The Culture Perspective in Organization Theory: Relevance to Public Administration

I. Introduction
A. Definition of Organization
1. Organization is a term used to denote entities of differing sizes but with
common features like (1) two or more people, working to accomplish (a) a
common goal or goals through (3) coordination of activities which involves (4)
some type of structure.
2. Chester Bernard (1938): A formal organization is a system of consciously
coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons, able to communicate
with each other, and who are willing to contribute action to accomplish a
common purpose.
3. Scott and Mitchell (1976): Organization is a system of coordinated activities
of a group of people working cooperatively toward a common goal under
authority and leadership.
4. Florence Heffron (1989): any entity possessing these characteristics is an
organization, and organization vary in size, type and number of goals, structural
characteristics, and types of coordinative processes utilized. A public
organization is any organization created by government. Although public
organization differ from business organizations on the specific nature of each
or all four dimensions, at the most basic level they share these four common
dimensions with public sector organizations.
B. Organization Theory
Organization theory is concerned with structure and the interrelationships
and functions of key components of organization, primarily the individuals
and groups that compose them.
Viewed from a broader perspective, organization theory focuses on
organization structure, processes and behavior.
C. Cultural Approach
Views organizations as miniature societies, each with its own distinct
culture.
It also recognizes the culture of an organization as a determinant of
organization behavior and performance and accepts that organizational
members bring into the organization attitudes and values initially shaped in
society.

II. Forerunners of the Cultural Perspective in Organization Theory

A. Classical Perspective
1. Frederick W. Taylor
 Inquired into the management of organizations by finding the one best
way to improve productivity using the scientific management
method.
He stated that the principal object of management should be to secure
the maximum prosperity of each employee.
Four underlying principles of scientific management: (1) the
development of a true science of work; (2) the scientific selection and
progressive development of workers; (3) the bringing together of the
science of work and the scientifically-selected and trained men; (4) the
cooperation of management and men.
2. Max Weber
Concentrated on his theory of authority structures.
He made a distinction between power, the ability to force people to
obey, regardless of their resistance, and authority, where orders are
voluntarily obeyed by those received them.
His idea rational-legal organization (he named bureaucracy)
embodied a rational-legal authority system with its bureaucratic
organizational form.
o Bureaucracy is a formal organization, with the characteristics
of hierarchy, division of labor, specialization, impersonality,
rules and regulations, strict subordination and continuity.
o Weber claimed bureaucracy to be the dominant institution of
modern society because of its purely technical superiority over
any form of organizations
3. Alvin Gouldner
He found Webers assumption that the members of an organization will
comply with the rules and obey orders was not always true in reality.
When rules and procedures had been arrived at together by superiors
and subordinates as in representative bureaucracy or participative
management, then both participants support the rules which fit with
their commonly held values.
Gouldner claimed that bureaucratic behavior is however different in a
punishment-centered bureaucracy.
o This type of bureaucracy emphasizes authority and command or
the Weberian concept of hierarchy. In this mode of bureaucratic
organization, the rules arise in response to the pressures either
of management or workers, which may cause interpersonal
tension either way.
 Gouldner maintained that there are unanticipated consequences of
bureaucratic functioning, like efficiency arising from the general and
impersonal rules which often define what is not allowed.
4. Chester Barnard
Provided the most significant theoretical roots for the organizational
culture perspective.
In the Functions of the Executive, he argued that the inculcation of
belief in the real existence of a common purpose is an essential
executive function. Another function is to establish and communicate
a system of organizational values among the members.
He also stated that interactions between persons based on personal
rather than common purpose will, because of their repetitive character,
become systematic and organized.
Barnard used the concept of organizational personality which he
defined as the private code of morale which derives from a definite
formal organization.
B. Neoclassical Perspective
1. Herbert Simon
Was the most influential among the neoclassicist who criticized the
classical perspective.
He claimed the principles of management to be proverbs: For almost
every principle, one can find an equally plausible and acceptable
contradictory principle.
He advanced the concept of bounded rationality and his model of
administrative man. In contrast with the classical concept of
economic man who maximizes, Simons administrative man
satisfices.
Most human decisionmaking, whether individual or organizational, is
concerned with the discovery and selection of optimal alternatives.
2. J. Steven Ott
Argued that the organizational culture perspective had its origin in
neoclassical organization theory, particularly in the works of Elliott
Jaques (1952) and Philip Seiznik (1948)
3. Elliott Jaques
Jaques work, The Changing Culture of a Factory is the first publication
which used the word culture to refer to an organization.
His definition of the culture of a factory contains current elements of
organizational culture: knowledge, attitudes, customs, habits, values
and the less conscious conventions and taboos
 He also alluded to socialization processes; effects of changes in culture
on members personalities; use of culture to control behavior and the
sanctioning process as a cultural mechanism by the use of which power
is linked to authority
4. Philip Seiznick
Followed Barnards thinking about the importance of organizational
values, norms, nonrational behavior, and the discrepancies or
incongruence of individual and organizational goals as likewise put
forward by Chris Argyris (1964).
He also advanced the concept of cooptation of external groups and its
impact in an existing organizational culture.
C. The Human Relations Perspective
1. Elton Mayo and associates
Regarded organizations as social systems composed of individuals
whose attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors where shaped by forces
and factors external to the organization and by the informal
associations and groups internal to the organization.
The focus of organization theory shifted to the informal organization.
Based on his experiments, Mayo believed that social groups, not
individuals and structures, were the most important organizational
factors and the key to understanding and controlling individual
behavior.
Within the organization, work groups were a key source of norms,
behavioral cues, and motivation. For the individual, work groups
satisfies social needs and provided opportunities for status, self-
expression and security.
2. Douglas McGregor
His Theory X and Theory Y represent managerial assumptions about
the nature of man.
These assumptions in turn determine how employees will be managed
and eventually how they and the organization will behave.
3. Abraham Maslow
Assumed that human beings share common needs and that these needs
are hierarchically arranged.
These need requirements must be responded to by the organizational
goals.
4. Chris Argyris
Argued the congruence between individual and group needs and those
of the organization so that harmony can be generated and dysfunctions
can be avoided.
5. Frederick Herzberg
Argues for the provision of real motivators or intrinsic job facors
which cater to human higher order needs, rather than hygiene
maintenance factors or extrinsic job factors which are not real
motivators.
6. Victor Vroom
His formulation postulates that the motivational force or effort an
individual exerts is a function of (1) his expectancy that certain
outcomes will result from his behavior (e.g.. a raise in pay for
increased effort), and (2) the valence for him of those outcomes.
This assumption leaves an individual with a choice on the course of
action to take (a personal behavioral choice) which is a departure from
the classical perspective view that individual behavior is controlled by
hierarchy, procedures and rules and regulations.