Unit 1: Fuel Systems

UNIT 1
Fuel Systems

Unit Introduction:
This unit describes the characteristics, differences, maintenance and
calibration procedures associated with diesel fuel systems.

Unit Objectives:
At the completion of this unit each student will be able to understand
fuel characteristic differences, select fuels properly based on
industrial standards and understand proper fuel system maintenance
procedures.
 Lesson 1: Fuel Selection
Lesson 1: Fuel Selection

FUEL SELECTION

Fig. 1.1.1 Fuel Selection

Lesson Introduction
This lesson discusses the proper fuel selection techniques and
practices necessary for maintaining diesel fuel systems.
Unit 1 1-1-2 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fuel Selection
Fig. 1.1.2 Fuel Selection

This Lesson will discuss the attributes of fuel and how it affects the
performance of a diesel engine. Many people think that all fuel is the
same, and that it does not change engine performance. The inverse is
probably more correct. We will explore some of the differences that
can be found in different fuels.

Cetane Number

Startability and Performance

Fig. 1.1.3 Stability and Performance

Owners need to get the maximum service life from their engines with
a minimum of downtime. One method to assure good continuous
engine performance is to select the best available fuel. Fuel quality is
critical to engine life and good performance. Although called diesel
fuel, the exact mixture could be slightly different every fill up.
Therefore, with every fill up, the engine may perform differently.
Unit 1 1-1-3 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

PREFERRED FUELS
Diesel Fuel
Fuel Oil
Furnace Oil
Gas Oil
Fig. 1.1.4 Preferred Fuels

Most diesel engines have the ability to burn a wide range of fuels.
Distillate fuels are the preferred fuels for use in diesel engines. Those
fuels are commonly called diesel fuel (Number 1 or 2), fuel oil,
furnace oil, gas oil or kerosene.
Experience has proven that the use of distillate fuels will result in
maximum engine service life, performance and durability. Distillate
fuels usually contain smaller amounts of water, sulfur and sediment
than the second type of fuels, permissible.
Unit 1 1-1-4 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

PREFERRED FUELS
Requirement Number 2 Low Sulfur
Cetane No. (PC) 35 min. 35 min.
Cetane No. (DI) 40 min. 40 min.
Water and Sediment 0.05% max 0.05% max
API - min. 30 30
API - max. 45 45
Sulfur 0.5% 0.05%
Pour Point: 10F below ambient temperature
Cloud Point: Not higher than ambient temperature

Fig. 1.1.5 Preferred Fuel

Figure 1.1.5 shows the specifications for preferred fuels. It is

separated into two groups: standard fuel, number 2, and low sulfur
fuel. It should be noted that the only variation between the two
columns is the amount of sulfur contained in the fuel.
Each type (diesel fuel, fuel oil, furnace oil, kerosene) of preferred
fuels can be put into either category depending on sulfur content.
Standard fuel is available for off highway use in heavy equipment,
industrial engines and commercial marine applications in the United
States and Canada. For identity of this fuel, the governments require
a dye to be added.
Low sulfur fuel is required in on highway truck and pleasure craft
marine applications in the United States and Canada. No dye is
added to this fuel. It is almost clear with a slight yellow green tint.
Unit 1 1-1-5 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Permissible Fuels
Crude Oils
Blended Fuels
Fig. 1.1.6 Permissible Fuels

The use of some crude oils and blended fuels, is permissible in some
diesel engines. These engines require a special fuel system to tolerate
the differences of these fuels.
Crude oil is oil or fuel that is not yet refined, and is basically the
same as it was originally pumped from the ground.
Blended fuel, sometimes called heavy or residual fuel, is composed of
the remaining elements from crude oil after the oil has been refined
into diesel fuel or gasoline. These elements can be combined or
diluted with a lighter fuel so they can flow. At times these fuels have
to be heated or centrifuged to be used.
If crude oil or blended fuels are used, additional service procedures
may be required, and reduced service life may be experienced.
Unit 1 1-1-6 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

PERMISSIBLE FUELS
Requirement Crude Oils Blended Fuel
Cetane No. (PC) 35 min. 35 min.
Cetane No. (DI) 40 min. 40 min.
Water and Sediment 0.5% max 0.5% max
API - min. 30 30
API - max. 45 45
Sulfur 0.5% 5.0%

Pour Point: 10F below ambient temperature

Cloud Point: not higher than ambient temperature

Fig. 1.1.7 Permissible Fuels

Figure 1.1.7 shows the specifications for permissible fuels. Again, it

is separated into two groups, crude oil, and blended fuel. It should be
noted that these fuels are allowed higher concentrations of water and
sediment than are the preferred fuels.
Because they can contain higher levels of water, sediment and trace
metals, the owner may need to monitor and evaluate oil change
intervals and use extra filtration to remove solids and/or install fuel
heaters and centrifuges to make the fuel pumpable.
Also note the difference in sulfur content between crude oil and the
blended fuel.

Fig. 1.1.8 Fuel Cleanliness

Although the U.S. has standards for cleanliness of fuel, that does not mean
that all fuels coming from the pump meet these standards.
Water and sediment can be introduced to the fuel at many locations
between the oil well and the engines fuel tank. This introduction can
happen even after the fuel is in the tank. If a vehicle is parked overnight
with a low fuel level, the water in the air trapped at the top of the fuel tank
condenses into water droplets which then fall into the fuel.
Unit 1 1-1-7 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.9 Contaminants

Crude oil, blended fuel and even distilled fuels may contain excessive
amounts of water and/or sediment which require pre-treatment before
delivery to the fuel injection system. Some of these contaminants can
be removed by using a settling tank. Fuel storage tanks should be
constructed at an angle so water and sediment will settle in the low
end. Contaminants can then be drained off periodically. Care must
be taken when disposing of the material drained off, since it is
considered hazardous waste in some areas. Water in the fuel storage
tanks can also lead to the growth of bacteria. These bacteria can plug
fuel filters, causing low power in engines. Storage tanks should be
checked for bacterial growth. There are fuel and water soluble
additives which can be added to storage tanks to control bacteria.

Fig. 1.1.10 Water Separator

Water which remains in the fuel can be taken out by a water separator
in most cases. In severe applications, a large capacity water separator
can be used. A water separator is only as good as its maintenance.
The water must be drained off before the rated water capacity of the
unit is reached. Once the water holding capacity of the separator is
reached, all additional water will pass through the separator.
Unit 1 1-1-8 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Cetane Number

Startability and Performance

Fig. 1.1.11 Cetane Number

Cetane is a chemical found naturally in fuel. The Cetane number (the

amount of the cetane present in the fuel) is a measurement of the
ignition quality of a fuel. Engine startability and acceleration under
load are especially sensitive to the fuel cetane rating. A higher cetane
rating assures ease of starting in most conditions. Fuels must have a
minimum cetane number of 35 for precombustion chamber engines
and 40 for direct injection engines. Fuel with cetane levels lower
than minimum can cause hard starting, white smoke at start-up and
poor engine performance.
Generally, an increase of ten in the cetane number will lower the
temperature at which the engine can be started approximately
(-11C to -9C).
Unit 1 1-1-9 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.12 Cloud Point

At low temperatures, any fuel may contain solid particles of wax

which could plug the filters rapidly. The cloud point of fuel is the
temperature at which some of the heavier paraffin components (wax)
start to form crystals. This is a natural process as the temperature is
causing the fuel to begin its change from liquid to solid. These wax
crystals give the fuel a cloudy appearance. This wax is not a
contaminant, but is an important element of diesel fuel and has a high
energy content and a very high cetane value. The cloud point of the
fuel is important because wax can plug the fuel filter.
If the cloud point of the fuel is lower than the lowest ambient
temperature at which the engine will be expected to start and operate,
filter plugging will not be a problem.
Unit 1 1-1-10 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.13 Pour Point

The pour point of a fuel is an indication of the minimum temperature

at which the fuel will flow. At the pour point temperature, the
amount of wax crystals increases to a point where they congeal. This
can restrict the flow of fuel from the tank to the engine transfer
pump, but if the fuel stays around the fuel pick up tube, the transfer
pump will move it. The pour point is approximately -12 C (10 F)
below the cloud point.
The pour point can be improved with flow improvers or the addition
of kerosene or a lighter diesel. Fuel heaters cannot normally solve
problems related to a high pour point temperature since they normally
use engine coolant as their heat source.
Unit 1 1-1-11 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.14 Fuel Heater

A fuel heater will keep the wax dissolved and permit it to flow
through the filters with the fuel. Several types of fuel heaters are
available on Caterpillar engines as factory installed options. They
can be installed between the fuel filter base and the spin-on filter or
between the fuel tank and fuel filter. Most of the heaters use engine
coolant to heat the fuel and prevent ice or wax crystal formation in
the filter. Fuel heaters should only be used as required, because as
fuel temperature rises, engine performance declines. There is
approximately a 1% horsepower loss for every -12C (10F) increase
in fuel temperature. Fuel heaters should not be used if the ambient
temperature is above 15C (60F), and the fuel temperature at the
outlet of the fuel heater should not be higher than 74C (165F).
Some electronic engines will adjust fuel rate depending on fuel
temperature. Fuel heaters used on electronic engines should be
thermostatically controlled.
Unit 1 1-1-12 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.15 Safety Practices

To lower cloud point and pour point temperatures of their fuels, some
users blend diesel fuel with gasoline or naphtha. Because of the
safety hazard involved, it is not recommended that users mix diesel
fuel with gasoline or naphtha. Safety practices which may have
worked well with pure diesel fuel will not be adequate when dealing
with these blends. In a fuel tank, the vapor in the air space above
pure diesel fuel is too lean to be a hazard at normal ambient
temperatures. Pure gasoline vapors are too rich. However, when
diesel fuel is mixed with gasoline or naphtha, the vapor-to-air ratios
can be explosive. Industry recommends the other methods already
discussed to lower pour point or cloud point temperatures.

Fig. 1.1.16 Pour and Cloud Point Adjustment

Some users also like to use alcohol to adjust pour and/or cloud point.
Alcohol, either methanol or ethanol, has a low cetane number and
poor lubricating characteristics. The cetane numbers of ethanol and
methanol are similarin a range of 0 to 10. This means that pure
alcohol does not have good ignition characteristics when used in a
diesel engine and must be mixed with large quantities of cetane
improvement additives which are quite expensive. Also, in current
fuel injection systems, the diesel fuel lubricates some of the fuel
injection system components. Alcohol does not have good
lubrication characteristics.
Unit 1 1-1-13 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Fig. 1.1.17 Sulfur Content

Diesel engines have a silent enemy within diesel fuel - sulfur. It is

called the silent enemy because sulfur content does not directly
affect engine performance. It has no effect on engine startability or
power. Sulfur content doesnt become a harmful factor until after the
fuel has been burned. During the combustion process, sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are formed. These oxides of sulfur
combine with the water vapor formed during combustion to create
sulfuric acid. This acid causes corrosive wear in engines and
increases the chance of early engine failure.

FUEL SULFUR
Test Specification Fuel Sulfur Content
ASTM D129 Standard Fuel 0.5%
ASTM D2622 Low Sulfur Fuel 0.05%

Fig. 1.1.18 Fuel Sulfur

In the United States, fuels which meet ASTM 1-D and 2-D
specifications must contain no more than 0.5% sulfur by weight.
Fuels that meet ASTM 1-D and 2-D for low sulfur must contain no
more than 0.05% sulfur by weight.
This does not mean that every fuel will meet this specification. In
fact, fuels with sulfur content in excess of 0.5% have regularly been
found in field surveys.
Diesel engines can burn these higher sulfur fuels. However, to use
fuels with sulfur content greater than 0.5%, it is necessary to take
extra precautions to protect the engine from corrosive wear.
Unit 1 1-1-14 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

WHEN YOU BUY FUEL

Meet fuel specifications
Keep it clean
Fig. 1.1.19 Fuel Selection

Clean fuel meeting the manufacturer's fuel recommendations

promotes maximum engine service life and performance. Anything
less is a compromise and the risk is the users responsibility. Dirty
fuels and fuels not meeting the minimum fuel specifications will
adversely affect engine performance and will shorten engine life. It is
good economics to carefully consider fuel selection.

Fuel Contamination Control

Fig. 1.1.20 Fuel System Components

Dirty fuel is the Engine's Worst Enemy.

This unseen villain can rob the engine of power, accelerate wear of
sensitive fuel system components and reduce fuel efficiency.
Keeping fuel and the fuel system clean should be top priority,
especially in construction, mining, and other dusty applications where
higher horsepower engines are in use. With the higher injection
pressures and closer tolerances of today's diesel engines, clean fuel
delivers maximum performance, productivity and service life.

One critical element in any fuel contamination control program is

high efficiency fuel filters. They're specially designed for today's
diesels, using a super-fine filtration media for maximum filtration.
Unit 1 1-1-15 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Why clean fuel is so important

Fuel contamination is, and always has been, a concern with all types
of diesel engines. It has become even more important in recent years
as engineers have worked to make diesel engines more economical
and environmentally friendly. As emissions and fuel consumption
have decreased, injection pressures and tolerances between
components have increased. Higher RPMs submit precision
components to even more potential wear and abrasion.
Today's engines deliver more horsepower, better response and better
fuel economy than ever. They are also more susceptible to wear and
damage from fuel system contaminants. Damage can be caused by
anything in the fuel system that should not be there, including
particles, heat, water and air bubbles. Together or alone these
contaminants can drain power from the engine, accelerate component
wear and eventually lead to a breakdown.

Fig. 1.1.21 Contamination

As little as one spoonful of dirt in a tank of fuel can ruin a fuel

injector in less than eight hours.
Unit 1 1-1-16 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

How Big is a Micron?

(2,000 Times Size)

Human Hair
.0035 inch
.0889 mm

.0001 inch
.00254 mm

.0001 inch
.00254 mm
.000039 inch
.001 mm

Fig. 1.1.22 Micron

Out of Sight is not out of Mind

The most controllable contaminants are abrasive particulates, which
can vary greatly in size, hardness and abrasion. The comparison
illustrated here demonstrates the very tight clearances in the fuel
system and the size of the visible particles. As can be seen, even
particles that aren't visible can wear away at your fuel system and
reduce performance.

Sources
of
Contamination
Fig. 1.1.23 Sources

Sources of Fuel Contamination

In the Fuel
A reliable fuel supplier is the best defense against source
contamination. Demand periodic sampling and testing to assure the
consistent quality needed for top performance.
Unit 1 1-1-17 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

During Operation
In dusty applications such as construction and mining, airborne
contaminants can be drawn into the fuel tank through the vent tube.
Likewise, a vent in the fuel tank cap can ingest dust if it is not
properly sealed. Contaminants can also develop during storage or
enter the system through improper fuel transfer.
During Service
Any time the fuel system is open, whether it is to change filters,
make repairs or for refueling, contaminants can enter the system.

Where contaminants do their damage

Abrasive contaminants accelerate wear as they move through the fuel
system at very high velocities. In some cases, the contaminants in
the fuel may be as abrasive as the materials used to machine parts in
manufacturing.
Contamination can cause problems throughout the fuel system, but
there are two areas that are especially susceptible to wear and
damage.
Injector Plunger and Barrel
Minimum clearances of 2.5 microns make it critical to maintain a
fluid film between these rapidly moving parts. Microscopic abrasive
particles cause scratching, which can eventually lead to scuffing,
metal-to-metal contact and injector seizure.
Control Valves
Located throughout the fuel system, these valves control fuel
pressure. Contaminants can erode the mating parts of the valves,
causing them to leak and perform below specifications. A loss of
engine power is the result.
Unit 1 1-1-18 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

Minimizing
Fuel
Contamination
Fig. 1.1.24 Fuel Contamination

How to minimize fuel system contamination

During Storage and Transfer
Without proper storage and handling procedures, even the cleanest
fuel can deteriorate or become contaminated. Here are steps that can
be taken to keep sediment, dirt and environmental contaminants out
of the fuel system
- Periodically drain and flush all fuel storage containers, including
tanker trucks and stationary tanks. This will remove sediments that
can easily enter the fuel stream.
- Keep all fuel nozzles, hoses and other equipment clean.
- If a nozzle is dirty, clean it thoroughly before fueling.
- Maintain all hoses, gaskets and seals in the fuel storage and transfer
equipment.
- Use line filters on all fuel transfer equipment.
- Never transfer fuel with buckets, funnels or other open containers.
- Only purchase fuel from a reliable, reputable source. Demand
periodic testing to assure getting a consistently high-quality
product.
Unit 1 1-1-19 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

During Operation
Fighting fuel contamination is a full-time concern for everyone from
the machine operator to maintenance technicians. This checklist
should be a part of any daily inspection program.
- Repair any fuel line leaks immediately. If fuel is leaking out,
contaminants can also get in.
- Never operate a machine without the properly installed fuel cap.
- If a fuel cap does not seal properly due to deteriorated gaskets or
other damage, replace it immediately.
- Make sure fuel tank vent tubes are open and functioning properly.
- Do not run machines to the point when the fuel tank is completely
empty. Doing so can draw sediment from the bottom of the tank
into the fuel system.
- Alert maintenance and service technicians immediately of any
unexplained power loss, excessive smoke or hard starting,
especially when the engine is warm.

When changing filters

- Maximize filtration protection with high efficiency fuel filters. The
moderate cost difference is made up in greater protection
- Follow the recommended filter change schedule. If premature filter
plugging occurs, consider the fuel quality and other contamination
sources.
- Remove filters carefully, making sure not to knock dirt and debris
from the engine compartment into openings.
- Keep filters packed in their original box until they are installed.
- Never pre-fill a new filterdoing so allows some contaminated
fuel to bypass the filter altogether.
.
Unit 1 1-1-20 Fuel Systems
Lesson 1

When performing Engine Service

- Clean dirt, dust and other debris from the engine compartment
before removing filters and other fuel system components.
- Use a high pressure wash to blast mud, dust and dirt and other
built-up grime off the engine before "opening" the engine for
repairs.
- Tightly cap or plug all openings during repairs, even if they are
needed only for a few minutes.
- Clean reusable parts with solvent using proper cleaning and drying
methods.
- Never place components directly on the ground.
- Keep new parts in their original package until needed.
- Don't reuse seals, replace them.
- Perform routine inspection of fuel line connections from the tanks
to the fuel pump.
- Maintain a regular schedule for draining machine fuel tanks:
weekly for severely dusty conditions, every three months for
normal conditions.