Communication

Satellite
Communication
Principles and
Applications
R.N.Mutagi
All rights reserved. Oxford University Press 2016

Chapter 1
Introduction
All rights reserved. Oxford University Press 2016 2

Accessibility:
Large coverage
System cost independent of distance
Remote area communication
Versatility:
Variety of signals can be carried; fixed or mobile networks on land,
sea and air
Networks can be established in short time
Flexibility
Bandwidth reallocation
Reliability
Capacity
Arthur C.Clarke suggested in 1945 that a satellite in a circular
equatorial orbit with a radius of 36,000 km would have an
angular velocity equal that of earth and would remain
relatively stationary
SCORE- Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Eqpt
First communication by satellite- by USAF, Low orbit satellite,
160 by 1280 km, relayed 4 min recorded voice, 150 MHz uplink,
108 MHz downlink, 12 days life, battery operated
ECHO 1 and 2 (1960 and 1964) by NASA
Passive reflectors of 30 m dia, large ground antenna 18m and 10
kW transmit power, Life of 8 years
TELSTAR 1 & 2 (1962 and 63) by NASA and Bell Labs
First active wideband communication satellite, analog FM at 50
MHz, Uplink 6.4 GHz and downlink 4.2 GHz

EARLYBIRD (Intelsat 1-1965) by COMSAT/NASA
Two 25 MHz transponders in C-band, 240 two way voice circuits
or on two-way TV circuit
ATS 1-6 (Application Technology Satellite) by NASA
Six satellites between 1966-75
ISRO used ATS-F for SITE in 1975-76
ANIK (by NASA for Telesat Canada between 1973-75
CTS by NASA and Canada 1976
High power satellites 200 watts, BSS at Ku band, 120 cm ground
antenna

Intelsat (International satellite communication) organization
was created in 1964 with Hq in Washington DC
It is a consortium of nations using satellite communications
Membership has grown beginning with 19 to 144

First Indian National Satellite (Insat 1B) was launched in
1983
Insat 1 A,B,C,D; Insat 2A,B,C,D,E; Insat 3A,B,C,D,E
and Insat 4A,B,C,D
GSAT series of satellites are launched with indigenous
launchers (rockets) developed by ISRO
Applications of Insat and GSAT satellites:
Telecommunication
TV Broadcast, Radio and TV program distribution
Mobile communication
Distance education
Remote sensing

Space segment
Ground segment
Satellite link

Satellite
Transponders Resources-
Spectrum, Time,
Power
Up Link D/L
U/L
Down Link
Speech Base RF
Audio band Eqpt
Video Eqpt
Data
T- I/F HPA
LNA Antenna Earth Station
Terrestrial Modem,
U/C Feed
Links to Mux-
Trunk Dmux, D/C
Exchanges, Access LO
Studios, Control Diplxr Earth Station
Computer
systems
Satellite
Uplink Downlink
Downlink
GES GES GES

Satellite
Uplink Downlinks
GES Rx Terminals

Satellite
Downlink Uplinks
GES Tx
Terminals

Passive
A passive satellite simply reflects the signal received fro earth stations.
Active
An active satellite amplifies, filters and translates the frequency of the
signal before transmitting back to earth stations
Regenerative
A regenerative satellite processes the signals received from earth
stations. Processing may include amplification, demodulation, signal
regeneration, channel switching, remodulation etc.

Fixed satellite service
FSS VSAT, Transportable terminals, SNG
Broadcast satellite service

BSS Digital audio broadcast (DAB)
Digital video broadcast (DVB-S)
Mobile satellite service

MSS Land mobile
Maritime mobile
Aero mobile
Band Frequency Applications
range (GHz)
L 1-2 Mobile SAT, DAB, GPS, LEO SAT
S 2-4 TTC, DTV, LEO SAT
C 4-8 Domestic Satellite Telephony,
Satellite TV, FSS
X 8-12 Military Satcom
Ku 12-18 VSAT, DTH, DBS
K 18-27 FSS
Ka 27-40 Intersatellite Links
Chapter 2
Satellite Orbits

Different types of satellite orbits
How satellites are located in space
The position of a satellite in orbit
Effect of satellite movements on communication
How satellites are launched and placed in orbits

Earth satellites
are placed in
elliptic orbits Space crafts for
interplanetary
travel are placed in
hyperbolic orbit
A satellite in an orbit around the earth follows the same laws
of physics that any planet follows in its orbit around the sun or
a moon follows in its orbit around its parent planet. All
planetary motions in space are described by three basic laws
Law of orbits: The path of every planet about the sun is elliptic
with the centre of the sun located in one of the focal points.
Law of areas: The sectorial area covered by the line joining the
centre of the sun to the centre of the planet in unit time is a
constant.
Law of periods: Square of the period of one revolution around
the sun is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the
centre of the sun.

ra rp Keplarian elements
e
ra rp Semimajor axis (a)
Eccentricity (e)
Time of perigee
Right ascension
Inclination (i)
Argument of perigee ()
e0 Circular
0 e 1 Ellipse
e 1 Parabola
ra=a(1+e) rp=a(1-e)
e 1 Hyperbola
Fin=gravitational force=m(/r2)
Fout=angular velocity force=mv2/r
m=satellite mass
Fin = Fout v=satellite velocity
v=(/r) r=distance from centre of earth
= satellite velocity required =Kepler constant
to maintain orbit =3.986x105 km3/s2
Area covered in
unit time
Planet
(satellite)
Sun
(Earth)
Ellipse T 2 R 3
Orbital inclination
The elliptical orbit lies in the orbital plane that passes through the centre
of the earth but inclined to the equatorial plane. The angle between the
equatorial plane and orbital plane is the orbital inclination which is
between 0 1800
Right ascension of the ascending node
Just specifying inclination is not sufficient to fix the satellite orbit as
there are infinite orbits possible with given inclination. To completely
specify the orbit we must fix the points (nodes) on the equator where
the satellite orbit intersects. The ascending node is one of these points
where the satellite crosses the equator going from south to north. The
position of these nodes cannot be specified in the latitude-longitude co-
ordinate system as earth is spinning. Right ascension is an angle
measured in the equatorial plane from the line joining the centre of the
earth to a reference point in the sky, called vernal equinox, to the line
joining the centre of earth to the ascending node

Vernal
equinox
Equatorial
plane
Right ascension
Orbital Ascending node
plane Satellite orbit

Argument of perigee
It is an angle between the line of apsides (line joining the
perigee and apogee passing through the center of the earth)
and the line joining the ascending and descending nodes
(also passing through the center of earth)
e0
Eccentricity e
Defines the shape of the ellipse e1
0<e<1
e=0
circle
Solar day is measured with
respect to the sun as
reference
It is the time taken by the
earth to complete one
revolution (time from high
noon to high noon) around
its axis
Sidereal day is measured
with respect to a distant star
Sidereal day is shorter to
solar day by 4 minutes (23 H,
56 M, 4.1 S)
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
Polar Orbit
Sun Synchronous Orbit
Geosynchronous Orbit
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

Altitude in the range of 400-1500 km
Usually inclined to equatorial plane
Lower launch cost
Orbit period is short, typically 90-100 minutes
Due to short distance from earth propagation delay
and path loss are small
Single satellite cannot be used in communication
application
Used in remote sensing, navigation and military
surveillance applications
Altitude in the range of 10,000 20,000 km
Usually inclined to equatorial plane
Orbital periods vary from 6-12 hours
A constellation of MEO satellites is used for
navigation and mobile communication

Inclination angle is close
to 900
Satellite orbit passes
over poles
Satellite scans different
areas of earth in
successive revolution

A satellite in inclined orbit may completely span the
earth in less than or more than one solar day
It the orbital period is so adjusted as to span the
earth in exactly one solar day the orbit is called sun-
synchronous orbit
A satellite in sun-synchronous orbit appears exactly
at the same spot at the same local solar time

The orbital period equals exactly one rotational
period of earth around its own axis
This period equals one sidereal day, 23 H 56 m 4.01 s
GEO is a special case of geosynchronous orbit

A satellite in GEO appears stationary to an observer
on earth
The orbit is circular, i.e. the eccentricity is zero
Inclination is zero, the orbit lies on equatorial plane
A satellite orbits in eastward direction, the same
direction in which earth rotates around its axis

Three conditions
Satellite must travel Geosynchronous

orbit
eastward at same rotational
speed as the earth
Orbit must be circular

Earth rotating on
Inclination of orbit must be its axis
zero

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Wide coverage Polar regions not covered

Stationary position Long time delay
Suitable for global Echo
communication, broadcast Long eclipse
Low Doppler shift Sun transit outage
Multiple access
Frequency reuse
Long life of satellite

The satellite orbit (described by Keplerian ellipse) is affected by a
number of forces acting on it
Non-sphericity of earth
Earth is oblate, bulged on equator and flat on poles
Atmospheric drag
Mostly on low orbit satellites, impedes the motion and
lowers the orbit
Sun and moons gravity
Cause change in inclination in geo satellites, requiring
north-south station keeping
Solar radiation pressure
Major effect on satellites in polar or highly inclined orbits
Visit:astronautics.com

Chapter 3
Satellite Subsystems

Satellite sub-systems
Different types of transponders
Types of antennas used in satellite
Attitude and orbit control system (AOCS)
Telemetry, Tracking, Command and monitoring
Power systems
Equipment reliability and space qualification

Communication system
Receives and transmits signals in microwave frequencies
Antenna system
Produce beams with shape tailored to coverage area
Power system
Generates and distributes power derived from solar cells
Telemetry, tracking and command system (TT&C)
Measures health of satellite and supports AOCS
Attitude and orbit control system (AOCS)
Corrects and maintains the satellite position in orbit with rocket motors
Thermal system
Maintains thermal balance in the satellite
Satellite structure
Supports all subsystems

A transponder system comprises of several transmitters, receivers and frequency
translators operating in different bands.
Transponders in advanced satellite systems also carry out onboard processing of
signals.
A satellite deploys many antennas receiving and transmitting signals in different
bands and have different beam widths for global and regional coverage.
Many satellites carry shaped beam antennas to suit the geometry of the country
which they serve.
Transponders and antennas together form the communication satellite payload.
With the increased capacity, the power requirement of the satellites also has
grown to several kilowatts.
To generate such high power, huge solar panels are employed and storage
batteries for backup power.
Telemetry, tracking and command system distributed on space and ground
segments provides the health information of all the satellite subsystems, tracks
the position of the satellite in the orbit, and corrects the altitude and orbit of
satellite though ground commands to AOC system onboard the satellite.
A satellite experiences high thermal imbalance due to high temperature of the sun
facing side and sub-zero temperature on the opposite side.
Thermal system provides a balance by maintaining the temperature on all sides.
The structural system provides mechanical support to all the sub-systems.
The payload carried by a communication satellite comprises of a
number of transponders and antennas.
The transponders act as repeaters, receiving signals from earth
stations and retransmitting back to earth after frequency
conversion and amplification.
This type of transponder is termed as bent-pipe transponder as it
transparently returns the signal received from the earth station
back to earth station after frequency conversion.
It is also known as non-regenerative type to distinguish it from
regenerative type transponder.
Regenerative type transponder processes the signal received
before it is transmitted back to earth station.
Onboard processing transponder is used when intermediate
frequency (IF) switching of different channels is required or
baseband switching of channels is required.
R.N.Mutagi Satellite Communication, Principles and Applications 60

In a bent pipe transponder, the output and input have direct
relation except the frequency offset.
This type of transponder is widely used in satellite
communication.
Bent pipe type transponders are classified as single or double
conversion type.
In single conversion transponder, the input uplink frequency is
translated to downlink frequency using single down converter.
In double conversion, the uplink frequency is first translated to a
lower IF, amplified, and translated to the downlink frequency
using an up converter.

Single conversion is employed when large bandwidth is to be handled. It is realized completely at
microwave frequencies and requires minimum number of components reducing the hardware
complexity.
The signals received by the onboard antenna from an earth station are passed though a band-pass
filter which restricts the spectrum of the received signal and noise to signal band.
The input filter has the bandwidth corresponding to the uplink signal bandwidth around the centre
frequency used in particular application.
The output of the filter is applied to an RF switch which directs the signal either to the main or the
redundant wideband receiver. The switch is operated by the ground control.
The filtered signal is applied to the wideband receiver which also has same bandwidth as that of
the receiver.

It has a redundant unit which can be selected
through the input RF switch and output
demultiplexer.
It comprises of a low-noise amplifier (LNA), a
down converter, an image rejection filter, and
an amplifier.
The down converter has a mixer that mixes the
input RF frequency , and the local oscillator
frequency , generating the sum and
difference frequencies, ( + ) and ( )
The local oscillator frequency is generated from a crystal oscillator operating at lower frequency in
few tens of MHz range, followed by a chain of frequency multipliers to derive the final frequency.
The image rejection filter following the mixer rejects the sum frequency and outputs the
difference frequency to the amplifier.
In a C-band transponder, the input uplink band in the frequency range 5925 MHz 6425 MHz is
mixed with a local oscillator frequency of 2225 MHz resulting in the output downlink band in the
frequency range of 3700 MHz 4200 MHz.

The outputs of the two receivers is selected though the hybrid which feeds the wideband signal
to the input demultiplexer.
The demultiplexer divides the wideband signal to narrowband RF channels, and the signal in each
channel is passed through an attenuator and an output power amplifier.
The attenuator is used to set the output power level in the channel through the ground control.
The power amplifier is designed for a fixed gain. Thus, the power output, or the EIRP, for each
channel is controlled by varying the input drive to the power amplifier.
The output of the power amplifiers in each channel is combined through the output multiplexer
and sent to the antenna.

Satellite band Uplink Frequency Downlink Frequency Applications
Range (MHz) Range (MHz)
C -band 5925 6425 3700 - 4200 Commercial
communication
Extended C-band 6.4256.725 3.4003.625 Fixed Satellite Services
6725-7025 4500-4800
K-band 14000 - 14500 11700 - 12200 Domestic communication
27500 - 31000 10950 11 200 International
11 450 11 700 communication
17 700 21 200
11700 12 750 Broadcast services
X-band 7900 - 8400 7250 - 7750 Military communication
S-band 2655 - 2690 2500 - 2535 Broadcast services
L-band 1635 - 1644 1535 1542.5 Maritime mobile
communication
1645 - 1660 1543.5 1558.8 Aeronautical mobile
communication
Double conversion is employed when the channel bandwidth is narrow and low IF is to be used. At
these frequencies, surface acoustic waves (SAW) or crystal filters can be used.
The uplink frequency received at 1 4 GHz is amplified with a wideband LNA and passed through a
band pass filter. This filter has a pass band of 500 MHz.
It is mixed with a local oscillator signal at 13 GHz to produce an IF of 1 GHz. It is followed by a band
pass filter to eliminate the image frequency and harmonics generated in the mixer.
The down converted signal is amplified and then mixed with local oscillator frequency of 10 GHz in
a second mixer.
The following band pass filter selects the 11 GHz signal from the mixer output.
This is the downlink signal and is amplified in power amplifier before it is sent to the antenna for
downlink transmission.

The bent pipe transponder is simply a relaying device. With this
type of transponder, the downlink performance is dependent on
the uplink performance.
As the transponder merely frequency translates and amplifies the
received signal, the input carrier to noise ratio in the uplink is
maintained, or worsened, at the output of the transponder. This
carrier to noise ratio further deteriorates on the downlink.
This limitation is removed with the onboard processing
transponder. The onboard processing transponder regenerates
the baseband signal demodulated from the received RF and
remodulates it before transmitting back to earth.
There are several advantages of onboard processing transponder
over conventional bent pipe transponder.
An onboard processing transponder includes an LNA, filter, down converter,
demodulator, signal processing unit, remodulator, upconverter, and power amplifier.
The LNA at the input amplifies the received carrier which is downconverted to an IF.
The demodulator extracts the baseband signal.
All the signal processing is carried out at the baseband.
Signal processing may involve amplification, regeneration of baseband digital data,
forward error correction, error encoding on the downlink data, switching of data on
different channel for transmitting on spot beam etc.
The processed data is modulated and upconverted to a downlink carrier frequency.
The final carrier is power amplified to obtain a proper EIRP and sent to the antenna.

Modern satellite carry several antennas onboard
supporting communication in different bands and also
covering different areas on ground.
They include different types such as omni-directional wire
antennas for providing TT&C applications, horn antennas
for global coverage, reflector antennas providing spot
beams, and antenna arrays providing shaped beams or
multiple beams and also steerable antennas.
Large offset reflector antennas are used for transmitting
and receiving signals in C-band in multiple beams aimed at
different parts on the ground.
Smaller reflector antennas are used for signals in Ku-band.
These are spot beam antennas providing high-power
narrow beams.
Horn antenna with wide beam is used for global coverage.
Also seen is a small omnidirectional antenna for
transmitting and receiving TT&C signals.
It is necessary to have omnidirectional antenna for TT&C
because these signals are received by the satellite and
transmitted to the ground even before the satellite is in its
final location in the orbit and the other antennas are
properly oriented to the ground.
Source: http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/intelsat_vi/intelsat_vi.html

Satellite antenna design is constrained by many electrical, mechanical and environmental
factors.
Electrically, they should meet the requirements of bandwidth, beam width, shape of the
radiation pattern, number of beams, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), side lobe
performance, cross polarization, power handling capacity etc.
Mechanically, they have to meet the requirements of weight, material, dimension, launch
envelop, pointing accuracy, steerability etc.
Environmentally, they have to meet the requirements of thermal stability, radiation effects,
outgrassing etc.

Source: http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/bss/factsheets/376/intelsat_vi/intelsat_vi.html

Several external forces act on the satellite that tend to change its orbital position
and orientation, which is called attitude.
Some of these forces are:
Gravitational forces of sun and moon
Non spherical shape of the earth causing irregular gravitational field of the
earth.
Solar pressure from the sun on the antennas and solar panels
Variations in earths magnetic field
Due to all these forces, a satellite undergoes rotation in its position also change in
its orbit.
If these changes are not corrected, the satellite may drift significantly from its
position in the orbit over a period.
AOC system on the satellite performs this function of correcting the position of
the satellite to its intended location and keep it stable there.
Satellites are stabilized in space using two techniques spin stabilization and three
axis stabilization.
A spin stabilized satellite is cylindrical in shape and rotates round the axis at 30-100
rpm.
The spin stabilized satellite in geostationary orbit has the spin axis parallel to
earths rotational axis.
The spin stabilized satellite cannot use directional antennas. It has to use omni-
directional antennas.
Due to spin, the satellite maintains its attitude unless external force disturbs it.
When there is a change in the attitude, it results in error pointing towards the
earth. It is detected by sun sensors and earth sensors placed on the satellite. Small
jets, or thrusters, are fired to correct any change in the attitude.
When a spin stabilized satellite is required to use large antennas with directivity, to
generate more EIRP, the antennas are mounted on a separate platform, which is
despun so that the antennas are always pointed towards earth.

Entire body is rotated at 30-
100 rpm providing gyroscopic
action
Satellite is a cylindrical drum
covered with solar cells
Antenna platform is despun

Modern high power satellites use
large solar panels to generate the
power required.
These satellites cannot be spun to
maintain stability. Instead, they
employ three-axis stabilization.
These axes are pitch, yaw and roll.
Pitch is the spin of the satellite around the axis normal to the plane of the satellite
orbit. This axis is parallel to the axis of the earth for a satellite in geostationary
orbit.
Yaw is the spin of the satellite around the line joining the satellite and the centre of
the earth. The axis lies in the orbital plane.
Roll is the spin around the axis that is tangent to the orbit, and this axis also lies on
the orbital plane.
All these axes are orthogonal to each other.

Roll: Spin of the satellite around tangent to the orbit
Pitch: Spin of the satellite around the axis normal to the
orbit
Yaw: Spin of the satellite around the line joining the
satellite to the center of the earth
North
Pitch
Normal to
orbit plane One pair of gas jets
Yaw
used in each axis to
control the rotation
Roll required for correction
In orbit plane
(tangential to orbit)
Orbital path

The function of attitude control system, is to measure the changes in the attitude
and apply correction to compensate for the error introduced by external factors.
The error in the attitude of the satellite is measured by the earth sensors, sun
sensors and star sensors.
The data on the satellite attitude is also provided by the earth stations via TTC
channel.
The earth sensor is a passive infrared device. Four sensors, known as horizon
detectors are employed to monitor the earth's horizon against the background od
the space which is dark and cold.
The horizon sensors provide the reference of earths centre which the satellite
orientation is exactly parallel to the earths axis of rotation.
If the satellite attitude shows a change, as measured by the sensors, a correcting
signal is generated which controls the correcting mechanism.
In spin satellites, the effect of attitude error is to reduce the spin rate. It is
corrected by firing small thrusters on the body if the cylindrical shaped satellite.
During launch, the satellite experiences some amount of wobbling, known as
nutation, This is damped by nutation dampers which are energy absorbers.
Spin axis
Radial Thruster 2 Radial Thruster 1
Axial Thruster 2 Axial Thruster 1

Station keeping is the term used for correcting the satellite orbit.
Due to the oblateness of the earth, the satellite in geo orbit tend to drift towards
wither 75o E or 105o W which are the two stable points.
The drift is countered by firing jets to impart velocity in opposite direction. The
satellite then drifts towards the original position gradually where it comes to a
stop and starts drifting again. This process of bringing the satellite from its drifted
position to nominal position at regular intervals is east-west station keeping
maneuvering.
Due to external pertubing forces, the satellite latitude also changes resulting in the
inclination of satellite orbit around 0.85o per year. The change in inclination is
arrested by firing the jets in opposite direction. This maneuvering is termed as
north-south station keeping.
Both latitude and longitudes of the normal position of the satellite are maintained
to within +0.1o in C-band and to within +0.05o in Ku-band.

TT&C system tasks are distributed between the spacecraft
and earth station
Major tasks of TT&C
To control the attitude and orbit of the satellite
To monitor the status of all sensors and subsystems on the spacecraft
Switch on or off, sections of the communication system
Telemetry system
Collect data from many (more than 100) sensors in the spacecraft and
transmit to control earth station
Use low power FSK or PSK modulated PCM-TDM carriers
Small Omni-directional antenna is used (why?)

The job of TT&C sub-systems begins with launching of the satellite and continues
until the satellite is decommissioned and removed from the orbit.
TT&C functions are distributed between the satellite and earth station and hence,
the signals are exchanged between the ground control station and satellite.
The major tasks of TT&C subsystem are as follow:
Track the orbit throughout the mission, including when it is in the transfer orbit.
Raise the orbit from LEO, GTO to GEO in the initial phase.
Fire apogee kick motor to change the orbit from elliptical to circular.
Deploy the antennas.
Maintain the antenna pointing throughout the mission.
Deploy the solar sails.
Continuously monitor the satellite attitude and apply corrections.
Monitor the orbit and carry out regular station keeping monitoring.
Switch off the part of communication system during eclipse.
Control the output power of the satellite.
Switch to redundant transponder units in case of failure of normal unit.
Switch off the transponder and change the orbit at the end of the satellite life.

Earth station tracks the position of the spacecraft using range and
range rate measurements
Range rate is determined by the Doppler shift of TM carrier or beacon
transmitter carrier
Data from velocity and accelerator sensors is used to find the change
in orbit
Spacecraft range is obtained by measuring the delay between a
transmitted signal (pulse, tone or PN sequence) to the spacecraft and
received signal at the earth station (Radar principle)

Controls the satellite operation through all phases of the mission
(Launch, operation and end of life)
Receives and decodes commands from ground stations
During launch
Fires apogee kick motor
Starts spinning of spin stabilized satellite
Extends solar sails in three-axis stabilized satellite
During operation
Change the attitude
Correct the orbit
Control/configure communication subsystem
At the end of life
Ejects the satellite from geo orbit and switches off communication systems
Commands are decoded and retransmitted through telemetry channel
for confirmation and executed after receiving it

The main source of electrical power for all the sub-systems of a satellite is the solar
energy.
The solar energy is converted to electrical energy with the solar cells.
Solar cells are mounted on the cylindrical body of a spin-stabilized satellite.
Separate solar panels are used in three-axis stabilized satellites.
Solar cells are connected as series-parallel arrays to obtain desired voltage and
current.
The solar radiation intensity at geo orbit is 1.39 2 .
This radiation is converted to electrical energy with an efficiency of 20-25%, when
the radiation is normal to the surface of solar cells, at the beginning of life (BOL) of
the satellite. This efficiency falls to 10-15% at the end of life (EOL) of the satellite,
which is typically 15 years.
If the sunrays fall obliquely, then the full power is not generated. If the ray strike
the surface with an angle to the normal, the power generated is given by
= . 1.390 . 2
where is the efficiency of the solar cells.

Power is derived from solar cells and
batteries used for backup
Solar radiation intensity at geo orbit is 1.39
kW/m2 and conversion efficiency is 10-
15%
At launch 15% extra capacity is planned to
accommodate ageing loss
Three-axis stabilized satellites generate
more power than spin stabilized satellite
even when they have same solar cell area
(why?)
Some communication subsystems are
switched off during eclipse as less power
is generated
The total power required by the satellite
and, hence, the size of solar panel or array,
is decided by the number of transponders
carried by the satellite and the power
output of each.
As the satellite experiences eclipses, the
times when no sunlight reaches the solar
panel and they do not generate electrical
power.
Also, during launch and before the solar
panels are aligned to face the sun, power is
not generated.
Hence, it is necessary to provide through batteries.
Rechargable batteries are carried onboard which store the energy and supply it
when required.
Electronic power conditioner is used to regulate and distribute various voltages
required by different subsystems in the transponder.
Spin stabilized satellite has solar cells
mounted on its cylindrical drum structure.
After proper attitude is achieved, the solar
radiation does not illuminate all the cells.
The drum will be spinning but only half of
the surface receives solar radiation.
Only one vertical array receives the
radiation in normal direction and remaining
arrays receive it obliquely.
The effective area is the area defined by the
product of height and diameter of the
cylinder.
The power generated is then given by
= ( 1390 )

Power system in a three-axis stabilized satellite
For a three-axis stabilized satellite with dual solar panels, each with an area A, the
power generated is
= ( 1390 2 cos )
For a satellite with the solar arrays normal to the sunrays = 90 , and hence
= (2780 )

A geostationary satellite has four solar panels, each of size 2.54 m x 1.525 m,
generating a total power of 2600 W at the end of life. If aging has reduced the
power by 15% from the beginning of life, find the efficiency of the solar cell at BOL
and EOL, and the power generated at BOL.
Solution
Area of each solar panel is A = 2.54 x 1.525 = 3.8735 2 .
Total area of solar panels = 4 x 3.8735 = 15.5 2
Total power generated at EOL is = x 1390 x 15.5 = 2600 W
Hence, = 2600 1390 15.5 = 0.12 = 12%
The power generated at BOL is = /0.85 = 3058.8 W.
The efficiency at BOL is = 3058.8 1390 15.5 = 0.142 = 14.2%

The satellites in orbit experience extreme temperature variations
and gradients.
The side of the satellite facing the sun heats up due to the radiation
and the side facing the space is cold.
Due to the vacuum in space, the thermal conduction cannot take
place.
Besides the external temperature build up, the devices inside the
structure also generate heat when operating.
It is the function of thermal control system to maintain the thermal
balance in the satellite by transferring heat from the place where
the temperature is high to the place where it is relatively cool.
Some subsystems need to be operated at low temperature while
others need warm ambience.

Various techniques are employed in the satellite to move heat from
one place to other, or to provide heat insulation.
Thermal blankets, thermal shields, heat pipes, optical surface
reflectors, and thermal heaters are the common devices used for
thermal control in the satellite.
The thermal control methods are categorized in to active and
passive methods.
Passive methods of thermal control use appropriate paints and
surfaces, multi-layer insulation, thermal isolation and heat sinks.
Active methods use heaters, heat pipes, shutters, cryo-
refrigerators and thermoelectric devices.

Thermal insulation is obtained by using thermal blankets and
shields.
An AKM and the propellant are required to be maintained above
certain minimum temperature, and this is accomplished with the
help of thermal blankets and shields.
Radiation mirrors placed around electronic systems, inside to outer
space and reflect ultraviolet radiation and visible light back to space.
Heat pipes carry heat generated at the power amplifiers to the heat
sinks.
Heaters keep the propellant pipes and thrusters warm for their
proper operation.
A natural advantage of spinning satellites is that the thermal
extremes experienced from the solar radiation and cold space are
averaged out.
Chapter 4
Earth Station
Technology
Transmit
System
User Terrestrial Baseband Control Antenna

Interface System System System
Power Receive
System System
Monitoring
System

Parameters Large Medium Small
Antenna Fully steerable Limited steerability Fixed

Feed Horn, sub reflector Sum mode Prime focal
HPA Klystron TWTA SSPA
Power 3 kW 100-400 W 1-10 W
LNA Noise Temp 30oK 45oK 65oK
Redundancy Full HPA, LNA No
Power system No break Standby Battery , Solar
redundancy

Large Earth Stations
Fixed structures, carry large telephone traffic, video
Transportable Earth Stations
Truck mounted- fixed
Ad-hoc networks
Portable Earth Stations
Jeep mounted, air lifted
News gathering, disaster area communication
Small Earth Stations
VSAT
Receive only Earth Stations
DTH, TVRO, DBS receivers

TIM #1 Mod #1
EQ #1 U/C #1 HPA #1
Redundancy selection WG Switches

FS #1
Patch Panel
User signals
TIM #2 Mod #2
To Antenna
EQ #2 U/C #2 HPA #2 Power Feed
BPF
Combiner
IF
FS #2
TIM #n Mod #n
EQ #n U/C #n HPA #n
FS #n
TIM: Terrestrial Interface Module

Mod: Modulator
Frequency
EQ: Equalizer
U/C: Up Converter Standard
HPA: High Power Amplifier
FS: Frequency Synthesizer
WG: Waveguide

Chapter 6
Satellite Link Design

Characteristics of element in the satellite link
EIRP of the transmitter
Gain of transmit and receive antennas
Losses encountered in satellite link
Noise at the receiver input
Signal quality in terms of SNR and BER for
analog or digital signals
System margin
A point source in space
transmitting power Pt watts
in all the directions, along 4
radians of a sphere is called
an isotropic radiator
(physically not realizable).
The flux density in unit area
(1 m2) at a distance R
meters from this source is
P
F t 2 W/m 2
4R

Ability to concentrate the power in a given direction
A practical antenna radiates P0 watts of total power the
power radiated in unit solid angle in the direction is P().
If this power is transmitted by an ideal isotropic radiator
the power transmitted along unit solid angle would be
P0/4 W/m2.
The gain of the practical antenna is therefore
Power transmitted by practical antenna in direction
Gain
Power transmitted by isotropic radiator in same direction
P( )
G ( )
P0 / 4
The power radiated by an antenna along the bore sight is
the maximum
Radiation pattern of
isotropic radiator

Antenna gain depends of the ability of the antenna to concentrate
the energy in particular direction
4A
G where A is the aperture area and is wavelengt h
2
An effective aperture area Ae = AA, is defined to account for the

losses in antenna where A is the aperture efficiency
4A 4Ae
G A
2
2
For a circular parabolic dish A=D2/4, where D is diameter
2
4A 4 (D / 4) 2
D
G A A A
2
2
For a transmitter transmitting power Pt Watts with an
antenna gain Gt the EIRP is defined as
EIRP Pt Gt
Flux density at distance R is
Pt Gt
F W/m 2
4R 2

Power received by a receive antenna depends on how
much electromagnetic energy it intercepts, which in turn
depends on the effective area of the antenna
Physical area Ar
Effective area
Ae=Ar
Power received
Pr=AePGr
Power density = P (W/m2)
4Ae
Receive antenna gain Gr is a function of Gr
2
effective area
signal wavelength c/ f
For a given antenna the gain is higher for
higher frequency
EIRP F Pr
Tx Prad Rx
Pin R
Gt Gr
EIRP Prad Gt Gr 2

2
Pr Ae 2 Prad Gt Gr
4R 2
4R 4 4R
Free-space path loss is the spreading loss, due to the
expansion of the spherical wave front as the wave
propagates. It is expressed as
2 2
4R 4fR
Lp
c
where L p free space path loss
R distance (m)
f frequency (Hz)
wavelengt h (m)
c velocity of light in free - space (3 108 m/s)
2 Pr EIRP Gr L p

Pr PradGt Gr Where Pr received power (dBW)
4R
EIRP Pt Gt (dBW)
2
4R
L p Pathloss 10 log dB

Considering atmospheric attenuation, La, Transmit Antenna

losses Lta, receiving antenna losses Lra we can write
Pr EIRP Gr Lp La Lta Lra dBW

All objects at physical temperature Tn >0oK generate
electrical noise at receiver frequencies. The noise power
is given by
Pn = N0B = kTnB
Where Pn is available noise power in Watts
N0 is noise power spectral density in W/Hz
k is Boltzmanns constant =1.38 x 10-23 J/K
=-228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Tn is system noise temperature in 0K (0C+273)
B is the system noise bandwidth in Hz
Down
RF Amplifier IF Amplifier Demodulator
Converter
Ideal RF Ideal Ideal IF
amplifier mixer amplifie
Gain Gain r
Gain
Tin GRF GM GIF Pn
TRF TM TIF
Ts Gain Equivalent
Pn
GRF.GM.GIF system
Pn GIF kTIF B GIF GM kTM B GRF GIF GM kB(TRF Tin )

Pn GIF kTIF B GIF GM kTM B GRF GIF GM kB(TRF Tin )
TIF TM
GIF GM GIF kB (TRF Tin )
GM GRF GRF
GIF GM GIF kBTS
TS is the single equivalent noise temperature producing same

noise power
TIF TM
TS (TRF Tin )
GM GRF GRF
Noise figure specifies the noise generated within a device,
and is defined as
S N in Si /Ni
NF A So /No
S N out
An amplifier will add its own noise and the output S/N will be
lower than input S/N
NF
Si / N i

Si N i

Ni N A
1
NA
S o / N o ASi A( N i N A ) Ni Ni
From above NF > 1, or NF > 0 dB

The relation between noise figure and noise temperature
is give by
Td T0 NF 1
Where T0 is the reference noise temperature = 290K
and NF is a ratio (not in dB)
Example, for an amplifier with noise figure of 3 dB the noise

temperature is
Td 2902 1 290K

The carrier to noise ratio at the receiver input is

C Signal power Pt Gt Gr 4R
2
t t

P G 2
Gr

N Noise power kTS B kB 4R TS
The terms in first bracket depend on the satellite

parameters and those in the second depend on the
receiving earth station
The performance depends on the ratio Gr/TS which is
called the Figure of Merit of the earth station
Uplink equation would be same as the downlink
equation
Pr EIRP Gr L p La Lta Lra dBW
EIRP eirp of earth sation
Gr satellite receive antenna gain
L p path loss at uplink frequency
Lta earth station antenna loss
Lra satellite antenna loss
La atmospheric losses
EIRPSAT
C/NUL
Gsat/T
Lp Lp
EIRPES
C/NDL
GES/T

C / N 0 UL

EIRP G / Ts Lp 228.6 LM
r
ES Sat UL UL
Sat

C / N 0 UL

EIRP
Gr / TS Lp 228
.6 LM

ES Sat UL k UL
at Satellite
All terms are expressed in dB

The last term includes all the antenna losses,
atmospheric attenuation loss and also any other
margin required (like rain fading margin)

The satellite link consists of uplink and downlink
In a frequency translation type transponder the downlink
is affected by the uplink
The total C/N received is given by
1 1 1
C C C

N N UL N DL
If (C/N)UL>> (C/N)DL then the link is downlink limited, else

it is uplink limited

In addition to thermal noise interference signals within
the band also impair the carrier
The total uplink noise power is N Nu I k
k
Ik is the interference from k source
th
1 1 1 1 1
C C C C C

N UL NU

k Ik NU IU
Similarly for downlink
1 1 1 1 1
C C C C C

N DL ND k Ik ND ID
Overall satellite link is
1 1 1 1 1
C C C C C

N Total NU N D IU I D
EIRPSAT
C/NUL
Gsat/T
Lp Lp
EIRPES
C/NDL
GES/T

1. Determine the frequency band
2. Determine communication parameters of satellite
(Antenna gain, EIRP, etc)
3. Determine earth station transmit and receive
parameters (Power, Antenna gain, NF, G/T
4. Starting at transmit earth station establish uplink
budget & find (C/N)UL
5. Find satellite output power considering back-off,
and gain

6. Establish downlink power and noise budget for
receive earth station. Calculate (C/N)DL and (C/N0)
for receive ES at edge of coverage
7. Calculate S/N or BER in the baseband channel.
Find the link margin
8. Evaluate results and compare with specs. Change
parameters to meet C/N objectives
9. Determine propagation condition and calculate
outage times
10. Redesign to meet link margin requirements
Let us consider a satellite system with the following specifications,
which include satellite and uplink ground station antenna, the
frequency band, and signal bandwidth. We design a ground
terminal for receiving the signal.
Transmit earth station specifications: Satellite specifications:
Frequency Band: C Band (6GHz Satellite Antenna Diameter: 1.2 m
uplink and 4 GHz downlink Satellite Output Power : 63 W
Range: 36.269.7 km Satellite Noise Temperature: 140
Uplink power from ES = 100 W K
Antenna Diameter: 10 m Satellite Gain: 55 dB
Efficiency: 65 %
Rain Attenuation: 0.185
Signal Bandwidth: 36 MHz
Antenna Noise Temperature: 120
K
T T
TS IF M (TRF Tin )
GM GRF GRF
Td T0 NF 1
Chapter 7
Source Coding and

Multiplexing Techniques

Impulse
train
Analog
signal
Sampled
signal
Samples before quantization Samples after quantization

Normalized output Yn
Normalized input Xn
Normalized output Yn
Normalized input Xn
Level # of lower # of voice Bandwidth Frequency band
levels channels
multiplexed
Basic Group - 12 48 kHz 60- 108 kHz
Super Group 5 BG 60 240 kHz 312-552 kHz
Basic Master 5 SG 300 1232 kHz 812-2,044 kHz
Group
Super Master 3 MG 900 3872 kHz 8,516-12,388 kHz
Group

Chapter 9
Satellite Multiple
AccessTechniques

In satellite communications, the capability of a
communications satellite to function as a portion of a
communications link between more than one pair of
satellite terminals concurrently
In computer networking, a scheme that allows
temporary access to the network by individual users,
on a demand basis, for the purpose of transmitting
information

A method of accessing a transmission medium by
different users by sharing the resources of the
medium
Resources
Bandwidth FDMA Frequency Division
Time TDMA Time Division
Power CDMA Code Division
Transponders SDMA Space Division

Time
Bandwidth

Share BW & Power
Transmit all time

Time
Bandwidth

Share Time
Use full BW & Power

Time
Bandwidth

Share Power
Use full BW & Power

Time
Bandwidth

Multi Channel Per Carrier (MCPC) transmission
FDM/FM/FDMA (Analog carrier)
PCM-TDM/PSK/FDMA (Digital carrier)
Frequency
Voice Frequency Up RF
Division
channels Modulator Converter Carrier
Multiplex
Single Channel Per Carrier (SCPC) transmission

PCM/PSK/FDMA (Digital carrier)
FM/FDMA (Analog carrier)

Guard bands
f1 f2 f3 f4
BW1 BW2 BW3 BW4
Available
Bandwidth

Assuming equal bandwidth per channel the
total number of carriers is
Effective Bandwidth
Number of carriers K
Carrier bandwidth
Total bandwidth Total gaurdband

Carrier bandwidth
Bt Bg

Bc

Inefficient use of spectrum
Wastage of spectrum due to guard bands
In power-limited case full spectrum cannot be used
With multi-carriers the system must operate in linear mode,
requiring lower power transmission
Intermod products generated when operated in non-linear region
Power back-off reduces system capacity
Linear operation implies strict power control of each user
Equipment complexity
Separate transmitter and receiver are required for each carrier
System is not flexible with dynamic traffic
The capacity of carriers cannot be modified easily. Filters need to
be changed to accommodate varying bandwidth

FM/SCPC/FDMA in early Intelsat SCPC systems
Individual FM carriers carrying single voice
channels and accessing satellite in FDMA mode
PCM/PSK/FDMA in Intelsat SPADE system

Voice channels are PCM coded and modulated on
PSK carriers accessing satellite in FDMA mode

f1
PCM-TDM/ Tx BB QPSK/FM Tx
FDM Processor Modulator Filter
IF Combiner Panel
Terrestrial Interface
RF
Tx To
fN Antenna

f1
PCM-TDM/ Rx BB QPSK/FM Rx
FDM Processor Demod Filter
Terrestrial Interface
IF Distribution panel
FDM Processor Demod Filter From
RF
Antenn
Rx
a
fN
FDM Processor Demod Filter

An all digital baseband system
All users employ same carrier
All users can use full bandwidth
All users can use full power
Each users transmits at different times in burst mode
Efficient use of system power and spectrum

Burst A Burst B Burst C Burst D Burst A
Tx A B C D B C D
A C D
(a) Tx B
Tx C A B D
Tx D A B C
TDMA Frame
(b) Burst A Burst B Burst C Burst D Burst A

Rx B C D A C D A B D A B C B C D
TDMA Frame
Burst A Burst B Burst C Burst D Burst A

Rx A A A A
Rx B B B B B
(c)
Rx C C C C C
Rx D D D D
D TDMA Frame
Frame
Length
Control Burst Data Burst # 1 Data Burst # 2 Data Burst # N
Preamble User Data

Burst Length

Downlink
Uplink
Uplink Uplink Uplink
Stn C
Stn B Stn D
Ref Stn A
A measure of what percent of the transmitted data is actually
utilized by the user
Frame efficiency = (User data bits/Total bits in the frame)
= (1 Overhead bits/Total bits in the frame)
N .bP bC
F 1 100%
bF
N = number of data bursts,
bp =bits in the preamble,
bC =bits in the control burst and
bF =total bits in the frame

Also called Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA)
All users can use compete bandwidth
All users can transmit full time
All users share the system power

Each user uses a unique code to make the signal orthogonal
to other users signal
The unique code serves as an address of the transmitter
enabling the receiver to select the correct transmitter

Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA)
The PN code is combined directly with data before
modulation
Frequency Hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA)

The PN code controls the carrier frequency of transmission

PSK RF DS-
User Data Modulator IF Transmitter CDMA
Signal
PN
Generator

DS- RF IF Filter Detected
Correlator
CDMA Receiver Detector Data
Signal
PSK
Modulator
Local PN
Generator

Transmitter Receiver
Channel FSK
Data FSK Data
Modulator Demodulator
Fast Fast
Frequency
Frequency
Synthesizer
Synthesizer
Sync
PN Information PN
Generator Generator

f7
f3
f1
f4
f2
f5
Total bandwidth f6
Slow frequency hopping
More information symbols are transmitted between
frequency hops, Ts < Tc
Transmitted spectrum is much more compact
Preferred method
Fast frequency hopping
More than one hop per information symbol, Tc < Ts
Hop rate exceeds information rate
Expensive method as it requires fast frequency
synthesizers
Coherent modulation is extremely difficult
FDMA, TDMA or CDMA using fixed assignment of
channels waste capacity when user data is absent
Efficiency can be increased by assigning channels only
when data is to be transmitted
This technique is known as demand assigned multiple
access (DAMA)
SPADE is a FDMA/DAMA system
Random Access is a form of DAMA with no access
control

Aloha is a random access DAMA system developed by
University of Hawaii for computer communication where
data is transmitted in packets
Aloha has three flavors

Pure Aloha
Slotted Aloha
Reservation Aloha
ALOHA in Hawaiian is Hello

Fixed length data packets are transmitted
No synchronization of transmission
Packets from different users may collide
Users monitor their own transmission for collision
Packets are retransmitted if collision is observed
Packets are stored at the transmit side for possible
retransmission

Packet transmission times are synchronized to
common time slot
Transmission is still random
Partial packet collisions are avoided
Throughput is increased

Communication

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Satellite

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GES GES GES

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Broadcast satellite service

Mobile satellite service

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Satellite must travel Geosynchronous

Orbit must be circular

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Wide coverage Polar regions not covered

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Radial Thruster 2 Radial Thruster 1

Axial Thruster 2 Axial Thruster 1

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User Terrestrial Baseband Control Antenna