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Saladin
Saladin
For other uses see Saladin (disambiguation). ict with the Muslim powers of the region. Saladin has
become a prominent gure in Muslim, Arab, Turk and
Kurdish culture.[7] In 1193 he died in Damascus, having
al ad-Dn Ysuf bin Ayyb (Arabic:
given much of his wealth to his subjects. Saladin is buried
, Kurdish: , in a mausoleum adjacent to the Umayyad Mosque.
Turkish: Selahaddin Eyyubi) (1137/1138 March
1193), better known in the Western world as Saladin,
was the rst Sultan of Egypt and Syria and the founder of
the Ayyubid dynasty. A Muslim of Kurdish origin,[4][5][6] 1 Early life
Saladin led the Muslim opposition to the European
Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, Saladin was born in Tikrit. His personal name was
his sultanate included Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yusuf"; Salah ad-Din is a laqab, a descriptive epi-
Yemen and other parts of North Africa. thet, meaning Righteousness of the Faith.[8] His fam-
Originally sent to Fatimid Egypt by his Zengid lord Nur ily was of Kurdish ancestry,[4] and had originated from
ad-Din in 1163, Saladin climbed the ranks of the Fatimid the city of Dvin in medieval Armenia.[9][10] The Rawadid
government by virtue of his military successes against tribe he hailed from had been partially assimilated into
Crusader assaults on its territory and his personal close- the Arabic-speaking world by this time.[11] In 1132 the
ness to the caliph al-Adid. When Saladins uncle Shirkuh defeated army of the Imad ad-Din Zengi, the Lord of
died in 1169, al-Adid appointed Saladin vizier, a rare Mosul, found their retreat blocked by the Tigris River op-
nomination of a Sunni Muslim to such an important po- posite the Tikrit fortress where Saladins father, Najm ad-
sition in the Shia Muslim-led caliphate. During his term Din Ayyub served as the warden. Ayyub provided ferries
as vizier Saladin began to undermine the Fatimid estab- for the army and gave them refuge in Tikrit. Mujahed
lishment, and following al-Adids death in 1171 he took al-Din Bihruz, a former Greek slave who had been ap-
over the government and realigned the countrys alle- pointed the military governor of northern Mesopotamia
giance with the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate. In for his service to the Seljuks had reprimanded Ayyub
the following years, he led forays against the Crusaders for giving Zengi refuge and in 1137, banished Ayyub
in Palestine, ordered the successful conquest of Yemen from Tikrit after his brother Asad al-Din Shirkuh killed a
and staved o pro-Fatimid rebellions in Upper Egypt. friend of Bihruz in an honour killing. According to Baha
ad-Din ibn Shaddad, Saladin was born the same night his
Not long after the death of Nur ad-Din in 1174, Saladin
family left Tikrit. In 1139, Ayyub and his family moved
personally led the conquest of Syria, peacefully entering
to Mosul where Imad ad-Din Zengi acknowledged his
Damascus at the request of its ruler. By mid-1175, Sal-
debt and appointed Ayyub commander of his fortress in
adin had conquered Hama and Homs, inviting the ani-
Baalbek. After the death of Zengi in 1146, his son, Nur
mosity of his former Zengid lords, who had been the of-
ad-Din, became the regent of Aleppo and the leader of
cial rulers of Syria. Soon after, he defeated the Zengid
the Zengids.[12]
army in battle and was thereafter proclaimed the Sultan
of Egypt and Syria by the Abbasid caliph al-Mustadi. Saladin, who now lived in Damascus, was reported to
He made further conquests in northern Syria and Jazira, have a particular fondness of the city, but information
escaping two attempts on his life by the Assassins, be- on his early childhood is scarce. About education, Sal-
fore returning to Egypt in 1177 to address issues there. adin wrote children are brought up in the way in which
By 1182, Saladin completed the conquest of Syria after their elders were brought up. According to one of his bi-
capturing Aleppo, but ultimately failed to take over the ographers, al-Wahrani, Saladin was able to answer ques-
Zengid stronghold of Mosul. tions on Euclid, the Almagest, arithmetic, and law, but
this was an academic ideal and it was study of the Qur'an
Under Saladins personal leadership, the Ayyubid army
and the sciences of religion that linked him to his
defeated the Crusaders at the decisive Battle of Hat-
contemporaries.[12] Several sources claim that during his
tin in 1187, leading the way to the Muslims re-capture
studies he was more interested in religion than joining
of Palestine from the Crusaders who had conquered it
the military.[13] Another factor which may have aected
88 years earlier. Though the Crusader Kingdom of
his interest in religion was that during the First Cru-
Jerusalem would continue to exist for an extended pe-
sade, Jerusalem was taken in a surprise attack by the
riod, its defeat at Hattin marked a turning point in its con-
Christians.[13] In addition to Islam, Saladin had a knowl-
1
2 3 IN EGYPT
edge of the genealogies, biographies, and histories of the the Zengid central force returned to the oensive; Saladin
Arabs, as well as the bloodlines of Arabian horses. More joined in from the rear.[17]
signicantly, he knew the Hamasah of Abu Tammam by The battle ended in a Zengid victory, and Saladin is cred-
heart.[12] He also spoke Kurdish, and likely Turkish as ited to have helped Shirkuh in one of the most remark-
well.[14] able victories in recorded history, according to Ibn al-
Athir, although more of Shirkuhs men were killed and
the battle is considered by most sources as not a total
2 Early expeditions victory. Saladin and Shirkuh moved towards Alexandria
where they were welcomed, given money, arms and pro-
vided a base.[18] Faced by a superior Crusader-Egyptian
force who attempted to besiege the city, Shirkuh split
his army. He and the bulk of his force withdrew from
Alexandria, while Saladin was left with the task of guard-
ing the city.[19]
3 In Egypt
Main article: Saladin in Egypt
wrote that Saladin was selected because of the reputation 3.2 Sultan of Egypt
of his family in their generosity and military prowess.
Imad ad-Din wrote that after the brief mourning pe-
riod of Shirkuh, during which opinions diered, the
Zengid emirs decided upon Saladin and forced the caliph
to invest him as vizier. Although positions were com-
plicated by rival Muslim leaders, the bulk of the Syrian
rulers supported Saladin because of his role in the Egyp-
tian expedition, in which he gained a record of military
qualications.[22]
Inaugurated as Emir on 26 March, Saladin repented
wine-drinking and turned from frivolity to assume the
dress of religion. Having gained more power and inde-
pendence than ever before in his career, he still faced the
issue of ultimate loyalty between al-Adid and Nur ad-Din.
Later in the year, a group of Egyptian soldiers and
emirs attempted to assassinate Saladin, but having al-
ready known of their intentions, thanks to his intelli-
gence chief Ali bin Safyan, he had the chief conspira-
tor, Naji, Mu'tamin al-Khilafathe civilian controller of
the Fatimid Palacearrested and killed. The day after,
50,000 black African soldiers from the regiments of the Saladin as depicted on a dirham coin, ca. 1190
Fatimid army opposed to Saladins rule along with a num-
ber of Egyptian emirs and commoners staged a revolt. According to Imad ad-Din, Nur ad-Din wrote to Sal-
By 23 August, Saladin had decisively quelled the upris- adin in June 1171, telling him to reestablish the Ab-
ing, and never again had to face a military challenge from basid caliphate in Egypt, which Saladin coordinated two
Cairo.[23] months later after additional encouragement by Najm ad-
Din al-Khabushani, the Sha'i faqih, who vehemently op-
Towards the end of 1169, Saladin, with reinforcements
posed Shia rule in the country. Several Egyptian emirs
from Nur ad-Din defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine
were thus killed, but al-Adid was told that they were killed
force near Damietta. Afterward, in the spring of 1170,
for rebelling against him. He then fell ill, or was poi-
Nur ad-Din sent Saladins father to Egypt in compliance
soned according to one account. While ill, he asked Sal-
with Saladins request, as well as encouragement from
adin to pay him a visit to request that he take care of
the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph, al-Mustanjid, who
his young children, but Saladin refused, fearing treachery
aimed to pressure Saladin in deposing his rival caliph, al-
against the Abbasids, and is said to have regretted his ac-
Adid.[24] Saladin himself had been strengthening his hold
tion after realizing what al-Adid had wanted.[28] He died
on Egypt and widening his support base there. He be-
on September 13 and ve days later, the Abbasid khutba
gan granting his family members high-ranking positions
was pronounced in Cairo and al-Fustat, proclaiming al-
in the region; he ordered the construction of a college for
Mustadi as caliph.[29]
the Maliki branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as
one for the Sha'i denomination to which he belonged in On 25 September, Saladin left Cairo to take part in a joint
al-Fustat.[25] attack on Kerak and Montreal, the desert castles of the
Kingdom of Jerusalem, with Nur ad-Din who would at-
After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched
tack from Syria. Prior to arriving at Montreal, Saladin
a campaign against the Crusaders, besieging Darum in
however withdrew back to Cairo as he received the re-
1170.[26] Amalric withdrew his Templar garrison from
ports that in his absence the Crusader Leaders had in-
Gaza to assist him in defending Darum, but Saladin
creased their support to the traitors inside Egypt to attack
evaded their force and fell on Gaza instead. He destroyed
Saladin from within and lessen his power especially the
the town built outside the citys castle and killed most
Fatimid who started plotting to restore their past glory.
of its inhabitants after they were refused entry into the
Because of this, Nur ad-Din went on alone. [30]
castle.[27] It is unclear exactly when, but during that same
year, he attacked and captured the Crusader castle of During the summer of 1173, a Nubian army along
Eilat, built on an island o the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. with a contingent of Armenian refugees were reported
It did not pose a threat to the passage of the Muslim navy, on the Egyptian border, preparing for a siege against
but could harass smaller parties of Muslim ships and Sal- Aswan. The emir of the city had requested Saladins assis-
adin decided to clear it from his path.[26] tance and was given reinforcements under Turan-Shah
Saladins brother. Consequently, the Nubians departed,
but returned in 1173 and were again driven o. This
time Egyptian forces advanced from Aswan and captured
4 4 ACQUISITION OF SYRIA
the Nubian town of Ibrim. Saladin sent a gift to Nur When as-Salih was removed to Aleppo in August, Gu-
ad-Din who had been his friend and teacher, 60,000 di- mushtigin, the emir of the city and a captain of Nur ad-
nars, wonderful manufactured goods, some jewels, an Dins veterans assumed guardianship over him. The emir
ass of the nest breed, and an elephant. While transport- prepared to unseat all of his rivals in Syria and al-Jazira,
ing these goods to Damascus, Saladin took the opportu- beginning with Damascus. In this emergency, the emir
nity to ravage the Crusader countryside. He did not press of Damascus appealed to Saif al-Din (a cousin of Gu-
an attack against the desert castles, but attempted to drive mushtigin) of Mosul for assistance against Aleppo, but he
out the Muslim Bedouins who lived in Crusader territory refused, forcing the Syrians to request the aid of Saladin
with the aim of depriving the Franks of guides.[31] who complied.[34] Saladin rode across the desert with 700
On 31 July 1173, Saladins father Ayyub was wounded in picked horsemen, passing through al-Kerak then reach-
ing Bosra and according to him, was joined by "emirs,
a horse-riding accident, ultimately causing his death on 9
August.[32] In 1174, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer soldiers, and Bedouinsthe emotions of their hearts to
be seen on their faces.[35] On 23 November, he arrived
Yemen to allocate it and its port Aden to the territories of
the Ayyubid Dynasty. in Damascus amid general acclamations and rested at his
fathers old home there, until the gates of the Citadel of
Damascus were opened to him four days later. He in-
stalled himself in the castle and received the homage and
4 Acquisition of Syria salutations of the citizens.[34]
grand-master of the Assassins of Syria, who were al- and declared him Sultan of Egypt and Syria. The Bat-
ready at odds with Saladin since he replaced the Fatimids tle of Hama did not end the contest for power between
of Egypt, to assassinate Saladin in his camp.[39] On 11 the Ayyubids and the Zengids, with the nal confronta-
May 1175 a group of thirteen Assassins easily gained ad- tion occurring in the spring of 1176. Saladin had gathered
mission into Saladins camp, but were detected immedi- massive reinforcements from Egypt while Saif al-Din was
ately before they carried out their attack by Nasih al-Din levying troops among the minor states of Diyarbakir and
Khumartekin of Abu Qubays. One was killed by a gen- al-Jazira.[45] When Saladin crossed the Orontes, leaving
eral of Saladin and the others were slain while trying to Hama, the sun was eclipsed. He viewed this as an omen,
escape.[38][40][41] To deter Saladins progress, Raymond but he continued his march north. He reached the Sultans
of Tripoli gathered his forces by Nahr al-Kabir where Mound, c. 25 km from Aleppo, where his forces encoun-
they were well placed for an attack on Muslim territory. tered Saif al-Dins army. A hand-to-hand ght ensued
Saladin later moved toward Homs instead, but retreated and the Zengids managed to plow Saladins left wing,
after being told a relief force was being sent to the city driving it before him, when Saladin himself charged at
by Saif al-Din.[42] the head of the Zengid guard. The Zengid forces pan-
icked and most of Saif al-Dins ocers ended up being
Meanwhile, Saladins rivals in Syria and Jazira waged a
propaganda war against him, claiming he had forgotten killed or capturedSaif al-Din narrowly escaped. The
his own condition [servant of Nur ad-Din]" and showed Zengid armys camp, horses, baggage, tents and stores
no gratitude for his old master by besieging his son, rising were seized by the Ayyubids. The Zengid prisoners of
in rebellion against his Lord. Saladin aimed to counter war, however, were given gifts and freed. All of the booty
this propaganda by ending the siege, claiming he was de- from the Ayyubid victory was accorded to the army, Sal-
fending Islam from the Crusaders; his army returned to adin not keeping anything himself.[46]
Hama to engage a Crusader force there. The Crusaders He continued towards Aleppo which still closed its gates
withdrew beforehand and Saladin proclaimed it a vic- to him, halting before the city. On the way, his army took
tory opening the gates of mens hearts.[42] Soon after, Buza'a, then captured Manbij. From there they headed
Saladin entered Homs and captured its citadel in March west to besiege the fortress of A'zaz on 15 May. Several
1175, after stubborn resistance from its defenders.[43] days later, while Saladin was resting in one of his captains
Saladins successes alarmed Saif al-Din. As head of the tents, an assassin rushed forward at him and struck at his
Zengids, including Gumushtigin, he regarded Syria and head with a knife. The cap of his head armour was not
Mesopotamia as his family estate and was angered when penetrated and he managed to grip the assassins hand
the dagger only slashing his gambesonand the assailant
Saladin attempted to usurp his dynastys holdings. Saif
al-Din mustered a large army and dispatched it to Aleppo was soon killed. Saladin was unnerved at the attempt on
his life, which he accused Gumushtugin and the Assassins
whose defenders anxiously had awaited them. The com-
bined forces of Mosul and Aleppo marched against Sal- of plotting, and so increased his eorts in the siege.[47]
adin in Hama. Heavily outnumbered, Saladin initially at- A'zaz capitulated on 21 June, and Saladin then hurried
tempted to make terms with the Zengids by abandoning his forces to Aleppo to punish Gumushtigin. His assaults
all conquests north of the Damascus province, but they were again resisted, but he managed to secure not only a
refused, insisting he return to Egypt. Seeing that con- truce, but a mutual alliance with Aleppo, in which Gu-
frontation was unavoidable, Saladin prepared for battle, mushtigin and as-Salih were allowed to continue their
taking up a superior position on the hills by the gorge of hold on the city and in return, they recognized Saladin as
the Orontes River. On 13 April 1175, the Zengid troops the sovereign over all of the dominions he conquered. The
marched to attack his forces, but soon found themselves emirs of Mardin and Keyfa, the Muslim allies of Aleppo,
surrounded by Saladins Ayyubid veterans who crushed also recognised Saladin as the King of Syria. When the
them. The battle ended in a decisive victory for Saladin treaty was concluded, the younger sister of as-Salih came
who pursued the Zengid fugitives to the gates of Aleppo, to Saladin and requested the return of the Fortress of
forcing as-Salihs advisers to recognize Saladins control A'zaz; he complied and escorted her back to the gates
of the provinces of Damascus, Homs and Hama, as well of Aleppo with numerous presents.[47]
as a number of towns outside Aleppo such as Ma'arat al-
Numan.[44]
4.2 Dispute with the Assassins
After his victory against the Zengids, Saladin proclaimed
himself king and suppressed the name of as-Salih in Saladin had by now agreed truces with his Zengid ri-
Friday prayers and Islamic coinage. From then on, he or- vals and the Kingdom of Jerusalem (latter occurred in
dered prayers in all the mosques of Syria and Egypt as the the summer of 1175), but faced a threat from the Ismaili
sovereign king and he issued at the Cairo mint gold coins sect known then as the "Assassins" led by Rashid ad-Din
bearing his ocial titleal-Malik an-Nasir Yusuf Ayyub, Sinan. Based in the an-Nusayriyah Mountains, they com-
ala ghaya the King Strong to Aid, Joseph son of Job; manded nine fortresses, all built on high elevations. As
exalted be the standard. The Abbasid caliph in Bagh- soon as he dispatched the bulk of his troops to Egypt, Sal-
dad graciously welcomed Saladins assumption of power adin led his army into the an-Nusayriyah range in August
6 5 RETURN TO CAIRO AND FORAYS IN OUTREMER
all the way to the territories of Egypt.[55] lying his troops and charged at the Crusaders. The en-
Undiscouraged by his defeat at Tell Jezer, Saladin was gagement ended in a decisive Ayyubid victory, and many
prepared to ght the Crusaders once again. In the spring high-ranking knights were captured. Saladin then moved
[58]
of 1178, he was encamped under the walls of Homs, and to besiege the fortress, which fell on 30 August 1179.
a few skirmishes occurred between his generals and the In the spring of 1180, while Saladin was in the area of
Crusader army. His forces in Hama won a victory over Safad, anxious to commence a vigorous campaign against
their enemy and brought the spoils, together with many the Kingdom of Jerusalem, King Baldwin sent messen-
prisoners of war, to Saladin who ordered the captives to gers to him with proposals of peace. Because droughts
be beheaded for plundering and laying waste the lands and bad harvests hampered his commissariat, Saladin
of the Faithful. He spent the rest of the year in Syria agreed to a truce. Raymond of Tripoli denounced the
without a confrontation with his enemies.[56] truce but was compelled to accept after an Ayyubid raid
on his territory in May and upon the appearance of Sal-
adins naval eet o the port of Tartus.[59]
6 Domestic aairs
In June 1180, Saladin hosted a reception for Nur al-Din
Muhammad, the Artuqid emir of Keyfa, at Geuk Su,
in which he presented him and his brother Abu Bakr
presents, valued at over 100,000 dinars according to Imad
al-Din. This was intended to cement an alliance with the
Artuqids and to impress other emirs in Mesopotamia and
Anatolia. Previously, Saladin oered to mediate rela-
tions between Nur al-Din and Kilij Arslan IIthe Seljuk
The battleeld at Jacobs Ford, looking from the west bank to the Sultan of Rumafter the two came into conict. The lat-
east bank of the River Jordan ter demanded Nur al-Din return the lands given to him as
a dowry for marrying his daughter when he received re-
Saladins intelligence services reported to him that the ports that she was being abused and used by him to gain
Crusaders were planning a raid into Syria. He ordered Seljuk territory. Nur al-Din requested Saladin mediate
[60]
one of his generals, Farrukh-Shah, to guard the Damas- the issue but Arslan refused.
cus frontier with a thousand of his men to watch for an
attack, then to retire, avoiding battle, and to light warn-
ing beacons on the hills, after which Saladin would march
out. In April 1179, the Crusaders led by King Baldwin
expected no resistance and waited to launch a surprise
attack on Muslim herders grazing their herds and ocks
east of the Golan Heights. Baldwin advanced too rashly in
pursuit of Farrukh-Shahs force, which was concentrated
southeast of Quneitra and was subsequently defeated by
the Ayyubids. With this victory, Saladin decided to call
in more troops from Egypt; he requested al-Adil to dis-
patch 1,500 horsemen.[57]
In the summer of 1179, King Baldwin had set up an out-
post on the road to Damascus and aimed to fortify a pas-
sage over the Jordan River, known as Jacobs Ford, that
commanded the approach to the Banias plain (the plain
was divided by the Muslims and the Christians). Saladin Ibn Jubayr a famous traveler from Al-Andalus is known to have
had oered 100,000 gold pieces for Baldwin to aban- met Saladin in Cairo after the abdication of the Fatimids.
don the project, which was peculiarly oensive to the
Muslims, but to no avail. He then resolved to destroy After Nur al-Din and Saladin met at Geuk Su, the top
the fortress, called Chastellet and manned by the Tem- Seljuk emir, Ikhtiyar al-Din al-Hasan, conrmed Arslans
plars, moving his headquarters to Banias. As the Cru- submission, after which an agreement was drawn up. Sal-
saders hurried down to attack the Muslim forces, they adin was later enraged when he received a message from
fell into disorder, with the infantry falling behind. De- Arslan accusing Nur al-Din of more abuses against his
spite early success, they pursued the Muslims far enough daughter. He threatened to attack the city of Malatya,
to become scattered, and Saladin took advantage by ral- saying, it is two days march for me and I shall not dis-
8 7 IMPERIAL EXPANSIONS
other. First, Edessa fell, followed by Saruj, then ar- forces encircles the suburb of Banaqusa to the northeast
Raqqah, Karkesiya and Nusaybin.[67] Ar-Raqqah was an and Bab Janan to the west. He stationed his men danger-
important crossing point and held by Qutb al-Din Inal, ously close to the city, hoping for an early success.[71]
who had lost Manbij to Saladin in 1176. Upon seeing Zangi did not oer long resistance. He was unpopular
the large size of Saladins army, he made little eort to with his subjects and wished to return to his Sinjar, the
resist and surrendered on the condition that he would re- city he governed previously. An exchange was negoti-
tain his property. Saladin promptly impressed the inhab- ated where Zangi would hand over Aleppo to Saladin in
itants of the town by publishing a decree that ordered a return for the restoration of his control of Sinjar, Nusay-
number of taxes to be canceled and erased all mention
bin, and ar-Raqqa. Zangi would hold these territories as
of them from treasury records, stating the most miser- Saladins vassals on terms of military service. On June
able rulers are those whose purses are fat and their people
12, Aleppo was formally placed in Ayyubid hands.[72]
thin. From ar-Raqqah, he moved to conquer al-Fudain, The people of Aleppo had not known about these nego-
al-Husain, Maksim, Durain, 'Araban, and Khaburall of
tiations and were taken by surprise when Saladins stan-
which swore allegiance to him.[69] dard was hoisted over the citadel. Two emirs, including
Saladin proceeded to take Nusaybin which oered no re- an old friend of Saladin, Izz al-Din Jurduk, welcomed and
sistance. A medium-sized town, Nusaybin was not of pledged their service to him. Saladin replaced the Hana
great importance, but it was located in a strategic posi- courts with Sha'i administration, despite a promise he
tion between Mardin and Mosul and within easy reach of would not interfere in the religious leadership of the city.
Diyarbakir.[70] In the midst of these victories, Saladin re- Although he was short of money, Saladin also allowed
ceived word that the Crusaders were raiding the villages the departing Zangi to take all the stores of the citadel
of Damascus. He replied Let them... whilst they knock that he could travel with and to sell the remainderwhich
down villages, we are taking cities; when we come back, Saladin purchased himself. In spite of his earlier hesita-
we shall have all the more strength to ght them.[67] tion to go through with the exchange, he had no doubts
Meanwhile, in Aleppo, the emir of the city Zangi raided about his success, stating that Aleppo was the key to the
Saladins cities to the north and east, such as Balis, Man- lands and this city is the eye of Syria and the citadel is its
bij, Saruj, Buza'a, al-Karzain. He also destroyed his own pupil.[73] For Saladin, the capture of the city marked the
citadel at A'zaz to prevent it from being used by the Ayyu- end of over eight years of waiting since he told Farrukh-
bids if they were to conquer it.[70] Shah that we have only to do the milking and Aleppo will
be ours.[74]
7.2 Possession of Aleppo After spending one night in Aleppos citadel, Saladin
marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held Antioch. The
city was held by Surhak, a minor mamluk. Saladin of-
fered him the city of Busra and property in Damascus in
exchange for Harim, but when Surhak asked for more,
his own garrison in Harim forced him out. He was ar-
rested by Saladins deputy Taqi al-Din on allegations that
he was planning to cede Harim to Bohemond III of Anti-
och. When Saladin received its surrender, he proceeded
to arrange the defense of Harim from the Crusaders. He
reported to the caliph and his own subordinates in Yemen
and Baalbek that was going to attack the Armenians. Be-
fore he could move, however, there were a number of
administrative details to be settled. Saladin agreed to a
truce with Bohemond in return for Muslim prisoners be-
ing held by him and then he gave A'zaz to Alam ad-Din
Saladins troops, French manuscript, 1337 Suleiman and Aleppo to Saif al-Din al-Yazkujthe for-
mer was an emir of Aleppo who joined Saladin and the
Saladin turned his attention from Mosul to Aleppo, send- latter was a former mamluk of Shirkuh who helped rescue
ing his brother Taj al-Muluk Buri to capture Tell Khalid, him from the assassination attempt at A'zaz.[75]
130 km northeast of the city. A siege was set, but the gov-
ernor of Tell Khalid surrendered upon the arrival of Sal-
adin himself on May 17 before a siege could take place. 7.3 Fight for Mosul
According to Imad ad-Din, after Tell Khalid, Saladin
took a detour northwards to Ain Tab, but he gained pos- As Saladin approached Mosul, he faced the issue of tak-
session of it when his army turned towards it, allowing ing over a large city and justifying the action.[76] The
to quickly move backward another c. 100 km towards Zengids of Mosul appealed to an-Nasir, the Abbasid
Aleppo. On May 21, he camped outside the city, posi- caliph at Baghdad whose vizier favored them. An-Nasir
tioning himself east of the Citadel of Aleppo, while his sent Badr al-Badr (a high-ranking religious gure) to me-
10 7 IMPERIAL EXPANSIONS
of the Muslims. He also promised that if Mosul was grims on the Hajj in 1185. According to the later 13th-
given to him, it would lead to the capture of Jerusalem, century Old French Continuation of William of Tyre, Ray-
Constantinople, Georgia, and the lands of the Almohads nald captured Saladins sister in a raid on a caravan; this
in the Maghreb, until the word of God is supreme and claim is not attested in contemporary sources, Muslim or
the Abbasid caliphate has wiped the world clean, turn- Frankish, however, instead stating that Raynald had at-
ing the churches into mosques. Saladin stressed that all tacked a preceding caravan, and Saladin set guards to en-
this would happen by the will of God, and instead of ask- sure the safety of his sister and her son, who came to no
ing for nancial or military support from the caliph, he harm.
would capture and give the caliph the territories of Tikrit,
Following the failure of his Kerak sieges, Saladin tem-
Daquq, Khuzestan, Kish Island, and Oman.[86] porarily turned his attention back to another long-term
project and resumed attacks on the territory of Izz ad-Dn
(Masd ibn Mawdd ibn Zangi), around Mosul, which
8 Wars against Crusaders he had begun with some success in 1182. However, since
then, Masd had allied himself with the powerful gover-
nor of Azerbaijan and Jibal, who in 1185 began moving
his troops across the Zagros Mountains, causing Saladin
to hesitate in his attacks. The defenders of Mosul, when
they became aware that help was on the way, increased
their eorts, and Saladin subsequently fell ill, so in March
1186 a peace treaty was signed.[87]
In July 1187 Saladin captured most of the Kingdom of
Jerusalem. On July 4, 1187, at the Battle of Hattin, he
faced the combined forces of Guy of Lusignan, King
Consort of Jerusalem, and Raymond III of Tripoli. In this
battle alone the Crusader force was largely annihilated by
Saladins determined army. It was a major disaster for
the Crusaders and a turning point in the history of the
Crusades. Saladin captured Raynald and was personally
responsible for his execution in retaliation for his attacks
Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after Battle of Hattin against Muslim caravans. The members of these cara-
vans had, in vain, besought his mercy by reciting the truce
On 29 September 1182, Saladin crossed the Jordan River between the Muslims and the Crusaders, but Raynald ig-
to attack Beisan, which was found to be empty. The next nored this and insulted the Islamic prophet, Muhammad,
day his forces sacked and burned the town and moved before murdering and torturing a number of them. Upon
westwards. They intercepted Crusader reinforcements hearing this, Saladin swore an oath to personally execute
from Karak and Shaubak along the Nablus road and took Raynald.[88] Guy of Lusignan was also captured. Seeing
a number of prisoners. Meanwhile, the main Crusader the execution of Raynald, he feared he would be next.
force under Guy of Lusignan moved from Sepphoris to However, his life was spared by Saladin, who said of Ray-
al-Fula. Saladin sent out 500 skirmishers to harass their nald, "[i]t is not the wont of kings, to kill kings; but that
forces, and he himself marched to Ain Jalut. When man had transgressed all bounds, and therefore did I treat
the Crusader forcereckoned to be the largest the king- him thus. [89]
dom ever produced from its own resources, but still out-
matched by the Muslimsadvanced, the Ayyubids un-
8.1 Capture of Jerusalem
expectedly moved down the stream of Ain Jalut. After a
few Ayyubid raidsincluding attacks on Zir'in, Forbelet, Saladin had captured almost every Crusader city. Sal-
and Mount Taborthe Crusaders still were not tempted adin preferred to take Jerusalem without bloodshed and
to attack their main force, and Saladin led his men back oered generous terms, but those inside refused to leave
across the river once provisions and supplies ran low.[75] their holy city, vowing to destroy it in a ght to the death
Crusader attacks provoked further responses by Saladin. rather than see it handed over peacefully. Jerusalem ca-
Raynald of Chtillon, in particular, harassed Muslim pitulated to his forces on Friday, 2 October 1187, after
trading and pilgrimage routes with a eet on the Red Sea, a siege. When the siege had started, Saladin was unwill-
a water route that Saladin needed to keep open. In re- ing to promise terms of quarter to the Frankish inhab-
sponse, Saladin built a eet of 30 galleys to attack Beirut itants of Jerusalem. Balian of Ibelin threatened to kill
in 1182. Raynald threatened to attack the holy cities of every Muslim hostage, estimated at 5,000, and to de-
Mecca and Medina. In retaliation, Saladin twice besieged stroy Islams holy shrines of the Dome of the Rock and
Kerak, Raynalds fortress in Oultrejordain, in 1183 and the al-Aqsa Mosque if such quarter were not provided.
1184. Raynald responded by looting a caravan of pil- Saladin consulted his council and the terms were ac-
12 8 WARS AGAINST CRUSADERS
9 Death
See also: Mausoleum of Saladin
Saladin died of a fever on 4 March 1193, at Damascus,
In 1898 German Emperor Wilhelm II visited Saladins Muslim world, eclipsed by more successful gures such
tomb to pay his respects.[112] The visit, coupled with anti- as Baybars of Egypt.[113]
imperialist sentiments, led nationalist Arabs to reinvent Modern Arab states have sought to commemorate Saladin
the image of Saladin and portray him as a hero of the through various measures, often based on the image cre-
struggle against the West. The image of Saladin they used ated of him in the 19th-century west.[114] A governorate
was the romantic one created by Walter Scott and other centered around Tikrit and Samarra in modern-day Iraq,
Europeans in the West at the time, conveniently ignoring Salah ad Din Governorate, is named after him, as is
Saladins Kurdish ethnicity. It replaced Saladins repu- Salahaddin University in Arbil, the largest city of Iraqi
tation as a gure who had been largely forgotten in the Kurdistan. A suburb community of Arbil, Masif Sala-
15
haddin, is also named after him. Rawdiya (sic), which is a branch of the great tribe al-
Hadniya": Minorsky (1953), p. 124. The medieval his-
Few structures associated with Saladin survive within torian Ibn Athir, who is a Kurd and therefore his credi-
modern cities. Saladin rst fortied the Citadel of Cairo bility is questionable, relates a passage from another com-
(11751183), which had been a domed pleasure pavilion mander: "... both you and Saladin are Kurds and you will
with a ne view in more peaceful times. In Syria, even not let power pass into the hands of the Turks": Minorsky
the smallest city is centred on a defensible citadel, and (1953), p. 138.
Saladin introduced this essential feature to Egypt.
[5] Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977). From Saladin to the Mon-
Although the Ayyubid dynasty that he founded would gols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 11931260. State Uni-
only outlive him by 57 years, the legacy of Saladin within versity of New York Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-87395-263-
the Arab World continues to this day. With the rise of 4. Among the free-born amirs the Kurds would seem the
Arab nationalism in the 20th Century, particularly with most dependent on Saladins success for the progress of
regard to the Arab-Israeli conict, Saladins heroism and their own fortunes. He too was a Kurd, after all ...
leadership gained a new signicance. Saladins recap-
[6] Encyclopedia of World Biography on Saladin. Re-
ture of Palestine from the European Crusaders is con- trieved August 20, 2008.
sidered an inspiration for modern-day Arabs opposition
to Zionism. Moreover, the glory and comparative unity [7] Moors Islamic Cultural Home souvenir III, 19701976 Is-
of the Arab World under Saladin was seen as the per- lamic Cultural Home, 1978, p. 7.
fect symbol for the new unity sought by Arab nation-
[8] H. A. R. Gibb, The Rise of Saladin, in A History of the
alists, such as Gamal Abdel Nasser. For this reason,
Crusades, vol. 1: The First Hundred Years, ed. Kenneth
the Eagle of Saladin became the symbol of revolution- M. Setton (University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). p. 563.
ary Egypt, and was subsequently adopted by several other
Arab states (the United Arab Republic, Iraq, Libya, the [9] Bah' al-Dn (2002), p 17.
partially recognised State of Palestine, and Yemen).
[10] Ter-Ghevondyan 1965, p. 218
List of Kurdish dynasties and countries [13] Who2 Biography: Saladin, Sultan / Military Leader.
Answers.com. Retrieved August 20, 2008.
Sharaf Khan Bidlisi
[14] Northen, 1998, p. 809.
List of rulers of Damascus
[15] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 67
List of rulers of Egypt [16] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 8
Kingdom of Heaven (lm) [17] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 14
Saladin: The Animated Series [18] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 15
Salladin the Victorious (1963 lm) [19] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 16
[2] Lv, Yaacov (1999). Saladin in Egypt. Brill. p. 131. [25] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 41
ISBN 9004112219.
[26] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 43
[3] Halverson, Jery R.; Corman, Steven R.; Goodall Jr.,
[27] Pringle, 1993, p.208.
H.L. (2011). Master Narratives of Islamist Extremism.
Palgrave Macmillan. p. 201. ISBN 0230117236. [28] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 45
[4] A number of contemporary sources make note of this. [29] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 4647
The biographer Ibn Khallikan writes, Historians agree
in stating that [Saladins] father and family belonged to [30] Dastan Iman Faroshon Ki by Inayatullah Iltumish, 2011,
Duwin [Dvin]. ... They were Kurds and belonged to the pp. 128134
16 13 NOTES
[31] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 6062 [69] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 176
[32] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 64 [70] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 177
[33] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 7475 [71] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 195
[35] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 81 [73] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 199
[36] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 13 [74] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 198201
[37] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 137 [75] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 202203
[38] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 87 [76] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 178
[39] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 138 [77] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 179
[40] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 139 [78] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 180181
[41] Nicolle 2011, p. 20 [79] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 171
[42] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 8889 [80] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 184
[43] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 140 [81] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 185
[44] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 141 [82] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 186
[45] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 141143 [83] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 187
[46] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 144 [84] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 188
[47] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 144146 [85] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 191
[48] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 148 [86] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 192194
[49] Willey, 2000, p. 47. [87] Bosworth, 1989, p. 781
[50] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 149150 [88] Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf by Beha Ed-din,
[51] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 151 Baha' Al-Din Yusuf Ib Ibn Shaddad, Kessinger Publish-
ing, 2004, p.42, p.114
[52] Willey, 2000, p. 48.
[89] Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf by Beha Ed-din,
[53] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 153 Baha' Al-Din Yusuf Ib Ibn Shaddad, Kessinger Publish-
ing, 2004, p. 115.
[54] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 154
[90] De Expugatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum (The Cap-
[55] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 155 ture of the Holy Land by Saladin); ed. Joseph Stevenson,
[56] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 156 Rolls Series, (London: Longmans, 1875); translated by
James Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary History
[57] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 136 (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1962), pp.
159163.
[58] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 157159
[91] Runciman (1990), p 465.
[59] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 160161
[92] E. J. Brills First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 19131936.
[60] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 148 Brill. 1993. ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2. Retrieved 2014-
03-26.
[61] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 156
[62] Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 158159 [93] The era of the Second and Third Crusades " The Crusader
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[63] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 149
[94] Scharfstein and Gelabert, 1997, p. 145.
[64] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 164165
[95] Rosso, 2001, p. 6.
[65] Lane-Poole 1906, p. 167
[96] Pahlitzsch, Johannes, Georgians and Greeks in Jerusalem
[66] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 168169 (10991310)", in Ciggaar & Herman (1996), pp. 3839.
[67] Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 169170 [97] Eastmond (1998), pp. 122123.
[99] Richard The Lionheart Massacres, The Saracens, 1191, 14.2 Secondary sources
Beha-ed-Din, his account appears in T.A. Archers The
Crusade of Richard I (1889); Gillingham, John. The Life Bosworth, Cliord (1989). Mahk-Mid. In Van
and Times of Richard I (1973) Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Pellat, Ch. The En-
cyclopaedia of Islam VI. E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-
[100] Bishop, Morris (2001). The Middle Ages. Boston, Mass.: 08112-7. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
Houghton Miin Harcourt. p. 102. ISBN 0-618-05703-
X. Gabrieli, Francesco; Costello, E.J. (1984). Arab
historians of the crusades. London: Routledge &
[101] Bah' al-Dn (2002) p 19. Kegan. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-7102-0235-2.
[102] Bah' al-Dn (2002) pp 25 & 244. Gillingham, John (1999). Richard I. Yale English
Monarchs. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.
[103] Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. XI, Ed. P.J. Bearman, T.
378. ISBN 978-0-300-07912-8.
Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Hein-
richs, (E.J. Brill, 2002), 392. Grousset, Ren (1970). The epic of the Crusades. tr.
Lindsay, Nol. New York: Orion Press.
[104] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 135
Lane-Poole, Stanley (1906). Saladin and the Fall of
[105] Riley Smith, Jonathan, The Crusades, Christianity and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Heroes of the Nations.
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[106] (London: Verso, 1998)
Lyons, M.C.; Jackson, D.E.P. (1982). Saladin: the
[107] Lyons & Jackson 1982, p. 357
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[108] Bah' al-Dn (2002), pp. 147148 Lyons & Jackson 1982,
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Minorsky, Vladimir (1953). Studies in Caucasian
[109] Phillips, Jonathan (2009). Holy Warriors: A Modern His-
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Strategies, Tactics and Battleeld Experiences of the
[110] Curry, Andrew (8 April 2002). The First Holy War.
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[111] Bundan iyisi am'da kays/Gezi Tatil/Milliyet blog.
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14 Bibliography
16 External links
Stanley Lane-Poole, The Life of Saladin and the
Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, in btm format
Rosebault Ch.J. Saladin. Prince of Chivalri
Al-Andalusi, Thingg, Aitias, Indioink, Versus22, IJA, SoxBot III, Shaqip, Darkicebot, Direct action, XLinkBot, Kurdo777, Yetjanissary,
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