7

RT PW+ ITT PW- FT 0

.. ., II II' .. III ........ ill ..

, #------
,,
,
,,

Figure 2.3. Representative applied voltage waveform for OLED testing. Wave-
form parameters identified are positive and negative maximum applied voltages
rise and fall times (RT, FT), and intermediate transition time (ITT).

time (FT) is 15-150 fJs. Usually a ramp rate (RR) is set for use throughout the OLED
waveform so that RT, ITT, and FT all have the same ramp rate. Occasionally a zero
bias delay (D) portion is inserted after the negative pulse. D is usually between 0
and 1000 fJS. The major difference between the applied voltage waveform used for
inorganic and organic EL characterization is that the periods are much longer for
the organic waveform. [7] This waveform has proven to be very useful in exploring
different aspects of OLED and PLED operation. Additionally, it is similar to the
bipolar waveform suggested for improved device efficiency. [3]

2.3 Device Physics

2.3.1 Small Molecule OLEDs

A few basic aspects of small molecule OLED device physics are as follows. The gen-
eral characteristics of the HTL are that the electron mobility is very small compared
to the hole mobility and the hole mobility of the HTL is relatively large compared
to the electron mobility of the ETL. [1, 2] For a typical diamine HTL the hole mo-
bility is 10- 2 to 10- 4 cm 2 y- 1s-1 (the hole mobility of a diamine HTL is about 1000
times the electron mobility of an Alq3 ETL). [2] An Alq3-based ETL is thought to
possess an exponential distribution of traps. [8] The hole mobility in an Alq3 ETL is