmi n al type It is s o m e .

what m o r e e xp en siv e t o i n stall ; an d like t he track w e ld must b e , ,

d o n e by sp e cial machi ne ry If a b o n d fails aft e r t he w e ldi n g .

 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 2 95

e quipme n t has b e e n r e m o v e d r e plac e m e n t is di f cult ; o th e rwis e

it is e xc e e di n gly satisfact o r y .

R e s i s t an c e o f t h e R e t urn C ir c uit Wh e n t he track is us e d

as t h e r e turn circuit it is imp o rt a n t t o k n o w its e l e ctr ical qualiti e s
,
.

O rdi n ar y st e e l has a c o n ductivity o f ab o ut o n e tw e lfth that o f -

C o pp e r s o t h at a r ail w e ighi n g 100 lb pe r yd has a r e sista n c e o f

,
. .

ab o ut o hms pe r mil e ; a n d si n c e th e r e ar e t w o rails which may

,

be plac e d in pa r all e l in e ach track t he t o tal pe r m il e is o hms ,

.

T o this must be add e d t he r e sista n c e o f t he b o n ds T h e s e are .

ab o ut e quival e n t in s e cti o n t o a 4 0 c o pp e r wir e but th e re is a

,

c e r tai n additi o n al l o ss in t he c o n ta c t b e tw e e n st e e l an d c o pp e r .

Whil e t he t o tal r e sista n c e o f b o n ds v ari e s g r e atly b e i n g l e ast fo r ,

t he w e ld e d typ e it may o rdi n arily b e tak e n as ab o ut

,

o hms pe r mil e o f si n gl e rail with j o i n ts e v e ry 3 0 ft ,

T hi s mak e s .

t he t o tal r e sista n c e pe r m il e o f si n gl e track laid with 1 00 l b ,

-
.

rails ab o u t
,
O hms Fo r o th e r w e ights o f r ail t he v alu e s
.
,

will be pr o p o rti o n al e xc ept that t he e ffe ct o f t he b o n ds is c o n

,

sta n t The r e sista n c e o f t he t w o rails o f a track with o rdi n ary

.
,

b o n di n g as a fu n cti o n o f t he w e ight is sh o w n in Fig 1 67 In

, , . .

cas e t he b o n di n g is n o t w e ll m ai n tai n e d t he track r e sista n c e may ,

b e mat e r ially g r e at e r .

R e ac t an c e o f R ail s Wh en alt e rn ati n g curre n t is e mpl o ye d

.

for t he pr o pulsi o n o f trai n s t he track b e i n g us e d fo r t he r e tur n

,

c o n duct o r an additi o n al e ff e ct is n o tic e d T h e r e is an e xtra

, .

dr o p in t he circuit d ue t o t he r e acta n c e o f t he rails T h e s e .

,

b e i n g o f a mag n e tic mat e rial hav e a r e lativ e ly high i n ducta n c e

, ,

a n d als o caus e ski n e ffe ct e v e n with fairly l o w fr e qu e n ci e s .

T he valu e s which hav e b e e n o btai n e d in t e sts o n t h e o w o f

alte r n ati n g curr e n t in rails are n o t e n tir e ly satisfact o ry al ,

th o ugh a gre at d e al o f e xp e rim e n tal data has b e e n tak e n T he .

b e st r e sults publish e d are pr o bably th o s e o f t he El e ctric R ailway

Te st C o mmissi o n 1
T he r e acta n c e cha n g e s with t he c urr e n t
.

carri e d d ue large ly t o v ariati o n s in p e rm e ability In an y cas e

, .

t he appar e n t r e sista n c e (imp e da n c e ) is s e v e ral time s t he
tru e r e sista n c e o f t he rail wh e n tra n smitti n g di r e ct curr e n t .

D e fe c t s in t h e R e t urn Circ uit T he c o n ductivity o f g o o d

track is s o high that th e r e is a c o mp arativ e ly small dr o p in
p o t e n tial in car ryi n g t he curr e n t In a si n gl e t r ack with 1 00 -l b . .

rails this is but v o lts pe r m il e pe r 1 0 0 amp With this v alue .

,

1
R e por t f t he E l ec t ri c R ai lw a y Te s t C o m
o m i s si on , C h ap t e r VI p, . 38 7;
M c G raw P ub l is hin g C O .
,
New Yo rk ,
1 90 6 .
2 96 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

it is e vid e n t that v e ry littl e if an y additi o n al fe e d e r c apacity

, ,

is r e quir e d u n l e ss t h e l o ad is e xc e e di n gly la r g e ; B ut if th e r e ar e
a fe w bad b o n ds in t he track all t he curr e n t may be f o rc e d t o
,

o w thr o ugh o n e rail thus i n cr e asi n g t he dr o p

,

, T o o bviat e this .

difculty it is cust o mary t o cr o ss b o n d t he rails at fr e qu e n t in

,
-

t e r val s by c o n n e cti n g j ump e rs t o th e m as sh o w n in Fig 1 72 , . .

With this arra n ge m e n t t he dista n c e t h e c ur r e n t will hav e t o o w

thr o ugh o n e rail al o n e is limit e d t o t he p o rti o n b e tw e e n cr o ss
b o n ds c o n tai n i n g t he bad c o n n e cti o n ; an d if th e r e ar e s e v e ral ,

Op e n b o n ds in t he track t he cha n c e s o f its e l e ctrical c o n ti nuity

,

b e i n g br o ke n ar e v e ry much r e duc e d .

T he r e sult o f i n cr e as e d r e sista n c e o f t he track circuit is s e e n

at o n c e in t he gr e at e r l o ss T he valu e o f t he e n e rgy may b e
.

m e asur e d in d o llars an d c e n ts ; an d o n ly a littl e c alculati o n is

n e e d e d t o sh o w that it is n a n cially t h e p r o p e r thi n g t o k e e p t h e

r e turn circuit in r s t class c o n diti o n-

.

FI G . 1 72 C r o ss b o n din g w it h r e t urn fe e de r .

El e c t r o ly s is a n o th e r disad v a n tag e fr o m havi n g

T h e re is
a high r e sista n c e which is e ve n m o r e s e ri o us an d which ca n n o t
, ,

b e dir e ctly m e asur e d in t he m o n e y c o st T his is t he damag e t o .

pr o p e rty caus e d by e l e ctr o lytic acti o n T he track is n o rmally .

p artially i n sulat e d fr o m t he e arth e sp e cially in dry w e ath e r ; ,

but it must b e c o n sid e r e d as a gr o u n d e d circuit at all tim e s .

S i n c e t he track is in c o n n e cti o n with t he s o il e ith e r p artially ,

o r c o mpl e t e ly t h e latt e r b e c o m e s an e l e ctric c o n d uct o r in

,

parall e l with t he rails Its r e sista n c e is high but n o t e n o ugh s o

.
,

t o pr e v e n t s o m e c urr e n t o wi n g thr o ugh it If this c an b e .

d e t e rmi n e d it is p o ssibl e t o calculat e t he pr o p o rti o n o f t he

,

c urr e n t which will o w thr o ugh t he gr o u n d ; but l o cal c o n di

ti o n s v ary s o gr e atly that it is difc ult t o c o mp ut e it ac curat e ly .

T he us e o f t he e arth as a c o n duct o r in p arall e l with t he track is

n o t i n h e r e n tly a disadva n tag e si n c e t he e ffe c t is t o i n cre as e
,

t he c o n ductivity o f t he r e tu r n circuit ; but t he difculty li e s in

c o n tr o lli n g t he path o f t he curr e n t as it o ws thr o ugh t he gr o u n d .
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 297

E ar th c o n ducti o n is e l e ctr o lytic in its n atu r e T he s o il c o n sists .

o f i n e r t matt e r h o ldi n g a c e r tai n pr o p o rti o n o f m e tallic salts

,

which may be in s o lid f o r m an d a c o n t e n t o f wat e r m o re o r

, ,

l e ss imp r e g n at e d with s o luti o n s o f salts Wh e n cu r r e n t e n t e r s .

t he e arth t he e ffe ct is t o e at away t he m e tal ; an d wh e r e it

,

l e ave s t he gr o u n d a m e tal o r hyd r o g e n will b e d e p o sit e d If

,
.

t he e a r th circuit w e r e mad e up o f an i r o n salt t he e ff e ct w o uld b e ,

t o diss o lv e a c e r tai n am o u n t o f i r o n fr o m t he r ail at t he p o i n t

wh e re t he curr e n t e n t e rs t he g r o u n d an d t o d e p o sit an e qual
,

qua n tity o f i r o n wh e r e t he curr e n t l e av e s T his w o uld r e sult .

in a c e r tai n w e i g ht o f m e tal b e i n g w o r n away fr o m t he rails at

d e n it e p o i n ts which alth o ugh a s e r i o us matt e r c o n c e r n s n o
, , ,

o n e but t he rail r o ad c o mpa n y T he d e p o siti o n o f m e tal o n t he

.

rail at a n o th e r plac e w o uld hav e but littl e e ffe ct si n c e it c o uld ,

n o t aid t h e rail s e cti o n t o an y e xt e n t .

The mai n difculty with e arth c o n ducti o n is that in citi e s

th e r e are ma n y lin e s o f pip e an d cabl e ru n n i n g parall e l with t he
railway tracks buri e d b e n e ath t he pavi n g o f t he str e e ts thr o ugh
,

which t he t r acks r un S uch li n e s fur n ish a c o n ducti n g m e dium

.

which is sup e r i o r t o t he e a r th ; a n d t he e ffe ct is fo r t he curr e n t

t o b e div e rt e d t o th e m wh e n e v e r th e r e is an y t e n d e n cy fo r it
t o l e av e t h e rails A pip e li n e lyi n g parall e l t o t he track in
.

cr e as e s t he ability t o tak e curr e n t fr o m t he rails in pr o p o rti o n

t o its c o n ductivity s o that t he t e n d e n cy t o hav e curr e n t o w
,

th r o ugh o utsid e paths is i n cr e as e d gr e atly by t he pr e s e n c e o f

such c o n duct o r s Wh e n t he curr e n t d o e s o w thr o ugh th e m t he
.
,

sam e ph e n o m e n a o ccur as wh e n it l e av e s t he rail At t he .

p o i n t wh e r e t he cu r r e n t e n t e r s t he c o n duct o r th e r e is a d e p o sit ,

usually o f hyd r o g e n an d wh e r e it l e av e s t he m e tal is e at e n away

, , .

T he am o u n t which will b e e at e n is a fu n cti o n o f t h e curr e n t an d

t he tim e . O n e amp e r e o wi n g c o n ti n u o usly fo r a y e ar will dis
, ,

s o lv e lb o f i r o n in t he f e rric stat e (trival e n t )

. lb o f , .

f e rr o us ( bi v al e n t ) ir o n o r lb o f l e ad C o r r o si o n is lik e ly
, . .

t o tak e plac e t o a gr e at e r e xt e n t tha n i n dicat e d by th e s e valu e s ,

si n c e t he e l e ctr o lytic acti o n will i n duc e n atural c o rr o si o n by t he

salts in t he s o il T h e e ff e ct is r e n d e r e d m o r e s e ri o us si n c e t h e
.

t e n d e n cy is fo r t he cur r e n t t o caus e d e e p pits in t he m e tal s o m e ,

time s e ati n g thr o ugh pip e s in a fe w sp o ts wh e n t he r e mai n d e r o f

t he surfac e is but slightly a ffe ct e d .

R e m e d i e s for El e c t ro lys i s
S i n c e t he track is e arth e d a n d
.
,

t he g r o u n d fu r n ish e s a path in pa r all e l with t h e rails it is n o t ,

298 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

p o ssibl e t o e n t ir e ly e limi n at e e l e ctr o lytic acti o n s o l o n g as th e y

ar e e mpl o y e d fo r a c o n duct o r . T he o n ly abs o lut e pr e v e n tiv e
is t o us e an i n sulat e d r e tur n circuit In that cas e e l e ct r o lysis
.

ca n n o t e xist B ut t he e xc e ll e n c e o f t he t r ack as an e l e ct r ic
.

c o n duct o r m ak e s it m o st d e si r abl e t o e mpl o y it fo r c o n ducti n g

t he c urr e n t T h e r e ar e s e v e ral m e th o ds fo r mitigati n g t he
.

e ff e cts o f e l e ctr o lysis whil e at t h e sam e tim e p e rmitti n g t he us e

,

o f t he rails as part o f t he e l e ctric circuit .

T he simpl e st way o f pr e v e n ti n g e l e ctr o lysis is t o c o v e r t he

parall e l li n e s o f pip e an d o th e r c o n duct o rs with a pr o t e ctiv e c o at
in g which if it c o uld b e th o r o ughly appli e d an d b e p e rma n e n t
, , , ,

w o uld b e a m o st e ffe ctiv e r e m e dy U n f o rtu n at e ly it is n o t

.
,

p o ssibl e t o c o mm e rcially c o v e r pip e with a p e rfe ct c o ati n g ; an d ,

e v e n if a pr o p e r c o at c o uld b e m ad e it w o uld b e subj e ct t o

,

d e t e ri o rati o n in c o n tact with t he s o il T he g e n e ral m e th o d o f

.

failur e o f such a f o rm o f pr o t e cti o n is by its b r e aki n g in a fe w

plac e s T his has t he e ff e ct o f l o calizi n g t h e e l e ctr o lysis causi n g
.
,

m o r e rapid d e structi o n at such p o i n ts tha n if n o c o ati n g w e r e

us e d .

An o th e r m e th o d which has b e e n adv o cat e d t o s o m e e xt e n t

is t o br e ak t he pip e i n t o s e cti o n s by t he us e o f i n sulat e d j o i n ts .

T his mak e s it a much p o o r e r c o n duct o r tha n o th e rwis e With .

this arra n g e m e n t t he curr e n t has a t e n d e n cy t o f o ll o w t he pip e

,

as far as it is a c o n ti n u o us c o n duct o r a n d t o pass i n t o t he e arth

,

ar o u n d t he i n sulat e d j o i n t an d bac k i n t o t he pip e thus causi n g ,

e l e ctr o lytic acti o n at such p o i n ts . T h e s e j o i n ts ar e s o m e what

e xp e n si v e ,
an d this m e th o d o f pr o t e cti o n is o n ly g O o d in c o m

bi n ati o n with o th e rs .

S i n c e t he curr e n t i n h e r e n tly s e e ks t he b e st c o n duct o r an d ,

h e n c e t e n ds t o f o ll o w a pip e li n e an e ff e cti v e r e m e dy sh o uld

,

b e t o mak e t he pip e as g o o d a c o n duct o r as p o ssibl e by b o n di n g ,

t he j o i n ts an d attachi n g it t o t he rail at suitabl e p o i n ts

,
T his .

is o ft e n r e fe rr e d t o as t he pip e drai n ag e syst e m T his mak e s
.

t he pip e li n e an i n t e gral part o f t he e l e ctric circuit an d e limi n at e s

,

t he cha n c e o f e l e ctr o lytic c o n ducti o n It l e ads t o much gr e at e r

.

c urr e n ts in t he pip e s tha n wh e n n o c o n n e cti o n is us e d an d may ,

ha v e i n j uri o us e ff e cts if fo r an y r e as o n a b o n d is br o k e n I n
, ,
.

such an e v e n t t he e l e ctr o lysis is l o cally much w o rs e tha n if n o

r e m e dy is us e d .

T h e e ff e ctiv e n e ss o f t he pip e d r ai n ag e syst e m is c o n sid e rably

impr o v e d if a s e ri e s o f n e g ati v e f e e d e rs is i n stall e d t o aid t he
 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C U I T 2 99

rails T his t e n ds t o r e m o v e t he i n j ur i o us acti o n wh e n a si n gl e

.

b o n d is d e fe ctiv e a n d t o r e duc e t he d r o p o f p o t e n tial in g e n e ral

, ,

as sh o w n in Fig 1 73 In a n y cas e it is di fcult t o d e t e rmi n e

. .

t he p r o p e r f e e d e r capacity si n c e t he e n ti r e ci r cuit is gr o u n d e d
, ,

a n d t he calculati o n o f t he dr o p thr o ugh parall e l circuits is

In o rd e r hav e this m e th o d o f pr o t e cti o n e ff e cti v e all pip e s

to ,

which ar e in t he imme diat e vici n ity o f t he r ailway track must b e

c o n n e ct e d t o it a n d must b e e l e ctr ically c o n ti n u o us If this
,
.

is d o n e th e r e is s o m e additi o n al da n g e r t o o th e r pip e s which

,

ar e n o t c o n n e ct e d t o t he r e tu r n syst e m .

015 fa r/c c f r o m S ubs fa f/ o n

FI G . 1 73 .
P o t e n t ia l d r o p w it h p ip e d rain ag e s ys t e m .

T hi s a r r an ge m e nt is us e d fo r p e v e n t io n
r l ly i i
o f e e c t ro s s b fl g
n a n um er o ar e c it y s ys t e m s .

It is e vid e n t that an y m e th o d o f pr o t e cti o n which r e duc e s t o

a mi n imum t he diffe r e n c e of p o t e n tial b e tw e e n p o i n ts in t he
track will l e ss e n t he t e n d e n cy fo r curr e n t t o o w in paths e x
t e rio r t o t h e r e gular c ircuit S uch a c o n diti o n c an b e O btai n e d
.

by t he us e o f i n sulat e d track fe e d e rs pr o p o r ti o n e d in a ma n n e r ,

similar t o t he fe e di n g syst e m fo r t he dist r ibuti n g circuit If .

t he n umb e r an d r e sista n c e s o f such f e e d e rs b e pr o p e rly ch o s e n ,

t he di ff e r e n c e o f p o t e n tial b e tw e e n v ari o us p o i n ts c an b e r e
d uc e d t o an y d e sir e d v alu e In o rd e r t o hav e such syst e ms e f
.

fe c t ive t he f e e d e rs must b e e n tir e ly i n sulat e d fr o m t he rails

,

e xc e pt at t he p o i n ts o f c o n n e cti o n In c e rtai n cas e s if t he track

.
,
.

is ti e d t o t he g e n e r at o r at t he stati o n with a sh o r t l o w r e sista n c e ,

-

cabl e it may b e n e c e ssary t o us e f e e d e r s t o o th e r parts o f t he

,
30 0 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

syst e m which ar e lar g e r tha n warra n t e d by t he e c o n o mics o f t he

situati o n T his may b e o bviat e d by r e m o vi n g t he dir e ct c o n
.

n e c t io n at t h e stati o n e n ti r e ly o r by i n cr e asi n g its r e sista n c e u n til

,

t he d e si r e d e ff e ct is o btai n e d ( s e e Fig If s o m e o f t he .

f e e d e rs ar e l o n g b o o st e rs m ay be i n s e rt e d as is s o m e tim e s d o n e
, ,

in t he distributi n g circuit .

All o f t he ab o v e m e th o ds ha v e b e e n us e d fo r t he mitigati o n
o f e l e ctr o lysis At t he pr e s e n t tim e th e r e is n o g e n e ral agr ee
.

m e n t that o n e is d e cid e dly b e tt e r tha n t h e o th e rs T he t w o .

which ha ve b e e n us e d t o t h e gr e at e st e xt e n t ar e pip e drai n ag e an d

Dls fa nc e f r o m Subs fu o n
.

FI G . 1 74 .
-
Po t e n t i al d ro p w i t h in s u l a t e d n e g at ive f e e de rs o f c o rr e c t
r e s i s t an c e .

T hi s m et ho d l
o f e e c t ro ly s is m g
it i a t io n is re c o m m e n d ed by t h e U n it e d S t a t es B u r e a u of
S t a n d a rd s .

t he i n sulat e d f e e d e r syst e m A p o ssibl e s o luti o n is t he c o m .

bi n ati o n o f th e s e t w o .

P o l a rity o f t h e D ir e c t C urr e n t C ir c uit

- U n til n o w n o thi n g
d e n it e has b e e n said ab o ut t h e pr o p e r dir e cti o n o f c urr e n t o w
in d ir e ct curr e n t railway syst e ms
-
S o far as e l e ctr o lytic e ff e cts .

g o , e ith e r t h e p o sitiv e o r t h e n e g a t iv e t e r m in al o f t h e g e n e rat o r

may b e c o n n e ct e d t o t he distributi n g circuit ; fo r if an y curr e nt ,

g o e s o ut o f t h e rails it must r e tur n at s o m e o th e r p o i n t ; an d it is

,

wh e r e t he curr e n t l e av e s t he m e tallic c o n duct o r that t h e d e s t r uc

tiv e e ff e ct o c curs T h e r e is this di ffe r e n c e : if t he distributi n g
.

circuit is c o n n e ct e d t o t he p o siti v e t e rmi n al o f t he g e n e rat o r ,

t he e l e ct r o lysis o f t he rail will o c cur at t he p o i n t farth e st fr o m

 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I R C UI T 301

t he stati o n an d o f t he pip es o r o th e r st r uctur e s n e a r e s t it ; whil e

,

if t he dist r ibuti n g circuit is c o n n e ct e d t o t he n e gativ e p o l e t he ,

pip e s W il l b e attack e d farth e st fr o m t he stati o n an d t he rails

will b e affe ct e d at t he p o i n t n e ar i t A ppar e n tly si n c e t he am o u n t .
,

o f m e tal diss o lv e d is a fu n cti o n o f t h e cu rr e n t th e r e is n o i n h e r e n t ,

di ffe r e n c e in t he t w o m e th o ds o f c o n n e cti o n E xp e r i e n c e has .

sh o w n h o w e v e r that t h e curr e n t o w t o o r fr o m t he r ail at t he

, ,

p o i n ts far fr o m t he stati o n will b e dist r ibut e d o v e r a c o n sid e r

abl e dista n c e whil e n e arby it will b e c o n c e n t r at e d in a sh o rt
,

spac e S i n c e e l e ct r o lysis o f t h e rail o n ly a ffe cts t h e r ailway c o m

.

pa n y it is t he pip e li n e which must b e p r o t e ct e d ; a n d it is e asi e r

,

t o i n sp e ct a sh o r t l e n gth o f pip e in t h e vici n ity o f t he stati o n ,

a n d r e n e w it wh e n n e c e ssary tha n t o take ca r e o f a l o n g se c

,

ti o n at an i n d e n it e dista n c e F o r this r e as o n all e l e ct r ic .

,

railways hav e fo r ma n y y e ars ad o pt e d t he p r actic e o f maki n g

t h e rai l ci r c uit n e gativ e thus l o calizi n g t h e damag e ,
W ith a .

b e tt e r u n d e r sta n di n g o f t h e caus e s an d r e sults o f e l e ctr o lysis ,

m o r e e ff e ctiv e r e m e di e s hav e b e e n d e v e l o p e d s o that t h e n e e d ,

fo r k e e pi n g t he sam e p o la r ity is l e ss ; but in t h e i n t e rv e n i n g

tim e t he p r actic e has b e e n s o sta n da r di z e d that it is in u n iv e rsal
us e wh e r e dir e ct cur r e n t is e mpl o y e d fo r t r ai n pr o pulsi o n .

Alte rn at in g C urr e n t s a n d El e c t r o ly s is
Th e ab o v e discussi o n
o n e l e ctr o lysis has b e e n c o n n e d t o a c o n sid e rati o n o f t h e e ff e cts

o f di r e ct curr e n ts A n umb e r o f e xp e r im e n ts hav e b e e n c o n

.

duct e d t o d e t e rmi n e wh e th e r similar re sults ar e o btai n e d wh e n

alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n ts ar e us e d fo r t r ai n p r o pulsi o n with a gr o u n d e d
r e tu r n U p t o dat e t he i n dicati o n s o f such t e sts hav e b e e n
.

n e gativ e th e r e b e i n g n o e vid e n c e that an y e l e ctr o lysis r e sults

,

fr o m t he alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t circuit T his w o uld n atu r ally be

-
.

t he cas e si n c e t he r e v e rsal o f t he curr e n t is s o rapid that e v e n ,

if m e tal sh o uld be diss o lv e d in o n e alt e r n ati o n it w o uld b e re ,

plac e d o n t he e l e ctr o d e duri n g t he succ e e di n g half cycl e .

N at ur al C orr o s i o n In maki n g t e sts t o d e t e rmi n e t he e xact

.

am o u n t o f e l e ct r o lytic c o rr o si o n it is difcult t o o btai n accu r at e

r e sults An y p r actical t e sts must n e c e ssarily m e a n l e avi n g m e tal
.

plat e s in t he s o il e xp o s e d t o t he acti o n o f t he e l e ctric curre n t

,
.

U n d e r such c o n diti o n s th e r e is i n v ariably s o m e acti on d ue t o t he

n atural c o r r o si o n o f t h e m e tal in c o n tact with t h e e a r th salts .

S o m e r e c e n t t e sts i n dicat e that t he rat e o f c o r r o si o n u n d e r such

1

1
E . M . S C O F I E LD an d L . A . S TENGER :
C o rr o s io n of M e t al s in N at u r a l
S o ils , E l ec t ri c R ai l w a y J ourn a l , Vo l . X LI V p,
. 1 09 2 , N o v . 1 4, 1 9 1 4 .
302 TH E EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y

circumsta n c e s is much gr e at e r tha n w as f o rm e rly imagi ne d .

C o rr o si o n may b e d ue t o impuriti e s in t he m e tals in c o n tact with

t he s o il D iffe r e n t s o ils hav e div e rs e activiti e s in c o rr o di n g
.

m e tals ; an d s o m e tim e s wh e n t w o ki n ds o f s o il ar e in c o n tact with

a si n gl e pi e c e o f m e tal t he c o rr o si o n is i n cr e as e d o v e r that in a
h o m o ge n e o us e arth The c o rr o si o n n o t e d in s o m e t e sts is s uf
.

ci e n t t o e xplai n fully all t he ph e n o m e n a o bs e r ve d in c o n n e cti o n

with what is supp o s e d t o be e l e ctr o lysis fr o m curr e n t passi n g
thr o ugh m e tals in c o n tact with t he e arth .

S pe c ial M e t h o d s o f Fe e din g At v ari o us tim e s s p e cial ,

m e th o ds o f fe e di n g ha ve b e e n sugg e st e d an d s o m e o f th e m ha ve ,

b e e n us e d in a fe w cas e s A fav o rit e sugg e sti o n in t he e arly days

.

o f e l e ct r ic railway hist o ry was t o us e t he t w o c o n tact wir e s o f a

d o ubl e track r o ad as t he t w o o utsid e li n e s o f a th r e e wir e syst e m

- -
,

t he track b e i n g t he n e utral T he ar ra n g e m e n t o f circuits is

.

FI G . 1 75 .
T h r e e -w i r e d is t r ib u t io n s ys t e m .

I n t h is s ys t e m ll y
t h e t w o t r o e w ir e s ar e m a d e t h e o pp
o s it e s id e s pf t he c ir c u it an d t he
l N bly ll
,

k
t ra c t h e n e u t ra g
o t e t h a t t h e c ur r e n t o w m g t h r o u h t h e t r a c k i s c o n s id e r a sm a er

ll y
.

t ha n t h a t in t h e t r o e w ir e s .

sh o w n in Fig 1 75 By t hi s m e a n s t he curr e n t o wi n g in t he trac k

. .

w o uld be r e duc e d t o that n e c e ssary fo r supplyi n g t he u n bala n c e

o f t he syst e m a n d e l e ctr o lytic e ff e cts w o uld b e e limi n at e d
,
.

In a thr e e wir e syst e m t he n e utral carri e s but a small curr e n t

-
, ,

a n d h e n c e its siz e m a y b e much l e ss tha n that o f t he o utsid e wir e s .

T he e ff e ct o f maki n g t he rail t he n e utral is t o alm o st e n tir e ly l o s e

t h e ad v a n tag e o f its high c o n ductivity as a n aid t o t h e distrib uti n g
circuit s o that t he d e cr e as e in t he am o u n t o f C o pp e r r e quir e d
,

o v e r t h e t w o wir e syst e m with gr o u n d e d r e tur n is quit e small

- .

T h e e xtra c o mplicati on o f t h e c o n tact c o n duct o rs r e quiri n g th o s e ,

o f o pp o sit e p o larity t o b e i n sulat e d fr o m e ach o th e r mak e s cr o ss ,

i n gs an d s w itch e s difcult t o lay o ut an d n e c e ssitat e s t he us e o f ,

 TH E D I S TR I B U T I N G C I RC UI T 303

S p e cial i n sulat o rs F urth e r it make s t he c o n ne cti o n o f all t he

.
,

o v e rh e ad li n e s i n t o a si n gl e n e tw o rk imp o ssibl e a n d may pr e v e n t ,

t he O p e rati o n o f a damag e d s e cti o n by fe e di n g fr o m adj ac e n t

parts o f t he circuit .

T he use o f high e r w o rki n g p o t e n tials has b e e n adv o cat e d fo r

ma n y y e ars an d th e r e has b e e n a n o tabl e adva n c e in this r e sp e ct
,
.

T he rst e l e ctric railways w e r e O p e r at e d o n 1 00 v o lts o r th e re ,

ab o uts ; fr o m that time a rapid i n cr e as e w as mad e u n til 4 50 v o lts

was us e d o n t he R ichm o n d r o ad in 1 888 T hat p o t e n tial w as .

ad o pt e d as b e i n g t he hi g h e st fo r which a practical dir e ct curr e n t -

g e n e rat o r c o uld b e built S i n c e that tim e t he i n cr e as e has b e e n

.

sl o we r but t he pr e ssu r e h as gradually b e e n br o ught up t o 600

,

v olt s which is n o w alm o st a u n ive rsal sta n dard In s o m e fe w in

,
.

sta n c e s r o ads hav e b e e n built fo r pre ssur e s fr o m 650 t o 750 v o lts ,

which u n til a fe w y e ars ago r e pr e s e n t e d t he limit o f c o mmutat o r

, ,

d e sig n .

Q uit e r e c e n tly t he p o ssibility o f usi n g t w o o r m o r e c o m m u

,

t at o r s in s e r i e s has b e e n e xpl o it e d in t he s o call e d 1 2 0 0 v o lt -

syst e m which in its o rigi n al c o n c e pti o n c o n t e mplat e d t he us e o f

,

t w o sta n dard railway m o t o rs i n sulat e d fo r t he high e r p o t e n tial, ,

c o n n e ct e d p e rma n e n tly in s e ri e s o n a 1 2 00 v o lt circuit T he -

.

g e n e rati n g e quipm e n t similarly c o n sist e d o f t w o sta n dard 60 0

v o lt machi n e s in s e ri e s T he e ffe ct o f this i n cr e as e o f li n e p o t e n
.

tial is t o r e duc e t he am o u n t o f distributi on C o pp e r fo r t he sam e

l o ss in i n v e rs e pr o p o r ti o n t o t he square o f t he p o t e n tial ; s o that
fo r t w o li ne s o f e qual capacity o n e fo r 1 2 00 v o lts w o uld r e quir e ,

but o n e f o urth as much c o pp e r in t he distributi n g ci r cuit as t he

-

o th e r at 60 0 v o lts B e tt e r k n o wl e dg e o f c o mmutati o n a n d t he
.

us e o f i n t e rp o l e machi n e s has mad e p o ssibl e t he c o n st r ucti o n o f

m o t o rs an d g e n e rat o rs carryi n g 1 2 00 v o lts o n a si n gl e c o m m u

tat o r s o that t he apparatus has b e e n simpli e d F urth e r tha n
, .

this it has all o w e d t he placi n g o f t w o o f th e s e machi n e s in s e ri e s

,

o n a 2 40 0 v o lt circuit -
.

F urth e r i n cr e as e s in t he c o n tact li n e p o t e n tial d e p e n d o n t he

d e v e l o pm e n t o f m o t o r s adapt e d t o c o mmutat e high p re ssur e s .

It is i n t e r e sti n g t o n o t e that t he m o st r e c e n t i n stallati o n that o f ,

t he C hicag o M ilwauke e an d S t P aul c o n t e mplat e s t he us e o f

, .
,

t w o dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs in s e r i e s o n a tr o ll e y at a p o t e n tial o f

-

3000 v o lts Lab o rat o ry t e sts i n v o lvi n g t he us e o f still high e r

.

p o t e n tials S h o w that such i n cr e as e s are withi n t he limits o f

p o ssibility .
3 04 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

Wh e n alt e r n ati n g c urr e n t is us e d on t he c o n tact

n o d e n it e limit t o t he pr e ssur e that c an b e e mpl o y e d fo ,

in g tra n sf o rm e rs giv e an y d e sir e d p o t e n tial fo r t he O p e r

t he e quipm e n t . T he li m it is th e n o n ly in t he pr e ssur e fo
t he c o n tact li n e an d t he c o ll e ct o rs c an b e i n sulat e d . Pi
of v o lts t o v o lts ar e n o w b e i n g us e d but t he
,

r e as o n w hy th e y sh o uld n o t be i n cr e as e d if f o u n d de s ir ab
 C HAP T E R X III

S UB S TATIO N S FO R ELEC TR I C RAILW AYS

His t o ric al S k e t c h of D e ve l o pm l ct r ic railways

e nt E ar ly e e

had t he simpl e st o f e l e ctrical ci r cuits T he g e n e rat o r s pr o .

d uc e d dir e ctly t he e m f r e quir e d fo r o p e r ati n g t h e car m o t o rs

. . .
,

an d fe d i n t o t he c o n tact li n e usually with o ut t he aid o f an

,

auxilia r y fe e d e r syst e m T his arra n g e m e n t has t he s o l e ad

.

va n tag e o i simplicity In e v e ry o th e r r e sp e ct it is d e ci e n t
. .

With t he gr o wth o f e l e ct r ic railways it w as s o o n f o u n d that ,

t he limitati o n s imp o s e d by this arra n g e m e n t w e r e s e ri o us At .

t he o uts e t t he e fci e n cy o f t he distributi o n b e cam e l o w o n

, ,

acc o u n t o f t h e e xc e ssiv e fall o f p o t e n tial in t he c o n tact li n e T he .

o bvi o us r e m e dy was t o i n cr e as e t he a r e a o f t h e c o n duct o r but this ,

has t he e ff e ct o f augm e n ti n g t he x e d charg e s o n t he i n v e stm e n t .

In t he la r g e r syst e ms an att e mpt was mad e t o impr o v e t he

,

e c o n o my with o ut e xc e ssiv e c o st o f dist r ibuti o n c o pp e r by usi n g a

n umb e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t p o w e r stati o n s l o c at e d at such p o i n ts as

,

w o uld cut d o w n t he l e n g th o f ci r cuit fe d fr o m an y o n e o f th e m

t o a mi n imum Whil e this mad e a d e cid e d impr o v e m e n t in t he
.

e c o n o my o f t he syst e m t h e r e sult was t o hav e a n umb e r o f

,

smal l an d r e lativ e ly in e i c ie n t pla n ts e ach Op e rati n g at a l o w

,

l o ad fact o r V a r i o us ar r a n g e m en ts t o b e tt e r this c o n diti o n

.

w e r e tri e d such as t he us e o f b o o st e r s o n l o n g fe e d e r s ; but th e s e

,

r e m e di e s did n o t ge t t o t h e r o o t o f t he t r o ubl e .

T he b e n e cial e ff e cts o n t he distributi o n circuit o f t he us e o f

high e r p o t e n tials was e arly d e m o n str at e d ; but it w as n o t f o u n d
p o ssibl e t o i n c r e as e t he capacity o f a si n gle c o mmutat o r b e y o n d
a limiti n g e m f o f ab o ut 550 t o 650 v o lts T his was ( an d still
. . .

is fo r s o m e classe s o f railway s e rvic e ) t he maximum p o t e n tial

,

that c o uld b e appli e d succ e ssfully t o t he c o n tact li n e T he dif .

c ul t ie s o f dist r ibuti o n w e r e f o u n d gr e at e st in i n t e r u r ba n r o ads ,

wh e r e t he l e n g th o f fe e d e r circuits an d t h e c o n c e n tr ati o n o f
t he l o ad in a fe w scatt e r e d u n its mad e t he pr o bl e m e xc e e di n gly
difcult t o ha n dl e In o rd e r t o g e t away fr o m t he limitati o n s
.

imp o s e d by di r e ct ge n e rati o n at t he c o n tact li n e p o t e n tial t he ,

20 305
306 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

us e o f a s e parat e g e n e r ati n g an d tra n smissi o n syst e m w o rki n g

at a pre ssu r e c o n sid e rably high e r tha n that o f t h e dist r ibuti o n
circuit w as t r i e d fairly e a r ly in t he hist o ry o f e l e ctric railways .

T his fur n ish e d a s o luti o n o f t he pr o bl e m which has b e e n e n ti r e ly

satisfact o ry e xc e pt fo r t he c o mplicati o n s in v o lv e d an d is n o w ,

u n iv e rsally us e d fo r m o st class e s o f e l e ctric railways .

C o m pl e x D is t rib ut i o n S y s t e m s T he use o f a high t e n si o n -

tra n s m issi o n circuit with a l o w t e n si o n distributi o n syst e m

-

r e quir e s t he i n tr o ducti o n o f s o m e f o rm o f tra n sfo rmi n g ma ~

chi n e ry i n t o t he e l e ct r i c circuit r e sulti n g in a gr e at e xibility n o t

,

p o ssibl e with dir e ct g e n e rati o n G e n e rally sp e aki n g th e r e are

.
,

f o ur p o ssibl e c o mbi n ati o n s which may be mad e as fo ll o ws ,

1 . G e ne rat i o n lt e rn at in g c u rre n t a n d di st ribut i o n as

of a ,

alt e r n at in g c u rr e n t a t t h e s ame f r e q ue n c y .

2 . G e n er at io n o f di r e c t c urr e n t an d di st r ibut i o n as alt e r

,

n at i n g c urr e n t .

3 . G e n e r at i o n o f dir e c t c urr e n t an d di st r ibut i o n as di re c t

,

c u rr e n t .

4 . G e n era t io n o f al t e r n at i n g c urr e nt an d dis t rib ut i o n as

,

direc t current .

Of th e s e f o ur p o ssibl e c o mbi n ati o n s all e xc e pt t he r st r e ,

quire t he us e o f s o m e f o rm o f r o tati n g c o n v e rti n g machi n e r y

( with t h e e xc e pti o n o f t h e m e rcu r y vap o r r e cti e r ) T h e u se .

o f t he rst c o mbi n ati o n is limit e d t o th o s e r o ads usi n g alt e r n at

in g curr e n t e quip m e n t o n t he cars an d l o c o m o tiv e s an d fo r this

-
,

c lass o f s e r v ic e is alm o st u n iv e rsally e mpl o y e d .

T he s e c o n d an d t he third m e th o ds c o n t e mplat e t he us e o f
high t e n si o n dir e ct curr e n t tra n smissi o n A t t he pr e s e n t time
- -
.

th e r e is but o n e syst e m availabl e fo r this f o rm o f t r a n smissi on ,

t he T hury syst e m T his c o n sists o f t he us e o f a n umb e r o f c o n

.

sta n t-c urre n t machi n e s in s e ri e s b o th at t he g e n e rati n g an d

,

at t he r e c e ivi n g e n ds o f t he tra n smissi o n li n e T he m o t o rs at .

t he r e c e i v i n g stati o n driv e o rdi n a r y g e n e rat o rs o f t he c o n sta n t

p o t e n tial typ e d e sig n e d fo r t he distributi n g circuits o n which
,

th e y are t o o p e rat e I n E ur o p e s e v e ral t r a n smissi o n li n e s

.
,

o f c o n sid e rabl e l e n gth an d w o rki n g at maximum p o t e n t ials

,

o f o ve r v o lts are in s e rvic e T he syst e m is e xtr e m e ly

,
.

simpl e but is limit e d in applicati o n o n ac c o u n t o f its lack o f

,

e xibility T he s e c o n d c o mbi n ati o n w o uld b e a v a il abl e fo r t he

.

o p e rati o n o f alt e r n ati n g -curr e n t r o ads but o n acc o u n t o f t he

,
 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR EL E C TR I C R A IL WA YS 3 07

ability t o e mpl o y stati o n a r y t r a n sf o rm e rs in t he r st m e th o d that ,

i s i n va r i ably us e d in p r actic e T h e third c o mbi n ati o n is r a r e ly

.

T he f o urth m e th o d o f t r a n smissi o n is t h e o n e o f wid e st applica

ti o n , si n c e it all o ws t he us e o f sta n dard alt e r n ati n g curr e n t -

machi n e ry fo r t he tra n smissi o n circuit an d st an dard dir e ct ,

cu rr e n t apparatus o u t he distributi n g syst e m T he c o n v e r si o n .

fr o m alt e r n ati n g curr e n t t o dir e ct c an b e m ad e in a n umb e r o f

ways as e xplai n e d in this chapt e r
,
.

o f C on ve r t e r s
A t t he pr e s e n t tim e th e r e ar e s e v e r al
.
,

availabl e fo r t he c o n v e rsi o n o f alt e r n ati n g cur r e n t i n t o

1 . T he mo t orge n e r at o r s et .

( a) U s in g a s y n c hr o n o us mo t o r .

b
( ) U s i n g a n i n du c t i o n m o t o r .

T he s y n c hr o n o us ( r o t ar y ) c o n vert er .

n r
T he i du c t i o m o t o c o nve rt e r
n .

T h e pe rmut at o r .

T he m e r c ur y v apor re c t i e r .

V ar io us t yp e s o f me c han i c al r e ct iers .

T he m o t o r g e n e rat o r s e t t he m t r c v e r t e r an d t he

,
o o on ,

p e rmutat o r giv e dir e ct cur r e n t p o t e n tials which are i n d e

,
-

p e n d e n t o i t h e alt e r n ati n g e m f T he alt e r n ati n g cu rr e n t wi n d

. . .
-

in g m a y b e c o n struct e d fo r an y d e si r e d p o t e n tial withi n t he

limits o f t he machi n e i n sulati o n whil e t he dir e ct cu r r e n t sid e
,
-

is ar ra n g e d t o giv e an y sta n da r d p o t e n tial d e sir e d T h e s y n .

c hr o n o u s c o n v e r t e r t he m e r cury vap o r r e cti e r an d all t he

, ,

type s o f m e cha n ical r e cti e rs ar e limit e d in th e ir d e sig n t o a

,

x e d rati o b e tw e e n alt e r n ati n g an d di r e ct T h e latt e r

must th e r e f o r e b e us e d in c o n n e cti o n with l o we ri n g tra n sf o rm e r s
t o giv e t he d e sir e d dir e ct p o t e n tial .

M o to r G e n e rat or S e t s Th e si m pl e st an d m o st e xibl e typ e

.

o f c o n v e r ti n g machi n e r y is t h e m o t o r g e n e rat o r with an i n duc

-

ti o n m o t o r sh o w n diagrammatically in Fig 1 76 T he t w o m a
, . .

chi n e s are m o u n t e d with th e ir r o tati n g m e mb e rs o n a c o mm o n

shaft but ar e in all o th e r r e sp e cts i n d e p e n d e n t T h e i n ducti o n
, .

m o t o r is usually o f t he squirr e lcag e typ e si n c e t he starti n g duty

,

is n o t h e avy ; an d it o p e r at e s at high e fci e n cy an d practically

c o n sta n t S pe e d o ver t he e n tir e ra n ge o f l o ad T h e di r e ct
l
.

c urr e n t g e n e rat o r may be o f a n y sta n dard typ e an d w o u n d ,

3 08 TH E EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

fo r t he c o n tact li n e p o t e n tial It c an b e e quipp e d with a s h un t .

o r a c o mp o u n d e ld wi n di n g ; a n d c o n sta n t p o t e n tial r e gulati o n

may b e e ffe ct e d e ith e r by t he c o mp o u n di n g o f t he s e ri e s

by t he us e o f an aut o matic r e gulat o r .

FI G 1 76 I n du c t i o n m ot or
.
g e n e rat o r s et .

In so m e c as es a s h u n t -
w ound gen e rat o r , w it h a p o t e n t ia l g l
re u at o r , m a y be us e d in s t e a d
o f t he c o m p o un d -w o u n d gen e rat o r i ll us t ra t e d .

T he bj e cti o n s t o t he i n ducti o n m o t o r g e n e rat o r ar e chi ey

o

its high rst c o st l o w e fci e n cy as c o mpar e d with o th e r f o rms o f

,

c o n v e rt e rs an d t he c o mparativ e ly lar g e laggi n g cu r r e n t whi c h

,

is tak e n by t he i n ducti o n m o t o r .

FI G . 1 77 . Sy n c h ro n o u s m o t o r
g e n e r a t o r s e t .

T he s yn c hr o n o us m o t o r is o c c a s io n a ll y x e c
it e d f ro m t h e d ir e c t -c u r r e n t gen e rat o r w hen a

su pp ly of di r e c t c u rr e n t is a v ailabl e fo r s t ar t i n g , or lf
w h en a s e -S t ar t i n g m o t o r i s us e d .

T he sy n chr ono us m t
o o r g n rat o r
e e sh o w n in F ig 1 7 7 r e m o v e s ,
.
,

bj
t he o e cti o n of l o w p o w e r fact o r which is i n h e r e n t t o t h e i n
,

ducti o n m o t o r Exciti n g cur r e n t is m o st fr e qu e n tly tak e n fr o m

.
 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR EL E C TR I C R A IL WA YS 309

a s e parat e di r e ct curr e n t g e n e rat o r usually m o u n t e d o n t he

-
,

sam e shaft with t h e mai n machi n e s alth o ugh in s o m e cas e s ,

dir e ct cu rr e n t fr o m t he mai n g e n e rat o r is us e d fo r e xcitati o n .

B y varyi n g t he e xciti n g curr e n t t he p o w e r fact o r may b e c o n

t r o ll e d withi n c e rtai n limits T he c o st w e ight a n d e fci e n cy ar e
.
,

app r o xi m at e ly t he sam e as fo r t he i n ducti o n m o t o r g e n e r at o r

.

S yn c hr o n o us C o n ve r te r s
T he sy n chr o n o us c o n v er t e r in ,

e ff e ct ,
c o mbi n e s t he ar matur e s o f t h e t w o m achi n e s o f t he
syn chr o n o us m o t o r g e n e rat o r s e t
B y s o d o i n g t he e m f
.
, . . .

o btai n e d at t he b r ush e s is a x e d fu n cti o n o f that l e d i n t o t h e

machi n e fr o m t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t sid e m aki n g in d e p en d e nt

-
,

r e gulati o n o f t h e di r e ct cur r e n t pr e ssur e imp o ssibl e

-
V ari o us .

d e vic e s may be i n tr o duc e d t o r e m e dy this d e f e ct t he simpl e st o f ,

which is t he us e o f a s e r i e s w o u n d sy n chr o n o us b o o st e r thr o ugh

-
,

which t h e alt e r n ati n g curr e n t must pass B y e xciti n g t he e ld .

o f t he b o o st e r with t h e li n e curr e n t o f t he dir e ct cur r e n t sid e -

,

a n additi o n al e m f is add e d t o o r subtract e d f r o m t h e p o t e n tial

. . .

d e liv e r e d by t he tra n sfo rm e rs An o th e r m e th o d o f r e gulati o n

.

is t he us e o f t he S plit p o l e c o n v e r t e r in which t he rati o b e tw e e n

-
,

alt e r n ati n g an d di r e ct m ay b e vari e d by cha n gi n g t h e

wav e fr o m withi n t he c o n v e rt e r armatur e N e ith e r sch e m e .

is us e d in practic e t o an y e xt e n t fo r railway s e rvic e but th e y ar e ,

valuabl e in c o n n e ct i o n with i n dustrial applicati o n s .

T he usual m e th o d o f r e gulati o n is t o put a s e ri e s wi n di n g o n t he

c o n v e rt e r e ld as sh o w n in Fig 1 78 similar t o t he o rdi n ary s e ri e s
,
.
,

e ld wi n di n g us e d o n c o mp o u n d d ire ct curr e n t g e n e rat o rs I n -

.

c o n n e cti o n with such a wi n di n g r e acta n c e c o ils thr o ugh which ,

t he mai n curr e n t is d r aw n ar e plac e d o n t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t

,
-

sid e The shu n t e ld rh e o stat is s e t s o that t he c o n v e rt e r

.

d r aws slightly lag g i n g curr e n t at n o l o ad With i n cr e as e in .

l o ad t he s e ri e s tur n s o f t he e ld wi n di n g c aus e o v e r e xcitati o n

,
-
,

maki n g t he cu r r e n t l e ad t he e m f Wh en this l e adi n g curr e n t

. . .

is draw n thr o ugh t he i n ducta n c e o f t he machi n e t he tra n sf o rm e rs ,

a n d t he r e acta n c e c o ils a r e activ e dr o p is pr o duc e d which a dds

,

t o t he p o t e n tial d e li v e r e d fr o m t he circuit B y pr o p e rly pr o .

p o rti o n i n g t he s e r i e s wi n di n g an d t he r e acta n c e c o ils t he p o t e n tial ,

o n t he di r e ct curr e n t sid e may b e r e gulat e d

-
.

In larg e syst e ms wh e r e t o o much l e adi n g curr e n t is o bj e cti on

,

abl e t he e m f suppli e d t he alt e r n ati n g sid e o f t he r o tary c o n v e rt e r

,
. . .

is va r i e d by s o m e sta n dard f o rm o f p o t e n tial r e gulat o r such as ,

t he i n ducti o n r e gulat o r T his m e th o d may be us e d al o n e o r in

.
,
310 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

c o mbi n ati o n with t he s e ri e s wi n di n g o n t he c o n v e r t e r ; s o that

b o th t he dir e ct e m f an d t he p o w e r fact o r o f t he alt e r n ati n g
. . .

curre n t circuit may b e g o v e r n e d at will T he arra n g e m e n t is .

similar t o that sh o w n in Fig 1 78 e xc e pt that t he r e gulat o r .

,

r e plac e s t he r e acta n c e c o ils .

T he e arly r o tary c o n v e rt e rs w e r e all built fo r c o mparativ e ly

l o w fr e qu en ci e s m o st o f th e m b e i n g fo r 2 5 cycl e s
,
R e c e n t im .

p r o ve m e n t s in d e sig n e sp e cially t h e u,
s e o f i n t e rp o l e s hav e mad e ,

t he p e rf o rma n c e an d t he c o st o f 60 cycl e sy n chr o n o us c o n v e rt e r s -

practically o n a par w ith th o s e fo r l o w e r fr e qu e n ci e s .

Rea c I /
d rec Co i ls

FI G . 1 78 .
S y n c h ro n o u s con ve r t e r w i t h l
r e g u a t in g r e ac t a n c e .

The l
r e a c t an c e c o i s m a y be re p la c e d w it h a n a u t o m a t ic p o t e n t ia l g l
re u at o r

Th e M oto r C onv
T he m t r c o n v e rt e r Or
e rt e r . cascad e o o
,

c o n v e r t e r is an applic ati o n o f t he sam e pri n cipl e as that us e d
,

in cascad e c o n tr o l o f i n ducti o n m o t o rs It c o n sists Fig 1 79 .

,
.
,

o f a pri ma r y wi n di n g lik e that fo r a n i n ducti o n m o t o r an d a ,

s e c o n da r y o f a typ e similar t o that -o f t he phas e w o u n d m o t o r -

,

t he p r i n cip al di ff e r e n c e b e i n g that t h e c o n v e rt e r is o r di n arily

d e sig n e d fo r a larg e r n umb e r o f phas e s T he s e c o n dary wi n di n g .

is tapp e d di r e ctly i n t o t he armatur e o f a machi n e e l e ctrically

t he sam e as t he sy n chr o n o us c o n v e rt e r As in cascad e Op e rati o n .

o f m o t o rs t he m o t o r e n d a n d t he c o n v e rt e r e n d o f t h e s e t may
,

e ach h av e a n y n umb e r o f p o l e s ; practically th e y ar e w o u n d fo r

t he sam e n umb e r F o r starti n g t h e s e c o n da r y wi n di n g o f t he

.
,

i n ducti o n machi n e is br o ught o ut t o c o ll e ct o r ri n gs th r o ugh which ,

it may b e sh o rt circuit e d with r e sista n c e

-
.
 S UB S TA T I ON S FOR EL E C TR I C RA IL WA YS 31 1

In Op e r ati o n t he s e t ru n s at half t he sp e e d o f t he p r ima r y

,

e ld t he fr e qu e n cy in t he s e c o n da r y b e i n g half that o f t he li n e ;
,

while t he c o n ve r t e r o p e r at e s as th o ugh in s y n chr o n ism at t he

.

s e c o n dary fr e qu e n cy H alf o f t he p o w e r is t r a n smitt e d dir e ctly

.

thr o u g h t he s e c o n da ry wi n di n g whil e t he o th e r half is d e liv e r e d ,

thr o u g h t he S haft T he siz e o f t he s e t is th e r e f o r e d e cid e dly l e ss

.

tha n fo r a m o t o r ge n e rat o r o f e qual rati n g T he e fci e n cy is

.

c o n sid e rably b e tt e r tha n that o f a m o t o r g e n e rat o r but slightly

,

l e ss tha n o f t he o rdi n ary r o tary c o n v e r t e r S y n chr o n i z i n g is .

e xt r e m e ly simpl e c o n sisti n g in adj usti n g t he starti n g r e sista n c e

,

u n til t he machi n e falls i n t o st e p T he star ti n g cu r r e n t is small ; .

but o n t he o th e r ha n d t he ma g n e ti z i n g cu r re n t is draw n dir e ctly

, ,

fr o m t he li n e as in an i n ducti o n m o t or s o that t he p o w e r fact o r

, ,

FI G . 1 79 I n d u c t io n m o t o rc o n ve r t e r .

T h e in d u c t io n m o t o r e n d a n d th e n ve t e
co e d O f t h e c o n v e rt e r a
r r n re lly
us u a ass e m bl e d
.

f
W i t hi n o n e r a m e ; t h i s i s n o t s h o w n n t h d g am
'
i e ia r .

is not so e asily c tr ll d O von xcitati o n

o e . dir e ct cu r r e n t
e r -
e o f t he -

e ld will h o w e v e r r e duc e t he quadratur e c o mp o n e n t o f t he

, ,

primary c urr e n t .

Whil e t he m o t o r c o n v e r t e r had at t he tim e o f its i n tr o ducti o n

, ,

c o n sid e rabl e sup e ri o r ity o v e r t he sy n ch r o n o us c o n v e r t e r fo r

o p e rati o n at high fr e qu e n ci e s r e c e n t imp r o v e m e n ts in t he latt e r
,

hav e plac e d t he t w o machi n e s ab o ut o n a par in this r e sp e ct .

W h e n t he m o t o r c o n v e r t e r c an hav e its primary w o u n d fo r t he

li n e p o t e n tial with o ut t he use o f l o w e r i n g t r a n sf o rme rs th e r e is

, ,

littl e di ff e r e n c e in r st c o st ; wh e n tra n sfo rm e rs are r e qui r e d t he ,

m o t o r c o n v e r t e r will be m o r e e xp e n siv e Its g re at e st adva n ta g e

.

is the s mall am o u n t o f att e n ti o n n e e d e d fo r O p e rati o n as c o mpare d ,

with t he sy n ch r o n o us c o n v e r t e r .
312 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

Th e P e rm ut at o I f t he
s e c o n dary wi n di n g o f an i n ducti o n
r.

m o t o r is h e ld still curr e n t will be g e n e rat e d in it at t he fr e qu e n cy

,

o f t he primary circuit an d at an e m f e qual t o that o f t h e pri

, . . .

mary multipli e d by t he rati o o f tra n sfo rmati o n If t he s e c o n d

, .

ary wi n di n g b e c o n n e ct e d t o a c o mmutat o r o f t he o rdi n ar y typ e ,

an d a s e t o f brush e s r o tat e d th e r e o n a t s y n c hr o n ou s s peed dir e ct ,

curr e n t c an b e tak e n o ff an d us e d fo r an y purp o s e A machi n e .

e mb o dyi n g this pri n cipl e kn o w n as t he p e rmutat o r has b e e n

, ,

us e d fo r s e v e ral y e ars in E ur o p e for c o n ve rti n g alt e r n ati n g cur

r e n t i n t o dir e ct In its c o n structi o n t he parts may be arra n g e d
.
,

S imilarly t o th o s e o f t he i n ducti o n m o t o r ; but si n c e th e r e is n o ,

r e lativ e m o ti o n b e tw e en th e m n o air gap is n e c e ssary an d by

,
-
,

o mitti n g it t h e mag n e tizi n g curr e n t is r e duc e d B rush e s are .

r o tat e d o n t he c o mmutat o r by m e a n s o f a small sy n chr o n o us

m o t o r w o u n d with t he sam e n umb e r o f p o l e s as t he mai n
machi n e .

The p e rm utat o r is r e p o rt e d t o ha v e e xc e ll e n t o p e rati n g char

a c t e r is t ic s T he e fci e n cy is high si n c e t he m e cha n ical l o ss e s
.
,

d ue t o r o tati o n ar e alm o st e n tir e ly abs e n t ; an d t he w e ight an d

c o st ar e ab o ut t he sam e as th o s e o f r o tary c o n ve rt e rs o f t he
s am e rati n g T he pri n cipal o bj e cti o n is d ue t o r o tati o n o f t he
.

brush e s T his mak e s n e c e ssary a s o m e what c o mplicat e d brush

.

riggi n g an d pr e clud e s an y r e pairs o r r e plac e m e n t o f brush e s whil e

,

t he m achi n e is in o p e rati o n T he m ag n e t izihg curr e n t b e i n g

.
,

t he sam e in charact e r as that fo r t he i n ducti o n m o t o r is laggi n g ; ,

a n d n o twithsta n di n g t h e quadratur e c o mp o n e n t is l e ss tha n fo r a

,

m o t o r o f e qual rati n g it is n e v e r p o ssibl e t o e limi n at e it alth o ugh

, ,

t he p o w e r fact o r is v e ry high T h e rati o b e tw e e n t he alt e r n ati n g

.

an d t he dir e ct e m f is x e d in an y
. . . o n e machi n e but is n o t ,

limit e d t o a d e n it e rati o as with t he sy n chr o n o us c o n v e rt e r .

It is p o ssibl e t o wi n d t he machi n e fo r hi gh p o t e n tials as with ,

t he i n ducti o n m o t o r o r t h e m o t o r c o n v e rt e r With t he im .

pr o v e m e n t o f o th e r f o rms o f c o n v e rt e rs it is d o ubtful wh e th e r ,

t he p e rmutat o r will ha v e a wid e applicati o n .

Th e M e r c ury Vapo r R e c t i e r T he us e o f t h e m e rcury v ap o r

.
'

r e cti e r in c o n n e cti o n with l o c o m o t ive e q uipm e n t has alr e ady

, ,

b e e n m e n ti o n e d in C hapt e r V This apparatus is e qu ally .

applicabl e fo r substati o n s e r v ic e The pri n cipl e o f O p e rati o n is

.

bas e d o n t he fact disc o ve r e d by D r P e t e r C o o p e r He witt that

,
.
,

a m e rcury e l e ctr o d e in c o n tact with t he v ap o r o f m e rcury will

c o n duct curr e n t in o n e dir e cti o n o n ly .
 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR EL E C TR I C RA IL WA YS 3 13

To utiliz e t he p r i n cipl e fo r r e cticati o n fr o m a si n gl e phas e -

c i r cuit t h e t e rmi n als o f t he s e c o n dary wi n di n g o f a tra n sf o rm e r

,

( o r o f a n aut o tra n sf o r m e r ) are c o nn e ct e d t o t w o e l e ctr o d e s in a

-

v e ss e l c o n tai n i n g a m e r cury cath o d e an d vap o r o f m e rcu r y at ,

t he p r o p e r p r e ssu r e T he arra n g e m e n t o f circuits is S h o w n in

.

Fig 1 80. T h e r e is n o t e n d e n cy t o caus e a o w o f cu r r e n t thr o ugh

.

t he vap o r u n d e r such c o n diti o n s ; but wh e n t he curr e n t is o n c e

star t e d as may b e d o n e by pr o vidi n g a m e tallic c o n duct o r b e
,

t w e e n t he e l e ctr o d e s (fo r i n sta n c e by tilti n g t h e c o n tai n e r u n til ,

m e rcury f o rms a c o n ti n u o us lm b e tw e e n t he cath o d e an d

Thrr'e Phas e

FI G . 1 80 .
S in gl e -p h a s e m er FI G . 181 . T h r e e -p h as e
-
m e rc ur y
c ur y vap o r r e c t i e r .
v ap o r re c t i e r
.

T h e d ir e c t p o t e n t ia l m ay be v a r ie d
by c o nnect in gt od i ff e r e n t t a ps on t he
t f
ra n s o r m er s e c o n dary .

t he th r l ctr d )
o e by m e a n s o f a
e e o t r g e n e r at o r s e t t he
e , or m o o
,

vap o r will c o n ti n u e t o c o n duct curr e n t fr o m t he a n o d e (e l e ctr o d e

c o n n e ct e d t o t he tra n sf o rm e r wi n di n g) t o t he cath o d e as l o n g
as t he e m f p e r sists in t he sam e dir e cti o n Wh e n it c e as e s t he
. . .
.
,

v ap o r b e c o m e s a n o n c o n du c t o r If h o w e v e r c u r r e n t c o n
-
.
, ,

t in ues t o o w u n til t he e m f has e stablish e d its e lf in t he pr o p e r

. . .

dir e cti o n thr o ugh t he o th e r e l e ctr o d e c o nn e ct e d t o t he tra n s

f o rm e r t he curr e n t will b e mai n tai n e d thr o ugh t he vap o r in
,

t he sam e dir e cti o n as b e fo r e but fr o m t h e o th e r a n o d e With a , .

3 14 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

si n gl e phas e s o urc e this c an be d o n e if sufci e n t i n ducta n c e is

-
,

i n s e rt e d in t he r e c e ivi n g circuit If t he latt er is n o rmally in .

d uc t ive as wh e n supplyi n g m o t o rs n o additi o n al r e acta n c e is

, ,

n ee de d . T he o th e r l e ad fo r t he dir e ct cur r e n t is tak e n fr o m

t he n e utral p o i n t o f t he tra n sf o rm e r ; a n d h e n c e t h e cu rr e n t o ws
fo r o n e half o f t he alt e r n ati n g cycl e thr o ugh o n e p o rti o n an d
-
,

fo r t he o th e r half thr o ugh t he r e m ai n d e r o f t h e wi n di n g

.
,
.

W ith a thr e e phas e Supply fo r t he alt e r n ati n g c urr e n t t he

-
,

arra n g e m e n t is slightly di ffe r e n t as sh o w n in Fig 1 8 1 T h e r e ,

. .

is n o n e e d o f i n ducta n c e t o mai n tai n t he circuit thr o ugh t he

vap o r si n c e t w o c urr e n ts are always o wi n g in t he sam e di r e cti o n
, .

Alth o ugh t h e curr e n t pr o duc e d by t he r e cti e r is u n idir e cti o n al ,

it is n o t u n if o rm in amplitud e If th e r e w e r e n o i n ducta n c e in
~ .

t h e circuit t h e f o rm o f t he r e cti e d cur r e n t w o uld b e v e r y n e arly

,

t he sam e as that o f t he alt e r n ati n g with e v e r y o th e r half wav e ,

-

r e v e rs e d T he e ffe ct o f i n ducta n c e is t o sm o o th o ut t he wa v e s o f
.

curr e n t u n til th e r e is o n ly a slight rippl e F o r similar r e as o n s .

,

t he curr e n t pr o duc e d fr o m a p o lyphas e r e cti e r is m o r e u n if o r m

tha n wh e n a si n gl e phas e is us e d Ext e n siv e t e sts which h av e .

b e e n mad e i n dicat e that t he e ff e ct o f i n ducta n c e o n t he wav e

f o rm is gr e at e n o ugh that sta n dard dir e ct c u r r e n t m o t o r s w il l

giv e e n tir e ly satisfact o r y s e rvic e .

Th e e fci e n cy o f t he r e cti e r is high at c o mm e r cial p o t e n tials .

T he l o ss app e ars t o c o n sist mai n ly o f a d e n it e d ro p which is

i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e curr e n t ; s o that t he c o n v e r t e r has a c o n sta n t
e f ci e n cy at all l o ads T his dr o p o f p o t e n tial v ari e s f r o m a p
.

pr o ximat e l y 1 4 v o lts in t he small r e cti e r s us e d fo r ch argi n g

st o rag e batt e ri e s up t o 50 v o lts in s o m e o f t he la r g e r u n its which
,

ha v e b e e n t e st e d T he r e cti e r us e d o n t h e P e n n sylva n ia R ail

.

r o ad e xp e rim e n tal e quipm e n t in 1 9 1 4 sh o w e d a c o n sta n t dr o p

1

o f ab o ut 25 v o lts wh e n d e li v e ri n g appr o ximat e ly 1 2 0 0 v o lts

,

dir e ct cu r r e n t T he e fci e n cy is h e n c e in t h e n e ighb o rh o o d o f

.

9 8 pe r c e n t .

It must b e r e m e mb e r e d that at t he pr e s e n t tim e ( 1 9 1 5 ) t he

m e rcury vap o r r e cti e r is still in t he e xp e rim e n tal stat e but ,

appar atus has b e e n built givi n g o utputs as high as 1 00 0 kw an d .

700 0 v o lts 2
C o mpar e d with o th e r f o rms o f c o n v e rti n g machi n
.

e ry ,
it is light in w e ight l o w in rst c o st an d in mai n t e n a n c e a n d
, ,

e xc e pti o n ally high in e fci e n cy If t he d e v e l o pm e n t p r o c e e ds

.

as rapidly as is at pr e s e n t a n ticipat e d it will c e rtai n ly plac e t h e ,

1
E l ec t ri c R ai lw a y J o urn a l D e c 1 9 1 9 1 4 Vo l X LI V p 1 3 4 3
,
.
, , .
,
. .

1
E l ec t ric Journ a l J an u ar y 1 9 1 5 Vo l X I I p 2
, , ,
.
, . .
 S UB S TA T I ON S FOR EL E C TR I C R A IL WA YS 3 15

r e cti e r in a n e xc e ll e n t p o siti o n b o th fo r O p e rati o n o n l o c o m o

,

t ive s o r cars a n d fo r p e r ma n e n t l o cati o n in substati o n s al o n g

,

t he li n e .

M e c h an ic al R e c t i e r s S o m e w o rk has b e e n d o n e in p e rf e ct

in g vari o us f o rms o f m e cha n ical r e cti e r s T h e s e d e vic e s ar e .

p r actically t w o par t c o mmu t at o r s d r iv e n at sy n chr o n o us sp e e d

-
, ,

t he brush e s b e i n g plac e d in such p o siti o n s that th e y will r e v e r s e

t he curr e n t as t h e alt e r n ati n g wav e is passi n g thr o ugh z e r o If .

t he curr e n t a n d i n ducta n c e r e mai n c o n sta n t such a d e vic e c an ,

b e mad e v e ry satisfac t o ry If h o w e v e r t h e appar e n t i n ducta n c e

.
, ,

o f t he di r e ct curr e n t ci r cuit is subj e ct t o rapid uctuati o n s t h e

-
,

p o siti o n o f t he wav e will shift ; an d t o s e cur e g o o d c o mmutati o n

, ,

t he brush e s sh o uld b e m o v e d c o rr e sp o n di n gly T his mak e s t h e .

o p e rati o n o f t h e r e cti e r u n satisfact o ry in c o n n e cti o n with a

m o t o r l o ad V ari o us att e mpts t o o ve rc o m e t he tr o ubl e ha v e

.

b e e n mad e an d r e sults o f t e sts ha v e b e e n a nn o u n c e d fr o m tim e

,

t o tim e which w o uld i n dicat e that satisfact o ry r e cti e rs ha ve

b e e n built ; but up t o t he pr e s e n t n o n e has b ee n us e d c o mm e rcially
w ith an y la r g e m e asu r e o f succ e ss It is qu e sti o n abl e wh e th e r
.

an y d e vic e o f this typ e c an e qual t he p e rfo rma n c e o f t he

m e rc ury-vap o r r e cti e r e sp e cially at high p o t e n tials an d larg e
,

c u rr e n ts .

C o m paris o n o f C o n v e r t e r s I n t h e pr e s e n t stat e o f t he art it is ,

e xc ee di n gly difficult t o giv e a satisfact o r y c o mparis o n o f t he

diffe r e n t fo rms o f apparatus fo r c o n v e rti n g alt e r n ati n g curr e n t

i n t o di r e ct T he e xc e ll e n c e o f t he m o d e r n sy n chr o n o us c o n v e rt e r
.

has caus e d its ad o pti o n fo r practically all class e s o f railway

s e r vic e s o that m o t o r g e n e rat o r s e ts t he i n ducti o n m o t o r c o n
,

,

v e rt e r an d t he p e rmutat o r may n o t b e us e d t o an y e xt e n t in
,

c o mp e titi o n with it O n t he o th e r ha n d t he sy n ch r o n o us c o n
.
,

v e r t e r fr o m its i n h e r e n t d e sig n is di fcult t o c o n struct fo r t he

, ,

e xt r e m e ly high dir e ct p o t e n tials which appa r e n tly will b e n e c e s

sary fo r futur e d e v e l o pm e n t o f h e avy railway e quipm e n t if

dir e ct cu rr e n t m o t o r s ar e t o b e e mpl o y e d ; an d t h e p o ssibiliti e s
-

o f r e cti e r s e sp e cially o f t h e m e rcu r y vap o r typ e ar e s o attractiv e

, ,

that t he latt e r will u n d o ubt e dly b e a s e r i o us c o mp e tit o r o f t he

sy n ch r o n o us c o n v e r t e r in this e ld It is th e r e f o r e idl e t o .
, ,

c o n sid e r c o n v e r ti n g e quipm e n t sta n dardiz e d at t he p r e s e n t tim e ;

alth o u g h wh e r e h e avy cur r e n ts at c o mpa r ativ e ly l o w p o t e n tials
,

a re r e qui r e d t h e sy n chr o n o us c o n v e rt e r is u n d o ubt e dly t he b e st

,

machi n e at pr e s e n t .
3 16 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

S ub s tat io n Eq uipm e n t W ith t he wid e div e rsity in apparatu s

which may b e us e d fo r c o n v e rti n g o n e ki nd o f curr e n t i n t o

a n o th e r it is n o t p o ssibl e t o c o n sid e r an y f o rm o f substati o n
,

e quipm e n t as sta n da r d T h e arra n g e m e n t o f appar atus usi n g

.
,

sy n ch r o n o us c o n v e r t e rs has h o w e v e r b e e n alm o st c o mpl e t e ly

, , ,

sta n dar diz e d W hat is d e sir e d in o rd e r t o k e e p t he O p e rat in g

.
,

c o st l o w is a stati o n in w hich t he machi n e ry is m o st n e arly

,

aut o matic s o that littl e or n o att e n ti o n is n e c e ssary W ith

, .

m o d e r n machi n e s this is appr o ximat e d ; but with r o tati n g de

,

v ic e s th e r e is always n e e d fo r e xp e rt att e n ti o n
,
.

T h e r e is o n e n o tabl e e xc e pti o n : t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t tra n s -

fo rm e r stati o n Ii alt e r n ati n g curr e n t is t o be us e d o n t he c o n

.

tact li n e all t he e quipm e n t that is r e quir e d in t h e substati o n is

,

t he n e c e ssa r y i n stallati o n o f tra n sf o rm e rs with pr o p e r switchi n g ,

a n d pr o t e cti v e d e v ic e s S uch a stati o n c an b e mad e aut o matic

.

in O p e rati o n r e qui r i n g n o att e n ti o n what e v e r aft e r t h e lin e

,

switch e s ha ve b e e n clo s e d e xc e pt in cas e o f ab n o rmal c o n diti o n s

,
.

If t h e m e rcury v ap o r c o n v e rt e r is d e v e l o p ed as n o w s e e ms lik e ly , ,

it may be p o ssibl e t o ha v e similar aut o matic substat io n s for

c o n v e rsi o n fr o m alt e r n ati n g t o dir e ct c urr e n t .

S t orag e B at t e r i e s in S ub s t at io n s T h e wid e ly uctuati n g

l o ads in o rdi n ary railway s e rvic e mak e it imp o ssibl e t o k e e p t he
m achi n e s O p e rati n g at t he m o st e i c ie n t l o ad at all tim e s T h e r e .

ar e t w o typ e s o f uctuati o n o f l o ad : t h e r e gular daily cha n g e s ,

d ue t o t h e n umb e r o f trai n s in O p e rati o n an d m o m e n tary v aria ,

ti o n s fr o m trai n s starti n g asc e n di n g grad e s e t c The f o rm e r

, ,
.

c a n b e e asily tak e n car e o f by ha v i n g t he pr o p e r n umb e r o f

u n its in O p e rati o n starti n g an d st o ppi n g th e m as t he l o ad cha n g e s

,
.

T he latt e r ca n n o t b e car e d fo r in this ma n n e r b ut will plac e m o ,

m e n tary o v e rl o ads o n t he e quipm e n t s o m e time s am o u n ti n g t o,

twic e t h e full l o ad rati n g o f t he machi n e s in s e rvic e

-
.

B y t he us e o f st o rag e batt e ri e s th e s e rapid m o m e n tary uc

,

t uat io n s c an b e sm o o th e d o ut t o a v e ry larg e e xt e n t o n r o ads

o p e rati n g with dir e ct curr e n t Fo r such s e rvic e t he batt e ry is
.

e ith e r o at e d o n t he li n e o r c o n n e ct e d t o it thr o ugh a suitabl e
,

r e gulat o r A sudd e n d e ma n d fo r c urr e n t caus e s t he batt e ry t o

.

discharg e s o that t he additi o n al l o ad is assum e d by it i n st e ad o f

,

by t he c o n v e rt e rs Wh e n t he l o ad falls b e l o w t he av e rag e valu e

. ,

t he batt e ri e s are charg e d In this w ay t he substati o n e quipm e n t

.

is k e pt o p e rati n g at o r n e ar its maximum e fci e n cy an d t he r e gu ,

lati o n o f t he tra n smissi o n circuit is impr o v e d .

 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR EL E C TR I C R A IL WA YS 317

T he th e r p r i n cipal use o f st o rage batte ri e s in substati o n s is t o

o

assum e a p o rti o n o f t he t o tal l o ad s o that t he e xc e ss capacity

,

n e e d n o t b e c arri e d in r o tati n g machi n e s T his has t h e e ffe ct

.

o f r e duci n g t he c o st o f t he t r a n smissi o n li n e an d o f t he g e n e rati n g

e quipm e n t si n c e t he p e ak is carri e d by t he batt e ri e s an d d o e s n o t

, ,

a e c t t he p o w e r stati o n .

A third us e o f t he st o r ag e batt e ry is t o assum e t he t o tal l o ad

wh e n fo r an y r e as o n t he g e n e r ati n g e quipm e n t is o ut o f s e rvic e
, ,
.

T his mak e s it p o ssibl e t o O p e rat e t he r o ad fo r sh o r t p e r i o ds in

case o f accid e n t t o t he machi n e ry s o that t he damag e d apparatus
,

may s o m e tim e s b e r e pair e d an d put back in s e rvic e b e f o r e t he

batt e ry is dischar g e d T he batt e ry may als o assum e t he e n tir e
.

l o ad duri n g h o urs wh e n t he s e rvic e is light as at n ight ,

.

It is e vid e n t that t he sam e batt e ry c an be us e d t o s e r ve all o f

th e se pu r p o s e s ; but t he capacity r e quir e d is v e ry di ffe r e n t fo r
e ach o f th e m T o sm o o th o ut t he m o m e n tary v ariati o n s in l o ad
.
,

a c o mparativ e ly small batt e ry is n e e d e d si n c e t he t o tal tim e o f

,

charg e an d discharg e is quit e sh o rt fo r a si n gl e p e ak d ue t o

starti n g a car T o assum e t he daily o v e r l o ads duri n g t he rush
.

h o urs a larg e r batt e r y is n e e d e d an d t o assum e t he e n ti r e l o ad o f

,

t he stati o n fo r e xt e n d e d p e ri o ds tak e s a still larg e r batt e ry t he ,

e xact S i z e o f c o urs e d e p e n di n g o n t he fr e qu en cy an d l e n gth o f t he

i n t e rrupti o n s t o b e pr o vid e d fo r .

It ca n n o t be claim e d that t he o p e rati o n o f st o rage batt e ri e s is in

its e lf e fci e n t fo r t he c o n ve rsi o n fr o m e l e ct r i c i n t o ch e mical
,

e n e r g y an d back agai n will r e sult in a c o n sid e rabl e l o ss T he

.

e f ci e n cy in this s e rvic e will o rdi n arily b e fr o m 75 t o 85 pe r c e n t .

T he e ff e ctive n e ss o f t he batt e ry c o m e s fr o m e qualizati o n o f t he

l o ad s o that t he g e ne rat o rs tra n s m i ssi on an d c o n ve rt e rs O p e rat e
, ,

with l e ss l o ss .

T he us e o f batt e ri e s is n o t s o g e n e ral at pr e s e n t as it w as s e v e r al
y e ars ag o B e tt e r d e sig n o f e l e ctrical mac hi n e ry make s it m o r e
.

abl e t o sta n d t he m o m e n tary o v e rl o ads ; an d t he e fci e n cy o f

m o d e r n e quipm e n t is high o v e r t he e n tir e ra n g e o f l o ads T he .

mai n fu n cti o n s o f t he batt e ry may thus b e s e r ve d by o th e r m e a n s ,

s o that th e r e is n o t t he us e fo r it that f o r m e r ly o btai n e d .

B att e ri e s c an be appli e d t o alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t r o ads with t he

-

i t e rp o siti o n o f a r o tary c o n v e rt e r o r a m o t o r g e n e r at o r t o c o n
n

n e c t th e m t o t he l o ad While this arr a n ge m e n t is n o t wid e ly

.

us e d th e r e is at l e ast o n e in stallati o n in t he U n it e d S tat e s O p e ra t

,

in g in this ma n n e r It is r e p o rt e d t o b e e n tir e ly satisfact o ry

. .
3 18 THE EL E C TRI C R A IL WA Y

C l as s e s of D is t ribut ion S y st em s . D istributi o n circ uits may be

.

class e d i n t o f o rms : th o s e in w hi ch t he sub

t w o radically di ff e r e n t
stati o n may be l o cat e d at t he c e n t e r o f t he syst e m t he li n e s ra ,

d iat in g fr o m it ; a n d th o s e in which t he distributi o n is li n e ar th e re ,

b e i n g b ut o ne li n e al o n g which t he substati o n may b e l o cate d

, .

T he f o rm e r r e pr e s e n ts t he c o n diti o n s in city s e rvic e o r in s o m e ,

ki n ds o f t e rmi n al e l e ctricati o n ; whil e t he latt e r r e pr e s e n ts t he

cas e o f t he i n t e rurba n r o ad o r t he tru n k li n e N aturally th e r e .
,

will be ma n y plac e s in which t he t w o c lass e s will o v e r lap s o that ,

a n abs o lut e classicati o n is s o m e what difcult T he g e n e r al .

pri n ciple r e mai n s t he sa m e in e ith e r an d t he pr o bl e ms i n v o lv e d

,

ar e similar .

Loc at i o n an d C apac it y of S ub s t at i o n s T he m o st difcult

pr o bl e m in c o n n e cti o n with t he distributi o n syst e m is t he d e t e r
mi n ati o n o f t he pr o p e r p o siti o n s fo r substati o n s t o giv e t he maxi
mum e fci e n cy in O p e rati o n T he pr o bl em is c o mplicat e d by t he
.

fact that t he l o cati o n n o t o n ly a ffe cts t he am o u n t o f fe e d e r c o pp e r

r e quir e d fo r a g iv e n e f ci e n cy o r t he e fci e n cy with a gi v e n
,

am o u n t o f C o pp e r but als o cha n g e s t he capacity o f i n dividual

,

s tati o n s
,
thus i n u e n ci n g t he c o st What is d e sir e d fr o m t he
.

e c o n o mic sta n dp o i n t is t o d e t e rmi n e that arra n g e m e n t which will

gi v e t he l o w e st a n n ual c o st fo r l o ss e s an d i n t e r e st an d d e pr e ciati o n
,

o n t he i n v e stm e n t .

T he m o st g e n e ral stat e m e n t o f t he pr o p e r arra n g e m e n t o f t h e

circuit is that k n o w n as K e lvi n s law which was d e v e l o p e d by

,

Lo rd K e lvi n in c o n n e cti o n with t he d e t e rmi n ati o n o f c o n duct o r

s iz e fo r tra n smissi o n circuits T hi s law is usually stat e d as fo l
.

l o ws : T he m o st e c o n o mical c o n duct o r is that in which th e e
a n n ual c o st o f e n e rgy wast e d ( due t o li n e l o ss) is e qual t o t he
in t e r e st an d d e pr e ciati o n o n t he capital o utlay that is pr o p o r

t io n al t o t he w e ight o f t he c o n duct o r .

In practic e it is n o t p o ssibl e t o ha v e t h e c o n diti o n s o f K e lvi n s

law m e t at all tim e s T he law h o lds tru e in its strict e st s e n s e

.
, ,

o n ly wh e n a giv e n valu e o f curr e n t is o wi n g c o n sta n tly It has .

b e e n s ee n that t he curr e n t in an e l e ctric railway tra n smissi o n o r

distributi o n circuit is always uctuati n g o v e r a wid e ra n g e T he .

c o n diti o n n e c e ssary fo r us e in c o n n e cti o n with K e lvi n s law may

b e d e t e rmi n e d fo r all practical purp o s e s by taki n g t he r o o t m e an

squar e valu e o v e r an e xt e n d e d p e ri o d o f tim e which will c o rr e ctly ,

r e pr e s e n t t he av e rag e l o ss due t o t he curr e n t , as call e d fo r in t he

stat e m e n t o f t he law .
 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR ELE C TR I C R A IL WA YS 319

In t h e cas e o f r o ads which are o f t he radial typ e t he l o cati o n o f ,

substati o n s is c o mparativ e ly simpl e alth o ugh t he math e matical ,

t re atm e n t is much i n v o lv e d What is r e qui r e d is t o hav e e fci e n t

.

o p e rati o n at t he sam e tim e k e e pi n g t he maximum d r o p as small

,

as p o ssibl e c o n sist e n t with e c o n o my I n such cas e s t he am o u n t .

,

o f l o ad is o rdi n arily su fci e n tly gr e at that t he capacity o f a si n gl e

s ubstati o n will b e la r g e e n o ugh t o utiliz e machi n e r y in u n its that

may be o p e rat e d at o r n e a r maximum e fci e n cy In o th e r w o rds .

,

j ust e n o ugh u n its may b e in s e rvic e at an y o n e tim e that t h e l o ad

o n e ach mac hi n e is v e ry n e ar its full l o ad rati n g I n r o ads o f
1 -
.

thi s typ e t he l o ad is n aturally c o n c e n trat e d at a fe w p o i n ts .

Practically all li n e s in this class ar e city syst e ms o r c o n g e st e d ,

parts o f tru n k li n e s such as t e rmi n als an d yards T he s ub s t a .

ti o n s may th e r e f o r e b e plac e d at t he n o rmal c e n t e rs o f l o ad .

In cas e th e r e is a qu e sti o n o f t he e xact l o cati o n it may b e d e t e r ,

.

mi n e d by assumi n g t he av e rag e l o ad at t he m e a n dista n c e o n e ach

radial li n e fe d fr o m t he stati o n , an d n di n g t he e l e ctrical c e n t e r
o f g ravity o f t he t o tal l o ad .

Lo c at i on o f C it y S ub s t at io n s T he l o cati o n o f substati o n s fo r
city li n e s is a ffe ct e d t o a larg e e xt e n t by t h e high c o st o f la n d at t he
no rmal c e n t e rs o f l o ad Fo r this r e as o n t he lar g e st r o ads hav e
.

fo u n d it e c o n o mical t o c o n c e n t rat e as much capacity in a si n gl e

s tati o n as p o ssibl e with o ut e xc e ssiv e dr o p o n a n y o f t he o utlyi n g

li n e s T his c o n c e n trati o n has b e e n ca r ri e d t o such a p o i n t

.

that sy n ch r o n o us c o n v e rt e rs o f e xtr e m e ly lar g e rati n g hav e b e e n

built ; an d in s o m e c as e s c o n v e r t e rs o f s uch s iz e s as 4 0 00 kw .

hav e b ee n c o n struct e d t o r e plac e u n its o f 1 5 00 k W t he b e tt e r .

,

k n o wl e dg e o f d e sig n e n abli n g ma n ufactur e rs t o pr o duc e machi n e s

o f t he la r g e r si z e which c an actually r e plac e t h e small e r u n its o n

t he sam e f o u n dati o n s 2
.

Lo c ati o n o f S ub s t at ion s fo r In t e rurb an R o ad s I n t e rurba n

r o ads fall i n t o t he class o f li n e ar distr ibuti o n an d g e n e r ally c an ,

be tr e at e d in a much simpl e r ma n n e r tha n city li n e s T h e v a r ia .

ti o n in t he n umb e r o f substati o n s carr i e s with it a c o n sid e rabl e

di ff e r e n c e in t he c o st o f e quipm e n t as w e ll as in that o f Op e r ati o n
,
.

T he t o tal capacity o f all t he substati o n s must b e e qual t o that o f

1
T he e ff e c t o f t he p ro p e r o p e r at i o n of in dividua l
t he un it s o n t he all d ay
ef c ie n c y o f t h e s ub s t at io n is s h o w n in a p ap e r b y L P . . C RE C E LI U S E le c t ri c ,

J o urn a l O c t o b e r 1 9 1 4 Vo l X I p 5 43
, , ,
.
,
. .

1
H is t o r y o f t h e R o t a r y C o n ve rt e r in Am i
e r c a, F . D . N E WB U R Y ,
E le c t r ic J o ur n a l Ja n u a r y 1 9 1 5 V o l X II p
, , ,
.
, . 27 .
320 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

t he g e n e rati n g stati o n augm e n t e d by what e v e r r e s e rv e e quipm e n t

,

is r e quir e d d ue t o u n e v e n distributi o n o f t he l o ad A S t he n um .

be r o f substati o n s is i n cr e as e d t he n umb e r a n d t o tal capacity o f

,

such r e s e rv e u n its will b e c o m e gr e at e r C o n v e rs e ly as t he n um .

,

be r o f stati o n s is d e cr e as e d t h e siz e o f e ach u n it which c an b e e c o

,

n o m ic all y e mpl o y e d will b e gr e at e r r e sulti n g in l e ss c o st o f e quip ,

m e n t T he c o st o f gr o u n d an d buildi n g will n o t vary much

.

with t he capacity o f t he stati o n n o r will t h e att e n da n c e ; s o that a

,

v e ry d e cid e d gai n c an be mad e fr o m gr e at e r spaci n g T h e c o st .

o f att e n da n c e will als o b e v e ry n e arly c o n sta n t n o matt e r wh at ,

t he capacity .

G e n e rally t he x e d char g e s r e pr e s e n ti n g t he i n v e stm e n t in

,

la n d buildi n gs an d e quipm e n t an d t he c o st o f o p e rati o n will

, , ,

in cr e as e as a fu n cti o n o f t he n umb e r o f substati o n s ; whil e t he

x e d charg e s o n t h e s e c o n dary c o pp e r an d t he v alu e o f t h e l o ss ,

in t he distributi o n circuit v ary i n v e rs e ly with it ,

It sh o uld .
,

th e r e f o r e b e p o ssibl e t o n d a c o n diti o n wh e r e t he t o tal c o st will

,

b e a mi n imum c o rr e sp o n di n g t o a d e n it e S paci n g
, .

T w o m e th o ds o f d e t e rmi n i n g t he pr o p e r spaci n g o f substati o n s

ha ve b e e n sugg e st e d : t he rst c alculati o n o f t he dista n c e by ,

trial fo r an y particular cas e an d t he s e c o n d by an a n alysis o f t he

1
, ,

v ariabl e s with a math e matical s o luti o n

,
2
It is t he O pi n i o n o f .

e n gi n e e rs that t h e e xact l o cati o n o f substati o n s ca n n o t b e mad e

e n tir e ly by math e matical tr e atm e n t si n c e t he v ariabl e s which ,

may e n t e r will v itiat e t he r e sults t o a c o n sid e rabl e e xt e n t Fo r .

in sta n c e o n i n t e rurba n r o ads usi n g dir e ct curr e n t it is n e c e ssary

, ,

t o hav e an att e n da n t at t h e substati o n at all tim e s His duti e s .

will n o t o c cupy t he e n tir e d ay s o that it is usual t o plac e t he sub

,

stati o n s s o far as p o ssibl e in t o w n s l o cat e d al o n g t he li n e T he .

O p e rat o r may th e n als o p e rf o rm t he duti e s o f fr e ight an d tick e t

ag e n t thus c alli n g fo r a small e r n umb e r o f e mpl o y e e s o r givi n g
, ,

b e tt e r s e rvic e tha n w o uld o th e rwis e b e p o ssibl e T his practic e

,
.

is n e arly u n iv e rsal with i n t e rurba n r o ads .

Effe c t of P o t e n tial o n S ub s tatio n S pa c in g S i n c e t he l o ss in t h e

distributi n g circuit v a r i e s as t he squar e o f t he pr e ssu re it is ,

e vid e n t that t h e m o st e c o n o mical p o t e n tial is t he high e st which

1
So m C o n s i d e rat io n s D e t e rm in i n g t h e
e L o c at io n of E l e c t ri c R a i l w a y
S ub s t a t i on s , C W R I C K E R, Tr an s ac t ion s A V ol X X I V

. . . I E E
. . .
,
.

p . 1 09 7 .

2 The D e t e rm in at io n o f t h e Ec o n o m i c L o c at io n o f S ub s t at i o n s in Ele c
ic R a il w a y s , G ERAR D B W ERNER Tra n s ac t ion s A I E E V o l X XV I I ;

tr .
,
. . . .
,
.

p . 1201 .
 S UB S TA T I ON S F OR EL E C TRI C RA IL WA YS 32 1

c an be practically e mpl o y e d As has b e e n stat e d in p r e vi o us

.

chapt e rs di r e ct cu r r e n t m o t o rs hav e b ee n sta n dardi z e d fo r 600

,
-

v o lts an d multipl e s o f this v alu e If t he pr e ssur e is i n c r e as e d.

fr o m 600 v o lts t o 1 2 00 v o lts o n t h e c o n tact li n e t he l o ss e s in ,

t he dist r ibuti o n circuit fo r t h e sam e am o u n t o f c o pp e r , will b e

,

but o fo urth what th e y ar e at t h e l o w e r p o t e n tial O n t he

n e-
.

o th e r ha n d with t h e sam e l o ss t h e c o n duct o r will hav e but o n e

, ,

f o u r th t he s e cti o n an d h e n c e c o st but o n e f o urth as much T h e r e -

.

is a n o th e r imp o rta n t adva n tag e which c an b e o btai n e d by t h e use

o f hi g h e r p o t e n tials T he e c o n o mical distan c e b e tw e e n sub
.

s tati o n s c an b e c o n sid e rably gr e at e r with t h e sam e t o tal o p e rati n g

c o st . T his w ill r e sult in practically d o ubli n g t he dista n c e b e

t w e e n stati o n s It als o has t he e ff e ct o f i n cr e asi n g t h e capacity
.

o f e ach substati o n s o that t h e i n v e stm e n t in re s e r v e e quipm e n t

,

c an b e l e ss an d t h e o p e rati n g e fci e n cy high e r .

T h e e xc e ll e n t r e sults o f t he i n cr e as e o f p o t e n tial o n t he e f
c ie n c y o f t h e distributi o n syst e m hav e l e d ma n y i n t e rurba n r o ads

t o ad o pt high e r w o r ki n g pr e ssur e s tha n t he o l d sta n da r d o f 600

v o lts It has alr e ady b ee n m e n ti o n e d that t he c o n n e cti o n o f t w o
.

600 v o lt m o t o rs in s e ri e s p e rmits o p e rati o n o n a 1 2 00 vo lt syst e m

- -
,

t he o n ly di ffe r e n c e b e i n g that t he m o t o rs must b e i n sulat e d

fo r a high e r pr e ssur e an d t he c o n tr o l e quipm e n t m ust b e cha n g e d
,

acc o r di n gly T he adva n c e in t he ma n ufactur e o f railway appa

.

ratus has mad e fe asibl e t he c o n structi o n o f m o t o rs usi n g 1 2 00 v o lts

o n a si n gl e c o mmutat o r an d t w o such machi n e s may b e plac e d
,

in s e ri e s o n a 2 4 0 0 v o lt cir cuit
-
In o n e pr o p o s e d i n stallati o n t he
.
,

pr e ssure pe r c o mmutat o r is t o b e i n cr e as e d t o 1 500 v o lts maki n g ,

a distributi o n p o t e n tial o f 3 0 00 v o lts N o d e n it e limit is in .

Si g ht fo r dir e ct curr e n t If t he m e rcury v ap o r c o n v e rt e r fulls

.

e xp e ctati o n s t he limiti n g f e atur e will b e t he c o mmutati n g

,

capacity o f dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs

-
.

Alt e rn atin g C urr e n t D is tr ib uti o n

- The adva n tag e o f high .

t r o ll e y p o t e n tial is t h e o n e m ai n fe atur e which has l e d t o t he

alt e r n ati n g c ur r e n t syst e m In this cas e th e re is n o limit t o t he
-
.

dist r ibuti n g si n c e stati o n ar y tra n sf o r m e rs al o n g t he t r ack

a n d o n t h e cars an d l o c o m o tiv e s fu r n ish a simpl e m e a n s o f o btai n

in g an y pr e s sur e suitabl e fo r t he apparatus an d t he tra n smissi o n .

S i n gl e phas e m o t o rs o f t he c o mmutat o r typ e ar e all i n h e r e n tly

-

l o w p o t e n tial machi n e s ; but t he u s e o f a t r a n sf o rm e r mak e s pra o

-

tical an y p r e ssur e o n t he distributi n g circuit s o l o n g as t he i n su ,

l ati o n c a n b e tak e n car e o f .

21
 22 THE EL E C TRI C R A IL WA Y

Th e stati o n ary t r a n sfo rm e rs r e m o ve s n e arly all t he limi

us e o f

t at io n s fr o m t he O p e rati n g e c o n o my o f t he c o n v e r ti n g apparatus ,

si n c e t he d e ma n d fo r att e n da n c e is r e duc e d t o a min i m um .

T h e r e is n o n e e d fo r e lab o rat e c o n tr o lli n g d e vic e s as with t he s y n ,

c hr o n o us c o n v e rt e r i n stallati o n s a n d t h e n o l o ad l o ss e s a r e s o
,
-

small that t he e quipm e n t c an b e p e rma n e n tly c o n n e ct e d fo r t he

maximum o utput T he gr e at e r p o t e n tial p o ssibl e mak e s c o n
.

c e n trati o n o f t he substati o n e quipm e n t f e asibl e gi v i n g high e r l o ad ,

fact o r s .

P ort abl e S ub s t at io n s It is n o t p o ssibl e t o pr e d e t e rmi n e t he

.

l o ad o n a r ailway syst e m u n d e r all c o n diti o n s T he gr o wth o f .

t r a fc may b e diff e r e n t fr o m what w as e xp e ct e d in t h e e stimat e s ,

o r th e r e may b e additi o n al s e r v ic e r e quir e d fo r p o rti o n s o f t he y e ar .

Choke Coil

FI G . 182 P o rt abl e i
s ub s t at o n .

A s sh o w n an o u t d o o r t p e t r an sy f or m er l
is u s e d fo r o w e r in gf rom t h e t r a n sm iss io n li
ne
l g f
,

po t en t ia In s o m e d e s i n s , a t ran s
. or m er o f t h e o r d i n a r y in d o o r t yp e 13 u s ed m s t e a d .

In such cas e s it is n o t d e sirabl e t o p e rma n e n tly i n stall sufci en t

substati o n e quipm e n t t o m e e t t he maximum d e ma n d s in c e it ,

will be n e e d e d fo r but a fe w m o n ths in t he y e ar O n t he o th e r ha n d .

,

o p e rati o n with t o o s mall substati o n c apacity is u n satisfact o ry d ue ,

t o t he larg e dr o p in p o t e n tial t o say n o thi n g o f t he e xc e ssiv e l o ss

,
.

In r e c e n t y e ars ma n y i n t e rurba n r o ads hav e ad o pt e d t he m e th o d

,

o f usi n g p o rtabl e substati o n s which m ay b e m o v e d fr o m p o i n t t o

,

p o i n t as n e e d e d W hil e d e v e l o p e d fo r t he purp o s e s m e n ti o n e d
.
,

t he p o rtabl e substati o n is us e ful wh e n buil di n g a n e w lin e o r an ,

e xt e n si o n in which cas e t h e tra n smissi o n li n e m ay b e i n stall e d

, ,

t he p e rma n e n t c o n v e rti n g e quipm e n t b e i n g l e ft u n til t he r e quir e d

capacity an d t he c o rr e ct l o cati o n ha v e b ee n d e t e rmi n e d I t is .

als o us e ful wh e n r e pairs ha v e t o b e mad e o n an e xisti n g stati o n ,

fo r t he p o r tabl e substati o n c an b e plac e d o n a sidi n g n e ar t h e

 S UB S TA TI ON S F OR EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y S 3 23

p e r ma n e n t o n e which may b e e n tir e ly disc o n n e ct e d whil e r e pairs

,

are b e i n g mad e .

F o r di r e ct curr e n t r o ads t he c o n ve rti n g e quipm e n t will c o n sist

-
,

o f a r o tary c o n v e rt e r o f p r o p e r si z e with suit a bl e t r a n sf o r m e r s a n d

,

c o n tr o llin g d e vic e s S uch a stati o n is s h o w n diagr ammatically

.

in Fig 1 8 2
. . T h e apparatus is plac e d o n a sp e cially d e sig n e d car ,

t h e tra n sf o rm e rs b e i n g o f t he i n d o o r o r t he o utd o o r typ e as ,

d e sir e d N o m o tiv e p o w e r e quipm e n t is us e d t he car b e i n g

.
,

haul e d by l o c o m o tiv e s fr o m p o i n t t o p o i n t C o n v e r t e r sub

.

s tati o n s o f this typ e ar e usually o f 3 00 kw capaci t y , alth o ugh

.

s o m e tim e s larg e r .

Fo r alt e r n ati n g curr e n t r o ads all that is r e quir e d is a tra n s

-
,

fo rm e r o f t he p r o p e r charact e ristics T his c an usually be ca rr i e d

.

o n a car an d l e ft at t h e pr o p e r l o cati o n t o aid o r r e plac e t he p e r

ma n e n t e quipm e n t N o sp e cial car is r e quir e d in this case

. .
 C HAP T E R X IV

TH E TRAN S M I S S I O N C IR C UIT

D e v e l opm en
t In t he pr e c e di n g chapt e rs t he charact e ristics
.

o f t h e dist r ibuti n g circuit hav e b e e n c o n sid e r e d larg e ly apa r t f r o m

a n y c o n n e cti o n with t h e tra n smissi o n syst e m It is e vid e n t that

.

t he suc c e ssful o p e rati o n o f an e l e ctric railway d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n

t he u s e o f high t e n si o n tra n smissi o n with c o n v e rsi o n t o t he p r o p e r
-

ki n d o f curr e n t fo r m o t o r s e rvic e ; but t he latt e r as g e n e r at e d

m ay b e e n ti r e ly satisfact o r y pr o vid e d t he am o u n t o f p o w e r t o b e
,

d e liv e r e d by o n e g en e rati n g stati o n is sufci e n t t o warra n t it s

Op e rati o n at t he p o t e n tial o f t he dist r ibuti n g circuit I n m o st .

cas e s t he am o u n t o f p o w e r which c an b e s o c o n c e n trat e d is n o t

e n o ugh t o j ustify such an a r ra n g e m e n t T h e r e as o n fo r this is
.

e n tir e ly b e caus e o f t h e e c o n o mi e s which c an b e e ff e ct e d by t h e u s e

o f larg e g e n e rati n g syst e ms .

I mpr o v e m e n ts in p o w e r pla n t e quipm e n t c o upl e d with larg e

-
,

i n cr e as e in t he c o mm e rcial c apaciti e s o f t he u n its ar e m o difyi n g ,

c o n diti o n s s o that a syst e m c o r r e ctly laid o ut in t he past with

i n dividual g e n e rati n g stati o n s may n o w b e c o n sid e r e d i n e fc ie n t
b e sid e a m o d e r n o n e with t he p o w e r supply c o n c e n trat e d in a
si n gl e pla n t In fact s e v e r al lar g e railr o ads ha v e f o u n d it
.
,

e c o n o mical t o aba n d o n t he o ld e r i n dividual p o w e r stati o n s ,

r e placi n g th e m with si n gl e larg e pla n ts an d high t e n si o n tra n s -

missi o n with l o w t e n si o n s e c o n dary distributi o n T he ad van

-
.

tag e s o f larg e g e n e rati n g u n its will b e c o n sid e r e d in t he n e xt

chapt e r ; fo r t he pr e s e n t l e t it b e assum e d th at such an ar r a n g e
m e n t is t he m o st satisfact o r y fo r t h e o rdi n a r y railr o ad It t he n .

b e c o m e s n e c e ssa r y t o tra n smit t he p o w e r s o pr o duc e d t o t he p o i n t

wh e r e it is t o b e utiliz e d with a mi n imum o f l o ss ; o r m o r e ,

st r ictly in such a ma n n e r that t he t o tal c o st of tra n smitti n g t he

,

e n e rgy will b e l e ast .

Type s o f T r an s m i s s i o n C ir c u it s As alr e ady sh o w n e l e ctric

.
,

e n e r gy c an b e tra n smitt e d e ith e r by dir e ct curr e n t o r alt e r n ati n g

curr e n t T h e f o rm e r is in ma n y ways sup e ri o r si n c e but a si n gl e

.
,

pair o f c o n duct o rs is r e quir e d an d t he m o t o rs which c an be us e d

,

324
 TH E TR A N S M I S S I ON C I R C U I T 32 5

on di t cu r r e n t c ircuits ar e in s o m e r e sp e c ts sup e r i o r t o alt e r

re c -

n ati n g cur r e n t m o t o r s
-
C e r t a i n e ff e cts o f t h e alt e r n ati n g c ur
.
'

r e n t such as i n ducta n c e an d cap a city which are p r e s e n t t o a

, ,

c o n sid e r abl e e xt e n t in t r a n smissi o n li n e s disapp e ar w ith dir e ct ,

curr e n t B ut t he latt e r has o n e i n su r m o u n tabl e d isadva n tag e :

.

up t o t he p r e s e n t tim e it is imp o ssibl e t o c o n v e r t it f r o m o n e

p o t e n tial t o a n o th e r with o ut t he us e o f r o tati n g machi n e ry ; w hil e ,

o n t h e o th e r ha n d t h e tra n sf o r m e r p r o vid e s a simpl e a n d e fci e n t

,

m e a n s fo r d o i n g this with alt e r n a ti n g curr e n t It is this o n e .

th i n g which has g e n e rally pr o hibit e d t he u s e o f dir e ct cu rr e n t fo r

l o n g dista n c e tra n smissi o n
-
.

T he o n ly way in which dir e ct curr e n t has b e e n us e d fo r t r a n s

missi o n is by t he s o call e d T hu r y syst e m in whi c h a c o n sta n t
-
,

c urr e n t is e mpl o y e d at variabl e p o t e n tial T his has al r e ady b e e n .

r efe rr e d t o in t he pr e vi o us chapt e r It r e qui r e s t he u s e o f sp e cial .

r o tati n g machi n e ry at e ach e n d o f t he t r a n smissi o n li n e an d d o e s ,

n o t p o ss e ss t he e xibility o f t h e c o n sta n t p o t e n tial syst e m so ,

that its applicati o n has b e e n e xc e e di n gly limit e d .

Alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t is availabl e at a n umb e r o f c o mm e rcial

f r e qu e n ci e s a n d e ith e r si n gl e phas e o r p o lyphas e
,
-
It is sh o w n in .

all t e xt b o o ks o n e l e ctric t r a n smissi o n that t he si n gl e phas e an d

- -

t w o phas e circuits r e quir e a gr e at e r w e ight o f c o n duct o r tha n t h e

-

o th e r p o lyphas e syst e ms ; s o that u n l e ss th e r e is s o m e o th e r c o m ,

p e n s a t in g adva n tag e t h e r s t m e n
, ti o n e d f o rms o f e l
-
e ct r ic p o w e r

ar e i n f e ri o r t o t h e o th e rs T he si n gl e phas e r e quir e s t he simpl e s t

.
-

machin e ry an d o n ly t w o wir e s ar e n e c e ssary fo r t h e e l e ct r ic cir

,

cuits It has t he disad v a n tag e o f m o r e e xp e n siv e g e n e r ati n g

.

e quipm e n t ; an d t h e m o t o rs fo r o p e r ati o n o n a si n gl e phas e ar e n o t

s o satisfact o ry fo r g e n e r al purp o s e s as p o lyphas e m o t o r s Ev e n .

wh e n a si n gl e phas e c o n tact li n e is t o b e e mpl o y e d th e r e ar e

-
,

e n o ugh adva n tag e s in p o lyphas e t r a n smissi o n that it is s o m e ti m e s

us e d in that c o n n e cti o n .

Wh e n t he distributi n g circ uit is t o b e arra n g e d fo r dir e ct

curr e n t t he us e o f p o lyphas e t r a n smissi o n is u n iv e r sal pa r tly
, ,

o n acc o u n t o f t h e savi n g in c o st o f c o n duct o r a n d partly b e caus e

o f t h e sup e ri o rity o f t h e machi n e r y S o far as t r a n smissi o n e c o n

.

o m y g o e s t h e t w o phas e a n d t h e si n gl e phas e ar e o n a p ar ; but

,
- -

e v e n th o ugh t h e latt e r re qui r e s f o ur

1
wi r e s agai n st t w o fo r t he
f o rme r it is pr e f e rabl e o n ac c o u n t o f t h e b e tt e r o p e rati o n o f t he
,

1
T h r e e -w i re t w o -p h as e i
c rc u it s are p ra c t ic ally n eve r use d fo r t ran s
m is s io n p u r p o s es , o n ac c o u n t o f t he l a c k o f s y m m e t ry .
 26 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

e quipm e n t . thr e e ph as e circ uit fo r t he sam e tra n smissi o n

T he -
,

l o ss r e quir e s but thr e e f o u r ths as much c o n duct o r mat e rial as

,
-

e ith e r t h e si n gl e phas e o r t h e t w o phas e ; an d t h e machi n e ry is at

- -

l e ast as g o o d as an d as ch e ap as t w o phas e apparatus F o r this

, ,
-
.

r e as o n t h e t w o phas e circuit has b e c o m e pr actically o bs o l e t e fo r

-

all kin ds o f e l e ctric tra n smissi o n an d distributi o n .

T h e argum e n ts in fa v o r o f t h e thr e e phas e circuit apply with -

e qual f o rc e t o high e r n umb e rs o f phas e s ; but th e s e r e quir e addi

t io n al wi r e s with o ut a c o r r e sp o n di n g gai n in e fci e n cy It is .

t r u e that a larg e r n umb e r i n cr e as e s t he capacity o f r o tati n g ma

chi n e r y ; but th e s e ad v a n tag e s c an b e o btai n e d with thr e e phas e -

tra n smissi o n by a simpl e ar ra n g e m e n t o f t he raisi n g an d l o w e ri n g

,

tra n sf o rm e rs F o r th e s e re as o n s t he high e r p o lyphas e circuits

.

hav e n e ve r b e e n us e d c o mm e rcially fo r this purp o s e ; an d t o day ,

thr e e phas e is u n i ve rsally ad o pt e d wh e n e v e r tra n smissi o n with

-

p o lyphas e circ uits is d e sir e d .

N e e d fo r H igh T e n s io n I t has b e e n sh o w n that t he l o ss in t he

.

e l e ctric circ uit fo r a gi v e n siz e o f c o n duct o r a n d am o u n t o f p o w e r

,

t r a n smitt e d v ari e s i n v e rs e ly as t he squar e o f t h e p o t e n tial I t

, .

is fo r this r e as on an d for this r e as o n al o n e that t he use o f high

, ,

p o t e n tial is n e e d e d fo r t h e e c o n o mical tra n smissi o n o f p o w e r .

T his r e lati o n h o lds tru e irr e sp e ctiv e o f t he ki n d o f cu rr e n t phas e

, ,

o r fr e qu e n cy If th e r e w e r e n o limitati o n s th e r e w o uld be n o
.
,

i n h e r e n t o bj e cti o n s t o t h e us e o f e xtr e m e ly high p o t e n tials fo r all

kin ds o f p o w e r tra n s m i ssi o n P ractically t he us e o f high t e n si o n
.
,
-

circuits bri n gs a n umb e r o f disadva n tag e s which must b e o v e r

c o m e t o mak e th e m practical .

T he m o st tr o ubl e s o m e f e atur e t o b e tak e n i n t o acc o u n t in t he

u s e o f high t e n si o n is t he r e quir e m e n t o f pr o p e rly i n sulati n g t h e

c o n duct o rs b o th fr o m e ach o th e r an d fr o m t h e e arth T he

,
.

tr o ubl e fr o m this caus e is small at l o w pr e ssur e s but wh e n t he ,

p o t e n tial e xc e e ds rath e r d e n it e limits t he difc ulti e s i n cr e as e ,

v e ry rapidly In additi o n t o this t he e ff e cts o f capacita n c e i n

.
,

c r e as e with t he p o t en tial s o that sp e cial pr e cauti o n s m us t b e

, '

tak e n t o a v o id difculty fr o m this s o urc e Light n i n g als o re .

quir e s particular att e n ti o n It is i n t e r e sti n g t o n o t e that wh e n

.

e xt re m e ly high pr e ssur e li n e s ar e o p e rat e d t h e n e e d fo r pr o t e o ,

ti o n agai n st surg e s d ue t o sh o r t circuits o r sudd e n o p e n i n g o f t he

switch e s e xc e e ds that agai n st light n i n g In such cas e s light n i n g .

has b e e n f o u n d t o caus e littl e o r n o disturba n c e o n t he lin e a n d ,

s o m e tim e s d o e s n o t e v e n in t e rf e r e with t he c o n ti n uity o f

O p e rati o n .
 THE TRA N S M I S S I ON C I R C U I T 27

of P o t e n tial Th
C h o ic e . p r o p e r p o t e n tial fo r t he tra n smis s i o n
e

circuit as w e ll as t h e si z e o f c o n duct o r t o b e us e d c an b e d e t e r
, ,

mi n e d with s o m e e xact n e ss by t he applicati o n o f w e ll kn o w n e h -

g i n e e r i n g pri n cipl e s T hat

. p o t e n tial sh o uld b e us e d which will
giv e t he l o w e st t o tal a n n ual c o st fo r wast e d e n e rgy an d i n t e r e st

a n d d e pr e ciati o n o n t h e i n v e stm e n t T his may b e f o u n d by
.

Ke lvi n s law as in t h e cas e o f t he distributi n g circuit

, .

O th e r c o n sid e rati o n s o ft e n aff e ct t h e r e sult in t he d e t e rmi n ati o n

o f t h e p o t e n t ial an d si z e o f c o n duct o r s o that t h e b e st v alu e s
, ,

as f o u n d th e o r e tically may n o t b e t h e o n e s n ally ad o pt e d

, T he .

use o f sta n dar d e quipm e n t will g e n e rally dictat e that t he pr e ssur e

ad o pt e d b e o n e o f a c o mparativ e ly fe w fo r which apparatus is

mad e c o mm e rcially T his may e ffe ct a c o n sid e rabl e r e ducti o n in
.

rst c o st which will o v e rbala n c e p o ssibl e savi n g in e n e rgy d ue t o

,

a high e r p o t e n tial A gai n ma n y e l e ctric r o ads are n o w b e c o mi n g

.
,

i n t e rc o n n e ct e d thr o ugh high t e n si o n n e tw o rks an d it may b e

-
,

b e tt e r t o us e t he e xisti n g p o t e n ti al o f t he n e tw o rk rath e r tha n t o

c o n n e ct thr o ugh t r a n sf o r m e rs .

In c e rtai n cas e s t h e siz e o f c o n duct o r as d e t e rmi n e d fo r ,

e c o n o my may b e l e ss tha n that which c an b e us e d c o mm e r cially

,

o n a l o n g li n e If n o savi n g in c o st o f c o n duct o r is t o be e ff e ct e d
.
,

th e r e is n o adva n tag e in t he use o f an e xt r e m e ly high p o t e n tial ,

s i n c e t h e difculti e s in tra n smissi o n i n cr e as e with t h e pr e ssur e .

T he r e quir e d r e gulati o n o f t he ci r cuit may dictat e a wir e in e x

c e ss o f t he m o st e c o n o mical siz e .

A gr e at ma n y i n t e rurba n r o ads in t he M iddl e We st hav e

practically sta n dardi z e d o n p o t e n tials o f an d v o lts
for t r a n smissi o n syst e ms W hil e th e s e p r e ssur e s are n o t high
.
,

acc o rdi n g t o m o d e r n sta n dards t he am o u n ts o f p o w e r t o b e tra n s

,

m it t e d ar e n o t s o la r g e as t o o ccasi o n e xc e ssiv e l o ss A s t he .

siz e o f t he r o ad i n cr e as e s t he n e e d fo r hi g h e r p o t e n tials is m o r e

k e e n ly f e lt an d a r e adj ust m e n t o f t he circuits may b e c o m e

,

n e c e ssary fo r t he high e st e c o n o my .

W h e n pu r chasi n g tran sf o rmi n g e quipm e n t it is o ft e n p o ssibl e ,

t o a n ticipat e futu r e cha n g e s in o p e rati n g p o t e n tial by havi n g t he

tra n sf o r m e rs w o u n d fo r a high e r p r e ssur e tha n that o n whi c h th e y
are us e d . T his may be d o n e by b r i n gi n g o ut taps fr o m i n t e r
m e diat e p o i n ts o n t he wi n di n gs by c o n n e cti n g t he high t e n si o n
,
-

c o ils in pa r all e l o r by arra n gi n g t he p r ima r i e s in d e lta If it is

,
.

d e si r e d t o i n c r e as e t he tra n smissi o n pr e ssur e t he tra n sf o rm e r s ,

will th e n b e r e ady fo r t he ch an g e with n o add e d c o st sav e t he

w o r k o f r e ar r a n gi n g t he c o n n e c ti o n s .
328 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

R e gul at i o n of t h e Tran s m is s io n Lin e all c o n sta n t p o t e n

.
In

tial e l e ctric ci r cuits it is e ss e n tial that t he va r iati o n in p r e ssu re

,

shall n o t e xc e e d a c e rtai n am o u n t d e p e n di n g o n t he char act e r

,

o f t he apparatus c o n n e ct e d t o it W hil e t he o p e r ati o n o f e l e c t r ic

.

cars an d l o c o m o tiv e s d o e s n o t d e ma n d a v e ry cl o s e r e gulati o n in

t he distributi n g ci r cuit t he o p e rati o n o f t h e substati o n e quipm e n t
,

a n d o f t h e g e n e rat o rs is a ff e ct e d i n j uri o usly by wid e flu ctuati o n s

in t he tra n smissi o n pr e ssur e In additi o n t o this t h e p o w e r

.
,

fact o r o f t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t circuit has a mark e d e e c t o n

-

t he p e rf o rma n c e an d o n t he li n e dr o p .

S o m e f o rm o f aut o matic r e gulati o n is v e ry d e sirabl e t o k e e p t he

p o t e n tial o f t he tra n smissi o n circuit at a n e arly c o n sta n t valu e .

T his may b e o btai n e d in di r e ct curr e n t circuits by c o mp o u n di n g

-

t he g en e rat o r s s o that t h e e m f p r o duc e d will i n cr e as e e n o ugh

,
. . .

with l o ad t o c o mp e n sat e fo r t he li n e dr o p Wh e n alt e r n ati n g .

curr e n t is us e d this m e th o d o f r e gulati o n has n e v e r m e t with

,

su cc e ss fo r it r e qui r e s c o mplicati o n o f t he machi n e s an d d o e s

,

not giv e e n tir e ly satisfact o ry o p e rati o n Wh e n sy n chr o n o us .

machi n e ry such as r o tary c o n v e rt e r s is us e d at t he r e c e ivi n g

, ,

e n d o f t h e li n e r e gulati o n may b e e ffe ct e d by o v e r e xcitati o n

,
-
,

a n d drawi n g t he curr e n t thr o ugh r e acta n c e T his c o mbi n ati o n .

will caus e t h e l e adi n g cur r e n t tak e n o n acc o u n t o f t he o v e r

e xcitati o n t o pr o duc e a n e gativ e imp e da n c e dr o p which has t h e ,

e ff e ct o f c o mp o u n di n g t h e t r a n smissi o n li n e W h e r e t he r e gula .

ti o n must b e cl o s e r tha n c an b e o btai n e d with this arra n g e m e n t ,

o r wh e r e it is d e sirabl e t o k e e p t h e p o w e r fact o r c o n sta n t aut o , ,

matic p o t e n tial r e gulat o rs c an b e us e d .

C l o s e r e gulati o n is n o t a prim e e ss e n tial s o far as t he succ e ssful ,

o p e rati o n o f m o st typ e s o f railway m o t o r s is c o n c e r n e d We .

hav e s e e n that t he all o wabl e dr o p is quit e c o n sid e rabl e e sp e cially ,

fo r i n t e ru r ba n O p e rati o n B ut in g e n e ral p o o r r e gulati o n usually

.

ca r ri e s with it l o w e fci e n cy s o that t he pr e ssur e sh o uld n o t b e

,

all o w e d t o vary thr o ugh such wid e limits in t h e t r a n smissi o n li n e

as in t he distributi o n circuit T h e t o tal p e rmissibl e dr o p must
.

b e divid e d b e tw e e n t h e di ffe r e n t parts o f t h e syst e m u n l e ss s o m e ,

f o rm o f aut o matic pr e ssur e c o n tr o l is e mpl o y e d If sy n chr o n o us .

c o n v e r t e rs ar e us e d with o ut an y f o rm o f r e gulat o r t h e variati o n ,

in p o t e n tial is t r a n smitt e d thr o ugh t h e machi n e s an d t h e t r a n s

f o rm e rs dir e ctly s o that t he dr o p in t he t r a n smissi o n li n e will
,
[

add t o that in t he dist r ibuti n g circuit Wh e n an aut o matic .

r e gulat o r is e mpl o y e d t he dr o p in t he t w o circuits c an b e mad e

,

practically i n d e p e n d e n t .
 THE TRA N S M I S S I ON C I R C UI T 329

M e c han i c al Ar ran g e m e n t s of Tr an s m is s io n Lin e s

ma n y . In
cas e s t h e t r a n smi ssi o n li n e fo r a n e l e ctric railway di ffe r s fr o m
,

that fo r g e n e r al p o w e r purp o s e s mai n ly b e caus e t he wir e ci r cuit

,

c an b e plac e d o n t he sam e p o l e s that ca rr y t he distributi n g fe e d e r s

an d fur n ish t h e supp o rt fo r t he c o n tact c o n duct o r T his ch e ap .

e n s t h e c o n structi o n mat e rially o v e r that us e d fo r a s e par at e li n e ,

si n c e t he o n ly e xp e n s e i n curr e d ab o v e that fo r t he tra n smissi o n

wir e i n sulat o rs an d cr o ssarms is due t o t he e xtra l e n gth o f p o l e s
,

r e quir e d fo r supp orti n g t he high t e n si o n circuit O n acc o u n t o f

-
.

this it may in c e rtai n cas e s b e ch e ap e r t o use a fairly l o w t e n si o n

, ,

rath e r tha n t o ad o pt a typ e o f i n sulat o r which will r e qui r e a

s e parat e p o l e li n e fo r t he tra n smissi o n syst e m .

T h e s e r e marks o f c o urs e d o n o t apply t o r o ads o p e rati n g with

, ,

t he third rail wh e r e an y p o l e li n e s which may b e e r e ct e d are e n

,

t ir e l y for t he tra n smissi o n an d t he distributi o n circuits ; n o r wh e r e

c o n diti o n s ar e such that it is n e c e ssary t o us e u n d e rgr o u n d c o n
d uc t o r s In citi e s t he tra n smissi o n li n e c an Ordi n arily be mad e
.
,

much m o r e dir e ct tha n t o fo ll o w t he railway track .

The hi gh t e n si o n circuit is usually r un with c o pp e r wir e s o f t he

-

pr o p e r si z e but o ccasi o n ally alumi n u m is e mpl o y e d i n st e ad

,
.

T he r e lat iv e m e rits o f t he t w o m e tals ha v e b e e n t he subj e ct o f

c o n sid e rabl e disc uss i o n an d t he n al d e cisi o n usually li e s with
,

t he m e tal which is ch e ap e r at t he tim e o f purchas e T he uc t ua .

ti o n s o f t he m e tal marke t are s o rapid an d s o e rratic that it is n o t

p o ssibl e t o stat e d e n it e ly that t he adva n tag e li e s with e ith e r .

In s o m e cas e s a si n gl e tra n smissi o n circuit is us e d al o n e ; but

in o th e rs t o av o id i n t e rrupti o n o f s e rvic e t w o o r m o r e ar e e m
, ,

pl o y e d in parall e l , e ith e r o n t h e sam e p o l e li n e o r o n e n tir e ly s e pa

rat e structur e s T he ch o ic e d e p e n ds l arg e ly o n t h e c o n diti o n s o f
.

o p e rati o n In climat e s wh er e th e r e are fe w p e ri o ds o f s e v e r e

.

w e ath e r t he adva n tag e o f duplicat e li n e s is much l e ss tha n wh e r e

,

st o rms ar e fr e qu e n t an d v i o l e n t T his is a qu e sti o n which m ust

.

b e s e ttl e d i n d e p e n d e n tly fo r e ach s e par at e cas e .

The d e t e r min ati o n o f m e cha n ical str e ss in tra n smissi o n lin e s

c an b e acc o mplish e d by t h e sam e m e th o d as that giv e n fo r t h e dis

t rib ut io n circuit A dd e d l o ad d ue t o ic e is o f g r e at e r imp o rta n c e

.

in this cas e o n acc o u n t o f t he small e r siz e o f c o n duct o r o r di n ar ily

,

us e d an d t he l o n g e r spa n s which are o ft e n e mpl o y e d T he sid e

,
.

strai n caus e d by wi n d is als o o f c o n sid e rabl e m o me n t e sp e cially ,

wh e n alumi n um c o n duct o rs ar e us e d .
 C HAP T E R X V

P O W ER G EN ERATI O N

R e q uir e m e n s t T he r e quir e m e n ts o f e l e ctric railways are in

.

n o mat e rial way diff e r e n t fr o m th o s e fo r o th e r us e rs o f e l e ctri c

p o w e r The l o ad it is t r u e is subj e ct t o wid e uctuati o n s b ut

.
, , ,

this c an e qually w e ll b e said o f o th e r c o n sum e rs T h e r e is th e r e .

,

f o r e n o i n h e r e n t r e as o n w hy t he p o w e r pla n ts fo r railway s e r vic e

,

sh o uld di ffe r in an y gr e at re sp e ct fr o m th o s e fo r g e n e ral p o w e r

p urp o s e s .

C apa c i t y o f t h e P o w er S t at io n Aft e r t he capaciti e s o f t he

.

di ff e re n t substati o n s hav e b e e n d e t e rmi n e d as i n dicat e d in pr e ,

v i o n s chapt e rs similar calc ulati o n s fo r t he p o w e r pla n t are

,

c o mparativ e ly e asy T h e all day l o ad charts fo r t he v ari o u s

.
-

substati o n s sh o uld b e sup e rp o s e d t o giv e t h e t o tal d e m an d o n t he

p o w e r pla n t T his is a pr o c e s s o f summati o n t he i n sta n tan e o us
.
,

l o ads b e i n g add e d dir e ctly t o g e th e r Fr o m t he l o ad chart fo r .

t h e p o w e r stati o n o btai n e d in this m a n n e r t h e t o tal o utput may

, ,

b e f o u n d by i n t e grati o n an d t h e a v e rag e l o ad d e t e rmi n e d by di

,

vid in g t h e e n e rgy o utput by t h e tim e us e d in t he i n t e grati o n .

T he siz e o f i n dividual u n its d e p e n ds o n t h e a v e rag e l o ad an d ,

als o o n t he m o m e n tary o v e rl o ad T h e ir n umb e r sh o uld be s o.

ch o s e n that at an y p e r i o d o f t h e day (e xc e pt p e r haps wh e n t he

, , ,

l o ad is t h e v e ry light e st ) t h e m achi n e s in s e rvic e will b e w o rk

,

in g at o r n e ar full l o ad T his c o n sid e rati o n is imp o rta n t if t he

.

high e st e fci e n cy is t o b e r e ach e d in o p e rati o n o f t h e pla n t In .

t h e small e st stati o n s wh e r e o n ly t w o Or thre e m achi n e s will b e

,

us e d it is n o t p o ssibl e t o d o m o r e tha n appr o ximat e this c o n

,

diti o n ; but in t h e larg e r syst e ms t he n umb e r o f u n its c an be ,

ch o s e n with r e gar d t o e c o n o my in O p e rati o n .

T h e e fci e n cy o f m o st e l e ct r ic g e n e rat o rs is g r e at e st at full l o ad ,

o r at a n o utput slightly l e ss tha n this p o i n t alth o ugh t he v aria ,

ti o n in e fci e n cy fr o m half lo ad t o l o ad an d a quart e r is in m o d - - -

,

e r n machi n e s quit e small

,
O utsid e th e s e limits t he e fci e n cy
.
,

falls o ff quit e rapidly ; an d if g e n e rat o rs ar e t o b e o p e ra t e d at l ight

l o ad fo r lar g e p o rti o n s o f t he day t h e e fci e n cy o f t he stati o n m ay
,

33 0
 P O WER GEN E RA TI ON 33 1

be r e du c e d mat e r ially Pro p e r ch o i c e o f u n its will th e r e fo r e

.
, ,

b e i n e ff e ctiv e u n l e ss acc o mpa n i e d by c o rr e ct O p e rati o n .

A l o w e r limit t o t he subdivisi o n o f t he g e n e rat o rs als o e xists .

T he c o st o f e l e ctrical machi n e r y i n c r e as e s pe r kil o watt as t he

siz e o f u n it is d e cr e as e d an d t he maximum o p e rati n g e fci e n cy
,

b e c o m e s l o w e r It is imp o rta n t that t he u n its b e as larg e as is

.

c o n sist e n t with pr o p e r subdivisi o n o f t he l o ad that th e s e a dvan ,

tag e s in c o st an d e fci e n cy o f t he larg e r machi n e s may b e avail e d

of . I n a n y particular cas e t he pr o p e r s e l e cti o n o f apparatus
,

sh o uld b e car e fully c o n sid e r ed T he p o ssibility o f futur e e x

.

t e n si o n s t o t he syst e m sh o uld n o t be o v e rl o o k e d fo r this may ,

i n u e n c e t o a c o n sid e r abl e d e gr e e t he s e l e cti o n o f g e n e rati n g

e quipm e n t .

P o w e r P l an t Lo c at io n Abstractly c o n sid e r e d t he l o cati o n

.
,

o f t h e p o w e r pla n t may b e d e t e rmi n e d in t h e sam e way as that o f

t h e substati o n s T h e c e n t e r o f l o ad c an b e f o u n d a n d t h e stati o n
.
,

may be built at this p o i n t I n g e n e ral such a situati o n will

.
,

b e at a plac e wh e r e it is impractical t o build a p o w e r pla n t F or .

a suc c e ssful st e am pla n t t he l o cati o n must b e such that c o al c an

,

b e d e liv e r e d ch e aply an d e asily an d a n ad e quat e supply o f wat e r

,

fo r t h e b o il e r s an d c o n d e n s e rs must b e availabl e T h e rst c o n .

sid e rati o n practically dictat e s that t he stati o n shall b e situat e d o n

t he li n e o f a st e am railr o ad u n l e ss a suitabl e i n t e rcha n g e agr e e
,

m e n t c an b e mad e fo r O p e rati n g c o al trai n s o v e r t he tracks o f t he

e l e ctric r o ad . S o m e tim e s it is f e asibl e t o plac e t he p o w e r pla n t
o n t h e ba n k o f a n a v igabl e str e am in which cas e c o al c an o ft e n
,

b e d e liv e r e d by wat e r at a c o st l e ss tha n p o ssibl e wh e n r ail de

liv e ry is us e d T h e s e c o n d c o n sid e rati o n g e n e r ally d e ma n ds that
.

t he st ati o n b e l o cat e d o u o r n e ar a riv e r o r cr e e k o f su f ci e n t siz e

fo r t h e wat e r supply I n c e r tai n cas e s it m ay b e ch e ap e r t o
.

pip e wat e r c o n sid e rabl e dista n c e s ; as fo r e xampl e t o us e a city

, ,

wat e r supply an d ha v e s o m e f o r m o f wat e r c o o li n g pl a n t in c o n

,

n e c t io n with t he c o n d e n si n g syst e m Lo cal c o n diti o n s a ff e ct

.

th e s e p o i n ts s o much that it is n o t p o ssibl e t o f o rmulat e an y g e n

e ral rul e s fo r l o cati o n .

The m o st i m p o rta n t si n gl e thi n g which will aff e ct t he p o siti o n

o f t h e pla n t , aft e r th e s e p r ima r y c o n sid e rati o n s is t h e c o st o f ,

la n d T his will p r actically p r o hibit t he e r e cti o n o f a stati o n in

.

t h e c e n t e r o f a city which w o uld b e fo r e xampl e t he id e al plac e

, , ,

fo r it in c o n n e cti o n with a st r e e t railway ; It is fr e qu e n tly far

ch e ap e r in t o tal o p e r ati n g c o st t o l o cat e t he stati o n o utsid e t he
33 2 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

city wh e r e la n d is ch e ap an d wh e r e t he adva n tag e s o f c o al a n d

,

wat e r supply may b e b e tt e r tha n in t he m o r e c e n tral p o siti o n .

Wh e n p o w e r is t o b e tra n smitt e d t o substati o n s at high p o t e n

tial t he e xact l o cati o n o f t h e pla n t has but a small e ff e ct o n t he
,

t o tal e c o n o my o f t h e syst e m In such cas e s th e r e is n o gr e at a d

.

va n tag e in putti n g t he stati o n at t he c e n t e r o f l o ad an d it may be ,

pr e fe rabl e t o hav e it at a p o i n t far r e m o v e d fr o m t he id e al p o si

ti o n if t he o th e r fact o rs c an b e b e tt e r m e t
, .

Hydraul ic P o w e r W h e r e wat e r p o w e r is availabl e it is always

.
,

d e sirabl e t o c o n sid e r usi n g this in plac e o f st e am In o rd e r t o .

c o mp e t e with st e am p o w e r t he t o tal c o st o f g e n e r ati o n with wat e r

,

p o w e r must b e as small as o r small e r tha n that fo r st e am

, , .

T he O p e rati n g c o sts fo r hydr o e l e ct r ic pla n ts ar e usually mat e rially

-

l o w e r tha n th o s e fo r st e am stati o n s ; but t he c o n st r ucti o n c o sts are

s o much high e r that th e r e is O ft e n littl e di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e

t o tal a n n ual e xp e n s e s .

W h e n hydraulic p o w e r is us e d t he l o cati o n o f t he plan t is o f

, ,

c o urs e t he o utc o m e o f n atu r al c o n diti o n s an d ca n n o t b e cha n g e d

, ,

mat e rially In cas e s wh e r e t he hydr o -e l e ctric d e v e l o pm e n t must

.

b e plac e d a l o n g dista n c e fr o m t lfe railr o ad syst e m , t h e qu e sti o n

may aris e wh e th e r it w o uld b e ch e ap e r t o b ui ld a st e am p o w e r
pla n t n e ar e r t h e c e n t e r o f l o ad thus d o i n g away with a l o n g
,

t r a n smissi o n li n e S u ch pr o bl e ms must b e c o n sid e r e d i n di v idu

.

ally o n th e ir m e rits .

C h oic e o f E q uipm e n t I n t h e s e l e cti o n o f p o w e r stati o n ma

chi n e ry th e r e ar e ma n y di ff e r e n t typ e s which may b e us e d an d
, ,

c o n sid e rabl e e n gi n ee ri n g j u dgm e n t is n e c e ssar y t o g e t t he b e st

c o mbi n ati o n fo r a particular i n stallati o n A sid e fr o m t h o s e fo r
.

hydrauli c p o w e r t h e prim e m o v e rs availabl e ar e st e am turbi n e s

, ,

r e cipr o cati n g st e am e n gi n e s an d i n t e r n al c o mb usti o n e n gi n e s

,
.

T he ch o ic e b e tw e e n th e m d e p e n ds t o a c o n sid e r abl e e xt e n t o n t he
siz e o f t h e pla n t an d t he c o st o f fu e l W ith larg e u n its an d fairly
.

l o w pric e s fo r c o al t he st e am turbi n e is t h e m o st e c o n o mical prim e

,

m o v e r availabl e With small e r machi n e s t he re c ipr o c t ain g

.
,

e n gi n e is n o t at such a gr e at disadva n tag e T he e ld o f t he gas

.

e n gi n e is rath e r u n c e rtai n an d it d o e s n o t app e ar t o b e a s e ri o us

,

c o mp e tit o r o f st e am fo r la r ge siz e
P o w e r P l an t C o n s truc t i on
N o att e mpt will b e mad e t o c o n
.

sid e r t h e actual d e sig n o f p o w e r pla n ts F o r such i n f o rmati o n

.
,

r e fe r e n c e sh o uld b e mad e t o an y g o o d b o o k o n p o w e r pla n t d e sig n .

It sh o uld b e n o t e d that t he typ e o f pla n t will b e i n u e n c e d t o s o m e

 P O WER GEN ERA TI ON 3 33

e xt e n t by t he c o st o f la n d a v ailabl e fo r t he stati o n If it is n e c e s .

sary t o build in t he c o n g e st e d part o f a city wh e r e la n d is e x ,

p e n siv e apparatus sh o uld b e us e d which is o f t h e gr e at e st c o m

,

p a c t n e s s . T his c o n sid e rati o n usually calls fo r t h e st e am turbi n e

in pr e fe r e n c e t o o th e r prim e m o v e rs In s o m e cas e s an att e mpt

.

has b e e n mad e t o still furth e r r e duc e t h e gr o u n d r e quir e d by

placi n g t he e quipm e n t in t w o st o ri e s T his arran g e m e n t has n o t
.

b e e n u n ifo rmly suc c e ssful .

A m o v e m en t has b e e n put f o rwar d by t h e

P ur c h a s e d P o w e r .

larg e c e n t r al stati o n s withi n t h e last fe w y e a r s t o adv o cat e t he

us e o f e n e rgy purchas e d fr o m p o w e r c o mpa n i e s fo r railr o ad o pe ra l

ti o n T h e r e ar e s e v e r al r e as o n s w hy this sh o uld b e t h e id e a
.

ar r an g e m e n t an d w hy t he c o st Of e n e rgy t o t he railr o ad sh o uld

,

b e l o w e r wh e n purchas e d tha n wh e n g e n e r at e d in t h e r o ad s o w n

pla n t T he p o w e r c o mpa n y is sp e cically in t h e busi n e ss

.

o f pr o duci n g an d s e lli n g e n e r gy T he e n ti r e sta ff has b e e n t rai n e d

.

t o that e n d ; an d b e tt e r r e sults sh o uld b e o btai n e d with such an

o r g a n i z ati o n tha n by that o f a railr o ad wh o s e p r imary busi n e ss
,

is t o fu r n ish t r a n sp o rtati o n C o al an d suppli e s sh o uld b e b o ught

.

at l o w e r p r ic e s b o th o n ac c o u n t o f t h e b e tt e r o rga n izati o n an d
, ,

o n a c c o u n t o f t h e la r g e r am o u n ts pu r chas e d .

A larg e c e n tral stati o n g e n e rat e s such gr e at am o u n ts o f e n e r gy

that t he rail r o ad l o ad is but a small p o r ti o n o f t he t o tal It is .

p o ssibl e t o us e m o r e e fci e n t prim e m o v e rs an d e l e ct ric machi n e ry

tha n a re availabl e fo r t he railr o ad al o n e T he larg e r siz e o f t he .

u n its an d t h e c o n c e n t r ati o n o f p o w e r in a si n gl e stati o n r e duc e s

, ,

t he c o st o f pr o duci n g e n e r gy by a n o t i n c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t .

B ut t he gr e at e st a r gum e n t in fav o r o f this m e th o d o f o p e r ati o n is

t he div e r sity fact o r If t he railr o ad l o ad cam e at e xactly t he
.

sam e tim e as t he g e n e ral d e ma n d th e r e w o uld be n o advan tag e

,

in c e n t r al stati o n p o w e r o th e r tha n th o s e m e n ti o n e d
,
Ex .

p e r i e n c e sh o ws h o w
, e v e r that t h e p e,
aks o f t h e vari o us l o ads n e v e r
c o i n cid e F o r e xampl e in a larg e city tra n sp o rtati o n is r e qui r e d
.
,

in g r e at e st am o u n t at tim e s imm e diat e ly b e f o r e t h e fact o ri e s an d

o fc e s o p e n an d j ust aft e r th e y cl o s e
, E v e n a small div e r sity in
.

tim e may mak e a g r e at diffe r e n c e in t he t o tal capacity o f g e n e rati n g

e quipm e n t n e e d e d If t he rail w ay p e aks c o uld b e mad e t o c o m e
.

duri n g light l o ad fo r o th e r purp o s e s it might e asily b e p o ssibl e

,

that t he e n tir e railway s e rvic e in a lar ge city c o uld b e fur n ish e d

by a c e n tral p o w e r pla n t with n o additi o n t o t h e e quipm e n t re -

qui r e d fo r o th e r us e rs T his c o n diti o n ca n n o t b e att a i n e d fo r

.
,
3 34 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

s o m e railway s e r v ic e is n e e d e d at t he p e ak o f t he g e n e ral p o w e r
l o ad an d t he maximum railway l o ad c o i n cid e s v e r y n e ar ly with
,

a larg e d e ma n d fo r p o w e r B ut e v e n a slight di ff e r e n c e p e r mits

.

a c o n sid e rabl e r e ducti o n in t o tal pla n t capacity El e ctri e d .

st e am r o ads ha n dli n g larg e am o u n ts o f fr e ight ha v e f o u n d it

p o ssibl e t o r un ma n y o f t he fr e ight trai n s at n ight wh e n t he ge n ,

e ral p o w e r d e ma n d is a mi n imum In this w ay t he maximum

.

railway l o ad may b e k e pt e n tir e ly away fr o m t he i n dustrial a n d

lighti n g p e aks s o that t he b e st p o ssibl e utiliz ati o n o f t he p o w e r
,

pla n t machi n e ry may b e r e aliz e d .

It is this di v e rsity f e atur e which mak e s it f e asibl e fo r t he p o w e r

c o mpa n i e s t o mak e such att r acti v e pric e s fo r e n e rgy t o railwa y
c o mpa n i e s O n t he sid e o f t h e railr o ad it is e asy t o s e e that if
.
, ,

p o w e r c an b e purchas e d fo r what its g e n e rati o n in a n i n d e p e n d e n t

pla n t w o uld c o st a n d n o i n v e stm e n t is r e quir e d it f o rms a v e r y
, ,

g o o d w ay o f s o lvi n g t he p r o bl e m E ve n a larg e tru n k li n e may

.

n d it pr o tabl e t o buy p o w e r .

As an e xampl e o f what c an b e d o n e with purchas e d p o w e r it ,

may b e stat e d that practically all e n e rgy fo r o p e r ati o n o f t he

e l e ctric r o ads in C hicag o b o th surfac e a n d e l e vat e d is g e n e rat e d
, ,

in t he stati o n s o f t h e C o mm o n w e alth E dis o n C o mpa n y an d s o ld ,

t o t he r o ads at a pric e s o l o w that th e y ha v e f o u n d it a d van t a

g e o us t o shut d o w n th e ir o w n pla n ts c o mpl e t e ly F urth e r tha n
.

this t he substati o n s are b e i n g O p e rat e d by t h e p o w e r c o mpa n y

, ,

a n d p o w e r is distribut e d fr o m a si n gl e stati o n t o s e v e ral di ff e r e n t

r o ads In this way t h e l o ad fact o r o f t he substati o n s is impr o v e d

.
,

an d t he t o tal c o st o f e quipm e n t d e c r e as e d whil e t h e e ffici e n cy

,

is rais e d E qually g o o d r e sults might b e o btai n e d in o th e r citi e s

.
,

b o th fo r t h e city ro ads an d fo r i n t e rurba n li n e s e n t e ri n g th e m

,
.

In this c o n n e cti o n it is o n ly fai r t o stat e that ma n y o f t he

,

s mall e r c e n tral stati o n s ha v e b e e n built t o ac c o mm o dat e b o th t h e

railway l o ad an d t he lighti n g l o ad an d hav e b e e n s o O p e r at e d fo r

,

y e ars T he o ld e r pla n ts e sp e cially in small citi e s hav e usually

.
, ,

b e e n e quipp e d with s e parat e u n its fo r t h e railway an d t he lighti n g

an d i n dustrial l o ads .T he d e v el o pm e n t o f p o t e n tial r e gulat o rs
has chan g e d t he situati o n s o that th e r e is n o re as o n w hy p o w e r
fo r railway s e r v ic e an d fo r lighti n g sh o uld n o t c o m e fr o m t he
sam e machi n e In fact t he us e o f larg e r u n its has t he e ff e ct o f
.
,

m i n imizi n g t h e b ad r e sults d ue t o t h e sudd e n uctuati o n s o f l o ad

which ar e i n cid e n t t o railway o p e rati o n whil e n o t aff e cti n g t o

,

an y e xt e n t t h e c o n t r o l o f p o t e n tial fo r t h e lighti n g circuits .

 C H AP T E R X V I

S IG N ALS FO R ELECTR I C R O AD S

Us e s of S ign al s .

T h e e ar ly
rail r o ads w e r e o p e r at e d with o ut
si g n als o f an y s o rt T his w as p o ssibl e b e cause t he sp e e ds w e r e
.

l o w an d t he trai n s light Wh e n high e r sp e e ds an d h e avi e r trai n s

.

b e cam e c o mm o n it w as fo u n d n e c e ssa r y t o i n tr o duc e d e vic e s t o

,

p r e v e n t att e mpts t o u s e t h e sam e track fo r m o r e tha n o n e t r ai n at

a tim e T his b e cam e m o r e a n d m o r e n e c e ssary as t r af c in

.

cr e as e d an d t he t r acks b e cam e m o r e fully o ccupi e d E x pr e ss e d

,
.

in m o d e r n t e rms t he p r imary u s e fo r S i g n als is t o o btai n S af e ty
,

F irst . T he n e e d fo r s o m e f o r m o f p r o t e cti o n t o p r e v e n t ac ci
d e n ts i n cr e as e s rapidly as t he t r af c d e v e l o ps an d m o r e part ic u ,

l arl y as hi g h e r S p e e ds a r e e mpl o y e d .

An o th e r l e gitimat e r e as o n fo r t h e e mpl o ym e n t o f sig n als i s t o

pr o m o t e thr o ugh i n t e llig e n t us e o f t he t r ack a gr e at e r capacity
, ,

tha n is o th e rwis e p o ssibl e T o acc o mm o dat e t he maximum .

t r afc trai n s sh o uld f o ll o w o n e a n o th e r as rapidly as c an b e d o n e

,

with saf e ty , an d sp e e ds sh o uld b e as high as practical with o ut

r e quiri n g t o o gr e at spaci n g b e tw e e n th e m t o p e r mit st o ppi n g in
c as e t he t r ack is f o u n d t o b e o ccupi e d T he v a r i o us f o r ms o f
.

aut o matic bl o ck sig n als wh e n pr o p e r ly appli e d will i n cr e as e by a

, ,

c o n sid e r abl e am o u n t t he n umb e r o f trai n s which c an b e r un o v e r a

giv e n track an d at t he sam e tim e mak e t he o p e rati o n d e cid e dly
,

m o r e safe tha n wh e n o th e r f o rms o f c o n tr o l ar e e mpl o y e d .

Kin d s o S ign al s
f A n umb e r o f d e vic e s which ar e o ft e n o v e r
.
,

l o o ke d in m o d e r n o p e rati o n c o n stitut e t he backb o n e o f t he sig n al

,

syst e m o n an y r o ad It is W e ll t o k n o w which o f th e se ar e avail

.

abl e an d which are us e d si n c e th e y f o rm a valuabl e adj u n ct t o

, ,

t he b e tt e r k n o w n typ e s o f sig n als which t h e public o rdi n a r ily

-

c o n sid e rs .

S i g n als ar e o f t w o mai n ki n ds : audibl e a n d visibl e T h e f o rm e r .

usually c o n sist o f t he b e ll t he whistl e an d t he t o r p e d o T h e s e

, .

m ay be o p e r at e d by t he e n gi n e e r o f t h e trai n o r by s o m e o th e r ,

m e mb e r o f t he trai n cr e w o r in c e rtai n cas e s by m e mb e r s o f t he

,

o p e rati n g f o rc e n o t d ir e ctly c o n n e ct e d with t he t r ai n s e rvic e .

3 35
336 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

T he use o f th e s e d e vic e s is i n valuabl e in ma n y c r itical situati o n s ,

a n d must n o t by an y m e a n s b e o v e rl o o k e d V isibl e sig n als ar e .

o f t w o typ e s : m o vabl e a n d x e d T h e m o vabl e sig n als ar e t he

.

t r ai n ma n s la n t e r n o r ag t he fus e e an d o th e r d e vic e s o f t he sam e

, ,

g e n e ral charact e r T h e ir u s e is larg e ly t h e sam e as that o f t he

.

audibl e sig n als an d t he t w o are o ft e n e mpl o y e d in c o n j u n cti o n

, .

T h e x e d sig n als ar e th o s e which ar e plac e d in p e r ma n e n t l o ca

ti o n s a l o n g t he track wh e r e th e y may b e o bs e rv e d by t he e n gi
,

n e e r s o f passi n g trai n s T h e simpl e st o f th e m hav e o n e asp e ct

.

o n ly ,
a n d t he i n dicati o n giv e n is t o b e o bs e rv e d i n variably .

S uch ar e t he whistl e p o st drawbridg e sig n s a n d sl o w o r st o p

, ,

sig n s T h e s e sig n als h av e t h e e ff e ct o f war n i n g t he e n gi n e ma n o f

.

t he cha r act e r o f t he track ah e ad o r t o r e mi n d him o f a duty h e

,

must i n va r iably p e rf o rm .

F ix e d sig n als havi n g m o r e tha n o n e asp e ct ar e o ft e n e mpl o y e d ;

a n d it is this typ e which is br o ught b e f o r e t h e public m o st o ft en

in c o n n e cti o n with trai n o p e rati o n I n this class fall switch

.

targ e ts trai n o rd e r sig n als bl o ck si g n als an d i n t e rl o cki n g sig n als

, ,
.

M e t h o ds o f D is pl ayin g In dic at io n s In t he use o f sig n als o f

.

an y s o rt a g r e at d e al d e p e n ds o n t he m e th o ds e mpl o y e d fo r
,

imparti n g th e ir m e a n i n g t o t he trai n cr e w In g e n e ral t he i n dica .

,

ti o n is display e d at a x e d p o i n t al o n g t he right o f way wh e th e r - -

,

fo r a trai n o rd e r syst e m an i n t e rl o cki n g sig n al o r a bl o ck sig n al

-
, ,

a n d r e gardl e ss o f wh e th e r t h e syst e m is ma n ual o r aut o matic in

charact e r .

A mark e d v ariati o n in sig n al i n dicati o n s may b e p o ssibl e wh e n

th e y are t o b e vi e w e d by day ; but for n ight O p e rati on c o l o r e d ,

lights ar e alm o st i n v ariably e mpl o y e d T he di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n .

t he n ight sig n als is due t o t he m e th o ds fo r cha n gi n g t he c o l o r o f

light display e d W h e r e e l e ctric lamps ar e us e d t he m o st g e n e r al
.
,

m e th o d fo r displayi n g t he i n dicati o n is t o hav e a n umb e r o f

lamps b e hi n d c o l o r e d l e n s e s t he c o n t r o lli n g circuits b e i n g s o
,

arra n g e d that o n e o r m o r e lamps may b e light e d t o c o n v e y '

di ff e r e n t i n f o rmati o n With o il lamps t he sig n al is usually giv e n

.
,

by a si n gl e lamp t he cha n g e in c o l o r b e i n g acc o mplish e d by m o v

,

in g a s e ct o r with di ff e r e n t c o l o r e d glass e s in fr o n t o f t he light .

Fo r daylight i n dicati o n s t he o ld e st an d m o st wid e ly us e d d e vic e

,

is t he s e maph o r e T his c o n sists o f a blad e m o u n t e d o n a suitabl e

.
,

supp o rt an d in a v e rtical pla n e p e rp e n dicular t o t he track It is

, .

r o tatabl e ab o ut a x e d p o i n t n e ar o n e e n d an d t he i n dicati o n is ,

giv e n by its p o siti o n T h e r e ar e f o ur p o ssibl e arra n g e m e n ts o f

.
 S I GN A L S F OR EL E C TR I C R OA D S 7

t he s e maph o r e blad e d e p e n di n g o n which quadra n t is us e d fo r

,

t he r o tati o n T h e maximum r o tati o n us e d is n e v e r m o r e tha n

.

o n e o f t he p o siti o n s b e i n g h o riz o n tal T h e A m e rica n .

El e ct r ic R ailway E n gi n e e ri n g Ass o ciati o n has ad o pt e d as sta n d

ar d t he f o ll o wi n g with r e lati o n t o t h e u s e o f s e maph o r e sig n als :
1

Wh er e map ho re sign al s are u se d t he y
se s ha ll be s o ar

ran g e d as t o i n di c at e t hre e po si t i o n s in t he u ppe r l eft

han d q u adrant .

It is rath e r e xp e n siv e t o i n stall a n d m ai n tai n s e maph o r e sig

n al s ,
that e l e ct r ic r o ads hav e b e e n tryi n g t o n d o th e r typ e s
at o r s which will b e satisfact o ry at a l o w e r c o st W ithi n .

lamps for daylight sig n ali n g T o b e satisfact o ry in this s e rvic e.

,

t he lamp must b e e quipp e d with a l e n s which will pr o p e r ly dir e ct

t he rays an d b e car e fully shad e d s o that it will n o t b e i n t e rf e r e d
,

with by dir e ct su n light Fr o m t he e xc e ll e n t r e sults which have

.

b e e n o btai n e d with lamp sig n als it s e e ms that th e y ar e e n tir e ly ,

ad e quat e fo r day use O n t he o th e r ha n d th e r e is a lar ge

.
,

adv e r tisi n g valu e in an y ki n d o f s ig n al syst e m an d t h e m o r e ,

'
p r o mi n e n t t he i n dicati o n t he g r e at e r t he adv e rtis e m e n t
,
.

S e maph o r e s ar e with o ut qu e sti o n m o r e r e adily o bs e rv e d by

t he trav e li n g public an d th e ir i n dicati o n s ar e plai n e r tha n
,

th o s e o f an y o th e r f o rm o f sig n al in us e ; s o that fr o m this

sta n dp o i n t th e y hav e r e c e i v e d m o r e fav o rabl e att e n ti o n in
c o mpa r is o n t o o th e r f o rms .

C o l o r e d discs hav e b e e n us e d t o a small e xt e n t fo r day i n dica

ti o n s but th e y p o ss e ss n o adva n tag e o v e r t he s e maph o r e an d
, ,

lik e it r e qui r e c o l o r e d lights at n ight T h e y are n o w n e a rly

, .

o bs o l e t e o n all railr o ads .

S ign al In d i c ati o n s A sig n al is t o gi v e c e r tai n i n f o rmati o n t o

he e n gi n e m e n a n d t he m o r e c e rtai n it is t h e b e tt e r t he syst e m
t ,

,
.

T he m o st usual i n dicati o n s t o b e giv e n ar e st o p an d pr o c e e d .

In s o m e m e th o ds o f sig n ali n g a third i n dicati o n p r o c e e d with
, ,

cauti o n is als o us e d T he sta n dard Am e r ica n El e ct r ic R ailway
, .

En gi n e e r i n g Ass o ciati o n s i n dicati o n s ar e : (a ) S t o p ( b) Pr o c e e d

,

with cauti o n ( 0 ) Pr o c e e d , .

T h e s e may b e i n t e rp r e t e d in s o m e what di ff e r e n t ways d e p e n d ,

in g o n t he typ e o f sig n al syst e m us e d T he st o p sig n al usually .

1
E n gin e e rin g M an ua l, Am e r ic an El e c t r ic R ail w a y En gin ee rin g As so c i at io n ,
Se c t i o n S s 2 a .

22
 38 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

c o n ve ys t he additi o n al i n fo rmati o n that th e r e is a

ah e ad o r that s o m e ab n o rmal c o n diti o n mak e s it
,

t he trai n sh o uld n o t pr o c e e d It may m e a n m e .

trai n cr e w sh o uld r e p o rt fo r o rd e rs .

T he pr o c e e d with c auti o n i n dicat e s that ,

t o g o ah e ad at full sp e e d it is p o ssibl e t o d o s o
,

p r e par e d t o st o p sh o r t o f an y o bstructi o n .

Proce ed

Caz/ an

F mc eca

'
LIg /n ea [ a m 0 .9 Sho wn W ife Ca/ars Ind / ca fea
/

FI G . 183 .As pe c t s in t h r e e -p o s it i o n s ign al in g .

T he s e i n d ic a t io n s h a v e b e en ad o pt ed as s t a n d ar d by t he A i El
m e r c an e c t r ic
E n g n ee
i ri n gA s s o c ia t io n .

is us e d as a pr e limi n ary t o a st o p sig n al ah e ad it may m e an t o ,

pr o c e e d pr e par e d t o st o p b e f o r e r e achi n g t he n e xt sig n al

, .

T he pr o c e e d i n dicati o n sh o ws that t he track is cl e ar at ,

l e ast as far as t he n e xt sig n al an d that full sp ee d may s afe ly be

,

m a i n tai n e d .
 S I GN AL S F OR EL E C TRI C R OA D S 3 39

In Am e rica , t h e st o p sig n al is i n variably giv e n by a h o ri

z o n t al s e maph o r e o r by a r e d light
, T h e r e ar e t w o p o ssibl e
.

l o cati o n s o f t he s e maph o r e fo r this i n dicati o n with t he blad e in ,

a h o r iz o n tal p o siti o n e ith e r t o t he right o r t o t he l e ft o f t h e mast ;

,

but t he l e ft han d p o siti o n is b e i n g ad o pt e d m o r e at t he pr e s e n t

-

tim e Wh e n s e maph o r e sig n als are e mpl o y e d fo r day us e it is

.
,

cust o mary t o hav e a s e ri e s o f c o l o r e d l e n s e s m o u n t e d o n a pr o

j e c t io n o f t h e blad e s o that
,
th e y will app e ar in fr o n t o f a lamp
t o giv e t h e n ight an d t he day i n dicati o n s simulta n e o usly .

T he pr o c e e d with cauti o n i n dicati o n is giv e n by a s e maph o r e

i n cli n e d at an a n gl e o f o r by a y e ll ow light a c o mbi n ati o n o f ,

lights o r a light an d s e maph o r e

,
.

T he pr o c e e d s ig n al is a s e maph o r e in a v e rtical p o siti o n in
-
n h

r n
th r e e p o siti o n sig ali n g o r 60 fr o m t e h o iz o n tal i t w o p o siti o n
,

sig n alin g o r a gr e e n light T he f o rm e r us e o f a whit e light fo r

, .

pr o c e e d has b e e n alm o st e n tir e ly aba n d o n e d si n c e th e r e is ,

g r e at da n ge r o f c o n fusi o n with o th e r lights al o n g t h e r o ad which ,

might giv e fals e i n dicati o n s t o t he e n gi n e m e n The sta n dard .

asp e cts in thr ee p o siti o n sig n ali n g as ad o pt e d by t he Am e rica n

-
,

El e ctric R ailway En gi n e e ri n g A ss o ciati o n ar e sh o w n in Fig 1 83 ,

. .

M e t h o d s o f Tr ain S pac ing T he fu n dam e n tal pri n cipl e o f

trai n Op e rati o n which is alm o st u n iv e rsally us e d o n rail r o ads is

, ,

t o hav e suc c e ssi v e t r ai n s s e parat e d by such an i n t e rval that in ,

t he e v e n t o f an ac cid e n t t o an y trai n t he o ne f o ll o wi n g will hav e

,

s ufci e n t dista n c e t o st o p b e f o r e c o llidi n g with t h e rst T his .

has b e e n rigidly adh e r e d t o in all syst e ms o f trai n dispatchi n g ,

a n d is n aturally t h e o n ly o n e which will p r e v e n t fr e qu e n t c o lli

si o n s ; fo r c o n diti o n s may aris e at an y tim e which make it n e c e s

sary fo r a trai n t o st o p at an u n e xp e ct e d plac e T h e e xact dis .

ta n c e which must b e all o w e d b e tw e e n trai n s d e p e n ds l arg e ly o n

t he maximum sp e e ds attai n e d as may b e s e e n by r e f e rri n g t o
,

C hapt e r V I I .

Tim e Int e rval O pe rat io n T he e a r li e st m e th o d o f k e e pi n g t h e

.

pr o p e r dista n c e b e tw e e n trai n s w as t o s e pa r at e th e m by a x e d
tim e i n t e r val P r o vid e d t he trai n sp e e ds ar e t he sam e this will
.
,

k e e p th e m at a c o n sta n t dista n c e apart s o t h e p r o p e r i n t e rval

,

fo r all o wi n g an e m e rg e n cy st o p will alway s b e mai n t a i n e d B ut .

if t h e r st trai n is d e lay e d th e r e is n o way aft e r t he s e c o n d o n e

, ,

has pass e d t he last stati o n b e fo r e t he f o r ward o n e is r e ach e d t o ,

war n t he e n gi n e e r o f t he fo ll o wi n g trai n that t he track is o ccupi e d .

T his d e ci e n cy is pr e sumably tak e n care o f by s e n di n g back a

3 40 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

ag m fr o m t he d e lay e d t r ai n w h o sig n als t he s e c o n d o n e t o

an ,

pr o c ee d u n d e r c o n tr o l pr e par e d t o n d t h e o th e r t r ai n ah e ad o f
,

him If t he rst agai n m o v e s f o rward at its usual sp e e d t he

.
,

p r o p e r dista n c e will b e mai n tai n e d T h e c o rr e ct tim e i n t e r v al

.

c an b e r e gai n e d wh e n t h e n e xt stati o n is r e ach e d .

T his m e th o d is Op e n t o se ri o us o bj e cti o n s T he r st trai n may .

n o t b e st o pp e d b ut may b e f o r c e d t o r u n at a l o w e r sp e e d tha n
,

n o rmal N o ag m an will b e s e n t back in such a cas e s o that

.
,

th e r e will b e n o pr o t e cti o n fo r t he f o ll o wi n g trai n as in t he r st

e xampl e O n a curv e d track wh e r e t h e e n gi n e man o f t h e f o ll o w
.
,

in g trai n c a n n o t s e e t he r e ar o f t h e fo r w ar d o n e th e r e is gr e at d an ,

g e r o f a c o llisi o n S uch tr o ubl e s hav e b e e n s o fr e qu e n t that

.

t h e m e th o d has fall e n e n tir e ly i n t o disfav o r .

Tr ai n O r d e r D i s pat c h in g A m o dicati o n o f t he m e th o d
.
-

c o n sists in placi n g t he e n ti r e divisi o n u n d e r t he c o n t r o l o f a dis

patch e r w ho is r e sp o n sibl e fo r t h e pr o p e r m o v e m e n t o f all trai n s
, .

B y his dir e cti o n o rd e rs ar e issu e d t o t he c r e ws sp e cifyi n g m e e ti n g

, ,

p o i n ts an d trai n s liabl e t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d U n d e r n o circu m .

sta n c e s is a cr e w t o pr o c e e d with o ut o btai n i n g an o rd e r T his .

pr o c e dur e giv e s t he dispatch e r k n o wl e dg e o f t he l o cati o n o f all

trai n s at all tim e s an d sh o uld pr e v e n t an y p o ssibility o f ac cid e n t
,
.

T he sys t e m is usually w o r k e d in c o n n e cti o n with a publish e d tim e

tabl e in which cas e t he r e gula r t r ai n s wh e n ru n n i n g o n sch e dul e
, ,

tim e may b e r e li e v e d fr o m r e c e ivi n g sp e cial o rd e rs T he trai n

, .

o rd e r m e th o d o f dispatchi n g is in v e r y wid e u s e in this c o u n try ,

an d may b e t e rm e d t h e sta n dard m e th o d o f Op e r ati o n fo r A m e ri

c a n trai n s T h e pri n cipal o bj e cti o n t o it is t h e da n g e r o f a slip

.

o c cu r ri n g in t h e dispatch e r s o fc e o r b e tw e e n him a n d t h e cr e w

.
,

T w o m e th o ds o f t r a n smitti n g trai n o rd e r s ar e in g e n e ral u s e

t he t e l e g r aph an d t he t e l e ph o n e T he f o rm e r is quit e satis
.

fact o r y an d has b e e n in u s e fo r ma n y y e ars T h e t e l e ph o n e

, .
,

whil e it has o n ly b e e n tri e d in t he last fe w y e a r s app e a r s t o hav e ,

t he sam e sup e r i o r ity o v e r t he t e l e graph that it has in c o mm e rcial

w o rk It is m o r e rapid d o e s n o t r e quir e e xp e r t o p e r at o r s an d
.
, ,

giv e s a b e tt e r cha n c e fo r dir e c t c o mmu n icati o n with t h e trai n

c r e ws an d s o i n fo r mi n g th e m o f d e tails which may b e o v e rl o o k e d
,

with t h e t e l e graphic trai n o rd e r .

Th e S pac e In t e rval T he mai n t e n a n c e o f a pr o p e r dis t a n c e

.

b e tw e e n t r ai n s rath e r tha n a x e d t im e is e vid e n tly t he sci e n tic

, ,

m e th o d o f pr o t e cti on E ach trai n carr i e s in fr o n t o f it a da n g e r

.

z o n e d e t e rmi n e d by t he dista n c e r e qui r e d fo r st o ppi n g T he

, .
 S I GN A L S F OR EL E C TR I C R OA D S 34 1

id e al way w o uld be t o hav e this z o n e mark e d in fr o n t o f t he t r ai n ,

a rr a n g i n g that if a n o bstructi o n sh o uld b e e n c o u n t e r e d t he ,

e n gi n e ma n w o uld b e wa r n e d s o that h e c o uld st o p his trai n

,

Withi n t he pr o t e ct e d spac e T his is o bvi o usly imp o ssibl e ; but

.

t he c o n v e r s e o f t h e m e th o d t o p r o vid e a da n g e r z o n e b e hi n d
, ,

with an a r ra n g e m e n t t o war n t he f o ll o wi n g t r ai n c an b e pr o vid e d ,

in a n umb e r o f diffe r e n t ways It is n o t n e c e ssa r y t o mak e t he

.

da n g e r z o n e abs o lut e ly t he small e s t st o ppi n g dista n c e u n l e ss t he

t r afc is s o d e n s e as t o r e n d e r it e ss e n tial An y dista n c e ab o v e .

this mi n imum c an b e e mpl o y e d an d t h e saf e ty will b e e v e n g r e at e r

, .

Th e simpl e st m e th o d o f pr o vidi n g t he pr o p e r spaci n g is t o di

vid e t he track i n t o a n umb e r o f s e cti o n s which must b e at l e ast as
,

l o n g as t he mi n imum st o ppi n g dista n c e T h e s e s e cti o n s a r e

.

o rdi n arily k n o w n as bl o cks .

T e l e gr aphic B l o c k . T he e asi e st w ay t o divid e t he track i n t o

bl o cks is t o plac e sig n alm e n at t he p r o p e r p o i n ts pr o vidi n g th e m ,

with t e l e gr aphic c o n n e cti o n t o t h e sig n alm e n o n e ith e r sid e The .

g e n e r al m e th o d o f o p e rati o n is t o all o w but o n e t r ai n in a bl o ck at

o n e tim e . Wh e r e it e n t e r s t he sig n alma n r e p o r ts t o t he o p e r at o r
,

at t he o th e r e n d that he has admitt e d t he t r ai n an d t h e bl o ck is ,

th e n cl o s e d t o fu r th e r t r afc u n til it is r e p o r t e d o ut by t h e Op e r a
t o r at t h e far e n d . T h e bl o ck is th e n cl e ar fo r a trai n fr o m e ith e r
dir e cti o n if t he r o ad is o p e rat e d as a si n gl e t r ack li n e
,
-
.

T he c o n diti o n o f t he t r a c k is r e p o rt e d t o t h e e n gi n e ma n by w o rd
o f m o uth by a ag o r la n t e r n o r m o r e c o mm o n ly by a x e d s ig
, ,

n al,
c o n sisti n g o f a s e maph o r e o r ta r g e t by day an d a c o l o r e d ,

light at n ight T h e sig n al c an b e o p e r at e d by ha n d o r by s o m e

.

m e cha n ical m e th o d u n d e r c o n tr o l o f t h e sig n alma n .

C o n t r o ll e d M an ual S y s t e m It is p o ssibl e t o i n t e rl o ck t he sig

.

n al s at t h e t w o e n ds o f t h e bl o ck s o that aft e r t h e si g n al has b e e n

, ,

s e t t o pr o t e ct a trai n it ca n n o t b e cha n g e d u n til t he trai n has b e e n

,

r e p or t e d o ut at t he o th e r e n d o f t he bl o ck T his is acc o mplish e d.

by havi n g an e l e ctric i n t e r l o ck in t he Op e r ati n g m e cha n ism which ,

c a n b e r e l e as e d o n ly by a m o v e m e n t o f t h e c o n tr o lli n g switch at

t he o th e r e n d o f t he bl o ck . In this f o rm it is k n o w n as t he c o n
,

t r o ll e d ma n ual syst e m .

Aut o m at i c B l o c k S ig n al s B o th t he plai n t e l e graphic bl o c k

.
-

a n d t he c o n t r o ll e d ma n ual d e p e n d o n t he ability o f t he o p e r at o rs .

Alth o ugh m an failu r e is f o rtu n at e ly quit e r a r e th e r e hav e b e e n

-
,

e n o ugh s e ri o us ac cid e n ts f r o m n e gl e c t o f duty m isu n d e rsta n di n g , ,

a n d o th e r similar caus e s t o mak e it d e sirabl e t o hav e s o m e f o rm

34 2 TH E EL E C TR I C RAI L WA Y

of c o n tr o l e n tir e ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he huma n fact o r T he m o st .

l o gical arra n g e m e n t is t o hav e t he sig n als Op e rat e d by t he acti o n

o f t h e trai n its e lf in which cas e t he r e liability d e p e n ds o n t h e
,

e xc e ll e n c e o f t he m e cha n ical d e vic e s us e d fo r tra n smitti n g t h e

i n fo rmati o n suppli e d by t h e m o v e m e n t o f t he trai n .

All t he succ e ssful f o rms o f aut o matic bl o ck s ig n als u s e e l e c

t r ic it y fo r tra n smitti n g t he i n dicati o n s T he di ff e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
.

vari o us syst e ms d e p e n d o n t he m e a n s us e d fo r t he tra n smissi o n ,

a n d fo r O p e rati n g t h e sig n als T h e r e are t w o e n tir e ly disti n ct

.

m e th o ds o f c o n tr o lli n g sign als e l e ctr i cally : by t he us e o f a

s e parat e wir e circuit an d by maki n g t h e rails t he c o n duct o rs o f
,

t he sig n al syst e m In t he latt e r m e th o d a wir e circuit may

.

b e r un as a n auxiliary .

W ire C irc uit S ign al s S ig n als e mpl o yi n g a wir e circuit ar e

us e d t o a c o n sid e rabl e e xt e n t o n t he sh o rt e r i n t e rurba n r o ads ,

a n d als o o n city r o ads T h e pri n cipl e is ab out t h e sam e as that

.

o f t h e t w o way switch fo r o p e rati n g i n ca n d e sc e n t lamps

-
T his .

FI G . 1 84 M an u ally o p e r a t e d w ire c i r c u it s i gn al .

T hi s c o n t a in s t he e ss e n t ia l l t f t h w id l y u d t y p
e em en s o e e sef t ll y
es o ro e -
c o n t ac t g nals
si .

a rr a n g e m e n t has actually b e e n appli e d t o railway s ig n ali n g I t .

may be e mpl o y e d as a ma n ually o p e rat e d d e vic e as sh o w n in Fig ,

.

1 84 . H e r e a si n gl e wir e has in its circui t a n umb e r o f in can

d e sc e n t lamps s ufc ie n t t o bur n at ab o ut n o rmal b r illia n cy o n
,

tr o ll e y pr e ssur e E ach e n d o f t he sig n al wi r e t e rmi n at e s in a

.

si n gl e p o l e d o ubl e thr o w switch which as sh o w n may be

-
,
-
, , ,

c o n n e ct e d e ith e r t o t he tr o ll e y o r t o t he track I n t he p o siti o n .

giv e n with b o th e n ds o f t he sig n al circuit gr o u n d e d t he lam ps

, ,

will n o t light an d t he sam e r e sult o ccu r s if b o th are c o n ne ct e d

,

t o t he tr o ll e y Wh e n a trai n e n t e r s t he bl o c k at e ith e r e n d
.
,

thr o wi n g t he switch t o t he o pp o sit e p o siti o n will light t he lamps at

b o th e n ds o f t he bl o ck O n l e avi n g t hr o wi n g t he s witch wil l
.
,
,

e xti n guish t h e lamps T he o n ly di ffe r e n c e w ill th e n be that t he

.

lamp circuit is c o n n e ct e d t o t he tr o ll e y at e ach e n d whil e o r ig i ,

n ally it was g r o u n d e d It is in t he pr o pe r p o sitio n that wh e n a

. .

t rai n e n t e rs t he bl o ck at e ith e r e n d t he lamps c a n agai n be ,

 S I GN AL S F OR EL E C TR I C R OA D S 3 43

li g ht e d T his a a g e m t is suitabl e
. rr n si gl e
en d o ubl t ack fo r n or e- r

r o ads with t r a f c in o n e o r b o th dir e cti o n s an d it is us e d in this

, ,

f o rm o n a n umb e r o f e l e ctric r o ads b e i n g o p e rat e d by ha n d T he

,
.

g r e at e st o bj e cti o n t o t he ma n ual sig n al is that t he car must c o m e

t o a st o p an d o n e o f t he cr e w must l e av e his p o siti o n o n t he trai n
,

t o thr o w t he sig n als .

A d e v e l o pm e n t o f this simpl e sig n al is t o ha ve t he switch

thr o w n aut o matically which may b e ac c o mplish e d by a m e cha n
,

ical t r ip but b e tt e r by a mag n e t Op e r at e d fr o m t he tr o ll e y circuit

,
.

Wh e n d e sir e d a s e maph o re c an b e use d in plac e o f t he l am ps as an

A m o dicati o n o f t he tr o ll e y c o n tact sig n al is mad e in which it

n o t o n ly i n dicat e s wh e th e r a bl o ck is o c cupi e d o r n o t but als o ,

r e c o rds t he n umb e r o f cars th e r e i n s o that t he sig n als are n o t ,

cl e ar e d u n til all t he cars hav e b e e n c o u n t e d o ut T his is ac c o m .

pl is he d by havi n g t he cars pass t w o tr o ll e y c o n tacts m o ti o n in ,

o n e dir e cti o n n o tchi n g up a ratch e t an d in t h e o th e r dir e cti o n ,

r e tu r n i n g it t o ward its n o rmal p o siti o n With o n e such syst e m .

as ma n y as ft e e n cars c a n b e r e c o rd e d in this ma n n e r .

In sig n al o p e r ati o n it is n o t sufci e n t t o hav e t he

,
pr o c e e d

i n dicati o n giv e n wh e n e v e r t he bl o ck is cl e ar an d t h e st o p ,

sig n al wh e n it is o ccupi e d C o n diti o n s may aris e wh e n th e r e is

.

n o t r ai n in t he bl o ck an d y e t it is u n saf e fo r o n e t o pr o c e e d .

S uch fo r e xampl e are t he pr e s e n c e o f a br o k e n rail an o p e n

, , ,

switch o r a t r ai n o n a sidi n g which is s o n e ar t h e mai n li n e that it

,

will f o ul t he t r ack If an y o f th e s e b e pr e s e n t t he sig n als sh o uld

.
,

giv e t he st o p i n dicati o n In g e n e ral such ab n o r mal c o n di.
,

ti o n s are n o t i n dicat e d by sig n als o f t he tr o ll e y c o n tact typ e T he .

u s e o f this typ e sh o uld th e r e f o r e b e limit e d t o plac e s wh e r e t h e

liability O f da n g e r fr o m such s o urc e s is a mi n imum F urth e r .

,

th e r e is a pr e val e n t O pi n i o n am o n g railway m e n that t he acti o n o f

t he tr o ll e y c o n tact o rs is n o t e n tir e ly satisfact o ry at high sp e e ds ,

alth o ugh t he ma n ufactur e rs claim that th e ir O p e rati o n is p e rfe ct

at sp e e ds up t o ab o ut 60 mil e s pe r hr .

C o n t in u o us Tr ac k C ir c uit S i gn al s T o car e fo r pr o t e cti o n fr o m

c o n diti o n s such as ar e m e n ti o n e d in t he ab o v e pa r agraph an ,

e n tir e ly di ff e r e n t m e th o d o f c o n tr o lli n g t h e sig n als may b e us e d .

T his is by t he us e o f t he t r ack rails as t he c o n duct o r s o f t he si g n al

syst e m T he Am e rica n El e ct r ic R ailway E n gi n e e ri n g A ss o cia
.

ti o n mak e s t he f o ll o wi n g r e c o mm e n dati o n 1

1
E n gi n e eri n g M a n ua l ,
Am i
e r c an E l e c t ri c R ail w a y En g in e e rin g As s o
c ia t io n , Se c t io n S s 7a .
 44 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

F o r high-sp e e d i n t erurb an s er vi c e , whe r e aut o mat ic s ig

n al s ar e c o n t r oll e d b y c o n t i n u o us t rac k c ir c u it s , t h at

e x pen dit ur e s be c o n c e n t rat e d o n t he f o rm o f i n di c at i o n

in p r efere n c e t o a mo r e e xp e n sive f o rm o f s ign al an d a ,

l ess r eliabl e f o rm o f c o ntrol .

T he igi n al pat e n t c o v e ri n g t he us e o f t h e track circuit as a

or

c o n tr o l fo r t he sig n al syst e m was gra n t e d t o William R o bi n s o n in

1 8 72 T h e fu n dam e n tal parts o f this syst e m ar e sh o w n in Fig
. .

1 85 T he track is divid e d i n t o s e cti o n s at t he e n ds o f t he bl o cks

.
,

t h e rails b e i n g e l e ctrically s e pa r at e d fr o m e ach o th e r at th e s e

p o i n ts by i n sulati n g j o i n ts At t h e e n d o f t he bl o ck W h e r e .

t h e trai n e n t e rs is plac e d a r e lay similar t o t h e o r di n ary ,

t e l e graph r e lay ; whil e at t he o pp o sit e e n d is a cl o s e d circuit -

batt e r y o f t he pr o p e r siz e Wh e n th e r e is n o trai n in t h e bl o ck.

,

a n d t h e c o n ti n uity o f t he track circuit is p e rf e ct a curr e n t wi ll ,

FI G . 1 85 .
S im pl e t ra c k c i r c u it .

I n t h is f o rm t he t rac k c ir c u i t s ig n al s ha v b e een in s t ll d
a e g
on a r e at m an y lin e s of dou bl e
l
.

t ra c k s t eam ra i r oa d .

o w fr o m t he batt e ry thr o ugh t he rails e n e rgizi n g t he r e lay ,

.

T his o p e r at e s a l o cal circuit at t h e sig n al t o giv e t he pr o c e e d
i n dicati o n If a trai n e n t e r s t he bl o ck t he wh e e ls an d axl e s
.
,

plac e a sh o rt circuit o n t he batt e ry an d t he r e lay is de e n e rgiz e d

-
,
-
.

T his caus e s t he auxiliary circuit t o O p e n gi vi n g t h e st o p ,

in dicati o n It is e vid e n t that t he sam e r e sult is o btai n e d if a

.

br o k e n rail e xists in t he bl o ck B y i n cludi n g all switch e s in t he .

ci r cuit an d c o n n e cti n g t h e rails o f sidi n gs back t o a p o i n t b e y o n d

,

t he f o uli n g limits pr o t e cti o n is o btai n e d fr o m th e s e s o urc e s o f

,

da n g e r .

T he o rigi n al R o bi n s o n d e vic e is suitabl e fo r t he pr o t e cti o n o f

,

st e am r o ads o n which t he trafc is always in o n e dir e cti o n It is

,
.

t he basis o f all m o d e r n sig n al syst e ms usi n g t h e t r ack fo r t h e c o n

t r o l circuit T h e r e ar e a n umb e r o f o bj e cti o n s t o t he syst e m
.
,

n o n e o f which is pa r ticula r ly s e ri o us T he Op e r ati o n d e p e n ds o n .

 S I GN AL S F OR ELE C TR I C R OA D S 3 45

t he i n sulati o n b e tw e e n t he rails b e i n g mai n tai n e d at a fai r ly high

valu e si n c e t h e fu n dam e n tal id e a is t o hav e sufci e n t cu r r e n t

,

r e ach t he r e lay t o e n e rgiz e it wh e n t he bl o ck is cl e ar Alth o ugh .

but a fe w v o lts are us e d t he l e akag e o f cu r r e n t duri n g w e t w e ath e r

,

is c o n sid e rabl e A larg e r n umb e r o f c e lls in s e ri e s d o e s n o t aid

.

m uch si n c e t he l e akag e is i n cr e as e d s o m e what fast e r tha n in pr o

,

p o rti o n t o t he e m f O f t he t o tal o utput o f t he batt e ry ab o ut 4 0

. . .
,

p e r c e n t is us e d
. t o o p e rat e t h e r e lay t h e r e mai n d e r b e
,
i n g us e d t o

o v e rc o m e t he r e sista n c e o f t h e t r ack circuit a n d t o s upply l e akag e .

Tr ac k C ir c uit s fo r El e c t ric R ail w ay s

T he dire ct curr e n t track
.
-

circu it as d e scrib e d is n o t suitabl e fo r e le ctric railways if t he

, ,

rails are t o b e us e d fo r carryi n g t he pr o pulsi o n curr e n t si n c e e v e n ,

a small curr e n t d ue t o trai n o p e r ati o n may b e e n o ugh t o giv e fals e

i n dicati o n s o f t he sig n als In o rd e r t o mak e t he track ci r cuit
.

applicabl e fo r e l e ctric railway sig n ali n g it is n e c e ssary t o mak e a ,

radical cha n g e in s o m e o f t he d e tails .

T he difculty due t o t he pr e s e n c e o f curr e n t in t h e track c an b e

o v e rc o m e by usi n g a di ff e r e n t ki n d in t h e sig n al circuit an d ,

e mpl o yi n g a r e lay which r e sp o n ds o n ly t o that F o r i n sta n c e .

,

o n r o ads havi n g dir e ct cur r e n t fo r pr o pulsi o n alt e r n ati n g curr e n t ,

is suitabl e fo r sig n ali n g an d a r e lay o f t h e i n ducti o n typ e which

, ,

d o e s n o t r e sp o n d t o dire ct curr e n t may b e e mpl o y e d ,

.

S i gl
n e R ail S y s t e m An o th e r di f culty in t h e us e o f track
.

circuits fo r e l e ctric railway sig n ali n g is that t he rails must b e

mad e c o n ti n u o us if th e y ar e t o ca rr y t h e mai n curr e n t If c o n di .

ti o n s ar e such that t he c o n ductivity o f o n e rail is s ui c ie n t fo r t he

pu r p o s e o r if auxiliary c o n duct o rs c an b e i n stall e d o n e o f t he
, ,

track rails c an b e us e d fo r carryi n g t he li n e curr e n t whil e t he ,

o th e r is cut i n t o i n sulat e d s e cti o n s t o f o rm t h e sig n al bl o cks .

T he arra n g e m e n t o f circuits is sh o w n in Fig 1 8 6 It may b e s e e n . .

that a l o w e r i n g tra n sf o rm e r r e plac e s t he batt e r y o f t he dir e ct

curr e n t s ig n al circuit a supply o f alt e r n ati n g curr e n t b e i n g
,

fu r n ish e d by t he sig n al mai n s T o limit t he curr e n t which c an

.

o w wh e n a la r g e di ff e r e n c e o f p o t e n tial e xists in t h e r e tur n c o n

duct o r rail b e tw e e n t he e n ds o f t he bl o ck a c e rtai n am o u n t o f ,

n o n i n ductiv e r e sista n c e is i n s e rt e d in t h e circuit

-
T o pr e v e n t .

any mag n e tizi n g acti o n fr o m what di r e ct cur r e n t d o e s p ass

thr o ugh t he sig n al apparatus t he t r a n sf o r m e r is mad e with an
,

air gap a n d a r e acta n c e c o il als o with an air gap is shu n t e d

-
, ,
-
,

ac r o ss t he t e rmi n als o f t h e r e lay T he acti o n o f t he latt e r is

.

like that in t he dir e ct cu r r e n t sig n al syst e m but t he typ e is

-
,
346 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

di ffe r e n t b e i n g similar t o a si i n ducti o n m o t o r T he n

gl e phas e
, .

acti o n o f t he sig n al m e cha n ism may b e t he sam e as with di r e ct

curr e n t t r ack ci r cuits ; but si n c e a supply o f alt e r n ati n g curr e n t
,

is pr e s e n t fo r t h e track circuit it is simpl e r t ou s e it thr o ugh o ut , ,

in ducti o n m o t o rs b e i n g e mpl o y e d for O p e rati n g s e maph o r e s .

Wh e n lamps ar e us e d fo r t he i n dicati o n s th e y c an be suppli e d ,

fr o m t he sig n al mai n s thr o ugh l o w e ri n g tra n sf o rm e rs .

It is e vid e n t that t he sam e pr o t e cti o n is gi v e n with this syst e m

h
as with t e dir e ct curr e n t track circuit A br o k e n rail o r a f oul e d .

switch c an b e mad e t o i n dicat e e qually w e ll T he pri n cipal .

o bj e cti o n is that o n ly o n e o f t he track rails is a v ailabl e fo r t he

r e tur n circuit ; an d in s o m e cas e s additi o n al f e e d e rs must be

i n stall e d Fo r an e l e vat e d o r a subway li n e this d e fe ct is n o t
.
,

FI G . 1 8 6 S in g l e -r ai l
. a l t e rn at in g -c
u rr e n t s i gn a l c i r c u i t .

T h i t yp
s e of t ra c k -
c ir c u it g li
si na s su it bl f
a e l o r e e c t r ic r o a d s us in
g d ire c t c
u r r en t or fo r
ger f f y
,

s t ea m r o ads w h e r e t her e Is d an of In t er e r e n c e ro m s t ra c ur r e n t I n t h e ra i l s .

s e ri o us si n c e t he m e tal structur e c an b e us e d t o suppl e m e n t t he

,

track ; but fo r an i n t e rurba n r o ad t he c o st o f additi o n al c o pp e r

may be pr o hibitiv e .

F o r st e am r o ads t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t syst e m is n di n g m o r e

,
-

fa v o r at pr e s e n t tha n t he dir e ct si n c e stray dir e ct curr e n ts d u e t o ,

l e akag e fr o m e l e ctric li n e s ar e liabl e t o d e ra n g e t he sig n al ci r cuits .

T his may b e o bviat e d by t he u s e o f alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t fo r O p e rat
in g t h e sig n als as d e sc r ib e d ab o v e
, In this cas e b o th rails may b e .

divid e d i n t o i n sulat e d s e cti o n s .

D o ub l e R ail Al t e m at in g QC urr e n t S y s t e m If t he pr o pulsi o n .

curr e n t c an b e pr e v en t e d fr o m i n t e rf e ri n g with t he acti o n o f t he

s ig n al m e cha n ism it will d o n o harm in t h e rails ; but t o k e e p t he
,

bl o cks s e parat e is a m o r e difcult matt e r T he m e th o d alr e ady .

 S I GN AL S F OR EL E C TR I C R OA D S 34 7

d e scrib e d sac r ic e s t he c o n d uctivity o f o n e rail An o th e r way is .

t o u s e a f o rm o f b o n d which will pass di r e ct curr e n t but will n o t ,

all o w alt e r n ati n g cur r e n t t o o w thr o ugh S uch a b o n d may be

m ad e by t h e us e o f bala n c e d i n ducta n c e s The arr a n g e m e n t is .

sh o wn in Fig 1 8 7 T he i n sulat e d j o i n ts are r e tai n e d as with t he

. .
,

dir e ct curr e n t track circuit but t he t w o rails in e ach bl o ck ar e

- -
,

c o nn e ct e d by in ducta n c e c o ils which ar e j o i n e d t o g e th e r at th e i r ,

middl e p o i n ts T he o bst r ucti o n t o t h e o w o f dir e ct cu r r e n t is

.

small si n c e t he r e sista n c e o f t h e b o n ds is l o w ; but th e r e is n o

,

t e n d e n cy fo r t h e alt e r n ati n g cur r e n t t o pass such a b o n d fo r t h e ,

t w o sid e s o f t h e t r ack in t h e adj ac e n t bl o ck ar e bala n c e d .

If t he dir e ct curr e n t is e v en ly divid e d b e tw e e n t h e t w o rails ,

t h e u n bala n ci n g in t he i n ducti v e b o n ds is n e gligibl e ; but wh e n t he

FI G . 187 . D o ub l e -r
ai l a l t e r n a t in g -
c u r re n t s ig n a l c ir c u it .

S uit a bl e fo r us e wit h d ir e c t or a lt e r n a t in g p r o p ul s io n c urr e n t .

di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n t he curr e n ts carri e d by t he rails is large it is ,

n e c e ssary t o i n tr o duc e a n air gap i n t o t he c o r e o f t he b o n d t o l owe r

-

t he i n ducta n c e T he m o r e p e rf e ct bala n ci n g o f t he p o t e n tial dr o p

.

h
b e tw e e t e t w o rails r e n d e rs t he us e o f an air gap in t h e mag n e tic
n

circuit o f t he l o w e ri n g tra n sf o rm e r u nn e c e ssary an d mak e s it po s ,

sibl e t o disp e n s e with t h e r e gulati n g r e sista n c e an d with t he r e

a c t an c e shu n ti n g t h e r e lay as us e d in t h e si n gl e rail syst e m
,
A -
.

similar i n ducti o n r e lay , which r e sp o n ds o n ly t o alt e r n ati n g cur

r e n t is e mpl o y e d T he o th e r par ts o f t h e apparatus c an b e t h e
, .

s am e as fo r an y f o rm o f track circuit sig n als .

As d e scrib e d t he alt e r n ati n g curr e n t track circuit s ig n al

,
-

syst e m is suitabl e fo r us e in c o n n e cti o n with r o ads e mpl o yi n g

di r e ct curr e n t fo r pr o pulsi o n It is e qually applicabl e t o si n gl e .
348 THE EL E C TRI C RA I L WA Y

phas e o r thr e e phas e li n e s pr o vid e d t he fr e qu e n cy o f t h e sign al

-
,

circuit is s o ch o s e n that t h e i n ductiv e b o n ds will pass t he pr o

pulsi o n curr e n t whil e h o ldi n g back that fo r o p e rati n g t he sign als
, .

T his c an b e acc o mplish e d by usi n g a high e r fr e qu e n cy fo r t he

sign al syst e m with an am o u n t o f i n ducta n c e in t h e b o n ds which
,

has a small e e c t at t h e lin e fr e qu e n cy F o r 2 5 cycl e r o ads 60 .

-
,

cycl e sig n ali n g curr en t is e n tir e ly satisfact o ry in actual s e rv ic e .

M e th o d s o f O pe rat in g S e m aph o r e s Wh e n s e maph o r e s a r e .

us e d fo r t he daylight i n dicati o n it is n e c e ssary t o hav e a m o r e

,

c o mplicat e d m e cha n ism fo r O p e rati n g th e m tha n is e mpl o y e d

with lights al o n e T he s e maph o r e usually c o n sists o f a w o o d e n
.

blad e piv o t e d at o n e e n d an d c o u n t e rw e ight e d s o that t he un

, ,

bala n c e d m ass is small Wh e n ar r a n g e d fo r us e in an upp e r quad

.

ra n t t he blad e is slightly h e avi e r tha n t he c o u n t e rw e ight s o

, ,

that it will fall t o t he st o p i n dicati o n if t h e m e cha n ism fails

t o h o ld it at pr o c e e d fo r an y re as o n wh e th e r in t h e n o rmal ,

O p e rati o n o f t he syst e m o r thr o ugh failur e o f t h e sig n al apparatus

,
.

O n t h e o th e r ha n d s e maph o r e s fo r i n dicati o n in t he l o w e r quad

,

ran t hav e t he c o u n t e rw e ight t he h e a vie r pr o duci n g t h e sam e ,

r e sult T h e gr e at ad v a n tag e o f t he upp e r quadran t sig n al is that

.

if t h e blad e is w e ight e d with a c o ati n g o f ic e su f ci e n t t o pr e v e n t

o p e rati o n t he blad e will fall t o t h e
, st o p i n dicati o n rath e r tha n

t o pr o c e e d T his is a saf e ty pr e cauti o n which has gr e at valu e
.
,

a n d is e xt e n di n g t h e us e o f upp e r quadra n t sig nals .

T he se maph o r e is o rdi n arily m o v e d t o t he pr o c e e d i n dicati o n
by a small e l e ctric m o t o r driv e n by batt e ri e s in d ir e ct cu rr e n t
,
-

sig n ali n g an d by a tran sf o rm e r fr o m t he sig n al mai n s in t he alt e r

,

n ati n g cu r r e n t syst e ms
-
Aft e r t h e pr o p e r m o v e m e n t is mad e t he
.
,

m o t o r is aut o matically disc o n n e ct e d an d t he blad e h e ld in p o si,

ti o n by an e l e ctr o mag n e t In all typ e s o f sig n als t he appa

.

ratus is s o ar r a n g e d that a failur e o f t he o p e r ati n g curr e n t o r o f ,

a n y part o f t he m e cha n ism will caus e t h e sig n al t o gi v e t h e
,
st o p
i n dicati o n .

P e rm i s s ive O pe r at ion The s ign als discuss e d s o f ar ar e o f t he

.

abs o lut e typ e T hat is t h e i n dicati o n is e ith e r st o p o r pr o
.
,

c ee d. T h e r e m ay b e ma n y i n stan c e s wh e r e it is n o t n e c e ssar y
fo r t he trai n t o st o p an d r e mai n at t h e sig n al but wh e r e m o v e m e n t ,

with e xtr e m e cauti o n will b e su f ci e n t t o guard agai n st ac cid e n t

In an y o f t he abs o lut e syst e ms such as th o s e d e sc r ib e d p e rmis

, ,

si o n may b e gi ve n by t he O p e rati n g rul e s t o dis r e gar d t h e sign al

i n dicati o n u n d e r c e rtai n c o n diti o n s Wh e n a trai n is halt e d by
.
 S I GN AL S F OR ELE C TRI C ROA DS 34 9

a sig na l s e t agai n st it t he i n dicati o n may b e d ue t o an O p e n switch

, ,

a b r o k e n rail o r a t r ai n o n a sidi n g withi n t he f o uli n g limits

,
.

T o sav e tim e t he e n gi n e ma n is all o w e d aft e r havm g wait e d a

, ,

r e as o n abl e l e n gth o f tim e t o e n t e r an d pr o c e e d sl o wly b e i n g

, ,

p r e par e d t o st o p sh o r t o f an y o bst r ucti o n If a trai n is in t he .

bl o c k it is still p r o t e ct e d by t he sl o w sp e e d o f t he s e c o n d trai n
, ,

a n d if o n e o f t h e accid e n tal c o n diti o n s is e n c o u n t e r e d o r t he ,

si g n al m e cha n ism is o ut o f o rd e r it c an b e r e p o rt e d by t h e trai n ,

c r e w W h e n o p e rat e d in this man n e r t he sig n al syst e m b e c o m e s

.

p e r missiv e t o a limit e d e xt e n t .

It is n o t always p o ssibl e t o l o cat e t h e

P r e l im inary S i gn al s .

sig n als at such p o i n ts that th e y may b e s e e n fo r gr e at dista n c e s

F IG . 1 88 Us e of d is t a n t s ig n al s .

T he h o m g li p
e si na s re eat ed at a p o in t fa r en ou gh h
a ead t h at t h e en gi n eer c an g e t h is
t r ai n un d er t
con rol p p ,
re a re d to st o p w h e n n e c e ss a r y b f
e or e r e a c hi n g t h e ho m e Si g al
n .

al o n g t he track In o rd e r t o b e e ff e ctiv e t he dista n c e which a

.
,

sig n al c an b e o bs e r v e d by t he e n gi n e ma n m ust b e sufci e n t t o

p e r mit st o pp i n g t he t r ai n b e fo r e passi n g it If th e r e ar e o b s t r u c .

ti o n s al o n g t he track it may b e n e c e ss ar y t o r e p e at t he i n dicati o n

,

at s o m e p o i n t in adva n c e o f t h e sign al T he arr a n g e m e n t is .

sh o w n in Fig 1 88 T he i n di c ati o n o f t he h o m e sig n al is m e r e ly

. .

F IG . 1 8 8 C o m b in e d h o m e an d d is t an t s ig n al s .

T he O p e rat i o n is t h e s a m e as s ho w n in Fig 1 88 ; t h is
. a rr a n ge m e n t is us e d w h e n t he bl k oc s
a re s h or t e n o ug h t o w ar r a n t it .

r e p e at e d but it is r e ad di ffe r e n tly T he dista n t sig n al in t he

, .

f o r war d bl o ck sh o w n may be r e ad : Pr o ce e d at full sp e e d ; e x

i

p e c t t o n d t h e n e xt h o m e sig n al n pr o c e e d p o siti o n T h e .

dista n t sig n al in t he r e ar bl o ck in dicat e s : P r o c e e d pr e par e d ,

t o st o p at t he n e xt h o m e sig n al If t he dista n t sig n al is plac e d .

at l e ast as far as t h e st o ppi n g dista n c e ah e ad o f t h e h o m e sig n al ,

ampl e war n i n g is giv e n t h e e n gi n e ma n t o g e t his trai n u n d e r .

c o n t r o l If in t he m e a n whil e t h e t r ai n o ccupyi n g t he bl o ck
.
, ,
 50 THE EL E C TRI C RA IL WA Y

ah e ad has pass e d o ut o f it t he e n gin e ma n o f t he s e c o n d t r ai n c an

,

r e sum e full sp e e d as s oo n as he s e e s t he pr o c e e d i n dicati o n o f
t h e h o m e sig n al .

Wh e n t h e bl o cks ar e n e c e ssaril y sh o rt it b e c o m e s m o r e e c o ,

n o m ic al t o m o u n t t h e t w o s e maph o r e s o n a si n gl e mast o r t o c o m ,

bi n e th e m in a si n gl e thr e e p o siti o n sig n al In t he latt e r cas e

-
.
,

t he arra n g e m e n t is sh o w n in Fig 1 8 9 T he i n dicati o n s are as

. .

b e f o r e ; but t he sam e s e maph o r e may gi ve b o th t he distan t i n di

c ati o n fo r t h e bl o ck ah e ad an d t he h o m e i n dicati o n fo r its ow n
, .

S ign al s fo r O pe r atio n in Tw o D ire c t io n s Th e sig n als s o far .

c o n sid e r e d ar e all d e sig n e d fo r n o rmal O p e rati o n in o n e dir e cti o n

o n ly or
,
~
in o th e r w o rds for d o ubl e track r o ads
, , T o p ro vid e -
.

a n abs o lut e bl o ck syst e m fo r a si n gl e track d o e s n o t pr e s e n t much

FI G . 1 90 .
S n i
g e t
- ralc k s ign al in g . P o s it io n s of sem a ph o re s fo r f o ll o w in g
c ars .

additi o n al difculty r e quiri n g pr in cipally that arra n g e m e n t be

,

m ad e t o sh o w t h e pr o p e r in dicati o n at e ach e n d o f t he bl o ck
'

i n st e ad o f at o n e e nd o n ly A simpl e m e th o d o f ac c o mpli shi n g

.

this is t o plac e t h e b att e ry o r tran sfo rm e r supplyi n g t he track

circuit at t he c e n t e r o f t he bl o ck with r e lays at e ach e n d T he .

c o n ducta n c e o f t he trai n is s o m uch gr e at e r than that o f t he r e lay ,

that if t h e siz e o f batt e ry o r tran sf o rm e r is pr o p e rly ch o s e n t he ,

p r e s e n c e o f a trai n will pr e v e n t e n o ugh curr e n t r e achi n g t he r e lay

t o O p e rat e it s o that t h e sig n als at b o th e n ds o f t he bl o ck will
,

giv e t he st o p i n dicati o n W hil e this arra n g e m e n t will giv e

.

p r o t e ct io n an d c an b e us e d with or with o ut pr e limin ary sign als

, ,

it limits t h e capacity o f t h e bl o ck t o o n e t r ai n at a tim e I t is .

p o ssibl e t o o p e r at e s e v e ral trai n s in t he sam e dir e cti o n in o n e

bl o ck pr o vid e d t h e sig n als will gi v e pr o p e r pr o t e cti o n ; but with
, ,
 S IGN ALS F OR ELE C TRI C R OA DS 35 1

t he o rdi n ary type s c on tr o ll e d by t he track circuit it is ,

not e asy

A
.
r e c e n t typ e o f track c ircuit sig n al is arra n g e d t o giv e c o n tr o l
s o that t w o cars may b e in a bl o ck b e tw e e n sidi n gs if m o vi n g in ,

t he s am e dir e cti o n whil e th e y must b e spac e d a dista n c e apart

,

at l e ast o n e half o f t h e t o tal bl o ck l e n gth

-
T h e arra n g e m e n t o f .

s ig n als in this syst e m is giv e n in Fig 1 9 0 t h e pr o gr e ssi o n o f t w o

.
,

fo ll o wi n g cars thr o ugh t he bl o cks b e i n g sh o w n whil e in Fig 1 9 1 , .

t he m o v e m e n t o f t w o o pp o si n g trai n s is s ee n D e tails o f t he .

e quipm e n t an d m e th o ds o f o p e rati o n are gi v e n in r e c e n t issu e s

of t he E lect r ic R a ilw ay Jour na l 1

.

FI G . 1 9 1 Si n gl e -t rac k
. s ign alin g . P o s i t io n s o f s e m aph ar e s fo r o pp osin g
c ars .

C ab S ign a sl In
bad w e ath e r th e r e is always di f culty in
,

o bs e rvi n g t h e i n dicati o n s giv e n by r o adsid e sig n als T his c o n di .

ti o n calls fo r e xtr e m e car e o n t he part o f t he e n gi n e ma n t o pr e

v e n t ru nn i n g past th e m In e xtr e m e ly bad w e ath e r it m ay b e
.
,

n e c e ssary t o r e duc e t he ru n n i n g sp ee d ; a n d s o m e s e ri o us acci

d e n ts hav e o ccurr e d thr o ugh i n ability o f t he e n gi n e ma n t o o b

s e r ve t he sig n als .

A N e w S ys t em fo r T rac k C i r c uit S i g n al in g Wit h o ut P r e lim in ar ie s ;

Elec t ri c R ai lw a y J o urn a l, Vo l XLIII , p 1 99 , Jan u a r y 2 4 , 1 9 1 4
. . .

A N e w M e t h o d o f T r a f c Ac c e l e r at io n o n t h e S c ran t o n Bin gh am t o n ;
E l e c t ric R ai l w a y J o ur n a l, V o l X LI V, p 60 2 , O c t o b e r 3 , 1 9 1 4
. . .
3 52 THE EL E C TRI C RA IL WA Y

If t he sig n al i n dicati o n s c an b e gi v e n in t he l o c o m o tiv e cab ,

i n st e ad o f at a x e d p o i n t al o n g t he track it is e v id e n t that r un
,

n i n g c o n diti o n s will b e c o n sid e rably impr o v e d e sp e cially in bad ,

w e ath e r T his has b e e n ac c o mplish e d in at l e ast o n e syst e m

. .

T he o p e rati o n is quit e similar t o that o f a tr o ll e y c o n tact sig n al ,

t he c o n n e cti o n b e i n g mad e by a ramp al o n gsid e t he track which ,

pr e ss e s agai n st a sh o e o n t h e car o r l o c o m o tiv e B y this m e a n s .

an i n dicati o n is giv e n which is t h e sam e as t he c o r r e sp o n di n g

o n e at t h e x e d sig n al .It may b e o p e rat e d by a track circuit ,

t he acti o n o f t h e ramp b e i n g c o n tr o ll e d th e r e by ; or t he ramp may

b e us e d in c o n n e cti o n with a tr o ll e y c o n tact .

C ab sig n als p o ss e ss t he ad v a n tag e o f pr e s e n ti n g t he i n dicati o n

t o t he e n gi n e ma n at all tim e s s o that th e r e is n o valid e xcus e fo r
,

ru n n i n g past a st o p sig n al T his f e atur e is o n e which is
.

w o rthy o f c o n sid e rabl e att e n ti o n fr o m railway o p e rat o r s .

Th e Aut o m at ic S t op
.F o r ma n y y e ars it has b e e n d e sir e d t o
ha v e a suitabl e m e a n s o f abs o lut e ly pr e v e n ti n g disr e gard o f t h e
sign al i n dicati o n s O n all railr o ads s o m e f o rm o f surpris e t e st
.

is mad e at irr e gular i n t e rvals t o d e t e rmi n e wh e th e r t h e i n dica

ti o n s ar e b e i n g o b e y e d T his arra n g e m e n t whil e g e tti n g b e tt e r
.
,

s e r v ic e is a crud e way o f ch e cki n g t h e e ff e ctiv e n e ss o f t h e sig n al

,

syst e m A m e th o d which abs o lut e ly pr e v e n ts imp r o p e r Op e ra

.

ti o n is t he b e st an d n e xt t o that is t he d e t e rmi n ati o n o f e v e ry

,

i n fri n g e m e n t o f t he rul e s .

M e th o ds o f st o ppi n g trai n s which r un past dan g e r sig n als hav e

usually b e e n c o n n e d t o d e vic e s fo r applyi n g t he e m e rg e n cy
brak e s T he e arli e st arra n g e m e n t c o n sist e d o f a glass tub e c o n
.

m oot e d t o t he air brak e syst e m a n d m o u n t e d o n t h e r o o f o f t he

-
,

car o r l o c o m o ti ve in such a p o siti o n that it w o ul d strik e an arm

pr o j e cti n g fr o m t he s e maph o r e blad e an d m o v e d th e r e with
,
.

P assi n g o f a st o p sig n al br e aks t he glass an d appli e s t he e m e r
,

g e n oy brak e If a tub e has b e e n br o k e n it must be r e plac e d wit h

.
,

a g o o d o n e in o rd e r that t he trai n may p r o c ee d A duplicat e tub e .

is fur n ish e d e ach trai n cr e w ; but t he fact that o n e has b e e n br o k e n

is an i n dicati o n in its e lf that t he sig n al has b e e n dis o b e y e d A .

m o dicati o n o f t he syst e m in us e in t he subways an d tu n n e ls

,

ar o u n d N e w Yo rk C ity is id e n tical in pri n cipl e but e mpl o ys a

, ,

m e cha n ical t r ip pr o j e cti n g fr o m t he r o adb e d which o p e n s a ,

valv e o n t he trai n .

It is usually d e sirabl e t o m ak e t he aut o matic st o p p e rmissiv e ,

in t h e sam e w ay that t he x e d sig n al is p e rmissi v e T o d o this , .

 S IGN AL S F OR EL E C TR I C R OA D S 3 53

an arra n g e m e n t must b e mad e s o that t he trai n cr e w c an u nl o ck

t he st o p an d pr o c e e d by it wh e n all o w e d u n d e r t he rul e s
, , T his .

may r e adily b e d o n e ; an d it p r e v e n ts l o ss o f tim e in cas e a fals e

in dicati o n is gi v e n o r if an y o f t he ab n o rmal c o n diti o n s which
,

m ay e xist ar e pr e s e n t .

Aut o m atic Train C o n t r ol It is but a sh o rt st e p fr o m t he aut o

.

matic st o p t o t h e e n tir e aut o matic c o n tr o l o f trai n O p e rati o n .

T he f o r m e r as d e scrib e d will st o p a trai n o n ly wh e n it has alr e ady

, ,

pass e d a st o p sig n al It is p o ssibl e that t he trai n which caus e s
.

t he i n dicati o n is dir e ctly ah e ad o f t he sig n al in which cas e th e re ,

w o uld b e n o additi o n al pr o t e cti o n d ue t o t he aut o matic st o p .

T o mak e t he latt e r e ff e ctiv e in such e m e r g e n ci e s t h e st o p sh o uld ,

b e l o cat e d at t he dista n t o r p r e limi n ary sig n al T his agai n has .

, ,

t he disad v a n tag e that if t he bl o c k sh o uld b e cl e ar e d b e f o r e t h e

trai n r e ach e s t he h o m e sig n al t he O p e r ati o n o f t he st o p will c aus e
,

a n u n warra n t e d d e lay T h e id e al c o n tr o l is t o hav e a f o rm o f

.

t r ip o p e rat e d in such a ma n n e r that it will caus e t he t r ai n t o

r e duc e s pe e d o n passi n g a dista n t sig n al givi n g t he p r o c e e d with

cauti o n i n dicati o n but n o t fo rci n g a st o p u n l e ss t he train o v e r
,

ru n s a h o m e sig n al displayi n g st o p B y this m e th o d t he sp e e d
.

o f t he trai n will be u n d e r c o n tr o l fr o m t he tim e t h e dista n t sig n al

is pass e d wh e th e r t he e n gi n e ma n o b e ys t he i n dicati o n o r n o t
, .

U p t o t he pr e s e n t tim e n o syst e m has b e e n d e v e l o p e d which has

,

pr o v e d e n tir e ly satisfact o ry In a p r i z e c o mp e titi o n h e ld by t he

.

N e w H av e n r o ad a fe w y e ars a g o n o l e ss tha n 1 8 00 e n t r i e s w e r e
,

mad e Fr o m t he am o u n t o f i n t e r e st in t he subj e ct as e vid e n c e d

.
,

by this la r g e n umb e r o f c o mp e tit o rs it w o uld s e e m that a satis

,

fact o ry s o luti o n o i t he pr o bl e m may b e mad e withi n t he n e xt fe w

y e ar s .

In t e r l o c kin g At p o i n ts wh e r e s e v e ral li n e s o f railr o ad track

di ve rg e o r wh e r e r o ads i n t e rs e ct th e r e is an e xc e pti o n ally
, ,

da n g e r o us situati o n In ma n y citi e s wh e r e t h e li n e s cr o ss st e am
.
,

railr o ad t r acks at grad e it is cust o mary t o hav e a agm an o r t o

, ,

hav e o n e o f t he trai n cr e w ag t h e car acr o ss t he tracks T hi s .

sl o ws d o w n t he sch e dul e sp e e d c o n sid e rably an d is n o t abs o lut e ly

,

saf e e sp e cially wh e r e th e r e ar e but fe w st e am trai n s I n t e r urba n

, .

a n d st e am railr o ads usually guard th e ir tracks agai n st c o llisi o n s

by t he us e o f i n t e rl o cki n g plan ts at t h e p o i n ts o f i n t e rs e cti o n .

T he i n t e rl o cki n g pla n t c o n sists o f a s e t o f st o p sig n als s o ,

i n t e rc o n n e ct e d that it is imp o ssibl e t o giv e t he pr o c e e d ih
d ic a t io n o n c o n icti n g r o ut e s C o mbi n e d with this is a s e t o f
.

23
3 54 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

d e r aili n g switch e s t o pr e v e n t t h e pr o gr e ss o f t r a i n s which m ight

disr e gard t h e st o p sig n als D e t e ct o r bars ar e usually e m
.

pl o y e d t o p r e v e n t a r e arra n g e m e n t o f t he sig n als whil e a tra i n 1 8

in t h e act o f passi n g t h e i n t e r s e cti o n B y t h e s e pr e c aut io n s a
.
,

c o llisi o n is imp o ssibl e e v e n wh e n t h e i n dicati o n s are disr e gard e d

, ,

u n l e ss t he apparatus is o ut o f o rd e r .

T h e O p e rati o n o f t he in t e r l o cki n g apparatus may b e ac c o m

plis h e d by s e v e ral m e th o ds . Th e simpl e st o f th e s e I S t h e plai n
m e cha n ic al i n t e r l o cki n g machi n e which has b e e n in s e rvic e
,

o n ma n y r o ads fo r y e a r s . T h e p o w e r fo r o p e rati o n is suppli e d by

a sign alma n w h o is l o cat e d in a t o w e r wh e r e he c an s e e t he e n tir e
,

s e t o f tracks u n d e r his sup e r v isi o n .T he l e v e rs o f t h e m e cha n ical

machi n e ar e s o m e what h e avy an d r e quir e a c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t
,

o f f o rc e t o O p e r at e. T h e m o v e m e n t is n e c e ssa r ily sl o w .

Impr o v e m e n ts o n t he m e cha n ical i n t e r l o cki n g machi n e hav e

b e e n m ai n ly in t h e substituti o n o f s o m e e asily c o n tr o ll e d p o w e r
fo r ma n ual . T h e m o st succ e ssful f o r ms o f p o w e r i n t e rl o cki n g
machi n e s ar e t he e l e ct r i c an d t h e e l e c t r O pn e um at ic . T he
m e th o ds o f O p e r ati o n o f t h e t w o ar e al m o st id e n ti cal t h e mai n
,

di ff e r e n c e b e i n g that in o n e c o mp r e ss e d air is e mpl o y e d fo r thr o w

in g t he switch e s a n d sig n als whil e in t h e o th e r e l e ctric m o t o rs
,

a n d e l e ctr o mag n e ts ar e us e d . In b o th t h e m o v e m e n t is c o n
tr o ll e d e l e ct r ically.

T h e pri n cipal ad v a n tag e s o f p o w e r i n t e r l o cki n g o f t he t w o ki n ds

m e n ti o n e d ar e that t he tim e o f O p e rati o n is r e duc e d by ab o ut o n e
half that t he spac e r e quir e d in t he i n t e rl o cki n g t o w e r is but ab o ut
,

o n e f o urth that t h e n umb e r o f O p e rat o r s is mat e rially r e duc e d

-
, ,

a n d t h e spac e n e e d e d fo r c o n n e cti o n s b e tw e e n t h e t o w e r a n d t he

sign als an d switch e s is much l e ss T h e s e adva n tag e s ar e s uf

.

ci e n t t o j ustify t he us e o f p o w e r apparatus in an y but t he small e st

pla n ts .
 C H APT E R X V I I

S YS TEM S F O R ELEC TR I C RAILWAY O P ERATI O N

As was stat e d in t he rst chapt e r th e r e ar e s e v e ral p o ssibl e ,

c o mbi n ati o n s o f e l e ctric circuits an d m o t o rs fo r t he o p e rati o n o f

railway trai n s T he v ari o us e l e m e n ts hav e b e e n c o n sid e r e d
.

s e parat e ly an d it n o w r e mai n s t o bri n g t o g e th e r t h e d e tails

,

which mak e up t h e c o mpl e t e syst e ms O f t he p o ssibl e c o mbi n a .

ti o n s t h e dir e ct cu r r e n t t he thr e e phas e an d t he si n gl e phas e

,
-
,
-
,
-

ci r cu its hav e b e e n us e d fo r supplyi n g t he pr o pulsi o n curr e n t t o

t he cars T h e s e will be tak e n up in o rd e r s o that t he m e r its o f
.
,

e ach c an b e discuss e d .

6 0 0 V o lt D ir e c t c urr e n t S y s t e m
-
T his is t he o ld e st typ e o f
.

e l e ctric railway dist r ibuti o n at p r e s e n t in us e As has b e e n .

m e n ti o n e d in pr e vi o us chapt e rs it is a gradual d e v e l o pm e n t fr o m
,

t he l o w p r e ssu r e circuits with which t he e a r ly r o ads w e r e e quipp e d

-

an d r e pr e s e n ts ab o ut t h e saf e li m i t o f p o t e n tial fo r c o n ti n u o us

o p e rati o n o f m o t o rs with o ut i n t e r p o l e s .

T he m o t o rs us e d ar e al m o st i n variably o f t he s e ri e s typ e .

D ue t o t he l o n g p e r i o d o f d e v e l o pm e n t th e y ar e w e ll sta n dard ,

iz e d an d t h e mi n o r d e f e cts ha v e b e e n e limi n at e d t o a larg e e xt e n t

, .

N o m o r e r e liabl e an d satisfact o r y m o t o rs ar e k n o w n fo r us e o n
railway ci r cuits T he dir e ct cu r r e n t s e r i e s m o t o r wh e n adapt e d
.
-
,

fo r railway o p e r ati o n is as light as an y an d si n c e t h e pa r ts ar e

, , ,

c o mparativ e ly simpl e it is o n e o f t he ch e ap e st m o t o rs avail

,

abl e F urth e rm o r e t he sta n dard machi n e s ar e quit e e f

.
,

ci e n t alth o ugh n o att e mpts hav e b e e n mad e t o attai n t he v e ry

,

high e st e fci e n cy R ugg e d n e ss an d fr e e d o m fr o m br e akd o wn s

.

hav e b e e n c o n sid e r e d m o r e d e sirabl e tha n r e n e m e n ts .

T he s e ri e s m o t o r has a g r e at adva n tag e o v e r o th e r typ e s in ,

that it aut o matically pr o t e cts its e lf agai n st o v e rl o ads S i n c e .

t h e sam e cu r r e n t o ws thr o ugh b o th armatur e an d e ld a sudd e n ,

l o ad thr o w n o n t he machi n e ca n n o t caus e a gr e at i n c r e as e in

armatu r e cur r e n t with o ut a c o rr e sp o n di n g gai n in e ld str e n gth ,

s o that t h e m o t o r sl o ws d o w n wh e n an o v e r l o ad is e n c o u n t e r e d ,

a n d d o e s n o t draw such a g r e at rush o f curr e n t as do o th e r typ e s

u n d e r similar c o n diti o n s With t he additi o n o f i n t e rp o l e s t he

.
,

35 5
 56 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

tr o ubl e s d ue t o o v e r l o ad an d t o v ariati o n o f t he supply p o t e n tial

a r e mi n imiz e d t o a p o i n t wh e r e th e y hav e practically n o e ff e ct

o n t he satisfact o r y o p e rati o n o f t h e machi n e s .

If a n e e d aris e s as fo r i n sta n c e t o g e t charact e ristics suitabl e

,

for r e g e n e rati o n t he shu n t m o t o r c an b e us e d ; an d if d e sir e d t he

, ,

c o mp o u n d m o t o r is als o availabl e fo r o p e rati o n o n t he dir e ct

curr e n t circuit In this w ay sp e e d charact e ristics o f an y fo rm
.
,

what e v e r may b e o btai n e d with this syst e m alth o ugh up t o t he ,

pr e s e n t tim e t he s e ri e s m o t o r has fulll e d all r e quir e m e n ts .

T he c o n tr o l o f dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs whil e quit e satisfact o ry

-
, ,

is scarc e ly up t o t he sta n dard s e t by t he m o t o rs th e ms e lv e s .

It has b ee n sh o w n that th e r e is a c o n sid e rabl e l o ss o f e n e rgy in

t he r e sist o rs whil e sta r ti n g which is an i n h e r e n t d e f e ct an d
, ,

which ca n n o t b e r e m e di e d with o ut t he us e o f v e ry sp e cial m e th o ds

which ar e s o c o mplicat e d as t o ha v e but limit e d applicati o n .

With t he o rdi n ary f o rms o f s e r i e s par all e l c o n tr o l th e r e are but-

,

t w o o r at b e st thr ee e fci e n t o p e rati n g sp e e ds

, ,
B y t h e us e o f .

e ld c o n tr o l as m a n y m o r e sp e e ds may b e add e d at t he c o st o f a
,

s light c o mplicati o n o f t h e circuits F i e ld c on tr o l als o r e duc e s t he

.

e n e rgy c o n sumpti o n wh e n dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs ar e us e d fo r -

m ix e d s e r v ic e such as c o mbi n e d city an d i n t e rurba n li n e s

, .

T he c o n tact li n e is e xt r e m e ly simpl e Eith e r t he third rail o r .

t he o v e rh e ad tr o ll e y may b e us e d o r if sp e cial c o n diti o n s d e , ,

ma n d it t he u n d e r gr o u n d c o n duit o r p e rhaps surfac e c o n tact c a n

,

b e satisfact o rily e mpl o y e d Whil e th e s e sp e cial f o rms o f c o n tact

.

c o n duct o r might b e us e d with o th e r distributi o n circuits th e y are ,

n o t suit e d t o high e r p o t e n tia l s which f o rm t he basis o f all t he

,

o th e r syst e ms .

T he l o w t e n si o n distributi o n which is r e sp o n sibl e fo r t he e x

-
,

tr e m e simplicity o f t he 600-v o lt syst e m is in its e lf t he gr e at ,

s o urc e o f i n e fci e n cy T he l o ss in t he distributi n g circuit is

.

n e c e ssarily larg e wh e th e r in e n e rgy wh e n a small e xp e n ditur e fo r

,

c o pp e r is mad e o r in o v e rh e ad c o st wh e n a larg e r c o n duct o r is

,

us e d T his is t h e gr e at drawback t o t he u n iv e rsal applicati o n o f

.

t he syst e m . It is s o s e ri o us that e v e n fo r city r o ads o f c o mpara

'

t ive l y gr e at c o n g e sti o n an d sh o rt l e n gth it is n e c e ssary t o g e n e r ,

a t e alt e r n ati n g curr e n t fo r t h e e c o n o my it o ff e rs in high t e n si o n -

tra n smissi o n an d t o add t h e s o m e what c o mplicat e d an d i n e fci e n t

li n k o f l o w e ri n g tra n sf o rm e rs an d r o tati n g c o n v e rti n g e quipm e n t .

An i n cid e n tal disad v a n tag e , which is e xc e e di n gly difcult t o

c o mpl e t e ly c o mbat , is t he tr o ubl e caus e d o th e r c o rp o rati o n s w ho
 S YS TE M S F OR EL E C TR I C RA ILWA Y OP ERA TI ON 35 7

ha ve m e tal structur e s buri e d in t he s o il by e l e ctr o lysis T he , .

l o w -p o t e n tial dist r ibuti o n is a g r e at c o n t r ibuti n g fact o r in this ,

si n c e it calls fo r la r g e curr e n ts t o b e tra n smitt e d th r o ugh t he rails ,

u n l e ss an i n sulat e d r e tur n circuit is pr o vid e d W hil e it is c o n .

c e d e d that with g r e at car e e l e ctr o lysis c an b e pr e v e n t e d it is

, , ,

difcul t t o ma i n tai n t he gr o u n d e d r e tur n c i r cuit in su c h e x

c e l l e n t c o n diti o n that tr o ubl e is n o t liabl e t o aris e alm o st with o ut

wa r n i n g .

I n spit e o f t he disad va n tag e s t he e xc e ll e n c e o f t h e 600 v o lt

,
-

syst e m is such that it has b e e n u n iv e r sally us e d fo r city s e r vic e ,

a n d fo r this class o f o p e rati o n s it is u n qu e sti o n ably with o ut an

e qual . It is n o t pr o babl e that an y o th e r m e th o d o f distributi o n

will b e adva n c e d which will driv e t he 600 v o lt syst e m o ut o f this -

e ld F o r i n t e rurba n s e rvic e it has b e e n in t he past n e arly always

.

ad o pt e d ; but t he use o f high e r p o t e n tials will pr o bably sup e rs e d e

t he l o w t e n si o n syst e m m o r e a n d m o r e wh e r e t he l e n gth o f dis
-

t ribu t io n is gr e at .

H igh T e n s i o n D ir e c t C ur r e n t S y s t e m s
- - T he u s e o f dire ct
curr e n t at high e r p o t e n tials has fo ll o w e d t he n e e d fo r a r e ducti o n
o f t he l o ss in t he distributi n g ci r cuit e sp e cially fo r l o n g li n e s
,
.

M ot o rs o f t he i n t e rp o l e typ e must b e e mpl o y e d an d t he u s e o f ,

high e r p o t e n tials has b e e n e n tir e ly d e p e n d e n t o n t he d e v e l o pm e n t

o f this ki n d o f machi n e T h e y p o ss e ss t he sam e e xc e ll e n t char
.

ac t e r is t ic s as t he 600 v o lt m o t o r s ; an d in fact wh e r e a 1 2 0 0 v o lt
-
, ,
-

c o n tact li n e is use d th e r e is n o diff e r e n c e in th e ir c o n structi o n

,

sav e t he n e e d fo r m o r e i n sulati o n O n acc o u n t o f this t he o ut

.
,

put o f a giv e n m o t o r must b e s o m e what l e ss wh e n w o u n d fo r us e

o n t he high e r p r e ssu r e s o that t he m o t o r s are n o t s o light s o
, ,

ch e ap o r s o e fci e n t wh e n s o arra n g e d T he di ffe r e n c e fo r 1 2 0 0

, .

v o lt o p e rati o n is c o mparativ e ly small s o that n o gr e at e ff e ct d u e

,

t o this caus e is appar e n t W h e n t he m o t o r s ar e w o u n d dire ctly

.

fo r t he 1 2 00v o lt circuit t he di ffe r e n c e is g r e at e r ; but si n c e this

,

cha n g e is usually mad e t o p e rmit t he us e o f a c o n tact li n e at 2 400

v o lts it is e n ti r e ly j usti e d
, .

T he c o n tr o l fo r t he high e r p o t e n tials is m o r e e xp e n siv e tha n

fo r 600 v o lt e quipm e n t
-
T he arcs are m o r e difcult t o br e ak s o
.
,

that gr e at e r dista n c e s b e tw e e n t he switch blad e s b e tt e r mag n e tic ,

bl o w o uts an d l o n g e r arc chut e s ar e r e quir e d It is s o m e tim e s

, .

e v e n n e c e ssa r y t o plac e t w o br e aks in s e r i e s t o pr e v e n t damag e

fr o m t he a r cs O n acc o u n t o f t he small e r curr e n t wh e n t he

.
,

e n e r gy t o b e dissipat e d r e mai n s t he sam e t h e r e sist o rs us e d must ,

3 58 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

be of small r cr o ss s e cti o n an d gr e at e r l e n gth T his l e ads t o a

e -
.

m o r e e xp e n siv e an d l e ss rugg e d d e sig n .

T h e gr e at adva n tag e in t he high t e n si o n syst e m li e s in t he sav

-

in g in c o st o f t he c o n tact li n e e ith e r o f t he c o n duct o r o r o f t he

,

e n e rgy l o st in it T his is t he c aus e o f t h e ad o pti o n o f t he high e r

.

p o t e n tials In t he li n e s s o far c o n struct e d it has n o t b e e n f o u n d

.
,

practical t o g e n e rat e dir e ct curr e n t at t he c o n tact li n e p o t e n tial ;

but alt e rn ati n g curr e n t g e n e rati o n with high t e n si o n tra n smis
-
,
-

si o n an d c o n v e rsi o n t o dir e ct curr e n t thr o ugh r o tati n g machi n e ry ,

has b e e n adh e r e d t o T he high e st p o t e n tial at pr e s e n t in use o n

.

t he c o n tact li n e is 2 4 00 v o lts whil e o n e i n stallati o n fo r o p e rati o n

,

at 3 00 0 v o lts is n o w b e i n g c o n stru ct e d T h e s e valu e s ar e still far .

l e ss tha n th o s e which hav e b e e n c o n sid e r e d suitabl e fo r tra n s

missi o n ; an d e ve n if d e cid e dly high e r c o n tact li n e pr e ssur e s are
us e d it d o e s n o t s e e m like ly that this li n k in t he e l e ctric syst e m
,

c an b e e limi n at e d .

O n e p o ssibility which has b ee n I n cr e asi n g in imp o rta n c e in t he

,

past fe w y e ars is t he u se o f m e rcury vap o r c o n v e rt e rs fo r pr o

,

d u c in g a u n idir e cti o n al curr e n t fo r t he c o n tact li n e an d m o t o r

o p e rati o n .Whil e it is y e t t o o e arly t o mak e any d e n it e stat e
m e n ts it may impr o v e t he e i c ie n c y o f c o n v e rsi o n by a larg e
,

am o u n t .

A mi n o r disad v a n tag e in all t he high t e n si o n dir e ct curr e n t - -

syst e ms is t he difculty o f o btai n i n g suitabl e curr e n t fo r t he

o p e rati o n o f aux iliari e s such as air c o mp r e ss o rs lights h e at e r s
, , ,

a n d mi n o r apparatus In s o m e cas e s t he pr e ssur e has b e e n cut

.

d o w n dir e ctly by t he u se o f r e sista n c e whil e in o th e rs sp e cial ,

dy n am o t o rs an d m o t o r g e n e rat o rs hav e b e e n us e d t o tra n sf o rm

t o a l o w e r p o t e n tial N o n e o f t he s o luti o n s thus far ad v a n c e d

.

s e e ms e n tir e ly satisfact o ry .

I n an y o f t he dir e ct curr e n t syst e ms t he r e tur n o f e n e rgy t o

-
,

t he e l e ctric circuit is diffi cult u n l e ss m o t o r s with a shu n t cha r

,

a c t e ris t ic ar e e mpl o y e d S i n c e o n e o f t he adva n tag e s which

.

has always b e e n claim e d fo r dir e ct curr e n t is t he u s e o f m o t o rs o f

t he s e ri e s typ e it w o uld m e a n an e n tir e r e v o luti o n in O p e rati n g
,

m e th o ds t o mak e t he c o mpl e t e cha n g e t o shu n t m o t o rs B y .

t he use o f s e parat e wi n di n gs o r by sp e cial c o n n e cti o n s o f t he

s e ri e s e lds it may b e p ossibl e t o pr o vid e this fe atur e in dir e ct
,

curr e n t e quipm e n ts It must b e admitt e d h o w e v e r that t he

.
, ,

u s e o f c o asti n g will r e duc e by a c o n sid e rabl e am o u n t t he ad van

tage t o b e gai n e d by r e g e n e rati o n .

 S YS TE M S F OR EL E C TRI C RA IL WA Y OP ERA TI ON 3 59

T hr e e P h a s e S y s t e m
- T he
alt e r n ati n g curre n t was
. us e of

i n t r o duc e d in E ur o p e ab o ut 1 5 y e ars ag o t he dist r ibuti o n b e i n g ,

by t he th r e e phas e syst e m At that tim e t he o n ly m o t o r which

-
.

c o uld be us e d fo r tracti o n o n such a circuit was t h e p o lyphas e

i n ducti o n m o t o r Alth o ugh o th e r typ e s o f p o lyphas e machi n e s
.
,

e mpl o yi n g c o mmutat o r s hav e b e e n d e v e l o p e d si n c e th e n n o n e

, ,

o f th e m has charact e r istics which w o uld b e suitabl e fo r rail

way s e rvic e o r w o uld giv e b e tt e r r e sults tha n t he i n ducti o n typ e

,
.

T hr e e phas e distributi o n may b e said t o call fo r t h e use o f t he

-

latt e r as a n e c e ssity .

T he i n ducti o n m o t o r is o n e o f t he m o st rugg e d machi n e s built .

In t he squi r r e l cag e typ e t he s e c o n da r y is a c o mpact st r uctur e

-
, ,

n o t c o n n e ct e d in a n y way t o t he e xt e r n al circuit s o that n o ,

c o mmutat o r o r c o ll e ct o r is r e quir e d T he s e c o n dary wi n di n g .

is e xc e e di n gly simpl e c o n si sti n g o f h e avy C o pp e r bars sh o rt cir

,
-

c uit e d t o r e sista n c e ri n gs at t he e n ds o f t he c o r e T he p r imar y .

wi n di n g is n o t c o mplicat e d b e i n g c o mparabl e t o that o f a di r e ct

,

curr e n t armatu r e with o ut t he c o mmutat o r Wh e n it is n e c e ssary .

t o e mpl o y a w o u n d s e c o n dary as is usually t he cas e a r e gular , ,

phas e wi n di n g similar t o that o n t he p r ima r y is us e d an d t h e ,

t e rmi n als are c o n n e ct e d t o a sh o rt circuiti n g r e sista n c e thr o ugh -

c o ll e ct o r ri n gs In this f o rm t he m o t o r is slightly m o r e c o mpli

.

c a t e d tha n t he squirr e l cag e machi n e but t h e di ff e r e n c e is small

-
, ,

a n d t h e simplicity o f t h e d e sig n is still much gr e at e r tha n that o f

a n y m o t o r usi n g a c o mmuta t o r .

T he i n ducti o n m o t o r is pr o bably t he light e st o f a n y built fo r

railway s e rvic e an d is c o rr e sp o n di n gly ch e ap T he e fci e n cy is
,
.

quit e high an d t he p o w e r fact o r may b e mad e satisfact o ry fo r

,
,

c o mm e r cial pu r p o s e s T he di ffe r e n c e in p e r f o r m an c e b e tw e e n
.

t h e i n ducti o n m o t o r a n d t h e dir e ct cu r r e n t s e r i e s m o t o r is slight ;

-

but if th e r e is an y adva n tag e it is o n t he sid e o f t he alt e r n ati n g

,

curr e n t machi n e .

T he disadva n tag e o f t he i n ducti o n m o t o r li e s in t he fact that

it is a c o n sta n t sp e e d machi n e Alth o ugh t he adv o cat e s o f t he
-
.

th r e e phas e syst e m claim that c o n sta n t sp e e ds are pr e fe rabl e rail

-
,

w ay o p e r at o rs in t he U n it e d S tat e s ar e n o t c o n vi n c e d that it
w o ul d b e d e sirabl e t o cha n g e fr o m t he v ariabl e sp e e d which h as
charact e riz e d t he o p e rati o n by st e am l o c o m o tiv e s fo r n e a r ly a
c e n tu r y O n t he o th e r ha n d it may b e a r gu e d that th e r e ar e but
.
,

a fe w sp e e ds availabl e with di re ctcu rr e n t s e r i e s m o t o r s alth o ugh ,

th e s e fe w u n like th o s e o f t he i n ducti o n m o t o r are n o t c o n sta n t

, ,
360 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

o ve r a wid e ra n g e o f l o ad It is difcult t o make a fair d e cisi o n

.

b e tw e e n t he t w o m e th o ds fo r t he data at ha n d with r e gard t o

,

n n
c o sta t sp e e d o p e rati o n o f large railr o ad syst e ms is e n tir e ly
i n ad e quat e fo r a c o mparis o n .

T he m e th o d o f c o n tr o l us e d fo r i n ducti o n m o t o rs is s o m e what
similar t o that fo r dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs in that t h e sp e e d is
-
,

l o w e re d at starti n g by t he u s e o f r e sista n c e in t he m o t o r circuits .

If c o n cat e n ati o n o f m o t o rs o r o th e r m e a n s t o giv e a r e duc e d r un

,

n i n g sp e e d b e us e d t h e l o ss e s in t h e c o n tr o l r e sist o rs ar e n o t much
, ,

g r e at e r tha n wh e n dir e ct curr e n t m o t o rs ar e O p e rat e d with s e ri e s

-

parall e l c o n tr o l I n ma n y ways th e r e is but littl e ch o ic e b e tw e e n

.

t he t w o . The alt e r n ati n g curr e n t c o n tr o l h as o n e ma r k e d a d

-

va n tag e in that t he p o t e n tial t o b e ha n dl e d is l o w an d is in a

, ,

l o cal circuit wh e r e disarra n g e m e n t o f t he r e sist o r c o n n e cti o n s

,

c an d o but littl e damag e ; whil e t h e r e sist o rs in t h e dir e ct curr e n t -

c o n tr o l ar e i n s e rt e d in t he mai n circuit b e tw e e n t he c o n tact l i n e

a n d t h e m o t o rs With i n ducti o n m o t o rs t he mai n circuit n e e d
.

n o t b e O p e n e d at all wh e n p o w e r is b e i n g draw n fr o m t h e li n e ,

s o that t h e da n g e r fr o m arci n g at t he c o n tr o ll e r c o ntacts is r e

d u c e d t o a mi n imum .

T he gr e at disadvan tag e o f t he thr e e phas e syst e m is t he c o m -

plicat e d c o n tact li n e U si n g t he track rails as o n e c o n duct o r

.
,

t w o additi o n al li n e s ar e n e c e ssary s o that t w o parall e l tr o ll e y ,

wir e s e ach ca r ryi n g t he full p o t e n tial must b e supp o rt e d ab o v e

, ,

t he t r ack .T h e gr e at e st di fculty is f o u n d in mai n tai n i n g t he

i n sulati o n b e tw e e n th e se c o n duct o rs T his is e sp e cially tru e .

wh e r e th e r e are ma n y tur n o uts cr o ss o v e rs an d o th e r sp e cial , ,

w o rk si n c e t he wi r e s o f O pp o sit e p ot e n tial must b e i n sulat e d

,

fr o m e ach o th e r T h e s e difculti e s ha v e limit e d t h e pr e ssur e in

.

m o st cas e s t o ab o ut 3300 v o lts s o th at t he primary purp o s e o f ,

t he th r e e phas e distributi o n t o all o w a high w o rki n g p o t e n tial is

-
, ,

in part d e f e at e d A sid e f r o m this t he dist r ibuti o n is quit e

.
,

e xibl e si n c e t he e m f c an b e cha n g e d by stati o n ary tra n sfo rm

,
. . .

e r s plac e d al o n g t h e track a n d if t h e m o t o rs ar e w o u n d fo r l o w e r
, ,

pr e ssur e s tha n t he tr o ll e y r e duci n g tra n sf o rm e rs c an b e plac e d o n

,

t h e l o c o m o tiv e s an d cars .

T he e c o n o my o f t h e distributi o n syst e m is quit e high fo r in ,

spit e o f t he fai r ly l o w p o t e n tial th e r e is a c o n sid e rabl e savi n g in ,

l o ss d ue t o t h e i n h e r e n t pr o p e rty o f t he thr e e phas e circuit that -

,

thr e e c o n duct o r s giv e t he sam e l o ss as f o ur o f t he sam e cr o ss

s e cti o n in t h e t w o phas e syst e m o r t w o o f d o ubl e s e cti o n in t h e
-
,
 S YS TE M S F OR EL E C TR I C RAI L WA Y OP ERA TI ON 3 6 1

s in gl e ph as e o r dir e ct -curr e n t syst e ms for t he same e ffe ctiv e

-
,

pr e ssur e .

W ith t he thr ee phas e syst e m usi n g i n ducti o n m o t o rs r e ge n e ra

-
, ,

ti o n o f e n e rgy o n d o w n grad e s c an b e o bt ain e d aut o matically

with o ut an y m o dicati o n o f t he c o n tr o l circuits All that is r e

quir e d is t o l e av e t he m o t o rs c o n n e ct e d t o t he li n e T his is .

e sp e cially us e ful wh e n h e avy fr e ight t r ai n s must b e ha n dl e d o n

l o n g d o w n grad e s in which cas e t he c o n tr o l o f t he trai n with o ut

,

t he us e o f brak e s is saf e r an d giv e s c o n sid e rabl e savi n g in brak e

,

sh o e w e ar .

Th e S in gl e -P
ha s e Al t e rn at in g C urre n t S y s t e m
- T his is much
m o r e e xibl e tha n t he thr e e phas e syst e m in t he ran g e o f e quip
-

m e n t which c an b e appli e d M o st o f t he i n stallati o n s up t o t h e

.

pr e se n t tim e hav e us e d machi n e s o f t he c o mmutat o r typ e s with ,

charact e ristics n e arly t he sam e as th o s e o f t he dir e ct curr e n t -

s e r i e s m o t o r W hil e th e s e ar e quit e satisfact o ry fr o m an o p e rat

.

in g sta n dp o i n t th e y ar e c o n sid e rably m o r e c o mplicat e d ar e fr o m

, ,

1 0 t o 2 0 pe r c e n t h e avi e r fo r t he sam e o utput an d c o r r e sp o n d

.
,

in gl y m o r e e xp e n siv e than dir e ct curr e n t s e ri e s m o t o rs o f t he -

sam e rati n g T his disadvan tage is partially o ve rc o m e by o p e r

.

ati n g t he si n gl e phas e machi n e s at high e r sp e e ds alth o ugh this

-
,

has in its e lf s o m e o bj e cti o n s S i n gl e phas e c o mmutat o r m o t o r s

.
-

hav e full l o ad e fc i e n ci e s fr o m o n e t o t w o pe r c e n t l o w e r at full

-
.

l o ad tha n dir e ct cu rr e n t m o t o rs -
.

B y t h e us e o f a phas e splitt e r thr e e phas e i n ducti o n m o t o r s

-
,
-

may b e o p e rat e d o n t h e si n gl e phas e distr ibuti o n ci r cuit thus -

,

givi n g a p e rf o rman c e id e n tical with that o f t he thr e e phas e sys -

t em . In s o m e cas e s t he us e o f this c o mbi n ati o n may b e j usti e d ;

an d it is actually b e i n g appli e d in o n e i n sta n c e in A m e rica .

If t he m e rcury v ap o r r e cti e r fullls t he pr e s e n t e xp e ctati o n s ,

it will mak e t he si n gl e phas e circuit availabl e fo r us e in c o n n e c

-

ti o n with a suitabl e typ e o f dir e ct curr e n t m o t o r gi v i n g an y -

,

r e quir e d ra n g e o f charact e ristics .

The c o n tr o l o f si n gl e phas e s e ri e s m o t o rs o r o f dir e ct curr e n t

-
,
-

m o t o rs thr o ugh a r e cti er is quit e simpl e , an d is much m o r e e f

,

ci e n t tha n t he s e ri e s parall e l c o n tr o l us e d with dir e ct curr e n t cir

- -

cuits If thr e e phas e m o t o rs ar e e mpl o y e d t he c o n tr o l must be

.
-
,

e ff e ct e d with r e sista n c e al o n e o r in c o mbi n ati o n with c o n cat e n a

,

ti o n o r p o l e cha n gi n g c o n n e cti o n s in which cas e t he e fci e n cy is

-
,

ab o ut t he sam e as fo r t he di r e ct cu rr e n t syst e m -
.

T he si n gl e phas e c o n tact li n e is simpl e an d in this r e sp e ct is

-
,
3 62 THE EL E C TRI C RA I L WA Y

on a par with dir e ct c urr e n t T he pri n cipal argum e n t in fav o r

.

o f t h e si n gl e phas e syst e m is in t h e high t e n si o n which c an b e us e d

-

e ffe ctiv e ly o n t h e c o n tact li n e ; a n d it is in this r e sp e ct that it is

ah e ad o f all t he o th e r m e th o ds With t he aid o f l o w e r i n g tra n s

.

f o rm e rs o n t he cars o r l o c o m o ti v e s t he m o t o rs c an b e w o u n d fo r
[
,

an y suitabl e pr e ssur e irr e sp e ctiv e o f t he distributi o n p o t e n tial

, .

T h e r e has b e e n n o s e ri o us difculty in mai n tai n i n g g o o d i n sulati o n

o f t h e c o n tact li n e a t p r e ssur e s as high as v o lts T his high .

p o t e n tial r e duc e s t he curr e n t t o a p o i n t wh e r e t he c o n duct o r

s e cti o n c an b e v e ry small ; in fact t he siz e o f t he tr o ll e y wir e fo r
,

m e cha n ical st r e n gth is in practically e v e r y cas e gr e at e n o ugh that

n o suppl e m e n ta r y f e e d e rs ar e n e c e ssary e v e n fo r h e avy t r afc
,
.

T he distributi o n circuit as a wh o l e is t h e simpl e st in charact e r

o f that fo r an y syst e m an d t he c o n v e r ti n g e quipm e n t c o n sists
,

o n ly o f si n gl e phas e tra n sf o rm e rs o f t h e pr o p e r rati n g spac e d ,

al o n g t he track T he high distributi o n p o t e n tial m ak e s p o ssibl e

.

t h e us e o f l o n g dista n c e s b e tw e e n s ubstati o n s s o that t h e l o ad ,

fact o r is i m pr o ve d o v e r that o btai n e d with an y sys t e m O p e rati n g

at a l o w e r pr e ssur e In a dditi o n t he use o f a c o n tr o l c o n sisti n g
.
,

o f taps fr o m t he s e c o n dary o f t he car tra n sf o rm e r mak e s t h e

actual v alu e o f t he p o t e n tial dr o p o f v e ry littl e imp o rta n c e an d ,

high acc e l e rati n g curr e n t o r high sp ee d may b e mai n tai n e d u n d e r

practically all c o n diti o n s .

R o tati n g machi n e ry is r e quir e d in t he distributi n g circuit o n ly

wh e n it is n e c e ssary t o cha n g e t he fr e qu e n cy ; an d as satisfact o ry ,

m o t o rs c an b e d e sig n e d fo r 25 cycl e s th e r e is littl e difculty in

,

usi n g sta n dard apparatus with o ut fr e qu e n cy cha n g e rs If it is

,
.

f o u n d d e sirabl e t o g e n e rally ad o pt m o t o rs d e sig n e d fo r o p e rati o n

o n a fr e qu e n cy o f 1 5 cycl e s e ith e r a s e parat e g e n e rati n g an d
,

distributi n g syst e m must b e pr o v id e d o r e ls e r o tati n g fr e qu e n cy

,

chan g e rs must b e us e d B ut t he r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n ts m e n
.
,

t io n e d in t he pr e c e di n g paragraphs in t h e use o f di ff e r e n t typ e s

,

o f m o t o rs o n t h e si n gl e phas e c o n tact li n e may mak e such an

-

arra n g e m e n t u n n e c e ssary W ith t h e us e o f t he r e cti e r it w o uld

.
,

e v e n b e p o ssibl e t o o p e rat e t h e syst e m at t h e c o mm e rcial fr e

qu e n oy o f 60 cycl e s .

S o far as c an b e d e t e rmi n e d t he r e is n o da n g e r o f e l e ctr o lysis with

,

alt e r n ati n g curr e n t alth o ugh this advan tag e is slight si n c e t he

, ,

s i n gl e phas e syst e m is b e st suit e d t o cr o ss c o u n try w o rk wh e r e

- -
,

t he da n g e r t o o th e r m e t allic s tructur e s in t h e s urr o u n di n g e arth is

a mi n imum .
 S YS TE M S F OR EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y OP E RA T I ON 3 63

If in ducti o n m o t o rs ar e us e d r e g e n e rati o n o f e l e c tric e n e rgy is

,

aut o matic ; but whil e it is e asily p o ssibl e t o r e c o v e r e n e rgy with

si n gl e phas e c o mmutat o r m o t o rs it is qu e sti o n abl e wh e th e r t he
-
,

c o mplicati o n in t he c o n tr o l w o uld n o t o ffs e t t he adva n tag e s t o b e

Fi e ld of the Sy st e m s U p t o t he pr e s e n t tim e , t he us e fo r city

s e r vic e o f t h e 600 -
v o lt , dir e ct curr e n t syst e m is u n iv e rsal in
A m e rica an d p r actically s o all o v e r t he w o rld
, Whil e this may b e .

d ue lar g e ly t o its e a r ly applicati o n in all im por t a n t in s t all at io n s ,

th e r e is n o c o n clusiv e argum e n t t o b e mad e agai n st it T he .

s e r i e s m o t o r has t he char act e ristics r e qui r e d fo r rapid acc e l e ra

ti o n ; an d alth o ugh t he dir e ct curr e n t c o n tr o l is s o m e what in e f
,
-

ci e n t t he l o ss d ue t o t he e xtra w e ight o f apparatus fo r si n gl e

,

phas e o p e rati o n l e av e s a wid e margi n in fav o r o f t he f o rm e r T he .

us e o f t he l o w t e n si o n dist r ibuti n g circuit is t o s o m e e xt e n t a

-

disadva n tag e but t he dista n c e s thr o ugh which t he dir e ct cu r r e n t

,

must b e tra n smitt e d ar e r e lativ e ly quit e sh o rt s o that t he t o tal ,

l o ss is n o t e xc e ssiv e O n e o f t he w o r st f e atur e s i n cid e n t t o dir e ct

.

cu r r e n t in city s e r vic e is t he n e c e ssity fo r l o cati n g substati o n s at

c e n tral p o i n ts wh e r e t he c o st o f r e al e stat e is high An o th e r .

disadva n tag e is t he da n ge r o f damag e fr o m e l e ctr o lysis T his .

latt e r tr o ubl e c an b e o v e rc o m e t o a gr e at e xt e n t by t he pr o p e r
mai n t e n a n c e o f t he re tur n circuit an d it is s e ld o m n e c e ssary t o
,

r e s o rt t o t he h e r o ic r e m e dy o f usi n g t w o tr o ll e y wir e s .

F o r suburban an d i n t e ru r ba n s e rvic e wh e r e a p o rti o n o f t he ,

r un must b e m ad e o v e r city str e e ts a c o mbi n ati o n syst e m which ,

will all o w t h e sam e m o t o rs t o b e us e d fo r all parts o f t he r o ad is

d e sirabl e T he e arli e r li n e s o f this class ar e all e quipp e d with
.

t h e 600 v o lt syst e m as it w as t he o n ly o n e availabl e at t h e time

-
,
-

th e y w e r e i n stall e d A fe w r o ads built ab o ut t e n y e ars ago w e r e

.
, ,

e quipp e d with si n gl e phas e s e ri e s m o t o rs with a duplicat e c o n tr o l

-
,

s o arra n g e d that th e y c o uld r un e ith e r o n alt e r n ati n g o r dir e ct

curr e n t In p r actically e v e ry cas e such o p e rati o n has b e e n t o a

.

larg e d e gr e e u n suc c e ssful m ai n ly o n acc o u n t o f t he gr e at c o m

,

plicati o n an d e xc e ssiv e w e ight o f t he e quipm e n t Fo r this class .

o f s e rvic e t h e us e o f 1 2 0 0 v o lts dir e ct curr e n t has b e e n a m o r e

satisfact o ry s o luti o n o f t he p o w e r supply p r o bl e m si n c e t he ,

add e d c o mplicati o n t o adapt t he m o t o rs an d c o n tr o l fo r b o th

circuits is c o mpar ativ e ly s m all A larg e n umb e r o f r o ads fo r
.
,

m e rly usi n g 600 v o lts hav e r e arra n g e d th e ir distributi o n circuit s

,

t o admit o f 1 2 0 0 v o lt O p e r ati o n with satisfact o ry r e sults

-
, .
3 64 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

Fo r h e avy s e r vic e a n y o f t he syst e ms ar e availabl e an d al l o f

, ,

th e m ar e us e d T h e r e is n o g e n e ral agr e e m e n t as t o which is t he

.

b e st suit e d fo r all ar o u n d r ail r o ad w o r k ; but it is quit e e vid e n t

'

that fo r l o n g dista n c e li n e s a high t e n si o n di stributi o n ci r cuit is a

- -

p r im e n e c e ssity T his o f c o u r s e rul e s o ut t h e 600 v o lt syst e m

.
-

fr o m c o n sid e rati o n fo r such r o ads alth o ugh wh e r e it has b e e n ,

i n stall e d fo r t ermi n al s e r vic e it has in all cas e s giv e n g o o d

,

satisfacti o n In A m e rica t he ch o ic e s e e ms t o lie b e tw e e n t he

.
,

si n gl e phas e an d high t e n si o n dir e ct cu r r e n t D e v e l o pm e n ts are

- -
.

taki n g plac e s o rapidly at t he pr e s e n t tim e that it is imp o ssibl e

t o pr e dict that o n e o r t h e o th e r syst e m will pr o v e g r e atly sup e
ri o r T h e r e is n o imm e diat e pr o sp e ct o f t he us e o f dir e ct p o t e n
.

t ial s c o mpa r abl e with th o s e fo r si n gl e phase circuits ; b ut t he -

l o w e r distrib uti o n l o ss e s i n cid e n t t o di r e ct curr e n t put it m o r e

n e arly o n a par with its c o mp e tit o r tha n it o th e rwis e w o uld b e

T h r e e phas e distributi o n has n o t b e e n a s e ri o us fact o r in this

-

c o u n t r y alth o ugh it has b e e n v e r y succ e ssful abr o ad in s e v e ral

,

imp o rta n t i n stallati o n s In v i e w o f r e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n ts it is

.
,

d o ubtful wh e th e r t he straight thr e e phas e syst e m with i n ducti o n -

m o t o rs will m e e t t h e n e e ds o f A m e rica n railr o ads .

S i n gl e phas e O p e rati o n has t h e gr e at e st p o ssibiliti e s fo r h e avy

-

s e rvic e T he ability t o us e an y k n o w n typ e o f pr o pulsi o n m o t o r

.
,

with t he c o n v e rti n g e quipm e n t o n t he l o c o m o tiv e mak e s it as n e ar ,

a u n iv e rsal syst e m as c an b e o btai n e d Ev e n if s o m e r o ads sh o uld .

ad o pt o th e r m e th o ds o f distributi o n it is still p o ssibl e t o d e sign ,

si n gl e phas e l o c o m o tiv e s s o that th e y c an b e r un e fci e n tly o n

-

such ci r cuits With i n ducti o n m o t o rs t he sam e l o c o m o tiv e

.
,

c o uld b e O p e r at e d o n thr e e phas e circ uits with a c o mparativ e ly

-

slight c o mplicati o n o f t h e c o n tr o l ; an d t he sam e is t r u e o f dir e ct

curr e n t m o t o r s if us e d o n t he si n gl e phas e circuit thr o ugh s o m e -

f o rm o f c o n v e r t e r R e c e n t d e v e l o pm e n ts mak e it s e e m d o ubtful
.

wh e th e r t he alt e r n ati n g cu r r e n t c o mmutat o r m o t o r will surviv e

-
,

at l e ast in its pr e s e n t fo rm ; but t h e us e o f this machi n e is o n ly

a n i n cid e n t t o t h e su cc e ssful d e v e l o pm e n t o f t he si n gl e phas e -

syst e m .
 C HAP T ER X V II I

EN G I NEER I N G P RELI M I NAR I ES

El e c t ric Rail w ay Lo c at io n pr o p e r l o cati o n o f an e l e ctr ic

. The

railway is a p r o bl e m in v o lv in g a c o n sid e rabl e n umb e r o f v ariabl e s ,

al l o f which must b e gi v e n c o n sid e rati o n if t h e b e st p o ssibl e r e sult

is t o be o btai n e d T he quan titi e s e n t e ri n g ar e s o n um e r o us an d
.

s o div e rs e that it is alm o st imp o ssibl e t o d e t e rmi n e abs o lut e ly in

all cas e s t he b e st l o cati o n e quipm e n t an d sch e dul e The last

,
.

quan tity is o n e which c an b e m o di e d at will withi n t he li m its o f ,

t h e r o lli n g st o ck an d t he e l e ctric syst e m ; but t he r st t w o wh e n ,

o n c e ch o s e n ,
ar e quit e difcult t o m o dify with o ut i n curri n g a

la r ge additi o n al c o st It is th e r e fo r e e xc e e di n gly imp o rta n t

.
, ,

that t he pr e limi n ary e n gi n e e ri n g b e v e ry car e fully d o n e si n c e t he ,

n al succ e ss o f a r o ad may b e s e r i o usly j e o pardiz e d if mistak e s

ar e mad e at this p o i n t .

C i t y R oad s .

T he r e quir e m e n ts o f n e arly all citi e s o f lar g e o r
m o d e rat e siz e fo r pur e ly urban tran sp o rtati o n hav e b e e n la r g e ly
m e t at t he pr e s e n t tim e s o that a study o f t h e r e quir e m e n ts fo r
,

such l in e s is alm o st e n ti r e ly acad e mic T he m e th o d o f d e t e r .

min i n g t h e pr o p e r e quipm e n t is o i s o m e valu e as it giv e s a ,

m e an s o f ch e cki n g e xisti n g i n stallati o n s as t o th e ir ad e quacy In .

s o me cas e s wh e r e t he pr e s e n t faciliti e s ar e i n sufci e n t such a

, ,

study may l e ad t o t he e xt e n si o n o f t h e li n e s t o m e e t t he n e e ds o f
t he i n habita n ts .

T he l e n gth o f track which a city c an supp o r t is t o a larg e ,

e xt e n t a fu n cti on o f t he p o pulati o n
, T he r e lati o n o f p o pulati o n
.

t o l e n gth o f track pe r th o usa n d i n habita n ts fo r a n umb e r o f

A m e rican citi e s is sh o w n in Fig 1 9 2 It will be s e e n that t he
. .

p r o p o rti o n al l e n gth o f track which a city c an supp o rt d e cr e as e s as

t h e d e n sity o f p o pulati o n i n cr e as e s up t o a c e rtai n p o i n t a ft e r ,

which it b e c o me s s e n sibly c o n sta n t T his w o uld b e e xp e ct e d

.
,

si n c e t he small e r citi e s in o rd e r t o giv e an y ki n d o f s e r vic e must

, ,

p r o vid e r e lativ e ly lar g e am o u n ts o f track e v e n th o ugh t he n um ,

b e r o f pass e n g e rs carri e d is c o mparativ e ly small As t he si z e o f .

citi e s i n c r e as e s t he us e which is mad e o f t h e e xisti n g track is

,

365
3 66 THE EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

gr e at e r s o that t he additi o n al am o u n t o f li n e which has t o b e

,

i n stall e d pe r i n habita n t b e c o m e s d e cid e dly l e ss in t he larg e r

urba n c e n t e r s A saturati o n p o i n t is n ally r e ach e d b e y o n d
.
,

which t he i n cr e as e in n e c e ssary track is practically in pr o p o rti o n

t o t he p o pulati o n . T he plac e wh e r e this c o n diti o n o ccurs d e
p e n ds larg e ly o n t h e c o mpact n e ss o f t h e city an d t h e n umb e r o f
i n d e p e n d e n t c e n t e r s which e xist withi n t h e c o mmu n ity T he .

m o r e c o n c e n trat e d t he p o pulati o n t he l e ss is t h e ultimat e limit

,

fo r t h e am o u n t o f t r ack pe r i n habita n t .

Po pul a t io n in Hun d r e ds o f Thous a n ds .

FI G . 1 92 R e l a t io n o f u rb an t r ac k t o p o p u l at io n .

In s o m e citi e s t he am o u n t o f tr a ck which c an b e us e d is much

g re at e r tha n t he av e rag e B o st o n fo r i n sta n ce has a much
.
, ,

gr e at e r l e n gth pe r i n habita n t tha n an y o th e r A m e rica n city o f

similar siz e T his di ffe r e n c e is m o r e appar e n t tha n r e al fo r a
. ,

larg e p o pulati o n in t he imm e diat e vici n ity o f t h e m e tr o p o lita n

district is s e rv e d by t he sam e syst e m s o that additi o n al faciliti e s
,

fo r t he adj ac e n t citi e s ar e n o t r e quir e d T h e e xtra d e ma n d fo r

.

tra n sp o rtati o n fr o m t he surr o u n di n g suburbs will i n cr e as e t he us e

o f t h e city railway tracks s o that t he e ar n i n gs m ay b e e xc e e di n gly
,

high wh e n a li n e is l o cat e d in such a c e n t e r An o th e r caus e fo r .

 ENGI N EER I NG P R EL I M I N A R I ES

e xt e n siv e us e o f t he r o ad is wh e n t he physical l o cati o n o f t he city

is su c h that it is imp o ssibl e o r di fcult fo r t he i n habita n ts t o walk
t o an d fr o m th e ir h o m e s An e xampl e o f such a city is N e w Yo rk
.
,

wh e r e t he busi n ess district is o f such a charact e r that v e ry fe w

p e rs o n s c an liv e withi n e asy walki n g dista n c e o f an y p o i n t in it .

F o r this r e as o n an ad e quat e tra n sp o rtati o n syst e m must b e pr o

,

vide d t o p e rm it t h e furth e r d e v e l o pm e n t o f t h e city In fact in

.
,

N ew Yo rk t h e gr o wth o f t he city railr o ads is d e cid e dly b e hi n d t he

i n cr e as e in p o pulati o n s o that t he e xisti n g faciliti e s ar e strai n e d
,

t o t he ut m o st . S imilar c o n diti o n s e xist in ma n y o th e r plac e s ,

but t he r e sults ca n n o t be s o cl e arly s e e n as in t he fo rm e r city .

In additi o n t o d e t e rmi n i n g t h e pr e s e n t
Fut ur e R e quir e m e n t s
n e e d fo r railway faciliti e s it is n e c e ssary t o mak e s o m e pr o visi o n
,

fo r futur e gr o wth if t h e r e quir e m e n ts o f t he city ar e t o b e s e r v e d

,

fo r an y l e n gth o f tim e In c e rtai n cas e s it is p o ssibl e t o mak e such

.

pr o visi o n m e r e ly by t he e xt e n si o n o f t he e xisti n g tracks farth e r

i n t o t he suburbs as th e s e d e v e l o p ; whil e in o th e rs t he gr o wth o f
,

t h e urba n s e cti o n may mak e a c o mpl e t e r e arra n g e m e n t o f t h e

e n tir e r o ad n e c e ssary C ar e ful d e sig n o f this part o f t he syst e m
.

may add c o n sid e rably t o t he gr o wth which c an b e tak e n car e o f

with o ut e xt e n di n g t he e xisti n g tracks In a n umb e r o f t he
.

small e r citi e s it has b ee n cust o mary t o r o ut e all cars past a c e n tral

p o i n t such as an imp o rta n t str e e t i n t e rs e cti o n o r a civic c e n t e r
,
.

Alth o ugh this practic e mak e s t he tra n sf e r o f pass e n g e rs simpl e

whil e t he tra fc is ligh t it is lik e ly t o caus e s e ri o us c o n g e sti o n
,

wh e n t he city has d e v e l o p e d t o a larg e r siz e In s o m e plac e s

.

wh e r e this arra n g e m e n t has b e e n us e d c o n sid e rabl e o bj e cti o n by

,

t he public has d e v e l o p e d t o t he r e r o uti n g o f cars o n di ff e r e n t

-

th o r o ughfar e s T his c o n diti o n c an o n ly be o v e rc o m e by car e ful

.

p ublicity w o rk o n t he part o f t he railr o ad c o mpa n y .

It is imp o ssibl e t o make an accurat e e stimat e o f t he futur e

gr o wth ; but c o n sid e rati o n sh o uld be had o f t he v ariabl e c o n di
ti o n s w hi ch may e n t e r t o cha n g e t he n al r e sult an d t he li n e s laid
,

o ut in such a w ay as t o mak e th e m o f t h e gr e at e st pr e s e n t u s e ,

whil e lat e r th e y may be e xt e n d e d t o m e e t t he futur e n e e ds E v e n .

at t he pre s e n t tim e such pr e cauti o n s may b e tak e n in pla n n i n g

e xt e n si o n s t o e xisti n g li n e s a n d in this w ay
, t he imp r o v e m e n ts
will be o f gr e at e r v alu e t o t he c o mmu n ity tha n if cha n g e s are
mad e t o m ee t t he pr e s e n t r e quir e m e n ts o n ly .

T he s e c o n d imp o rta n t fact o r in d e t e rmi n i n g t h e ad e quacy o f a

str e e t railway is t he us e mad e o f it by t he public A gai n statis .
368 THE EL E C TRI C RA IL WA Y

tics may be e mpl o y e d t o sh o w t he pr o babl e v alu e o f a r o ad t o a

city T he n umb e r o f rid e s which e ach i n habita n t is liabl e t o tak e
.

i n cr e as e s with t he siz e o f t he plac e in which t h e r o ad is l o cat e d ,

t he gr o wth b e i n g v e ry rapid in t he small e r t o w n s an d much l e ss

aft e r a c e rtai n siz e is r e ach e d A curv e b e t we e n t he a n n ual n um
.

b er o f rid e s pe r i n habita n t an d t he siz e o f t he city is sh o w n in Fig .

1 93 . T his i n f o r mati o n is v aluabl e in c o n n e cti o n with e stimat e s

o f pr o babl e gr o wth in p o pulati o n t o pr e v e n t maki n g t h e as s u m p

Po pul a t io n in Hun dre ds of Tho us a n d s .

FI G . 19 3 . R e l at i o n of r ide s pe r i n h ab i t a n t to p o pu l a t io n .

ti o n that t he us e o f t he r o ad will i n cr e as e as a dir e ct fu n cti o n o f

this gai n .

S i n c e t he rat e o f far e in m o st citi e s is x e d by law t he v alu e s ,

d e t e r mi n e d ab o v e giv e at o n c e t he gr o ss e ar n i n gs fr o m tra n s
o t a t io n T h e far e o n practically all urba n li n e s is ve c e n ts
p r . ,

s o t he n umb e r o f pass e n g e rs is a dir e ct m e asur e o f t h e r e c e ipts .

It sh o uld b e n o t e d that tra n sfe r pass e n g e rs must b e o mitt e d

fr o m this e stimat e si n c e th e y do n o t add a n ythi n g t o t he r e v e n u e
, ,

alth o ugh it is t he usual practic e t o i n clud e th e m in t he t o tal n u m

b e r o f pass e n g e rs carri e d O n this p o i n t th e r e is a gr e at d e al o f
.

misu n d e r st a n di n g si n c e ma n y railway o f cials l o o k o n t r a n sf e r s

,
-
 E NGI N EE R I N G P REL I M I N A R I ES 3 69

as an u n mitigat e d e vil T his is lar g e ly a misappre h e n si o n fo r

.
,

t he u se o f tra n sfe rs o ft e n p e rmits t he r o uti n g o f ca r s t o g iv e a

much m o r e e fci e n t s e rvic e tha n w e r e th r o ugh r o ut e s us e d e xclu
s ive l y .In such cas e s t he us e o f t r a n sfe rs is a p o sitiv e b e n e t t o
t he c o mpa n y .

N um b e r of C ar s
.T he n umb e r o f cars an d t h e fr e qu e n cy with
which th e y are o p e rat e d ar e quit e difcult t o e stimat e pr o p e r ly .

T h e y hav e a dir e ct e ff e ct o n t he c o st o f t he s e rvic e an d a n in di r e ct

o n e o n t h e n umb e r o f pass e n g e r s ca r ri e d O th e r thi n gs b e i n g
.

e qual , t he n umb e r o f p e r s o n s w h o w ill rid e i n cr e as e s with t he

fr e qu e n cy o f Op e rati o n up t o t he p o i n t wh e r e cars ar e r un e v e r y
t w o o r thr e e mi n ut e s B e y o n d this th e r e is n o gr e at p o ssibility o f
.

o btai n i n g m o r e pass e n g e rs in this w ay The w o rst f e atur e in

.

m o d e r n city o p e r ati o n c o m e s fr o m t he e xc e ssiv e c o n g e sti o n o f

tra f c at c e rtai n tim e s duri n g t h e day B y far t he gr e at e st n um
.

be r o f t h e r e gular pass e n g e rs b e gi n w o rk at appr o ximat e ly t he

sam e h o ur an d st o p at t h e sam e tim e T his m e a n s that faciliti e s
,
.

fo r ha n dli n g a gr e at n umb e r o f pass e n g e rs must b e pr o vid e d ,

whil e th e y are o n ly in u se fo r a fe w h o u r s twic e a d ay Ev e n , .

with t he b e st an d m o st m o d e r n e quipm e n t it is hard t o p r o vid e ,

e v e n sta n di n g r o o m fo r all t h e pass e n g e r s whil e at o th e r tim e s t h e

,

cars will b e n e arly e mpty This c o n diti o n is i n h e r e n t t o A m e ri

.

c an busi n e ss m e th o ds an d c an b e av o id e d o n ly by a larg e am o u n t
,

o f e ducati o n al w o rk A v ar iati o n o f o n ly a fe w mi n ut e s in t he
.

tim e fo r cl o si n g st o r e s fact o ri e s an d o f c e s w o uld mak e a gr e at

,

r e ducti on in t he p e ak o f t he l o ad with a c o rr e sp o n di n g impr o v e

,

m e n t in t he s e r v ic e T his p o i n t has alr e ady b e e n c o n sid e r e d in

.

c o n n e cti o n with t h e d e t e rmi n ati o n of p o w e r r e quire m e n ts .

It is e rr o n e o us t o supp o s e that t h e gr e at e st e arn i n gs o f t he

railways c o m e fr o m t he cr o wd e d cars run duri n g t he rush h o urs .

As a matt e r o f fact t he c o n g e sti o n calls fo r t he O p e rati o n o f cars

,

additi o n al t o th o s e o n t he r e gular sch e dul e Alth o ugh th e s e .

sp e cial cars ar e us e d but a fe w h o urs a day th e ir rst c o st an d t he

, ,

c o st o f t he e n tir e syst e m n e c e ssary fo r th e ir o p e rati o n is as g r e at ,

as th o ugh th e y w e r e in c o n ti n u o us s e rvic e In additi o n t h e .

platfo rm m e n must b e giv e n a li v i n g wag e an d this must b e ,

d o n e e v e n if t he am o u n t o f tim e o f actual s e rvic e is but t w o o r

thr e e h o u r s a day It is n o t o ft e n p o ssibl e t o arra n g e sch e dul e s
.

t o pr o vid e c o n ti n u o us e mpl o ym e n t fo r th e s e m e n .

S e an d Ty pe of C ar s
iz The pr o p e r d e t e rmi n ati o n o f t he typ e
.

o f car t o us e fo r a n y urba n r o ad is larg e ly a matt e r o f i n dividual

24
370 THE EL E C TR I C RA IL WA Y

tast e M a n y ki n ds ar e in u s e o n such li n e s an d t he appare n t lac k

.
,

o f agr e e m e n t i n dicat e s that n o si n gl e typ e is e n ti r e ly satisfact o r y

fo r all class e s o f s e rvic e It w o uld app e ar that fo r str e e t railways

.
.

l n t h e small e r citi e s ca r s with b o di e s ab o ut 2 0 ft in l e n gth

, .
,

m o u n t e d o n si n gl e tru cks an d e quipp e d with t w o m o t o rs o f fr o m

20 t o 30 kw e ach will m e e t t h e av e rag e r e quir e m e n ts
.
, C ar s .

o f this typ e will s e at ab o ut tw e n ty pass e n g e rs a n d will pr o vid e

sta n di n g r o o m fo r as ma n y m o r e F o r t he la r g e r citi e s addi

.
,

t io n al c apacity must b e p r o vid e d which c a n b e d o n e o n ly by ,

t h e us e o f u n its o f g r e at e r siz e T his n atu r ally calls fo r d o ubl e

.

truck cars si n c e a 2 0ft b o dy is ab o ut t he l o n g e st which c an be

,
.

m o u n t e d o n a si n gl e truck u n l e ss s o m e f o rm o f n o n parall e l axl e

,
-

is us e d T he d e tails o f cars fo r this class o f s e rvic e hav e b e e n

.

discuss e d in C hapt e r V I I I .

S c h e dul e an d M axim um S pe e d s In ma n y citi e s t he maxi

.
,

mum sp e e d o f cars is d e n e d by law Whil e this has s o m e e ffe ct .

o n t he sch e dul e sp e e d it c an b e o ffs e t by t h e acc e l e rati o n which is

,

us e d It has b e e n sh o w n in pr e vi o us chapt e rs that t he latt e r

.

has as gr e at an e ff e ct o n t h e sch e dul e sp e e d in sh o rt ru n s as d o e s

t he maximum v e l o city attai n e d Wh e n a gr e at ma n y st o ps ar e
.

mad e t he sch e dul e S p e e d which c an b e r e ach e d is usually v e r y

,

l o w o ft e n n o t m o r e tha n 1 0 m il e s per h r u n l e ss t he m o t o r
,
.
,

e quipm e n t is e n tir e ly ab n o r mal It is advisabl e n o t t o att e mpt

.

high sp e e ds u n d e r such c o n diti o n s si n c e t he c o st is o ut o f all ,

pr o p o rti o n t o t he adva n tag e gai n e d .

Wh e r e t h e r un i n clud e s a c e rtai n distan c e in suburba n t e r rit o r y ,

in which t h e sp e e d c an b e mat e rially i n cr e as e d it is fr e qu e n tly ,

t he cust o m as has al r e ady b e e n m e n ti o n e d t o u se m o t o rs fo r t he

, ,

e n ti r e divisi o n g e ar e d s o that t h e cars may o p e rat e at high maxi

mum sp e e ds in t he suburb a n dist r ict T he r e sult o f this is t o .

o v e r l o ad t h e m o t o r s whil e t h e sch e dul e sp e e d which c an b e mai n

,

t ain e d is f r e qu e n tly l e ss tha n c o uld b e r e ach e d w e r e t he sam e

m o t o rs us e d with a high e r g e ar rati o givi n g a l o w e r maximum ,

sp e e d T h e m o st d e sirabl e a r ra n g e m e n t is t o u s e m o t o r s g e are d
.

fo r t he maximum acc e l e rati o n but o btai n i n g t h e high sp e e ds

,

n e e d e d by t h e u s e o f e ld c o n t r o l T his will giv e t h e adva n tag e s

.

o f t h e l o w a n d t h e high g e ar rati o s an d will r e duc e t h e p o w e r a n d

,

e n e r gy r e qui r e m e n ts by a mark e d d e gr e e T e sts which hav e b e e n .

c o n duct e d o n such e quipm e n ts sh o w c o n sid e r abl e savi n gs o v e r .

t he n o rmal si n gl e sp e e d m o t o rs
-
.
 EN GI N EER I NG P REL I M I N A R I E S 3 71

In e rur b an R o a d s .
t T he pr o babl e e ar n i n g p o w e r o f in t e r ur b an
railways is much m o r e difcult t o e stimat e tha n fo r city li n e s A .

g r e at d e al d e p e n ds o n t he ki n d o f s e rvic e giv e n an d t he faciliti e s

which ar e o ffe r e d fa r m e r s r e sidi n g al o n g t he r o ad fo r light fr e ight
s e r vic e G e n e r ally high sch e dul e sp e e ds ar e l e ss imp o rta n t tha n
.
,

fr e qu e n t s e rvic e si n c e a larg e pa r t o f t h e passen g e r t r a fc is l o cal

, .

S i n c e t h e r e v e n u e o f t he n o rmal i n t e ru r ba n railway is s o la r g e l y
fr o m pass e n g e r t r afc a car e ful a n alysis o f t he p o pulati o n s e rv e d
, ,

an d t h e n umb e r an d l e n g th o f r id e s p e r i n h a bita n t must b e mad e

,

in o rd e r t o g e t a cl o s e e stimat e o f t h e p r o babl e gr o ss e a r n i n gs .

T he fact o rs which e n t e r ar e so mat e r ially di ffe r e n t fr o m th o s e

which g o v e r n t h e e ar n i n gs o f urba n r o ads that v e ry littl e aid c an
b e had fr o m a c o mparis o n with such pr o p e rti e s .

T he s o urc e s o f pass e n g e r trafc fo r i n t e rurba n r o ads d e p e n d t o a

larg e e xt e n t o n t h e l o cati o n o f t h e pri n cipal citi e s al o n g t he li n e .

U sually an i n t e ru r ba n railway is c o n struct e d with o n e city o f

c o n sid e r abl e siz e as a p r ima r y t e r mi n al T he r o ad may o p e rat e
.

fr o m this p o i n t e n tir e ly thr o ugh rural t e r r it o ry s e rvi n g this a n d

,

t he small t o w n s l o cat e d al o n g t he li n e ; o r it may c o n n e ct t he pri n

c ip al city with o n e o r m o r e o f small e r siz e . T he gr e at e st s o urc e
o f pass e n g e r t r a fc is o rdi n a r ily trav e l fr o m t h e rural dist r icts t o

t he mai n t e r mi n al ; but if t h e r o ad e xc e e ds a c e rtai n l e n gth t he ,

tra fc fr o m this s o urc e wil l n o t i n cr e as e gr e atly with additi o n al

dista n c e F o r such r o ads a s e c o n d t e rmi n al is n e c e ssar y an d t h e
.
,

gr e at e r t h e l e n g th o f r o ad t h e m o r e i n t e r m e diat e citi e s are e ss e n

,

tial t o giv e t h e e ar n i n g s r e quisit e t o mak e a succ e ssful pr o p e r ty .

T he e stimati o n o f t h e city p o pulati o n s e rv e d is appar e n tly

quit e simpl e ; but t o o btai n gur e s which hav e an y dir e ct valu e is
much m o r e di f cult The trav e l which will b e o btai n e d b e t w e e n a
.

t e r mi n al city an d t h e su r r o u n di n g t e r rit o r y d o e s n o t d e p e n d t o
a n y mat e rial e xt e n t o n t h e siz e o f t h e city but rath e r o n t h e r e
,

l at io n s which e xist b e tw e e n t he u r ba n an d t h e ru r al p o pulati o n s .

F o r e xampl e a c o u n ty s e at will hav e c o n sid e rabl e tra f c fro m

,

t h e surr o u n di n g c o u n try but v e ry littl e t o it ; whil e a m a n u fa c

,

tu r i n g c e n t e r will pr o bably d e v e l o p b o th class e s o f trav e l e sp e ,

c ial l y if t h e t e r r it o r y surr o u n di n g it is larg e ly o f t h e sam e g e n e ral

cha r act e r .

The e stimati o n o f t he ru r al p o pulati o n s e r v e d by t he pr o p o s e d

r o ad is usually mad e by c o n sid e r i n g a s e cti o n o f t e rr it o r y fr o m
o n e t o f o u r mil e s wid e o n e ach sid e o f a n d c o n ti g u o us t o t h e t r ack
,
.

S o m e o bj e cti o n may b e f o u n d t o this m e th o d in that t he am o u n t

,
3 72 TH E EL E C TR I C RA I L WA Y

of trav e l t o b e e xp e ct e d d e p e n ds p e rhaps m o r e o n t he siz e an d

charact e r o f t he t o w n s al o n g t he li n e tha n o n t h e fa r mi n g po pul a
ti o n s e rv e d by t h e r o ad An alt e r n ativ e m e th o d is t o ad o pt a fac
.

t o r fo r u s e in c o n n e cti o n with t he p o pulati o n o f t h e i n t e r m e diat e

t o w n s l o cat e d al o n g t he li n e .

A v e ry imp o rta n t c o n sid e rati o n is that o f t he pr o babl e futur e

gr o wth o f t he t e rrit o ry s e r v e d an d an e stimati o n o f t he e ff e ct this
,

will hav e o n t h e e ar n i n gs o f t he r o ad A g o o d i n t e ru r ba n s e rvic e

.

d o e s with o ut qu e sti o n d e v e l o p t he c o u n t r y thr o ugh which it

, ,

pass e s ; but t he am ou n t o f such gr o wth may b e a vital fact o r in

d e t e r mi n i n g t he succ e ss o r failur e o f t h e pr o p e rty It is usually .

imp o ssibl e t o build r o ads b e f o r e t h e p o pulati o n is gr e at e n o ugh t o

all o w th e m t o e ar n O p e rati n g e xp en s e s alth o ugh in t h e past m a n y
,

su ch li n e s hav e b e e n built ; but if t h e pr o b abl e i n cr e as e in r e v e n u e

,

d ue t o t h e pr e s e n c e o f t h e r o ad is suf ci e n t it may p ay t o i n stall

,

it b e fo r e t he trafc is e n o ugh t o p ay divid e n ds o n t h e st o ck .

S uch a d e t e rmi n ati o n is v e ry difcult t o mak e an d gr e at car e ,

sh o uld b e tak e n t o pr e v e n t l o ss o f capital In g en e ral t he pr o b

.
,

abl e e ar n i n gs fr o m a pr o j e ct e d li n e are subj e ct t o s o ma n y va r i

abl e s that t h e b e st pr o c e du r e in such pr e li m i n a r y e stimati n g is t o
s e cur e t he s e rvic e s o f t h e b e st e n gi n e e r i n g tal e n t availabl e .

O pe r atin g Ex pe n s e s Of e qual imp o rta n c e t o t h e e xp e ct e d

r e v e n u e is t h e pr o babl e e xp e n s e o f Op e r ati o n o f t h e r o ad T h e .

pri n cipal it e ms u n d e r this classicati o n ar e mai n t e n a n c e o f w ay ,

mai n t e n a n c e o f e quipm e n t an d e xp e n s e s dir e ctly c o n c e r n e d in

,

c o n ducti n g tra n sp o rtati o n M ai n t e n a n c e charg e s d e p e n d t o a

.

v e ry c o n sid e rabl e e xt e n t o n t h e e xc e ll e n c e o f t he c o n structi o n

a n d t h e e quipm e n t ; but if th e s e ar e assum e d t o b e at l e ast o f

av e rag e quality t h e e stimati o n o f mai n t e n a n c e c o sts c an b e mad e

,

with a fair d e gr e e o f accuracy by c o mparis o n with e xisti n g r o ads

o f t h e sam e g e n e ral charact e r .

T he c o st o f c o n ducti n g tra n sp o rtati o n is a fu n cti o n o f t h e

am o u n t o f s e rvic e giv e n alth o u g h n o t dir e ctly d e p e n d e n t o n it
,
.

T h e c o st o f Op e rati n g a car mil e o r a t o n m il e d e p e n ds v e ry la r g e ly

- -

o n t h e n umb e r o f such u n its haul e d alth o ugh such it e ms as t he

,

o v e rh e ad ch a r g e s fo r pr o ducti o n o f p o w e r a n d platf o r m lab o r

ar e v e ry n e arly c o n sta n t r e gardl e ss o f t h e us e which is mad e o f

t he r o ad . If t he li n e is t o b e suc c e ssful t he r e gular sch e dul e s

,

must b e mai n tai n e d wh e th e r an y trafc app e ars o r n o t ; an d t he

c o st o f hauli n g e mpty trai n s is v e r y n e ar ly as gr e at as wh e n th e y
ar e l o ad e d t o th e i r ma x imum c a pa c ity
.
.
 EN GI N EE R I N G P REL I M I N A R I ES 3

tio n o f C o n s truc tio n C o s t T he e stimati o n o f t he c o st
Es t im a

o f c o n s t r ucti o n is n o t difcult o n c e t h e c o mp o n e n ts hav e b e e n

,

c o rr e ctly d e t e r mi n e d H avi n g t he p o w e r d e ma n ds t he capacity

.
,

o f t he g e n e rati n g an d substati o n s may b e f o u n d at o n c e t h e n u m ,

b e r o f u n its b e i n g s e l e ct e d t o giv e t h e d e sir e d subdivisi o n o f l o ad ,

with a p r o p e r n umb e r o f r e s e rv e machi n e s B y t he applicati o n .

o f t h e p r i n cipl e s o f tra n smissi o n a n d dist r ibuti o n circuits t he ,

pr o p e r siz e o f t h e c o n duct o r s m ay b e d e t e r mi n e d .

T he m e th o ds o f e stimati n g t he n umb e r o f ca r s ar e v ari o us but ,

if a c e rtai n sta n dard o f s e r vic e has b e e n d e cid e d o n as fo r e x , ,

ampl e t h e Op e rati o n o f o n e trai n in e ach di r e cti o n pe r h o ur t he

, ,

r e quir e d n umb e r may b e f o u n d at o n c e fr o m an i n sp e cti o n o f t he

g r aphical tim e tabl e-
A c e r
. tai n all o wa n c e must b e mad e fo r

e xtra s e rvic e fo r r e pairs e t c

,
G e n e rally it is b e st t o purchas e at
,
.

t he b e gi n n i n g t he m i n imum n umb e r which will giv e t he d e sir e d

s e rvic e an d add t o th e m as t he t r afc d e v e l o ps an d t he us e o f
,

additi o n al cars b e c o m e s n e c e ssary In this w ay t he lat e st im .

p r o v e m e n t s in d e sig n m a y b e tak e n adva n tag e o f .

T he m e th o ds o f e stimati n g t he pr o babl e am o u n t o f po w e r r e
qui r e d hav e b e e n tak e n up in t he p r e c e di n g chapt e rs O n c e .

h
t e sch e dul e is d e t e rmi e d t he pr o p e r sp e e d tim e curv e s t o giv e
n ,

t he d e sir e d p e r f o rma n c e may b e laid o ut a n d t he m o t o rs s e l e ct e d ,

t o m e e t this r e quir e m e n t Fr o m t he curr e n t tim e a n d p o t e n tial

.

cu r v e s t he p o w e r d e ma n ds o n t he substati o n s an d o n t he ge n
,

e ra t in g stati o n may b e d e t e rmin e d .

T he am o u n t o f e n e r gy n e e d e d fo r t he O p e rati o n o f t he d e sir e d
sch e dul e is fo u n d at o n c e by an i n t e grati o n o f t he p o w e r tim e

curv e ; an d if t he e fci e n cy o f t h e vari o us e l e m e n ts o f t h e e quip

m e n t b e kn o w n t he o utput o f t he g e n e rat o r s at t h e bus
,

bars an d t he qua n tity o f c o al t o b e bur n e d o n t he grat e s c an b e

calculat e d .

T he c o st o f platf o rm lab o r c an b e f o u n d at o n c e fr o m t he
n umb e r o f car h o urs o p e r at e d
-
if t he av e r ag e wage has b e e n
,

e stablish e d O th e r lab o r is m o r e difcult t o d e t e rmi n e d e p e n d

.
,

in g as it d o e s o n a vari e ty o f fact o r s T he n umb e r o f p o w e r

.

pla n t o p e rat o r s r e pair s h O p m e n an d similar e mpl o y e e s is

, ,

la r g e ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s iz e o f t he ro ad u n til it r e ach e s c o n ,

s ide r ab l e p r o p o r ti o n s T h e o fc e f o r c e r e quir e d t o ha n dl e t he
.

busi n e ss is quit e v a r iabl e a n d d e p e n ds n o t s o m uch o n t h e

,

n umb e r o f u n its o p e rat e d as o n t he i n dividual id e as o f t he

ma n a g e m e n t .
 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

H avi n g d e t e r mi n e d t he v ari o us it e ms which t r i n t o t he en e

Op e r ati n g c o st t he t o tal may n o w b e f o u n d as th e ir sum

, .

N e t R e c e ipt s T h e di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n t he g r o ss r e c e ipts a n d
.

t h e o p e rati n g e xp e n s e giv e s t he n e t i n c o m e If t he Op e r ati n g

.

e xp e n s e is f o u n d t o b e g r e at e r tha n t h e r e c e ipts t h e i n v e stigati o n

,

may pr o p e rly e n d at this p o i n t u n l e ss it is fo u n d p o ssibl e in s o m e

,

way t o pr e dict an i n cr e as e o f t he o n e o r a r e ducti o n in t he o th e r .

If t he e sti m at e i n dicat e s a n e t r e tu r n fu r th e r study will sh o w

,

wh e th e r this i n c o m e is sufci e n t t o pay tax e s x e d cha r g e s a n d

, ,

o th e r l e gitimat e o v e rh e ad c o sts a n d aft e r d o i n g this l e av e a

,

bala n c e a v ailabl e fo r divid e n ds T his is o f c o urs e t h e n al

.
, ,

m e asur e o f succ e ss o r failur e o f a r o ad It is e ss e n tial that t he

.

gr e at e st car e b e tak e n t o mak e t he pr e limi n a r y e stimat e accurat e ,

e sp e cially if a n y d o ubt e xists as t o t h e ability o f t h e p r o j e ct e d li n e

t o pay divid e n ds ; an d it is b e tt e r t o l e av e al o n e a pr o j e ct rath e r

tha n r un t he risk o f sustai n i n g mat e rial l o ss .

S te am R oa d El e ct r i c at io n A typ e o f pr o bl e m which is
.
-

b e c o mi n g o f i n cr e asi n g imp o rta n c e is t he e l e ctricati o n o f t r u n k

li n e s S uch r o ads ar e usually o l d an d w e ll e stablish e d pr o p e rti e s
.
-
,

which have al r e ady d e v e l o p e d a g o o d t r afc T h e p r o bl e m is .

h e r e much simpl e r si n c e t he pr e l i m m ar y d e t e rmi n ati o n s o f

.

t r afc an d e quipm e n t a r e wh o lly o r pa r tially s o lv e d b e f o r e

b e gi n n i n g t h e e stimat e s .

In ma n y cas e s all that is d e sir e d is t o r e plac e t h e e xisti n g st e am

,

l o c o m o tiv e s with e l e ctric k e e pi n g substa n tially t he sam e s e b e d

,

ul e s an d trai n w e ights T his is t h e simpl e st stat e m e n t o f t h e

.

p r o bl e m an d r e quir e s t h e l e ast pr e limi n a r y e n gi n e e ri n g O n c e

,
.

t h e syst e m fo r t he c o n tact li n e has b e e n d e cid e d o n t h e siz e an d ,

e quipm e n t o f t h e l o c o m o tiv e s is c o mparativ e ly e asy t o d e t e r mi n e ,

si n c e th e y will b e o f t he sam e rati n g as t h e st e am e n gi n e s th e y

r e plac e H avi n g f o u n d t he l o c o m o tiv e capacity t h e m o t o r char
.
,

a c t e r is t ic s must n e xt b e s e l e ct e d t o giv e c o r r e ct o p e r ati o n T he .

sp e e d tim e a n d p o w e r an d e n e rgy curv e s may n o w b e draw n

,

givi n g t he d e ma n d o n t h e substati o n s a n d o n t he p o w e r pla n t .

T h e e quipm e n t fo r th e s e par ts o f t h e syst e m an d fo r t h e t r a n s

,

missi o n an d dist r ibuti o n circuits may b e s e l e ct e d an d t he t o tal

, ,

o p e r ati n g c o st p e culiar t o t h e e l e ctric i n stallati o n f o u n d .

T h e c r it e r i o n o f e xc e ll e n c e which must b e m e t is that t h e Op e r

ati n g c o st o f t h e e l e ctric e quipm en t must b e l e ss tha n that fo r
st e am aft e r i n cludi n g a p r o p e r all o wa n c e fo r t he i n c r e as e d c o st o f
,

c o n st r ucti o n If t h e t o tal a n n ual c o st is l e ss tha n fo r st e am o p

.
 EN GI N EE R I N G P REL I M I N A R I ES 375

e r at io n , p r o j e ct is f e a s ibl e an d may b e r e c o mm e n d e d ; o th e r
t he
wis e it is n e c e ssa r y t o l o o k t o wa r d o th e r r e as o n s fo r t h e ad o pti o n
o f e l e ct r icity .

Ev e n th o ugh t h e e l e ct r ic o p e rati o n o f a divisi o n may n o t sh o w

a d e c r e as e d c o st di r e ctly th e r e may b e o th e r c o n diti o n s which
,

m o dify t h e pr o bl e m t o mak e e l e ct r icati o n d e sirabl e It may be .

p o ssibl e t o haul t r ai n s at a high e r sp e e d thus p e r mitti n g t h e pas ,

sag e o f a g r e at e r n umb e r o f t o n s in a giv e n tim e ; o r it may b e

.

p o ssibl e t o giv e m o r e fr e qu e n t pass e n g e r s e rvic e by Op e rati n g

m o r e an d light e r trai n s M a n y such c o n sid e r ati o n s must b e
.

l o o k e d i n t o an d may giv e e xc e ll e n t r e as o n s for e l e ctricati o n ,

e v e n th o ugh t h e dir e ct savi n g t o b e o btai n e d is small .

In s o m e cas e s t he cha n g e f r o m st e am t o e l e ct r ic o p e r ati o n has

,

caus e d an i n cr e as e in pass e n g e r r e c e ipts T his is s o m e tim e s d ue t o .

t h e fact that c o mp e ti n g li n e s hav e b e e n taki n g a larg e shar e o f t h e

t r afc which c an b e r e gai n e d by b e tt e r s e rvic e ; an d in o th e r c as e s
,

t o an i n c r e as e d d e si r e t o t r av e l o n ac c o u n t o f t h e impr o v e d
,

acc o mm o dati o n s It is imp o ssibl e t o do m o r e tha n hi n t at t he

.

p o ssibiliti e s o f this s o rt an d th e y must be d e t e rmi n e d fo r e ach

,

i n dividual cas e .

An i n sta n c e o f t he succ e ssful applicati o n o f e l e ctricity is in

m o u n tai n g r ad e o p e rati o n He r e t he limiti n g c o n diti o n s usually
-
.

d e p e n d o n t h e w e ight o f trai n s which c an b e ha n dl e d by st e am

l o c o mo tiv e s S o m e r o ads hav e f o u n d t he capacity o f an e n tir e
.
.

railway syst e m limit e d by that o f a si n gl e sh o r t divisi o n If .

light t r ai n s ar e r un t he r e quir e m e n ts o f saf e o p e r ati o n limit

,

mat e r ially t h e capacity o f t h e t r ack ; a n d if l o n g t r ai n s ar e us e d ,

t he sp e e ds which ar e f e asibl e with st e am ar e d e cid e dly l o w El e c .

t r ic o p e rati o n m ak e s p o ssibl e t he ru n n i n g o f h e avy trai n s at

fai r ly high sp e e ds s o that t h e n umb e r o f t o n s which c an b e
,

haul e d may b e m at e rially i n c r e as e d T his is d ue t o t h e pr ac .

t ic ab ilit y o f c o n c e n t r ati n g lar g e r am o u n ts o f p o w e r in t he e quip

m e n t tha n c an b e d o n e with st e am .

C h o i c e o f S ys t e m
R e f e r e n c e t o C hapt e r X V I I will sh o w that
.

o f t h e thr e e syst e ms o f s e c o n dary dist r ibuti o n a n y o n e will fulll ,

t he r e quir e m e n ts o f o r di n a r y tru n k li n e Op e rati o n N o g e n e r al

-
.

agr e e m e n t has b e e n r e ach e d as t o t h e c o mpl e t e sup e ri o r ity o f an y

o n e ; but fo r a particula r i n stall a ti o n th e r e may b e a s o luti o n o f t h e

m o tiv e p o w e r p r o bl e m which will b e t he m o st satisfact o r y If

-
.

an y d o ubt e xists t he b e st way is t o p r e p ar e s e pa r at e e stimat e s

,

bas e d o n t h e us e o f e ach o f t he th r e e syst e ms o btai n i n g t he ,

3 76 TH E EL E C TR I C R A IL WA Y

r e lativ e c o sts o f i n stallati o n an d o p e r ati o n Exc e pt I n r ar e

.

cas e s o n e o f th e m will sh o w a l o w e r t o tal Op e r ati n g c o st th an

,

e ith e r o f t h e o th e rs ; an d u n l e ss th e r e ar e s e parat e c o n sid e rati o n s

,

t o b e m e t this is t he o n e which sh o uld b e ad o pt e d

, .

It w o uld b e e xc e e di n gly d e si r abl e t o ad o pt fo r an e n tir e rail

r o ad syst e m o r fo r all t he railr o ads o f t he c o u n t r y a si n gl e u n i
, ,

v e rsal pla n fo r e l e ctricati o n T his w o uld p e rmit s t an d ar diz a

.

ti o n o f e quipm e n t an d w o uld r e duc e t he c o st o f t he vari o us

,

parts o f t he e l e ctrical apparatus Un til this is d o n e t he c o st o f

.
,

i n stallati o n s fo r e l e ctric li n e s will b e c o n sid e rably high e r tha n if

such sta n dardizati o n is br o ught ab o ut It w o uld b e a p o o r .

p o licy h o w e v e r t o p o stp o n e t h e e l e ctricati o n o f such li n e s as

, ,

warra n t t he cha n g e u n til such a c o n diti o n has b e e n r e aliz e d ;

fo r with t h e syst e ms all p o ss e ssi n g p o i n ts o f e xc e ll e n c e an y o n e
, ,

o f th e m may sh o w O p e rati n g e c o n o mi e s which will mak e t he s a v

in g sufci e n t t o warra n t its ad o pti o n e v e n with t he p o ssibility

,

o f a futur e cha n g e in cas e s o m e u n i v e rsal o r sup e ri o r typ e o f

e quipm e n t is ad o pt e d lat e r .

In t he n al a n alysis it may b e s e e n that t he u s e o f e l e ct r ic

,

p o w e r pr e supp o s e s a c e rtai n trafc d e n sity b e fo r e it b e c o m e s a

p ayi n g i n v e stm e n t s o that t he li n e s o f h e a vy trav e l ar e c e rtain
,

t o b e e l e ctri e d rst e xc e pt that wh e r e c o al is e xp e n siv e an d

,

e l e ctricity is ch e ap a c o mparativ e ly light tra fc may mak e t h e

cha n g e d e sirabl e S uch c o n diti o n s e xist in t he M o u n tai n stat e s

.
,

wh e r e w at e r p o w e r is a v ailabl e ; an d at t h e pr e s e n t tim e at l e ast

o n e imp o r ta n t r o ad is e quippi n g its mai n li n e fo r e l e ctric O p e r a

ti o n in t he i n t e r e st o f e c o n o my th e r e b e i n g n o o th e r basic r e as o n
,

fo r t he ad o pti o n o f e l e ctricity A part fr o m such sp e cial i n stalla

.

ti o n s it is quit e p r o babl e that t he E ast e r n r o ads will b e t he r st

,

t o u s e e l e ctric p o w e r fo r t he Op e rati o n o f l o n g divisi o n s si n c e ,

th e y ar e t he o n e s which will r e c e i ve t he gr e at e st b e n e ts fr o m s o
d o in g .
 I N D EX

A r c in g in c on t ro l l e rs .

A rm a t u r e c o n s t ru c t io n .

13 sp e e ds
fo r ro t a t n gi p art s 14 w i n d in g fo r i l p h as e
s n g e-

16 m o t o rs

A c c e l e r at io n , c h art of 40 m o d e rn .

c ur ve 33 A r m s t r o n g, A H .

e ff e c t o n po w e r c u rv e . 1 28 Ar m s t ro n g s e

qu a t io n
m e c h an ic s o f 13 A rr an g e m en t of d rive r s on

r o t at io n a l 14 l
e e c t ric lo c o m ot ive s .

i
un t s o f 14 o n s t e am lo c o m ot ive s .

A c c e l e rat o r c ar . 2 08 A rt ic u l at e d c ar s .

Adh e s io n coe f c i e n t 1 66 At k in s o n p ul s io n m o t o r
re . .

Ad j us t e r , s lac k 1 87 Au t o m at ic air b r ak e
A dvan t ag e s o f m o t o r c ar t ra in s . 2 40 b l o c k s ig n al s
i
of ser es m ot or 48 c o n t ro l

B rak e s . 1 89 s l ac k a d j u s t e r

si ze s 1 81 st op .

pow er fo r . . 1 57 t rain c o n t r o l
1 89 Au xi lia r y e qu ip m e n t c ar ,

20 e ffe c t o f f r e qu e n c y o n .

Al t e rn at in g - c u rr e n t d is t rib ut io n 3 2 1 e n e rg y 0 0 0 0 0

l
e e c t ro ly s is 30 1 Av e r a g e m o t o r p o t e n t i al
3 45
s ys t e m . 3 61
3 64
t hre e p h as e s y
-
st e m 3 59 B an k in g o f c urve s -
see Su p e r
e ld o f 3 63 e l ev a t i o n

Am e ri c a n El e c t ri c R a il w a y En B at t e r y s t o r ag e in s ub s t a t io n s
, ,

g in e e rin g As s o c i a t io n . B e arin g f ric t io n o f d o m o t o r .

S t an d ar d b e arin g 18 c ar .

c ar in g
w ir 224 m ot o r

s ig n a l as p e c t s 3 38 B l o c k s i g n a l s a u t o m at i c,
. .

i n d ic at io n s 33 7 t e l e g rap h ic
2 62 B lo w o u t us e o f
-
, .

287 B o b t ail c a rs .

Am e r ic an I n s t it u t e of E l e c t ri c a l B o l s t e rs t r u c k
,

En g in e e rs 132, 1 4 1 B o n d rail C hi c a g o t yp e
, ,
. .

An g l e of in c li n a t i o n fo r b rak e e l e c t ri c w e l d e d

b e am s . i n duc t ive
An g u l a r l
a c c e e r at o n i p ro t e c t e d
Applic at io n of l
e ect r c i lo c o r e s is t a n c e o f

m ot ive t yp e s 2 46 lde re d
so

Ar c h ro o f fo r c ar s 206 B o n d in g t rac k,

3 77
3 78 I N D EX

B o o s t e rs u s e o f
, 2 77
B o w t r o ll e y . 227 s ub s t at io n

B rac k e t c o n s t ru c t io n 2 85 C ar , c a rs .

B rak es air
, . 1 89 l
ac c e e rat o r

a ut o m at i c 1 90
c o m b in e d s t r aig h t an d

aut o m a t i c . b e ari n g s
e l e c t ro p n e u m at ic b o b t ai l
hig h s p e e d -
b r aki n g B rak in g see .

qui c k a c t i o n . C ali f o rn ia t yp e .

s t r ai gh t

t es t s of

B r ake b e am s, an g el of in c l i
n at io n co ll e c t o rs .

c yl in d e r s s i z e s ,
c o n s t r u c t io n .

e l e c t r ic . fr a m in g
e m e r ge n c y

h an d f f r a m in g
ro o .

m ag n e t ic c o nve rt i b l e .

m ag n e t c , i N e w e ll d e ve l o p m e n t
m o m e n t um doo r a r r an g e m e n t

p o w e r n ee d fo r
,
d o ub l e -t ruc k .

r i gg in g l e e c t ric .

c al c u l at io n o f . e l evat e d .

f o un d a t i o n e qu ip m e n t m ,
is c e ll an e o u s 2 3 0
. .

t ru c k fare c o ll e c t io n . 2 10
shoe w e a r , e ff e c t o f r e ge n f ra m i n g
e r at io n o n f r e ig h t .

vac uum g as o l i n e
B rak in g . h e at e r s .

c u rve . l
e ec t r c i .

f o r c e s d is t rib ut io n
,
of on ho t air

c ar h o t w at e r .

r o t a t io n a l in e r t ia st o ve
t ot a l . h e at i n g .

t r an s m is s io n of p o w e r fo r
i m p o r t an c e o f h o rs e
m e t h o ds av ail ab l e

p h e n o m e n a n at u r e ,
of . . l ig h t in g .

B r az e d b o n ds p o w e r fo r
B rid ge c o n n e c t io n -m i l e as b as is f o r e n e rg y
.
,

f o r s u pp o r t in g c o n t ac t l in e . c o n s u m p t io n .

B rus h riggin g d eve l o p m e n t o f ,

. n e a r s id e .

l o ss . n um ber of fo r c it y s ys t e m 3 69
o n e m an .

open .

p ain t in g .

C ab sign a l s p ar l o r .

C ali f o rn ia t yp e c ar s P-A-Y-E
EX 3 79

C o ll e c t i o n of f ar e s . 2 10
C o ll e c t o rs , c u rr e n t . 2 25
of in d u c t io n m o t o rs 83
C o m b in a t io n s ys t e m s of c o n t ro l 116
C om i
m u t at n g p o le s 77
C om m ut at i o n in s in g e - l p h as e
m o t o rs 67
C om m u t a t o r c o n s t ru c t o n i 78
m o t o rs , a c se e
. . M o t o rs . 58
C om p aris o n of c o n v e rt e r s 315
o f c o n t ro l m e t h o ds 91
of se lf p r o p e ll e d
-
c ars 2 59
o f s hu n t i an d s e r e s m o t o r s . 46
C o m p e n s at e d re p u l s io n m o t o r . . 64
C o m p e n s a t in g w i n din g u s e o f , 59
C o m p e n s at i o n o f a c m o t o rs . . . 62
o f b rak e h an g e rs 1 80
o f c u rv e s 29
C o m p o un d m o t o r 43
C o m p o u n din g o f t ran s m i s s i o n
c i r c u it

C o m p r e s s e d air s e e M o t ive
P o w e rs Air B rak e s ,

C o m p r e ss o r s fo r air b r ak e s
C o n c at e n at i o n c o n t r o l .

C o n d u c t ive c o m p e n s at io n fo r
a o .s e ri e s
.

C o n du c t o r , c o n t ac t

p o s it io n in p re p ay m ent

c a rs 2 10
u s e o f ra il s as . 292
C o n du it s ys t e m . 2 90
C o n s t a n t -c u rr e n t yst e m s 42
C o n s t an t p o t e n t i a l s y s t e m
-
. 42
C o n s t ru c t i o n c a r ,
2 04
c o st o f 3 73
. 3 32
71
t r ac k
du i
. .

C o n t ac t c on ct or i
s ze o . . . 2 86
l in e 2 78
c o n s t ru c t o n i 2 84
f o rm s of 2 79
fu
pp tin
. .

m et ho ds o s g or 2 84
require m e n t s of 2 78
t h r e e p h as e - . 3 60
s u rf ac e 292
C o n t a c t o rs, us e o f . 97
in m u lt ipl e -
u n it 1 01
3 80 I N D EX

C o n t in u o u s r at n g i o f m o t o rs . C o n t r o ll e r , p n eum at c a i lly o p e r
t ra c k c ir c u it s ign als at e d .

C o n t ro l . rh e o s t a t ic

a ut o m a t c i .

l l i
c a c u at o n s fo r . yp e K
t . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c as c a d e . t yp e L
c h an g e s in a rm at u r e t yp e M
s t ren gt h . t yp e R . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

com bin e d a c . . an d dc . C o nve rt e r s

c o n c a t e n a t io n . c o m p ari s o n o f

J o n e s t yp e . m e rc u r y v ap o r .

l o c o m o t ive m ot o r 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

m e t h o ds o f yn c h r o n o us
s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

p rac t ic a l c o m b in at io n s . t yp e s o f O O O O O O O O O O O O

m u l t ipl e u n i t -
C o n ve rt ib l e c ar s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

S p r ag u e s y s t e m C o pp e r l o ss in d .
-c . m ot o r 0 0 0 0 0

T yp e M . C o rro s io n b y c u r re n t 0 0 0 0 0

u n i t s w it c h t yp o n at u r a l
n eed fo r . C o st , c o n s t ru c t o n i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

p e r m u t at o r . o f st o ps
p o t e n t i a l v ar i at i o n C o un t e r e m
. . f
p ro p o r t i o n i n g o f r e s i s t a n c e s C rad l e sus p e n sio n
r a il w a y m o t o r

C urr e n t , h e at in g va l u e of

i
r e s s t o rs lim it s fo r c o n t ro l .

r h e o s t at ic . re c t i e d

l im it at i o n s o f qu ar e
r o o t m e an s

p rin c ipl e s q u a r e d c u rv e
-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

s e ri e s p ar all e l
- t i m e c u rv e s .

a d v a n t ag e s o f C urve s m e as ure m e n t o f
,

c om p aris o n w it h rh e o

s t at i c .

c o m p a r is o n

p rin c ipl e D e f e c t s in r e t urn c i rc uit 2 95

s e ri e s s e rie s p a r all e l
,
-
D e t e rm in at io n o f t rain r e s is t

s in g l e p h a s e -
. an c e

s p e c ia l s y st e m s D eve l o p m e n t o f c ar d e s ign
s plit p h as e
-
. o f r ailw a y m o t o rs
t an d e m o f s ub s t at i o n s

p
t h r e e - h as e . Diff e re n t ia l c o e f c i e n t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c o m p a ri s o n Di re c t c u rr e n t c i rc uit p o l ari t y
-
,

t r ai n a u t o m at i c
,
of

t r a n s f o r m er m o t o rs s e e M ot o rs .

u n i t s w it c h
-
syst e m e ld o f
, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

W ard L e o n ar d h i gh t e n s i o n
-

C o n t r o ll e d m an u a l syst e m . 600 vo l t
C o n t ro ll e r , d ru m t yp e . s i g n als

J o n e s t yp e Dis t an t sig n als

O p e r at i n g D is p at c hi n g t rai n ,
 I N D EX 3 81

Dist rib ut in g i c rcu it E l e c t ri c m o t o rs s e e M o t o rs

ra ilw ay t k r acT ra c k see

s y s t e m s a dvan t ag e s o f
,

di r e c t c u r r e n t
-

s i n g l e p h as e
-
O O O O O O O O O O O

t hre e p h as e
-

t r ac t io n a dvan t ag e s o f
,

w e l de d b o n ds
r a il j o in t s .

E l e c t ri c at io n s c o p e o f
, 0 0 0 0 0

us e o f g ra p h ic a l t im e -t a b e l s t e am ro a d

E l e c t ro ly s is
a l t e rn at in g c urr e n t s an d .

r e m e di e s fo r

E l e c t r o p n e u m at i c b r a k e .

E l evat e d rai lw ay c ars

E m e rg e n c y s t o p s
E m f m e t h o d o f s p e e d vari at io n
. . .

c o un t e r

c ar . i l p h as e m o t o r
of s n g e-

En e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n .

d is t rib ut io n o f
e ffe c t o f g e ar rat io o n .

of g ra d e s on

l
o f e n gt h o f r un o n

of in r e s is t an c e o n
t ra
fo r auxilia rie s .

m e t h o d s o f c o m p a r in g

of fo r t r ain o p e rat io n
kin e t ic
m e c ha n ic a l

p o t e n t ial
r e g e n e r at io n o f

e ffe c t s o n e q u ip m ent .

j io b e ct ons

En g in e e rin g p re l im i n ar ie s .

Earn in g s , n et E qu at in g m o t o r l o a d .

Ea r t h c o n du c t io n . E qu ip m e n t o f l o c o m o t iv e s .

Eff e c t of p o t e n t ial o n s ub s t at io n p o w e r pl an t c h o ic e o f ,

s p ac i n g s ub s t a t io n

Est im at io n o f c o n s t r u c t io n c o s t

E f c i e n c y i
of ser es m ot o r . E xp e n s e s , o p e r at i n g

c a rs

d is t rib u t in g c ir c u it

d is t rib u t io n s y st e m s . F a re co ll e c t io n
h e at e r s . r at e o f

loc om ot i ve s se e Lo c o m o Fe e din g , m et ho ds of

t iv e s . . s p e c ial m e t h o d s of
 2582 I IVIJEEX7

Fi e l d c o n t ro l m o t o rs G e ars ra t o ,li m i t s t o
i .

p rin c ipl e o f o f e a r ly m o t o rs .

o f e l e c t r ic l o c o m o t ive
'
. G e n e r at i o n p o w e r s e e P o w e r
, . 3 30
o f r ai l w a y s y s t e m s G e n e rat o rs e f c i e n c y o f
,

fram es s ubdivis i o n o f

s t re n g t h, c o n t r o l by G r ad e s .

vari at io n o f e ff e c t on e n e rg y c o n s um p
w e ak e n in g m e t h o d s o f , t io n O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Fl an g e f ri c t i o n . r u n g .

F l o a t i n g b o l s t e r t ru c k s . ve l o c it y O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

F lux c u r v e o f s e ri e s m o t o r vi rt ual
Fo r c e fo r a c c e l e r at i o n . G r ap hi c a l t ime t ab l e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

fo r t r ain o p e r at i o n . G ri d r e s is t o r s
m ec h an i c s o f G ro w t h fut u r e o f p o p u l at io n
, , .

F o rc e s b r a ki n g s e e B r ak in g
, .

F o rm s o f c o n t a c t l i n e
Fo rm ul a t r ai n r e s i s t an c e
,

Fo un dat i o n b r ak e riggin g Han d b r ak e s .

He ad e n d r e sis t an c e
.

F o u r m o t o r e qu i p m e n t s
-
-
. OOOOOO O O
Fr am es , m o t o r
He at e rs e l e c t ri c
, O O O O O O O O O O O O O

F r am in g H e at in g c ar ,
,
o f m o t o rs
F r e i gh t t r a i n i
r e s s t an c e
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

p o w e r fo r
.

Fre qu e n c y , c han ge s in
c h an g e r s , u s e o f
value o f c urr e n t .

fo r i l p h as e
s ng e -
m o t o rs
High-s p e e d b r ak e .

-t e n s io n d c s y s t e m
Fr i c t i o n '
. . 0 0 0 0 0 0

t ran s m i ss io n
e ff e c t o f s l idin g w he e ls . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

H o r s e c ar s
.

an g e
H o r s e p o w e r f o r t r ai n m o v e m
.

ent
j o u rn a l .

Ho t b o x , c au s e o f
o f m o t o r s an d g e ars
ro ll in g Hy d r aul ic p o w e r .

H yst e r e sis l o s s
.

s l i di n g
.

e ff e c t o f va riat i o n s in .

of d is t an c e on

p r e ss ur e o n
of I R d ro p , e ff e c t on m ot o r s peed
variat io n w it h s p e e d . in dis t rib u t in g c r c u it i .

Fu n c t i o n s o f m o t iv e p o w e r s in re t u r n i
c rc u it .

Fut u r e r e qu i r e m e n t s fo r c it y I R
2
loss in i
s e r es m ot o r

r o ad s 3 67 Ic e l o ad e ff e c t o n t ro ll e y w i r e
,
.

o n t h ir d r ai l

I n c i d e n t al r e s is t an c e s
I n c l i n at i o n o f b r a k e h a n g e r s .

G a s -e l e c t ri c I n di c at io n s s ign a l , .

G a s o l in e c a rs I n du c t an c e of s in g l e p h a s e -

G e ars , c h o ic e o f m ot or

f ri c t io n of I n du c t i o n m o t o r s e e M o t o rs .

e n e r at o r
g .

i
r at o , e ffe c t o n e n e r g y l
r e g u at o r c o n t r o l .

s um p t io n . s e rie s m o t o r .
I N DE X 383

e quip m en t

in t e r c h an g e ab il it y of

m o t o rs .

w hee l b as e .

l
g a s o in e

s t e am .

i
c h ar a c t e r s t ic s

c om p aris o n w it h e l e c t ric
d eve l o p m e n t o f
d irt in c id e n t t o .

e f c ie n c y o f

t yp e s
s t o r ag e b a t t e r y

w h e e l c l a s s i c a t io n
L o n git u di n al c ar s e at s .

L o s s e s in s e ries m o t o r
Lub ric at io n o f m o t o rs

M a g n e t i c b r ak e s
M a g n e t ic e l d o f d o .

M aill ou x ,
C . O . 3 5, 3 9
M an u a l s i g n a l s y s t e m s .

M at e r ials fo r c ar c o n s t ru c t io n . .

M axim u m t r ac t io n t r u c k s
M e c h an ic al arran g e m e n t s o f
t r an s m issi o n l in e s .

l o s se s o f d o m o t o r . . .

r e c t i e r

M e c h an ic s f un d am e n t al p r in
,

c ipl e s

of t r a c t io n .

M e r c ur y vap o r r e c t ie r

M e t h o ds o f d is pl ay in g s ig n a l
i n d i c at i o n s
o f f e e d in g .
3 84 I N D EX

M e t h o ds of o p e r at in g sem a

ph o re s . 3 48 a c t e r is t ic s

o f sus p e n d in g t ro lle y w ir e 2 79 v ar iat io n of

o f t r a in s p a c in g 33 9
M o m e n t um b r ak e s 1 99
M o n it o r r o o f . 2 06 fo r r e g e n e r a t io n .

M o t io n e qu at io n s o f
, 31
M o t ive p o w e r s 6 e ne rg y c o n sum p t io n
c ab l e e l d c o n t ro l
c o m p r e ss e d a ir 7 fo r t r a c t io n
e l e c t r i c it y . 8
f un c t io n s o f 42 f r i c t io n
g as o l in e . 7 g e ar in g 74 , 1 43 ,
s t e am l o c o m o t iv e 6 e n e r at o r
g ,
in d u c t io n .

st o re d 7 s et s .

M o t o r M o t o rs
,
42
a o . . c o m m u t at o r 58 h e a t in g of

i n du c t i o n 67 in duc t io n
i n duc t io n s e r ie s 63 c o m p a r is o n

p o w e r r e qu i r e d 1 46
s e r ie s 58
c o n du c t ive ly c o m

pe n s at e d
in duc t ive ly c o m pen m o de r n

s at e d

p e r f o r m an c e . n um b er of

s in g l e p h as e v ar i at i o n
-
,
of op e n t yp e
c h ar a c t e r is t i c s 66 p o lyph as e in du c t io n
a r m at ure c o n s t ru c t io n . 73 n um b e r o f p o l e s .

p e e ds
s . 74
b e ar in g s 79 p e r f o r m an c e o f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c ap a c it y 1 3 1, 143 s p e e d c o n t ro l .

-c a r t r a in s 2 40 p o t e n t ial ave r age , .

c l as s i c a t io n of 42 p re s se d s t e e l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c o m m u t a t o r c o n s t ru c t o n i . 78 r a il w a y
-c o m p r e s s o rs 1 89 r at in g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c o n s t ru c t io n 71 r e p u l s io n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

c o n t ro l .
s e e C o n t ro l 84 At k in s o n o o o o o o o o o
c o nve rt e r . 310 c o m p e n s at e d

d ev e l o p m en t 71 s e l e c t io n o f

42 s e r ies a d v an t a g e s o f
,
.

l
c as s i c a t io n 42 s in g l e p h as e
-

c om p o un d 43 c o m m u t at io n o f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ser es i 48 fr e qu e n c y fo r
c om p aris o n 3 55 S p ar k in g in

e f c ie n c y . 58 var iat io n s o f
ux c urve 54 s p e e ds o f

56 c al c u l at io n o f

fo r r e g e n e r at io n . 1 60 v ariat io n w it h r e s is t an c e
 I N D EX 3 85

P o l ar i t y o f d c .
- . i
c r c u it

P o l es c h an g e s
,

of in d u c t io n m ot or .

P o lyph as e i n d u c t io n m o t o r s e e

M o t o rs
yst e m
s

P o pul at io n e s t im at io n o f
,

r e l a t i o n t o t ra c k

P o rt ab le subs t at io n s
P o t e n t ia l c h an ge o f
,

e ffe c t o n p o lyp h a s e in d u c

t io n m ot or . 69
o t o rs on s ub s t a t o n i s p ac i n g . 32 0
m et ho d of s p ee d var iat io n . 51
m ot or . 1 40
v a r i at io n o f 85
P o w e r f a c t o r o f s in g l e p h a s e
m o t o rs . 59, 65
fo r a .
-
c . m o t o rs 1 46
f o r t r a in m o ve m en t 41
g e n e r at io n 3 30
qu ire m e n t s o f
re 3 30
h y d r au l ic 3 32
pl an t c ap ac it y o f
, . 3 30
c o n s t r u c t io n 3 32
e q u ip m e n t c h o ic e o f ,
3 32
l o c at io n . 331
p u r c h as e d . 333
r e qu ire d fo r aux il iar ies 1 57
r e qu ir e m e n t s 127
-
t im e c u rve s 1 30
.

P r e l im in ar ie s e n g in e e r in g , 3 65
P re lim in ar y s i g n al s . 3 49
P an t o g r aph t ro lle y P re p ay m e n t c ar s . 211
P ar ab o l ic e qu at io n of t ro ll e y P re s s u r e s b r ak e s h o e
, 1 77
P reve n t ive c o il u s e o f ,
1 16
P ro t e c t e d r ail b o n d 2 94
P ay -a
s -y o u -e n t e r c ar P ro t e c t io n fro m e l e c t ro ly s is . 297
o f t hir d r a il . 2 88
P e r fo r m an c e m o t o r s e e M o t o rs
,
P u m p s a ir ,
1 89
P e rm iss ive o p e r at io n . Purc h ase d p o w e r 3 33

c o n t ro l . Q
Ph as e S pl it t e r u s e o f
Q uic k b rak e
,
ac t io n
Pin io n s m o t o r
,

Pipe d rain age s y s t e m .

P lo t t in g S p ee d t im e c urve s .

P o l ar m e t h o d o f e qu at in g R a il b o n d in g .

c ur r en t com p o s it io n
 3 86 I N D EX

R a il j o in t s .

c ast we d l .

c ost l d in g
of we .

e l e c t r ic w e l d

s p e c ia l

T h e r m it w e l d .

w elde d .

r e ac t an c e o f

r e s is t a n c e o f

s ec t on s i .

s ig n a s l .

ir d s ee T hir d
th
R ail o f c o n t ac t l in e
t rac k .

r e s is t an c e o f . R e s is t an c e , a ir

R a ilw a y c ab l e , c ont ro l
c o st of

c it y
a de qu a c y o f
f u t u r e r e qu i r e m en t s .

n um ber o f c ar s .

s c h e du e s l pe e ds .

S iz e o f c a r s . l o sse s of d o . m ot

t yp e o f c ar s m et ho d pe e d
of s

u se o f o f r e t u r n c ir c u i t .

l i c at io n o f
c as s o s c ill a t o r y

e l e c t r ic s c o p e o f ,
r o ll in g

e l e c t r i c a t i o n .

i n t e r u rb a n use d fo r w e a k e n in g m ot or

m o t o r c o n t ro l e l d
p r o b le m . R e s is t o r s .

R e t a rd at io n se e B rak in g
l
e e c t r ic , d e ve l o p m ent of d e t e rm in at io n o f c o rr e c t

s ub u r b a n 5 m et h o ds fo r .

t rac k T r ac k
se e . . R e t a r d in g fo r c e fo r b r ak ing
t r u n k l in e R e t u rn c i rc u it

R a p i d t r a n s it c a r s
-
d e fe c t s in
R at in g o f m o t o r s r e s is t a n c e o f

R e ac t an c e o f r ail s u se o f ra il s as

R e c e ip t s n e t , . . R e ve n u e in t e r u r b a n
of ro a d s

R e c ip r o c a l m e th od fo r s p e e d R eve r s e r c o n t r o lle r
,

t im e c u rve s R e vo lu t io n s o f d r ive r s
R e c t i e r e f c ie n c y o f
,
R h e o s t at ic c o n t ro l .

m e c h an ic a l 125 ,
R ic her , C . W
m e r c u r y v ap o r 125 ,
R ig g in g , b r ak e .

a ppl i c a t i o n t o d c s y s t e m .
-
. R ig id b o l s t e r t ru c k s
a ppl ic a t io n to s in g l e R o ads , c it y
p h ase s y s t e m . R o bin s o n , Wm
R e g e n e r a t io n e ff e c t s o n e qu ip
, R o ll in g f r ic t io n .

m ent re s is t a n c e .
EX 3 87

S ign al s , in t e r l o c k in g .

k in d s of

a l t e rn at in g c u rre n t . .

W 1re i
c r c u it

S in gle -
phase m o t o r s s e e

M o t o rs
s ys t e m
t r an s m iss i o n

S iz e o f c o n t ac t c o n du c t o r

S l id in g f r ic t io n
S o l d e re d r ai l b o n d s
S o lid f ra m e s fo r m o t o r s

S p a c in g of t ra in s .

S p an , le n g t h o f
w ir e c o n s t r u c t io n .

S p ar k in g o f s in gl e p h a s e m o t o r -

S p e c ia l m e t h o d s o f f e e d in g .

w o rk t ra c k ,
. .

S p e e d c h ar ac t e r is t ic so f m o t o rs
c o n t r o l b y e l d w e ak e n in g .

o f in d u c t i o n m o t o r

e m f o f s in g l e p h a se m o t o r
. . .
-

m a x i m um e ff e c t o n p o w e r
,

c o n s u m p t io n .

m ot or

of a o . . s e r ie s m o t o r .

of d r ive r s .

s c he du e , l fo r c it y r ai lw ay s
t m i
e c u rv e .

l ve
a c c e e r at io n c u r .

b r ak in g c u rve .

c al c u l a t io n o f

c o a s t in g c u rv e .

c om po n en t s .

pl o t t in g
3 88 I N D EX

Sp ee d t m e
i ; c ur ve ,
s hun t an d S y n c h r o n o us c on ve rt e rs
i
s e r e s m o t o rs . m o t o r - g e n e r at o r .

s t r a ig h t l in e -
S ys t e m s, d is t r ib u t io n .

i
w th e l e c t r ic m o t o rs Sy s t e m s , e l e c t r i c s e e E l e c t r ic
S perr y ,
E . fo r e l e c t r i c r ailw a y o p e r a
Sp ik e s , t r ac k .

S pl it fr am e s fo r m o t o r s
- p h as e c o n t ro l a .
-
c . i l ph ase
s ng e-

a -c. . t h r e e p h ase -

S t at io n , p ow e r
see Po w e r . c ho ce o f i
S t e am l o c o m o t iv e see Lo c o d .
-c . 6 0 0 -vo l t
m o t ive . d .
-c . high - t e n s i o n
r o a d e l e c t r i c at io n . e l d of

S t e e l m o t o r f r am e s . t h re e - h as e p
S t en ger , L .

St op, a u t o m at c i
St ops , c ost of

S t o ra g e b at t e r y c ar s . T an d e m pee d c o n t ro l
s

in s ub s t a t o n s i T e l e g ra ph i c b l o c k
s yst e m o f a ir b r ak e s . T e m p e rat u r e e ff e c t o n s a g s ,
in
S t r aigh t a ir b r ak e s . w ir e
- lin e s p e e d t im -
e c ur ve s . T e n si o n in t r o ll e y w ir e
S t re e t c ar s . T e s t s o f a ir b r a k e s
S ub s t a t i o n s T h e r m it w e l d .

a l t e r n at in g c ur re n t - T hi rd r a i l
c ap a c i t y o f c o ll e c t o r s

c it y l o c at io n o f .

d eve l o p m e n t o f o ve r r u n n in g
-
.

p r o t e c t io n o f
i n t e r u r b an . r e m o v a l o f ic e .

l o c at i o n o f r e s is t a n c e o f

u n d e r r u n n in g -

s p ac in g T h re e p h as e c o n t r o l
-

s t o ra g e b at t e r y in . m o t o r s s e e M o t o r s

S ub u rb a n r ai lw ay s s yst e m

S ub w a y c ar s . t ran s m i ss io n
S uc t i o n , r e ar . . T h ur y s y s t e m
S up e r e l ev a t i o n o f o ut e r r ai l . T ie s t r ac k
,
.

S upp o r t s fo r t r o ll e y w ir e t re at e d .

S u pp o r t in g b r i d ge s fo r c o n t ac t T im e l
e em e n t in c o n t ro lle r
w i re . o p e r at io n
Su r f a c e c o n t ac t s ys t e m . i n c r e m e n t d e t e r m i n a t io n o f
,
34
S u s p e n s io n , b r ac k e t . i n t e rval o p e r at io n .

-t ab l e
b y b r i dg e s g r ap h i c a l
,

c at e n a r y T o n m il e as b as is fo r e n e r g y
-
,

m ot or c o n s u m p t io n

s p anir e -
w T o r que c h ar a c t e r is t ic o f m o t o rs . 44
S w i n g in g b o l s t e r t ru c ks . o f s e r ie s m o t o r

S w it c h e s t r a c k
, p e r a m p e re
 I N D EX 3 89

T r an s m is s i o n l in es ,
m e c h an ic a l
ar r an g e m e n t o f 329
l in e s , s t r e ss in 32 9
of b r ak in g forces 1 72
p o t e n t ial s 32 7
T ran sp o r t a t io n r e qu ir e m e n t s o f
, 1
l e n g t h o f r e l at i o n
,
t o p o pu T ran sve r s e c ar s e a t s 2 09
l at io n T ripl e valve . 191
T r o lle y b o w
, 227
c o n t a c t s ig n al s . 3 43
o ve r h e a d 2 79
p a n t o g r ap h . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 228
w he e l 225
w ir e g r o ove d
, 2 87
l e n gt h 2 80
l p h ase m o t o r
o f s in g e - . m e t h o d s o f s u pp o r t in g . 2 84
o f s t e am l o c o m o t iv e . . 6, o f s u s p e n d in g 2 79
f o r c e c al c u l at io n o f
,
. s t re s s e s in 281
T r u c k b r ak e r igg in g 1 82
T ru c k s a n d r u n n in g g e ar . 2 30
of in t e ru rb an r o ad s b o g ie 2 32
b raki n g of 1 74
d o ub l e . 2 32
Op e r at io n f o rc e fo r
,
o at in g b o l s t e r . 2 32
-o r d e r d is p a t c h i n g . m a xim um t r a c t io n . 2 33
r ig i d b o l s t e r 2 32
s in g l e . 2 30
s w in g in g b o l s t e r 2 33
s w ive l in g . 2 32
T w o d ir e c t io n s ig n al s
-
. 3 50
on e n e rg y c o n sum p T w o m o t o r e qu ip m e n t s
-
1 44
tio n . T yp e s o f t r an s m iss io n c ir c u it s 3 24
o n p o w e r c o n s u m p t io n

o n s p e e d t im e c u rve
.

fo rm u l ae .

i n c id e n t al .

m o t o r -c ar . Un de rg r o un d c o n d uit s y s t e m . .

s p ac in g ,
m et ho ds of . Un de r r unn in g t hir d rail
- -

U s e s o f s i g n al s
Tr a n s f o r m er e m . . f . of s in g e l
p h as e m ot or

T r an s fo rm e r s , c h o ic e o f

c o n t ro l w it h
T r an s m issio n c ir c u it V ac u um b r ake
d eve l o p m e n t Valve t riple
,

r e gu l a t io n Var iat io n o f p e r f o r m an c e in
t yp e s o f s in g l e p h as e m o t o r s
-
.

T r an s m is s io n , d ir e c t -c u rr e n t . Ve c t o r d ia gra m fo r s in gl e p h as e -

h igh t e n s io n m ot or
 90 I N DEX

Ve l o c it y gr ad e s 27 We igh t d is t r ib u t i o n of l i
e ect r c

Ve n t il at io n o f m o t o rs 80
Virt ual grade s 27

Wa rd Le o n ar d c o n t ro l 1 23
W at e r p o w e r 3 32
1 14
Wat t h o u r s pe r t o n m il e
- -
. 151
We ak e n in g o f e l d fo r c o n t ro l . 87
o f m o t or e l d on s pe e d . 53 W o rk ,
i l
m e c h an c a