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120998377 Hoa học đại cương PDF
120998377 Hoa học đại cương PDF
120998377 Hoa học đại cương PDF
Nng 7 - 2006
o Hng Cng
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Mc lc
Trang
Chng 1. M u . ..............................................................................................1
1.1. Ho hc v nhim v ca ho hc . ............................................................2
1.2. Mt s khi nim c bn trong ho hc . ...................................................2
1.3. Mt s n v o trong ho hc. .................................................................2
Chng 6. ng ho hc . .............................................................................................65
6.1. Vn tc phn ng ho hc . ......................................................................65
6.2. Cc yu t nh hng n vn tc phn ng ............................................66
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7.3. S chuyn dch cn bng.
Nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng Le Chatelier . ........................................72
7.4. Cn bng pha . ...........................................................................................75
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Chng 1
M U
1.2.1. Vt cht:
Vt cht l mt khi nim tng qut, chung (ting Latinh: mater rerum ngi m
ca mi vt). Vt cht tn ti di hai hnh thc: cht v trng.
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- Cht l tng hp nhng cu thnh gin on c khi lng tnh di dng ht
nh electron, proton, ntron, nguyn t, phn t...
- Trng l lc tng tc gia cc vt, cc tia... c c trng bng tnh lin tc
(truyn i trong khng gian di dng sng) v c khi lng tnh bng khng.
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1,66.10-27kg 32 = 53,12.10-27kg.
1.3.2. Mol:
Mol l lng vt cht cha 6,022.1023 ht vi m (phn t, nguyn t, ion, electron,
photon...).
* Mol nguyn t:
Mol nguyn t l gi tr tnh ra gam ca khi lng nguyn t tng i ca
nguyn t (n chnh bng s .v.C nguyn t tnh ra gam). V d, t khi lng tng i
ca nguyn t Na bng 23 suy ra khi lng mt mol nguyn t Na l 23 gam.
* Mol phn t:
Mol phn t l tng khi lng ca 6.1023 phn t ca hp cht tnh ra gam (n
chnh bng s .v.C ca phn t tnh ra gam). V d, t khi lng tng i ca phn t
ng glucoz C12H22O11 l 342 suy ra khi lng mt mol phn t glucoz l 342 gam.
1.3.3. ng lng:
- ng lng ca mt nguyn t l s lng nguyn t c th kt hp hoc thay th
mt mol nguyn t hyro trong phn ng ho hc.
V d, trong cc hp cht HCl, H2O, PH3, CH4 ng lng ca cc nguyn t Cl, O, P,
C ln lt l 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 mol nguyn t ca nguyn t .
- Khi lng ng lng () hay cn gi l ng lng khi ca mt nguyn t l
khi lng tnh ra gam ca mt ng lng ca nguyn t .
- Cch tnh ng lng khi:
+ ng lng khi ca mt nguyn t bng khi lng nguyn t (AZ) ca
nguyn t chia cho ho tr (n) ca n:
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Z
Z = (1-1)
n
Trong trng hp nguyn t c nhiu ho tr th Z cng c nhiu gi tr khc
nhau. V d, Fe c hai ho tr (2, 3) nn Fe s c cc gi tr 56/2, 56/3.
+ ng lng khi ca mt baz bng khi lng phn t ca baz (MB) chia
cho s nhm OH (n) ca n:
B
B = (1-2)
n
+ ng lng khi ca mt axit bng khi lng phn t ca axit (MA) chia cho
s nguyn t H (n) ca n:
A
A = (1-3)
n
Trong trng hp axit c nhiu nguyn t hyro tham gia phn ng th n c tnh
bng s nguyn t H tham gia vo phn ng ho hc . V d, A ca H3PO4
(M = 98) trong 3 phn ng sau:
H3PO4 + NaOH = NaH2PO4 + H2O
H3PO4 + 2NaOH = Na2HPO4 + 2H2O
H3PO4 + 3NaOH = Na3PO4 + 3H2O
ln lt l 98/1, 98/2, 98/3.
+ ng lng khi ca mt xit bng khi lng phn t ca xit (MO) chia cho
(n) tch ca s nguyn t xi vi 2 (tng ho tr ca kim loi trong cng thc ca oxit):
O
O = (1-4)
n
+ ng lng khi ca mt mui bng khi lng phn t ca mui (MM) chia
cho (n) tch ca s nguyn t kim loi nhn vi ho tr ca n:
M = (1-5)
n
1.3.4. S xi ho
S xi ho (ch s xi ho, bc xi ho) l gi tr in tch nguyn t ca mt
nguyn t c c nu gi s rng tt c cc lin kt vi nguyn t u l lin kt ion.
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S xi ho c trng cho kh nng chuyn dch in t t mt nguyn t ny sang mt
nguyn t khc. S xi ha c cc gi tr m, dng hoc bng khng. S xi ho cao
nht ca mt nguyn t chnh bng ch s nhm m nguyn t chim ch trong bng
tun hon Meneleep.
xc nh s xi ho trong ho hc ngi ta s dng cc quy tc sau:
1. S xi ho cc nguyn t trong cc n cht bng khng. V d, N2, S, Cr ... ).
2. Kim loi lun lun c s xi ho dng. S xi ho ca kim loi kim lun lun
bng +1.
3. Hyro lun c s xi ho +1, tr cc hp cht hyrua (NaH, CaH2, ...) hyr c
s xi ho -1.
4. xi lun c s xi ho bng -2, tr cc hp cht peoxit cha nhm
OO ( H2O2, Na2O2, ...), trong xi c s xi ho bng -1.
5. S xi ho ca cc nguyn t cn li c th c gi tr dng hoc m.
6. Tng cc gi tr s xi ho ca cc nguyn t trong mt phn t bng khng.
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Chng 2
CU TO NGUYN T
2.1. NGUYN T
C s l thuyt c bn nht v cu to vt cht - l kh nng phn chia vt l
cc cht thnh nhng phn nh m mi phn vn gi nguyn tnh cht ho hc ca n.
Cc phn nh c gi l phn t. Nu tip tc phn chia phn t th nhn c nhng
phn nh hn - l nhng nguyn t. Mt lot cc pht hin vo cui th k th XIX v
u th k th XX cho thy rng nguyn t c cu to rt phc tp.
Khi cho dng in i qua cht kh v cht lng ngi ta nhn thy trong c phn t
ln nguyn t u c mt thnh phn chung - l in t. Bng phng php dng catt
xc nh c in t c khi lng 9,1095. 10-28gam v c in tch -1,6.10-19
Culong.
Bng phng php cho dng in i qua dung dch in li cng m ra cc nh
lut in phn v pht hin ra s tn ti cc nguyn t mang in tch dng v mang
in tch m (cc cation v anion).
Kt qu cc thc nghim trn y cho thy rng nguyn t c cu to rt
phc tp t mt thnh phn l in t mang in tch m v mt phn khc mang in
tch dng. Vy vn t ra l quan h sp xp nh th no gia in vi phn mang
in tch dng ca nguyn t? tr li cu hi ny, trn c s ca cc th nghim cc
nh khoa hc ngh cc m hnh cu to nguyn t.
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2.2.2. M hnh Hagaoka :
Hagaoka cho rng nguyn t c cu to ging nh sao Th v cc qu o
chuyn ng ca n. Ngha l gm mt hnh cu mang in tch dng v cc electron
chuyn ng theo nhng qu o trn xung quanh.
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ph ca n cng phi c cc vch lin tc cch u nhau. Thc t cho thy rng, ph ca
cc nguyn t khng phi l nhng vch lin tc cch u nhau (hnh 2.2).
o Xanh Tm
H H H H H
8
700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 nm
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- Mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng c xc nh bi nng lng ca nguyn t.
Vi nguyn t hyro mc nng lng ca electron c tnh theo cng thc sau:
1
En = -13,6 (eV) trong : n = 1,2,3... (2-2)
n2
- Qu o gn ht nhn nguyn t c nng lng thp, qu o xa c nng lng cao. Khi
electron chuyn t qu o ny sang qu o khc s xy ra s hp th hoc gii phng
nng lng:
e = h = En - En, (2-3)
u im m hnh nguyn t ca Bohr:
- Gii thch c ph vch ca hyro v cc nguyn t tng t hyro.
- Tnh c bn knh ca nguyn t hyro (rH).
Nhc im:
- Khng gii thch c ph ca cc nguyn t phc tp, c nhiu electron v nh hng
ca ph di tc dng ca trng in t.
- Thuyt Bohr c tnh cht c on.
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2.4.2. Tnh cht sng ca cc ht vi m:
Khi nghin cu tnh cht chung v chuyn ng ca vt cht, Broglie nhn thy
rng tnh sng - ht khng phi ch tn ti duy nht nh sng m n c bt k mt ht
no khc. Trn c s nhn nh ny, Broglie a ra gi thuyt: mi vt cht chuyn
ng u c th coi nh qu trnh sng c trng bng bc sng l c tnh theo h thc
De Broglie:
h
= (2-5)
mv
m khi lng ca ht
v - vn tc chuyn ng ca vt cht
Tnh cht sng - ht ny c tt c cc ht vi m: electron, proton...
2.4.4.1. Hm sng:
V chuyn ng ca electron c tnh cht sng nn c hc lng t biu din s
chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t bng hm sng
Y (x,y,z,t) trong x, y, z l cc gi tr to ca im, t l thi gian. V ngha vt l
ca hm sng n nay cha c xc nh nhng i lng Y2dV l xc sut tm
thy ht ti thi im t, trong yu t th tch dV = dxdydz c tm l M(x,y,z).
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din t trng thi tn ti ca electron trong nguyn t ngi ta s dng m hnh
m my in t. m my in t thng c biu din di dng mt b mt c gii
hn (xc sut tm thy in t trong gii hn ny l khong 90%). Khong khng gian
xung quanh ht nhn nguyn t m xc sut tm thy in t l ln nht c gi l
orbital.
Vic tnh xc sut tm thy in t ti mt im trong nguyn t hoc phn t v
xc nh nng lng ca n l mt vn rt phc tp. Vn ny c th gii quyt bng
s gip ca phng trnh sng Schrodinger.
2 2 2 2
trong : = + +
x 2 y 2 z 2
m - khi lng ca in t
h - hng s Planck
Nghim ca phng trnh sng Schrodinger l cc hm s 1, 2, 3, .... n tng
ng vi cc mc nng lng E1, E2, E3, .... En. Nh vy, t nghim ca phng trnh sng
Schrodinger s tnh c lng t nng lng ca cc ht vi m .
A0 l nghim ca phng trnh Schrodinger.
A0 = 1. 2n
A0 = (n,l,m)
2.4.5. Orbital nguyn t (AO). Cc s lng t:
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Cc s lng t ny l nhng tham s trong cc nghim ca phng trnh sng
Schrodinger.
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z
s
z z
z
y y y
x x
x
px py pz
z z
y y
x x
d z2 d x 2-y 2
z z z
y y y
x x x
dxz dyz d xy
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T s lng t chnh s suy ra s lng t ph v cc phn lp nh sau: ng vi mt gi
tr ca n s c n gi tr ca l.
S lng t chnh n S lng t ph l phn lp
1 0 1s
2 0, 1 2s, 2p
3 0, 1, 2 3s, 3p, 3d
4 0, 1, 2, 3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
Nh vy, lp K (n = 1) cc in t ch c duy nht mt hnh dng my in t s
(dng hnh cu);
lp L (n = 2) c hai hnh dng my in t s (dng hnh cu) v p (dng qu t
i);
lp M (n = 3) c ba hnh dng my in t ... v c hnh dng rt phc tp (hnh 2.3).
2.4.5.3. S lng t t :
S lng t t (m) l s lng t c trng cho s phn b cc orbital trong khng
gian. ng vi mt gi tr ca l c (2l+1) gi tr ca m. N c cc gi tr:
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., l
S lng t t xc nh gi tr ln hnh chiu ca momen ng lng MZ trn trc z:
mh
MZ = (2-10)
2
T s lng t ph l s suy ra m v s orbital ( lng t) nh sau:
S lng t ph l S lng t t m S lng t
0 0 1
1 -1, 0, 1 3
2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 7
Trng thi s c 1 lng t;
p 3 lng t (px, py, pz);
d 5 lng t (dx2-y2, dz2, dxy, dyz, dxz);
f 7 lng t...(hnh 2.3).
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2.4.5.4. S lng t spin:
Khi nghin cu cu to ph ca cc nguyn t ngi ta nhn thy rng ngoi
nhng s khc nhau v kch thc, hnh dng, hng phn b trong khng gian cc in
t cn c mt momen ng lng ring spin (ms), c gi tr bng -1/2 v +1/2.
Nh vy, mt in t trong nguyn t c xc nh bng 4 s lng t: n, l, m, ms. Cc
s lng t ny c trng cho nng lng, th tch, hnh dng v spin ca in t. Khi
nguyn t thay i t trng thi lng t ny sang trng thi lng t khc th gi tr ca
cc s lng t cng thay i v my in t s c sp xp li.
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7s 7p 7d 7f
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f
4s 4p 4d 4f
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s
1 2 3 4
Theo quy tc Hun, ch c phng n 1 l hp l.
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V d: 3s2 tc l trn lp M (n = 3) phn lp s (l = 0) c 2 in t (phn lp ny
c lm y).
4d3 tc l trn lp N (n = 4) phn lp d (l = 2) c 3 in t (phn lp ny
cha c lm y v s in t bo ho ca phn lp ny l 10 in t).
* Cu hnh lng t
Dng cng thc ny c vit nh sau:
- Mi lng t c biu din bng mt hnh vung
- Mi in t c biu din bng mt mi tn vi ms = +1/2 (-)
hoc ms = -1/2 ().
V d: Nguyn t H (Z =1):
Cu hnh in t: 1s1
Cu hnh lng t: -
Nguyn t Cl (Z = 17):
Cu hnh in t: 1s22s22p63s23p5
Cu hnh lng t: 3s2 3p5 3d
2s2 2p6
1s2
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Chng 3
S BIN THIN TUN HON CU TO NGUYN T BNG
H THNG TUN HON MENELEEP
3.1.1. Chu k 1.
Theo cng thc tnh s in t ca mi lp N = n2, chu k 1 ( n = 1) c 2 nguyn
t hyro v heli:
Z
2
2
He 1s 1S2
Y
X
n = 1
s
1 1s1
He 1s
2
n = 1 Y
X
s
3.1.2. Chu k 2.
chu k ny ang xy ra s phn b in t ca lp L (n = 2). Do vy, chu k ny
c 8 nguyn t (t Li n Ne) vi cc phn lp 2s v 2p. Di y l cng thc in t v
hnh dng orbital ca mt s nguyn t:
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z
5B 1 s22 s22 p 1
y
2s2
n = 2 p x
n = 1
s
2p1
7N 1 s22 s22 p 3
y
2s2
n = 2 p x
2px 1
n = 1 2py1
s
2 p z1
8O 1 s22 s22 p 4
y
2s2
n = 2 p x
n = 1 2 p x1
2py1
s
2 p z2
3.1.3. Chu k 3:
chu k 3 ang xy ra s phn b in t ca lp M (n = 3) gm 8 nguyn t (t
Na n Ar) vi 3 phn lp 3s, 3p v 3d:
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1s22s22p1
15P [1s22s22p6]3s23p3 3d
3p
3s
18Ar [1s22s22p6]3s23p6 3d
3p
3s
Khc vi chu k 2, phn lp 3d ca chu k ny hon ton khng c in t.
3.1.4. Chu k 4
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mt hoc nhiu phn lp bn ngoi c lm y (bo ho). Cc nguyn t chuyn
tip c chia thnh 3 nhm:
1. Nhm c bn hay cn gi l nhm d gm c 3 dy vi mi dy 10 nguyn t:
21
- Dy 3d: Sc (Scandi) 30Zn (Km)
39
- Dy 4d: Y (Ytri) 48Cd (Cadimi)
57
- Dy 5d: La (Lantan) 80Hg (Thu ngn)
59
2. Nhm Lantanoit gm 14 nguyn t 4f: Ce (Ceri) 71Lu (Lutexi)
90
3. Nhm Actinoit gm 14 nguyn t 5f: Th (Thori) 103Lr (Lorenxi)
3.1.5. Chu k 5.
Chu k 5 gm c 32 nguyn t. S phn b in t cc lp v phn lp ca chu
k ny xy ra tng t nh chu k 4: hai nguyn t u (37Rb - Rubidi, 38Sr - Stroni) in
t phn b trn 5s; su nguyn t cui (49In - Indi 54Xe - Xenon) trn 5p. Gia cc
39
nguyn t s v p ny cc nguyn t chuyn tip dy 4d: Y (Ytri) 48Cd (Cadimi).
3.1.6. Chu k 6.
Chu k ny gm c 32 nguyn t. S phn b in t cc lp v phn lp ca
chu k ny bt u t phn lp 6s ca hai nguyn t ( 55Cs - Cezi, 56Ca - Canxi), tip theo
10 nguyn t dy 5d (57La - Lantan 80Hg - Thu ngn), 14 nguyn t nhm Lantanoit
4f: (59Ce - Ceri 71Lu -Lutexi) v cui cng l su nguyn t ca phn lp 6p (81Tl -
Tali 86Rn - Radon).
3.1.7. Chu k 7.
Chu k 7 c bt u bng hai nguyn t s (88Fr - Franxi, 89Ra - Radi), tip theo
nguyn t d (89Ac - Actini), 14 nguyn t f nhm Actinoit (90Th - Thori 103
Lr -
Lorenxi), sau li tr v cc nguyn t d (104Rf - Rutefodi, 105
Db - Dubni, 106
Sg -
Seabrgi). Chu k ny n nay vn cn cha hon thnh.
3.1.8. Nhn xt
Qua s phn b in t trn cc lp v phn lp trong nguyn t ca cc nguyn t
c th rt ra mt s nhn xt sau:
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- S hnh thnh v in t ca cc nguyn t c tnh cht tun hon: c sau mt dy
nguyn t li bt u hnh thnh mt lp in t mi. Dy nguyn t trong ang xy ra
s hnh thnh mt lp in t mi c gi l chu k. S phn b in t ca chu k n
c bt u t nguyn t u tin trn phn lp ns v kt thc nguyn t cui cng vi
phn lp bo ho np.
- S sp xp in t trong nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhn chung tun theo quy tc nng
lng Klexcopxki nhng c mt s trng hp ngoi l.
29
V d, trong nguyn t Cu, thay v phn b in t vo phn lp 3d, 4s l
(3d94s2) th li phn b 3d104s1:
29
Cu 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
24
S sp xp c tnh ngoi l ny xy ra tng t Cr, 42Mo, 47Ag, 79Au...
* nh lut:
Tnh cht ca cc nguyn t v tnh cht ca cc n cht, hp cht ca cc
nguyn t ph thuc tun hon vo in tch ht nhn.
* Nguyn tc sp xp:
Meneleep sp xp bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc theo 3
nguyn tc sau:
- Cc nguyn t c xp theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn Z
- Cc nguyn t thuc cng mt chu k c xp theo hng ngang
- Cc nguyn t c tnh cht ging nhau c xp theo hng dc (nhm)
Ngy nay, di nh sng ca thuyt c hc lng t c th rt ra mt s nhn xt
v s sp xp cc nguyn t ho hc ca bng tun hon Meneleep nh sau:
in tch ht nhn nguyn t Z l c tnh c bn nht xc nh bn cht ca nguyn
t.
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S ch gi tr in tch ht nhn trng vi s th t ca nguyn t trong bng tun
hon Meneleep.
in tch ht nhn chnh bng tng s ht proton ca nguyn t. Khi s lng ht
proton thay i th tnh cht ca nguyn t cng thay i, s th t ca nguyn t thay
i.
S in t trong mt nguyn t trung ho in tch bng s in tch ht nhn (th t
Z). Thay i s in t khng lm thay i gi tr Z (khng lm thay i bn cht nguyn
t), nhng lm thay i trng thi in tch ca nguyn t.
Tnh cht ho hc, vt l ca nguyn t khng phi c xc nh bi s lng in t
trong nguyn t m bi cu hnh lp v ca cc in t.
S chu k m nguyn t c sp xp chnh bng s lp in t ca nguyn t
(tr paladi).
S nhm m nguyn t c sp xp chnh bng ho tr cao nht ca nguyn t .
Cc nguyn t s v p l nhng nguyn t thuc nhm chnh (nhm A), cc nguyn t d v
f thuc nguyn t nhm ph (nhm B).
3.2.2. S bin thin tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t:
Ne
20
F
N Ar
15
C O Cl
H
Be P
10 Kr
Mg Zn As Br
S
Si Ca Ti Co Cu
B V Mn Ge Se
Sc Fe Ni
5 Cr
Al Ga
Li Na K Rb
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 Z
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Nng lng ion ho I l nng lng cn thit tch mt in t ra khi nguyn t
nm trng thi c bn:
Z Z+ + e
Nng lng ion ho c gi tr dng. i vi nguyn t c nhiu in t, nng
lng ion ho ln lt c cc gi tr I1, I2, I3,... tng ng vi in t th nht, th hai,
th ba ... trong I1 < I2 < I3... Nng lng ion ho bin i c tnh chu k v nhn chung
theo quy lut: cc nguyn t u chu k c nng lng ion ho thp, cui chu k c nng
lng cao (hnh 3.1).
3.2.2.2. i lc vi in t
i lc vi in t e l nng lng to ra hay thu vo khi mt nguyn t nhn mt
electron.
Z + e Z-
i lc vi in t c gi tr bng nng lng ion ho nhng khc du ( du m). i
lc vi in t bin i c tnh cht tun hon. S tun hon ph thuc vo cu hnh
in t ca nguyn t - s th t Z (hnh 3.2).
I1,F1
30
20
10 I1
0 F1
-10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Z
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
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3.2.2.3. m in
m in l kh nng ht in t v pha mnh ca mt nguyn t ny so vi
nguyn t khc trong mt phn t. Theo Mallikel, m in c c th c xc nh theo
cng thc sau:
1
= ( + )
2
CHU KY H
1
Li Be B C N O F
2 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3 0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0
4
K Ca Sc Ti Ge As Se Br
0,81,0 1,31,6 1,7 2,0 2,4 2,8
Rb Sr Y Zr Sn Sb Te I
5 0,81,0 1,31,6 1,8 2,1 2,6
1,7
Cs Ba
6 0,7 0,9
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Cs Fr
Rb
K
7S
5S
Ba
Ce Ra
Na Ca Sr Nd Ac Pa
Li Y LaSm Eu 7S
Sc ThU PuAm
Te Nb Dy Np
3S Ti Cr In
Zr Mn Gd Er Yb Cm
Ga Ru Cf Md
Al
V Mn Fe
K Te Lu
Mg Cu Rh Ag Hf
Co 4P
Zn Cd Ta W Ti
3.2.2.4. Bn knh nguyn t v bn knh ion:
Sn
Si Ni Ge
Be Sb
Re OsPt Pb
IrAu
As
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P Te I HgBi Po
S
SeBr Al
B Rn
Cl Xe
Kr
C Al
H
N
5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Z
29
S thay i bn knh nguyn t v bn knh ion (rZ) ca cc nguyn t theo s th
t Z c tnh cht tun hon (hnh 3.4): tng t trn xung di theo phn nhm v gim t
tri sang phi theo chu k.
(I1+I2+I3+I4) eV
150
130
110
90
70 0
r, A
1,5
1,0
0,5
10 30 50 1 1
Hnh 3.5. S bin i I v rZ ca cc nguyn t nhm IV theo Z
Tun hon ni chu k l s bin thin tnh cht mt cch u n cc nguyn t
p, d, f do qu trnh sp xp in t vo cc phn lp ny xy ra theo hai giai on (quy tc
Hun). V d, tun hon ca cc nguyn t thuc h Lantanit
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Chng 4
LIN KT HO HC
4.1. MT S KHI NIM C BN CA LIN KT HO HC
Lin kt ho hc l mt nhim v rt quan trng ca ho hc v rng, nu khng
bit c bn cht ca s tng tc gia cc nguyn t ln nhau trong phn t th khng
th hiu c nguyn nhn to thnh v s hp cht khc nhau, thnh phn, cu to, kh
nng phn ng... ca chng. Bn cht ca s to thnh lin kt gia cc nguyn t chnh
l lc ht tnh in gia ht nhn nguyn t v electron. Lc ht tnh in ny ph thuc
vo mt electron. Ph thuc vo s phn b mt electron trong hp cht ngi ta
phn thnh 3 loi lin kt trong ho hc: lin kt ion, lin kt cng ho tr v lin kt kim
loi. S phn b mt in t c th xc nh c qua gi tr m in ca cc
nguyn t:
- Nu m in ca 2 nguyn t tham gia to lin kt khc nhau ln
(Dc 2) th lin kt l lin kt ion.
- Nu m in ca 2 nguyn t tham gia to lin kt 0Dc<2 th lin kt l
lin kt cng ho tr (cng ho tr khng phn cc Dc=0; cng ho tr phn cc 0< Dc<2).
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Nng lng lin kt ca phn t c hai nguyn t chnh bng nng lng phn ly
ca phn t thnh nguyn t. Nng lng lin kt ca lin kt A-B trong phn t ABn
l gi tr trung bnh EA-B:
AB =
AB n
(4 -1)
n
E (kJ/mol)
800
400
-400
0,74 1 2 r (Ao)
Hnh 4.1. S ph thuc th nng E vo khong cch r gia 2 nguyn t hyro
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giai on u lc ht chim u th, giai on cui lc y li chim u th v kt qu
ti mt khong cch nht nh th nng s c gi tr cc tiu (phn t trng thi bn
nht). Khong cch ny chnh l di lin kt (i vi hyro l 0,74 AO) ca phn t.
Tuy nhin qu trnh thay i ny ch xy ra gia hai electron c spin i nhau. i vi
trng hp hai electron c spin song song vi nhau th khi nguyn t xch li gn nhau
gia chng ch xut hin lc y phn t s khng c to thnh.
S to thnh phn t hyro c gii thch bng s xen ph my electron ca cc
nguyn t vi nhau. Ti v tr xen ph, mt electron l ln nht, lc ht gia cc ht
nhn vi in t tng ln (hnh 4.2).
Hnh 4.2. S phn b in t trong phn t H2
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Khi hai nguyn t ny tc dng vi nhau, cc phn lp 3s23p5 ca clo c s in t
gn bo ho (b bt t ca Ar) nn n ko in t 3s1 ca nguyn t natri v pha mnh
to thnh anion Cl-. Nguyn t natri cho i mt in t tr thnh cation Na+ c cu hnh
in t ca Ne:
Cation Na+ Anion Cl-
1s22s22p6 1s22s22p63s23p6
Cc ion Na+ v Cl- lin kt vi nhau bi lc ht tnh in to thnh phn t NaCl.
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl
S ion ho to thnh cation v anion ca cc nguyn t tun theo quy lut:
- Xu hng to thnh cation cng tng khi nguyn t cng v pha bn tri v pha di
ca bng tun hon.
- Xu hng to thnh anion cng tng khi nguyn t cng v pha bn phi v pha trn
ca bng tun hon.
- Cc hp cht to thnh bng lin kt ion trng thi rn tn ti di dng tinh th trong
cc cation v anion c phn b mt cch u n (v d, mng tinh th khi hnh lp
phng ca NaCl).
- C nhit nng chy, nhit si cao hn so vi cc hp cht lin kt cng ho tr.
- Dng nng chy ca cc hp cht lin kt ion c tnh dn in.
- C xu hng ho tan tt trong cc dung mi phn cc ( v d H2O).
- Khng bn, khng c tnh bo ho v khng c tnh nh hng.
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4.3.1. Phng php lin kt ho tr (VB).
C s ca phng php cng ho tr xut pht t quan im: hai nguyn t trong phn
t lin kt vi nhau bng s gp chung ca mt hoc nhiu cp electron vi nhau. Phng
php cng ho tr c c trng cc c tnh: tnh bo ho, tnh nh hng v tnh phn
cc. Cc quan im v lin kt cng ho tr c th hin di ba tin c bn sau:
1. Lin kt cng ho tr c hnh thnh do s ghp chung ca hai in t c spin i
nhau ca hai nguyn t tham gia lin kt.
2. Mc xen ph gia hai my in t cng ln, lin kt cng bn.
3. Lin kt cng ho tr c phn b theo phng c kh nng xen ph cc i.
4.3.1.1. Tnh bo ho
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
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p -p p -p
p -p
d -d
s-s
d -d
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1800
0 0
12
(s + p + p )-o rb ita l s p 2 -o rb ita l
109028'
(s + p + p + p )-o r b ita l s p 3 - o rb ita l
Hnh 4.4. Hnh dng orbital lai ho sp, sp2, sp3
Hnh dng orbital sp trn hnh 4.4 cho thy mt in t phn b v mt pha ln
hn pha bn kia. Kt qu l s xen ph ca pha c mt in t ln s to ra lin kt
bn hn so vi s xen ph ca s v p ring bit.
* Lai ho sp3
lm r vic t hp ca cc phn lp electron theo m hnh lai ho sp3, ngi ta
xt s to thnh phn t CH4. Nguyn t cacbon trng thi c bn c ho tr 2 vi cu
hnh electron 1s22s22p2. to thnh phn t CH4, nguyn t cacbon phi chuyn sang
trng thi kch thch C* c ho tr 4 vi cu hnh electron 1s22s12p3. Trong trng hp ny
phn t CH4 c to thnh bi ba in t 2p3, mt in t 2s1 ca nguyn t cacbon vi
bn in t 1s1 ca 4 nguyn t hyro:
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2s1 2px 2py 2pz
C*
CH4
H H H H
Nh vy, trong phn t CH4 s c 2 loi lin kt: 3 lin kt loi s-p v 1 lin kt
loi s-s. Thc t cho thy rng trong phn CH4 ch c duy nht mt loi lin kt ( 4 lin
kt hon ton ging nhau).
3
1
+ + +
px 2 py pz
s
1 1
2
2 1 0 9 0 ,5
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H
H 3N H 2O
CH 4 N O
C
H H H
H H
H H
H
1 0 7 ,3 0 1 0 4 ,5 0
0
109 28'
Cl Cl
B
0
0
12
Cl
0
0
12 b
a
Hnh 4.7. Phn t BCl3
a. Orbital lai ho sp2 b. Cu hnh hnh hc
Gc lin kt trong phn t BCl3 l 1200, lai ho sp2 l loi lai ho tam gic u.
* Lai ho sp
Lai ho sp l lai ho ca mt orbital s v mt orbital p to thnh hai orbital sp nm
trn mt ng thng vi gc lai ho 1800 (hnh 4.8).
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+
p
s 1800
s ,p sp
Be
Cl Cl
2
Phn t BeCl2
4.3.2. Phng php orbital phn t
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orbital phn t theo cc trng thi nng lng xc nh. Mi orbital c vit bi cc s
lng t c trng cho tnh cht ca in t trng thi nng lng . Nh vy, v c
bn phng php MO l s vn dng m rng ca phng php AO, ch khc l orbital
phn t c nhiu trung tm ht nhn.
V orbital phn t c nhiu tm nn hnh dng ca n rt phc tp. n gin
ho, trong phng php gn ng ngi ta xem orbital phn t nh l mt t hp tuyn
tnh ca cc orbital nguyn t. iu ny c ngha l orbital phn t c to thnh bi kt
qu php cng + v php tr - cc orbital nguyn t. V d, nu orbital ca 2 nguyn
t A, B c k hiu l A , B th orbital phn t AB c to thnh t Av B s l:
+ = c1A + c2B (4-2a)
- = c1A - c2B (4-2b)
trong c1 v c2 l phn orbital nguyn t tng ng tham gia to thnh phn t.
Tng t nh trong phng php AO, ngi ta s dng cc ch ci s, p, d, f...
biu din cc orbital phn lp th trong phng php MO ngi ta s dng cc ch ci Hy
lp s, p, d, j... biu din cc loi orbital lin kt.
Biu din phn t theo phng php MO c ngha l xc nh dng orbital phn t
, mc nng lng ca chng v c tnh phn b in t trong cc orbital . Quy lut phn
b in t trong MO cng cng tun theo 2 nguyn l (nguyn l Pauli, nguyn l bn
vng ) v qui tc Hund nh trong AO. im khc bit y l s phn b in t theo
mc nng lng xy ra kh phc tp . i vi cc nguyn t chu k 1 v cc nguyn t t
liti n nit thuc chu k 2, cc in t c phn b theo quy lut mc nng lng sau :
1S < 1S* < 2 S < 2S x = y < P < x = y < P
* < * * *
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MO
+ +
X
Xen ph?
AO AO s ls
+ + + +
+ X
AO
+
X
s ls
Hnh 4.9. S to thnh lin kt v
Tng t nh cc electron s, hnh dng my in t v mc nng lng xen ph
ca 2 electron p c biu din trn hnh 4.10 v 4.11.
MO
AO -
+ -
+
Tr
- + + - s *2Px
c
ng
2Px 2Px -
+
-
s 2Px
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AO MO
X
rt
Z
c
ng
2P z 2P z X
_ s ls
Nng l
1SA 1SB
E
-E
+ s ls
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AO MO AO AO MO AO
ng E s *x
2P p*x p*y 2P 2P 2P
Nng l
pz py sx
s *s s *s
2S 2S 2S 2S
ss ss
Hnh 4.13. Gin nng lng nguyn t v phn t ca cc nguyn t chu k 2
Trn c s ca cu hnh in t hoc gin nng lng ca phn t ngi ta tnh
c bc lin kt phn t (N) theo cng thc:
1
N= (n - n*) (4-3)
2
Trong : n - s in t nm orbital lin kt
n* - s in t nm orbital phn lin kt
Cn c vo gi tr bc lin kt phn t s so snh c bn ca cc phn t: i
vi cc phn t c to thnh t mt loi nguyn t, phn t c bc lin kt cng ln th
n cng bn.
4.4. CU TO PHN T
4.4.1. Phn t khng phn cc v phn cc
Ph thuc vo s phn b mt in t trong phn t, ngi ta chia phn t
thnh loi phn cc v khng phn cc.- Phn t khng phn cc l loi phn t trong
trng tm ca in tch dng trng vi trng tm ca in tch m . V d, cc phn H2,
N2, O2...
- Phn t phn cc l loi phn t trong trng tm ca in tch dng v in
tch m khng trng vi nhau. V d, cc phn t HCl, H2 O, C2H5OH... l nhng phn t
phn cc. phn cc ca phn t c xc nh bng i lng momen lng cc ()
v tnh theo n v Debai ( 1D = 0,33.10-29 C.m):
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= lq (4-4)
trong l - di phn cc
q - in tch
Momen lng cc ca phn t bng tng vect momen lng cc ca tt c cc
lin kt. Do vy, ph thuc vo cu to ca phn t, momen lng cc c th bng khng
(m = 0) hoc khc khng (m 0). V d, phn t CO2 c m = 0, phn t H2O c m=
1,84 D.
4.4.2. S phn cc ho phn t v ion
Di tc dng ca in trng ngoi, s phn b mt electron ca phn t, ion
thay i dn n lm thay i momen lng cc c gi l s phn cc ho.
+ -
+ + - -
+ -
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4.4.2.2. S phn cc ho nh hng
y l s phn cc ho gia cc phn t phn cc khi chng chuyn t trng thi
chuyn ng nhit hn lon sang trng thi sp xp trt t di tc dng ca in trng
ngoi (hnh 4.15).
+ - +
+ + -
- + -
- + -
Hnh 4.15. S phn cc ho nh hng
4.4.2.3. S phn cc ho tng h
y l s phn cc gia cc ion khi chng xch li gn nhau: ion ny gy ra s
phn cc ho i vi ion kia. Hin tng ny lm tng tnh cht cng ho tr ca ion v
do lm tng bn ca lin kt ion.
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4.4.4. Lin kt hyro:
Tn gi lin kt hyro xut pht t thc t loi lin kt ny c hnh thnh qua nguyn
t hyro. lin kt ny, nguyn t hyro lm cu ni gia hai nguyn t c bn knh nh
nhng c m in ln, trong mt bn l lin kt cng ho tr v bn kia l lc ht
tnh in. Nhng nguyn t c kh nng to lin kt hyro ln nht l N, O, F. V d, s
to thnh lin kt hyro ga cc phn t H2O, HF:
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* c im ca lc Van der Waals
- Khng c tnh chn lc v tnh bo ho.
- Nng lng tng tc ca lc Van der Waals tng i nh (khong di 40
kJ/mol).
- Gim nhanh khi khong cch gia cc phn t tng ln (t l vi r-6, trong r l
khong cch gia tm im 2 phn t).
- Tng ln khi kch thc v khi lng phn t tng.
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Chng 5
NHIT NG HO HC
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* H ho hc: h m trong c mt phn hoc tt c cc thnh phn ho hc tc
dng vi nhau c s thay i v bn cht ho hc. V d, Zn v H2SO4 cha trong cc
thu tinh.H h: c s trao i cht v trao i nhit vi mi trng.
* H kn: c s trao i nhit nhng khng trao i cht vi mi trng.
* H on nhit: C s trao i cht nhng khng c s trao i nhit vi mi
trng.
* H c lp: Khng c s trao i cht v khng c s trao i nhit vi mi
trng. Trn thc t h ny rt kh tn ti. V d, h gn ng cho trng hp ny l qu
trnh n ca mt qu bom. y, s cho v nhn nng lng gia h v mi trng xy
ra qu nhanh so vi s thay i nng lng ca h theo th gian.
Cc loi nng lng trao i: c nng, nhit nng, in nng, nng lng bc x.
n v: Jun (n v th nguyn h SI). 1J l cng do lc 1N thc hin trn qung
ng 1 m.
Nng lng gii phng ( pht nhit, to nhit, bc x nhit ) c du m (-).
Nng lng thu vo (hp th nhit, thu nhit) c du dng (+).
Trng thi l mt tp hp trc tip hay gin tip ca cc thng s trng thiThng
s trng thi l cc i lng: nhit T, p sut P, th tch V, khi lng m, thnh phn
ho hc... C 2 loi thng s trng thi: thng s dung v thng s cng :
* Thng s dung :
Thng s dung (ting Latinh, additio ngha l cng) - tnh cht ca h vt cht
c th tnh c t cc tnh cht ca cc thnh phn tng ng cu to nn n. V d,
khi lng phn t bng tng khi lng cc nguyn t; in tch ht nhn nguyn t
bng tng in tch ca cc proton...
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*Thng s cng :
Thng s cng khng c tnh cht cng tnh, khng ph thuc vo yu t dung . V
d, nhit ca nc (cng ) khng ph thuc vo th tch v khi lng ca n.
* Cn bng nhit ng:
Mt h trng thi cn bng nhit ng khi gi tr ca cc thng s trng mi
im u nh nhau v khng bin i theo thi gian.
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5.2. PHT BIU NGUYN L I NHIT NG HC :
Gi s ta c mt lng kh nm trong mt bnh kn c gn vi mt pitng v
nhn t bn ngoi mt nng lng Q ( hnh 5.1)
P
///////////////////////////
V
P
///////////////////////////
V2
V1
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QV = DU (5-2)
Vy nhit ng tch chnh bng s bin i ni nng ca h.
* Nhit bin i ng p:
Nhit bin i ng p l nhit lng thu vo hay thot ra ca h trong qua trnh
bin i ng p (P = const).
T (5-1a ): DU = Q - PDV, vi P = const, suy ra:
QP = DU + PDV
QP = (U2 - U1) + P(V2 - V1)
QP = (U2 - PV2) - (U1 - PV1)
t H = U + PV, ta c: QP = H2 - H1 = H (5-3)
i lng H c gi l Entanpi. Vy nhit ng p chnh bng s bin i
entanpi ca h.
Entanpi thng c biu th bng kJ/mol (hoc kcal/mol). Entanpi c o iu
kin: T = 298K v P = 1amt c gi l entanpi trng thi chun. S bin i entanpi
trng thi chun c k hiu l HO298.
Trong trng hp tng qut, s bin i entanpi ca h s l:
H = U + PV + VP
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QP = H = (eHE + qHQ) - (aHA + bHB)
n = (e + q) - (a + b)
Nu QP > 0 v QV > 0 th y l qu trnh (phn ng) thu nhit.
Nu QP < 0 v QV < 0 th y l qu trnh (phn ng) to nhit.
DH2 DH3
CO (k) + O2 (k)
Hnh 5.2. Cch thc to thnh phn t CO2
Nh vy theo nh lut Hess, ta c: H1 = H2 +H3
* H qu 1:
Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng thun bng hiu ng nhit ca phn ng nghch
nhng ngc du (hnh 5.3).
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Hthun
F2
Hthun + Hnghch = 0
F1
Hnghch
* Nhit chy:
Nhit chy ca mt cht l nhit lng thot ra khi t chy hon ton mt mol
cht thnh cc xit cao nht iu kin xc nh, c k hiu: DHc.
Nhit chy xc nh trng thi chun gi l nhit chy chun, c k hiu:
H0298,c.
n v: J/mol, cal/mol.
* H qu 3:
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nhit chy ca cc cht tham gia tr i
tng nhit chy ca cc cht to thnh.
V d, hiu ng nhit DH ca phn ng:
C2H4 + H2 = C2H6
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c tnh bng nhit chy nh sau:
C2H4(k) + 3O2(k) = 2CO2(k) + 2H2O(h) DH1,c
H2(k) + 1/2O2(k) = H2O(h) DH2,c
C2H6(k) + 7/2O2(k) = 2CO2(k) + 3H2O(h) DH3,C
Suy ra: DH = (DH1,c + DH2,c ) - DH3,c
DH4 DHNaCl
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5.5. S PH THUC CA HIU NG NHIT VO NHIT :
Nhit dung phn t ng tch (CV) l nhit lng cn thit nng nhit ca
mt mol cht nguyn cht ln 1K iu kin th tch khng i (V =const) v trong
khong nhit khng xy ra s chuyn pha.
U
CV = (5-7)
= [e T ,S (E ) + q T , S (Q )] [a T , S ( A ) + b T , S (B )]
Suy ra :
(E ) (Q ) ( A ) (B )
= e +q a + b
P P P
= [eC P (E ) + qC P (Q )] [aC P ( A ) + bC P (B )] = C P
P
2 2
1
d = 2 1 = C
1
P dT
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57
Trong :
CP = ao + a1T + a2T2 + .... = anTn (5-9)
an = an (cui) - an (u)
Suy ra:
2
2 = 1 + a n n d (5-10)
1
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- S trn ln 2 cht kh vo nhau nh ni trn c DH = 0.
Nh vy, nguyn l I ch th hin c tnh bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng,
cho php xc nh c nng lng DH ca cc phn ng nhng khng cho php xc
nh iu kin t din bin ca qu trnh v hng xy ra ca n. gii quyt vn
ny ngi ta a ra nguyn l II nhit ng hc.
5.6.1. Entropi :
1. Gi s c 2 cht kh He v Ar (tr, cng mt p sut v cng nhit ) c tch
ra khi nhau v cnh nhau - trng thi 1 (hnh 5.5a).
He
He Ar
Ar
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ny xc sut nhit ng ca h mi to thnh (W) khng phi bng tng m l bng tch
xc sut ban u ca cc h. V d, nu 2 h c xc sut nhit ng tng ng l W1 v
W2 th ta c:
W = W 1 . W2
V vy cn phi tm mt hm s xc sut sao cho khi ly cc gi tr xc sut nhn
vi nhau th s thu c gi tr ca hm bng tng cc gi tr cc hm tng ng vi xc
sut cng li vi nhau. S ph thuc ch c th biu din bng hm logarit. Hm s
logarit ny c gi l Entropi, k hiu l S:
S = klnW (5-11)
trong k l hng s Bozman: k = R/NO
Vy entropi hm logarit xc sut nhit ng ca h.
V ngha, entropi l s o mc hn lon ca h, tc l h c xu hng t din
bin t trng thi c trt t sang trng thi t c trt t hn.
S = S 2 S1 = K ln W2 K ln W1 = K ln WW12
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Entropi l mt thng s dung , n c gi tr bng tng entropi ca tt c cc
thnh phn ca h. Thng s cng tng ng vi entropi l nhit . Do vy, nhit
nng Q s l:
Q = S.T
Suy ra:
Q
S =
T (5-12)
Entropi ca h c tnh bng n v J/K .mol.
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S = (5-14)
T
Q 2
dT
S =
T
P
=
T
C P
T (5-15)
1
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S0 = klnW = kln1 = 0 (5-18)
Vy entropi ca cc cht nguyn cht di dng tinh th hon ho nhit
khng tuyt i bng khng.
5.8. TH NG NHIT - NG P :
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Da vo gi tr G c th tin on c chiu t din bin hoc khng t din
bin ca qu trnh:
- Qa trnh t din bin (phn ng t xy ra) l qu trnh gim entanpi t do:
G < 0
- Qa trnh khng t din bin (khng t xy ra) l qu trnh tng entanpi t do:
G > 0
- Qa trnh cn bng xy ra khi:
G = 0
Nh vy du ca DG xc nh chiu ca phn ng ho hc.
1. Nu H < 0 ( phn ng to nhit) v S > 0, suy ra G < 0, phn ng t din bin.
2. Nu H > 0 (phn ng thu nhit) v S < 0, suy ra G > 0, phn ng khng t xy ra.
3. Trong 2 trng hp cn li (H < 0, S < 0 v H > 0, DS > 0) du ca G ph thuc
vo quan h gia H v TS. Phn ng ch xy ra trong trng hp G < 0.
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Chng 6
NG HO HC
6.1. VN TC PHN NG HO HC
Trong cng thc trn, du (+) c s dng khi tnh theo cht to thnh sau phn
ng; du (-) khi tnh theo cht tham gia phn ng.
Trong cc phn ng ho hc, nng ca cc cht lun lun thay i nn thng ngi
ta hay s dng cng thc tnh vn tc tc thi:
dC
v = (6-2)
dt
V d, i vi phn ng tng qut:
aA + bB = eE + qQ
ta c vn tc tc thi ca phn ng l:
(6-3)
dC b dCB e dCE q dCQ
v= A = =+ =+
dt a dt a dt a dt
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6.2. CC YU T NH HNG N VN TC PHN NG
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Vn tc phn ng tnh theo cng thc Vant Hoff c gi tr gn ng. c gi tr
chnh xc hn, ngui ta xc nh vn tc phn ng theo phng trnh Arrhenius:
Ea
k = C e RT (6-7)
trong : k hng s vn tc
C hng s trc lu tha
Ea nng lng hot ho
6.2.3. Thuyt va chm hot ng :
Thc nghim cho thy vn tc phn ng khng phi ph thuc vo tn s va chm
(s va chm trong mt n v thi gian) gia cc phn t ca cc cht tham gia phn ng
m ch ph thuc vo tn s va chm gia cc phn t hot ng cao. l nhng phn
t c to thnh do s tng nng lng nhit ng ca phn t, s tng ni nng, s
phn ly thnh cc gc t do hoc cc ion. Nng lng cn thit cung cp cho cc phn t
c trong mt mol (s Avogadro) chuyn tt c chng thnh cc phn t hot ng c
gi l nng lng hot ho ca phn ng, c k hiu Ea. Ni cch khc n l nng lng
cn tiu tn chuyn phn t ca cc cht tham gia phn ng thnh phc cht hot ng
(hnh 6.1).
E (kJ/mol)
. ......................... phc cht hot ng
Ea
....... sn phm
DH > 0 (phn ng thu nhit)
. ...........................................
cht u DH < 0 (phn ng to nhit)
........ .sn phm
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6.2.4. nh hng ca xc tc n vn tc phn ng
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Hp cht AK d dng phn ng vi B to ra sn phm AB (hnh 6.2).
A...B
E
B...AK
A+B
2
A+B+K
AK AB
H
AB+K
H
Hnh 6.2. Gin nng lng ca phn ng c xc tc dng
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Chng 7
CN BNG HO HC V CN BNG PHA
7.1. CN BNG HO HC :
% [HI]
100
80
60
40
20
20 40 60 80 100 t (ph)
Hnh 7.1. S to thnh (1) v phn hu (2) ca HI theo thi gian
vn tc phn ng nghch: v 2 = k 2 [E ] [Q ]
e q
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k1 [] [B] = k 2 [E ] [Q ]
a b e q
Suy ra:
k1
=
[E ] [Q ] e q
k2 [ A ]a [B ]b
k1
T l l mt hng s c gi l hng s cn bng, k hiu l KC
k2
C =
[E ] [Q ]
e q
[A ]a [B ]b (7-1)
KC l hng s cn bng tnh theo nng M (mol/l). Trong thc t ngi ta cn s
dng cc loi hng s cn bng khc nh: cn bng tnh theo p sut KP, cn bng tnh
theo nng mol phn KN, cn bng tnh theo s mol ca cc cht tham gia v to thnh
trong phn ng Kn. Gia cc hng s cn bng ny c cc mi quan h sau:
K P = K C (RT )
n
( 7-2)
Ee Qq
P =
vi Aa Bb
trong n = (nE + nQ) - (nA + nB)
(7-3)
K P = K N P n
e q
NE NQ
N = a b
vi N A NB
ni
trong nng mol phn: Ni =
n A + n B + n E + nQ
n
P
KP = Kn (7-4)
n
i
e q
n E nQ
vi n = a b
nA nB
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Nu phn ng c n = 0 th cc hng s cn bng s bng nhau:
KP = KC = KN = Kn.
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Nh vy, tng nng ca mt trong cc cht ca trng thi cn bng, cn bng s
chuyn dch theo chiu lm gim cht . Gim nng ca mt trong cc cht ca trng
thi cn bng, cn bng s chuyn dch theo chiu lm tng cht .
d ln K
=
Suy ra: dT RT 2
(7-5)
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7.3.3. Nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng Le Chatelier
* Pha:
Tp hp tt c cc phn ng th ca h c thnh phn,tnh cht vt l, ho hc
ging nhau v c b mt phn chia vi cc phn khc ca h gi l pha.
V d, h nc v nc l h c 2 pha trong mt pha l nc lng v mt
pha l nc . H ny dc gi l h d th v c 2 pha; nc lng hoc nc l h
ng th v ch c mt pha.
* Cn bng pha:
Cn bng trong cc h d th m khng xy ra phn ng ho hc gia cc cu
t vi nhau nhng xy ra cc qu trnh bin i pha ca cc cu t c gi l cn bng
pha.
* Cu t:
Phn hp thnh l nhng hp cht ho hc ng nht ca h c th tch ra v tn
ti c lp bn ngoi h gi l cu t, c k hiu R.
V d, dung dch mui n c 2 cu t l H2O v NaCl (cc ion Na+, Cl-... khng
phi cu t ).
* S cu t c lp:
S nh nht cc cu t m t thnh phn ca tt c cc pha c trong h gi l
s cu t c lp, c k hiu K. K=R-q
S cu t c lp K c khi bng R nhng cng c khi khc R. Khi xt mt h m
trong khng xy ra s chuyn i ho hc ( cc cu t khng tc dng vi nhau) ta
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c: R = K. Trong v d dung dch mui n trn y R = K = 2. Mt khc, nu xt h m
trong xy cc tng tc ho hc th ta c R K. V d, i vi h phn ng:
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
ta c: R = 3, K c th l 1 hoc 2.
K=R-1=3-1=2
v bt k mt cu t no ca h cng c th xc nh c bng 2 cu t kia.
4,579 . ...............
O
hi (H)
A
0 t 0C
Hnh 7.2. Gin trng thi ca nc
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Trn hnh 7.2 cho thy mi mt min c gii hn bi cc ng cn bng pha,
tng ng vi mt pha xc nh (, lng, hi). S bc t do theo quy tc pha Gibbs trn
mi min l:
C=K-+2 = 1-1+2 = 2
C=K-+2 = 1-2+2 = 1
L H
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Chng 8
DUNG DCH
* H th:
Trong h ny ny ht pha phn tn c kch thc ht t 10-7 n 10-4 m. H ny
gm c huyn ph v nh tng, h ny khng bn.
- Huyn ph l h c to thnh bi pha phn tn th (cht rn) v mi trng phn tn
(cht lng ) . V d: Nc c
- Nh tng l h c to thnh t hai cht lng trong cht ny c phn b vo
trong cht kia . V d: Sa ng vt.
* H keo:
L h phn tn c cc ht pha phn tn c kch thc t 10-7 n 10 -9m. Nhng ht
ny khng b lng xung theo thi gian, i qua c giy lc v khng quan st c
bng knh hin vi thng thng...
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* H phn tn phn t :
L h phn tn c cc ht pha phn tn c kch thc bc phn t . y cht ho
tan c phn chia thnh cc phn t ring bit V d : cc dung dch tht ca ng,
ru, axeton...
* H phn tn ion:
Trong h ny cc ht pha phn tn tn ti di dng nhng ion ring bit . Trng
hp ny c c trng cho dung dch ca cc cht in li nh NaCl, KNO3, KCl... Kch
thc ca ht phn tn v ca mi trng phn tn l bng nhau.
* Dung mi:
Mt h ng th c ngha l cc tiu phn ca h c phn tn vo nhau di
dng phn t , nguyn t v ion..Tiu phn c trng thi khng thay i khi to thnh
dung dich c gi l dung mi. Trong trng hp dung dch c to thnh bng
phng php trn cht kh vi cht kh , cht lng vi cht lng , cht rn vi cht rn th
dung mi l tiu phn no c khi lng tri hn , cht cn li l cht tan. Cn c vo
trng thi tn ti, dung dch c chia thnh dung dch kh, dung dch lng, dung dch rn
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nhau theo bt k mi t l ( ging nh ru ho tan trong nc ) l nhng hp kim
nh: Ag-Cu; Cu-Ni; Mn-Fe; Ag-Au; Pt-Au...
Mt trong nhng c tnh quan trng ca dung dch l thnh phn ca n. Thnh
phn nh tnh cho bit v bn cht cc cu t ca dung dch cn thnh phn nh lng
cho bit mi cu t c cha trong dung dch vi nhng nng l bao nhiu .
Nng ca dung dch l lng cht tan c trong mt n v khi lng hoc mt
n v th tch dung dch hay trong mt n v khi lng dung mi.
C nhng cch biu din nng khc nhau v di y l mt s phng php
biu din thng c dng nhiu trong thc t:
* Nng phn trm:
Nng phn trm Ci l khi lng gam cht tan c trong 100 gam dung dch.
mi (8-1)
Ci = 100 (%)
m
* Nng molan:
Nng molan e l s mol cht tan i trong 1000 gam dung mi :
ni
= 1000 (molan)
m (8-2)
Trong : - ni l s mol cht tan trong m gam dung mi.
* Nng mol:
Nng mol M l s mol cht tan c trong 1 lt dung dch.
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V d: dung dch HCl 1M c ngha l trong 1 lt dung dch c 1 mol HCl
* Nng ng lng:
Nng ng lng N l s ng lng gam ca cht tan trong 1 lt dung dch.
V d: dung dch KOH 1N c ngha l trong lt dung dch c 1 ng lng gam KOH.
Trong phng php nh phn ngi ta thng s dng rng ri biu thc v nh
lut ng lng sau y:
Nu cho VA ml dung dch A nng NA tc dng va vi VB ml dung dch B
vi nng NB th ta c:
NA.VA= NB.VB (8-3)
ni n
Ni = = i
n1 + n2 + n3 + L ni (8-4)
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+ -
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
+
- +
- + - +
+
+
+
Cl Cl
+
Na Na +
- +
Na + + -
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
Na + Cl- Na+ Cl-
-
-
+ -
-
-
+
+
+
+
-
-
- +
Cl- + -
+
Cl- Cl-
+
Na + Na+
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
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Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp s ho tan ca cht rn vo cht lng xy ra
vi s thu nhit (Hht > 0) . V d s ho tan ca cc mui NaCl, NH4OH vo nc. iu
ny c gii thch bi gi tr ca TS > Hht
8.1.4.2. ho tan
Nu ta cho mt cht A ho tan vo trong mt cht B mt iu kin xc nh th
qu trnh t xy ra khng thun nghch cho n khi h t trng thi cn bng (G =0).
Dung dch thu c ny gi l dung dch bo ho. Nng ca dung dch bo ho c gi
tr khng i v c gi l ho tan.Thng ho tan c k hiu s l s gam cht
tan trong 100 gam dung mi
Cho ti nay cha c mt inh lut tng qut v ho tan nhng nhn chung
ho tan ca cc cht khc nhau th khc nhau v ph thuc vo nhit . Mt khc mt
mc nht nh c th p dng qui tc kinh nghim : cc cht c cu to phn t ging
nhau th d ho tan trong nhau (cc cht khng phn cc hoc t phn cc th d ho tan
trong dung mi khng phn cc ; cc cht phn cc th d ho tan trong dung mi phn
cc.
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Mt khc khi nhit tng th ho tan ca cht lng vo trong cht lng c th
tng (ho tan nc vo ete) hoc c th gim (ete vo nc).
CaSO4
160 2.2
140 2.0
120 1.8
O3
100 1.6
KN
80 1.4
60 l 1.2
4C
NHaCl
40 N 1.0
O4
20 CuS lO3 Cl2 0.8
KC Hg
0 0.6
20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
o o
Nhi
t
, C Nhi
t
, C
a b
ho tan ca hu ht cht rn vo cht lng tng ln khi nhit tng (Hnh 8.2
a ). Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp khi nhit tng ho tan ca cht rn gim
(Hnh 8.2 b)
Khi nhit gim th ho tan ca cht rn gim. Gi s nhit t1 ho tan
ca cht rn l s1 v nhit t2 l s2 . Vy khi nhit gim t t2 n t1 th c mt
lng cht rn a = s2 - s1 kt tinh li . Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp nu ta lm
ngui tht cn thn dung dch bo ho ca mt s cht th khi n nhit gim n t1 ta
khng thu c mt lng cht rn a kt tinh li. Dung dch nh vy gi l dung dch qu
bo ho - dung dch c nng ln ho tan nhit .
Dung qu bo ho khng bn do ch cn khuy nh hoc cho vo dung dch ny
mt mt vi tinh th mm kt tinh th lng cht rn a s kt tinh li v dung dch s tr
thnh bo ho.
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8.2. TNH CHT CA DUNG DCH CHT KHNG IN LI
10 1
= 2 hay = 2 (8-11)
10 10
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Cn P/ P10 gi l gim tng i p sut hi ca dung mi v dng (8-11)
nh lut Raoult c th pht biu :
gim tng i p sut hi ca dung mi trn dung dch long khng in li
bng phn mol ca cht tan trong dung dch
i vi dung dch rt long , n2 << n1 , (8-11) c th vit :
n2 n m
= 2 = 2 = (8-12)
10
n1 + n2 n1 n1 M
Trong :
m - khi lng cht tan c trong n1 mol dung mi
M : Khi lng mol ca cht tan
dng (8-12) nh lut Raoult c th pht biu :
gim tng i p sut hi ca dung mi trn dung dch long khng in li t
l vi s mol ca cht ho tan c trong mt lng dung mi xc nh
8.2.3. gim nhit ng c v tng nhit si ca dung dch long cht
tan khng bay hi:
t2
O t1
O'
O''
t,0C
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Bt c pha lng no nguyn cht hay dung dch cng bt u si nhit m ti
p sut hi bo ho ca n bng p sut ngoi v ng c nhit m ti p sut
hi ca n bng p sut ca tinh th cht rn ca pha lng
Khi ta cho vo dung mi 1 cht tan khng bay hi th p sut hi ca dung mi
trn dung dch s gim xung dn n lm tng nhit si v lm gim nhit ng
c ca dung dch (so vi dung mi nguyn cht )
Trn hnh (8.3 ) biu din s ph thuc p sut hi ca dung mi nguyn cht (H2O - OA)
v dung dch (O A,O A ) vo nhit . T gin ta thy dung dch ng c nhit
thp hn v si nhit cao hn so vi dung mi nguyn cht . Gi tr nh lng
lng ca s ph thuc c Raoult thit lp:
T = k . e (8-13)
T S = k S . e (8-14)
trong :
T ( gim nhit ng c) = T(dung mi) - T (dung dch)
Ts ( tng nhit si) = Ts (dung dch) - Ts (dung mi)
k , kS - hng s nghim ng v hng s nghim si;
e - nng molan (s mol cht tan trong 1000 gam dung mi).
Nu gi m l khi lng gam cht tan c trong D gam dung mi , M khi lng
mol cht tan th (8.13) v (8.14) c dng:
Td = k d m . 1000
MD (8-15)
TS = k S m . 1000
MD (8-16)
Phng php xc nh M da vo (8-15) hoc (8-16) c gi l php nghim
lnh hoc php nghim si
y l nhng phng php thc nghim c s dng rng ri trong thc t.
* Th nghim 1:
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Gi s cho hp cht CuSO4.5H2O tip xc vi nc. Cc phn t ca cht tan s
khuych tn vo dung mi cn cc phn t dung mi s khuych tn theo chiu ngc
li: hng khuych tn ca phn t cc hp cht xy ra theo chiu t ni c nng cao
n ni c nng thp. Kt qu ca s khuych tn hai chiu dn n lm cn bng
nng trong tt c th tch dung dch.
* Th nghim 2:
Nu ta nhng bnh nghim 1 ng dung dch ng c y l mt mng bn thm
(mng ch cho dung mi i qua cn cht tan khng i qua c) vo cc nc 2 (hnh
8.4).
2 h
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Nu n2 l s mol cht tan c trong th tch V ca dung dch , m l s gam cht tan
c trong th tch v M l khi lng phn t cht tan ta c :
nRT mRT
Pt = = (8-18)
V MV
Vy nh lut Vant Hoff c th pht biu:
p sut thm thu ca dung dch long c gi tr bng p sut m s mol cht tan
c c nu nh trng thi kh l tng n chim mt th tch bng th tch V ca dung
dch v cng mt nhit T nh dung dch.
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nh lng v tnh cht bt thng ca dung dch cht in li Van't Hoff a
vo cc cng thc (8-11, 8-13, 8-14, 8-17) tha s hiu chnh i gi l h s Van't Hoff.
Nh vy i vi dung dch cht in li ta c:
p' p
0
= i 0 = i N2
p1 p1
t' = ik.C
t's = iks.C
P' = ic2RT
Suy ra:
p ' t ' t ' s '
i= = = = (8-19)
p t t s
Nh vy, i vi dung dch cht in li ta c i >1, dung dch cht khng in li i=1.
ngha vt l ca h s Van't Hoff.
S phn t c trong dung dch (8-20)
I=
S phn t ho tan
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2. S in li ca hp cht phn cc
V d: S ho tan ca HCl vo H2O (hnh 8.5 ) y di tc dng ca H2O phn
t HCl tr thnh phn cc hn v dn dn chuyn thnh ion.
b
A B
Cation Anion
Hnh 8.5 : S qu trnh hyrat ho v phn ly ca phn t phn cc dng HCl
* in li:
in li a l t s gia s phn t phn li trn s phn t ho tan.
Nu tnh theo nng mol th:
x x
= hoc = .100% (8-21)
n n
Trong :
x - s mol phn t cht tan phn li;
n - s mol phn t cht tan c trong dung dch.
T (8-20) ta nhn thy 0 1 hoc 0 100%.
Nh vy i vi cht khng in li = 0. i vi cc cht in li thng chia
thnh 3 loi:
- Cht in li mnh > 30%
- Cht in li trung bnh a trong khong 2-30%
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- Cht in li yu < 2%.
* Hng s in li:
i vi cht in li yu c th vn dng nh lut tc dng khi lng tnh hng
s cn bng K.
V d, hng s cn bng ca axt axtic:
K=
[H ] [CH COO ]
+
3
_
[CH 3 COOH ]
Hng s cn bng ion trong dung dch cht in li gi l hng s in li. i vi
cht in li yu K khng ph thuc vo nng dung dch m ch ph thuc vo nhit .
*Quan h gia in li v hng s cn bng:
Gi s trong v d trn dung dch axt axtic c nng C mol/lit v in li a,
ti thi im cn bng ta c:
2
K= .C (8-22)
1-
Phng trnh (8-22) l biu thc ton hc n gin nht ca nh lut pha long
Ostwald. Theo (8-22) ta thy nu a tng th K tng, do mun K = const th C phi
gim. Tc phi lm long dung dch. i vi cht in li yu a c gi tr nh 1-a tnh gn
ng bng 1 suy ra (8-22) c dng:
K = 2.C (8-23)
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8.3.1.5. Phng php xc nh in li
in thng c xc nh t dn in. i vi dung dch long cht in li
yu:
a=
Trong :
- dn in ng lng: dn in ca mt ng lng gam cht tan c
trong mt th tch V cm3 vng gia 2 in cc t cch nhau 1cm.
- dn in ng lng gii hn khi dung dch c lm long n v
cng (C 0; V )
in li cng c th xc nh qua mi quan h ph thuc ln nhau gia a v i.
Gi s s mol cht in li trong mt th tch l N, s ion do mt phn t phn li l
n th ta c s ion trong dung dch l naN, s mol cht in li khng phn li (N-aN), s
phn t c trong dung dch (N-aN + naN). Theo (8-20) ta c
N N + nN
i =
N
i 1
Suy ra: = (8-24)
n 1
Trong i xc nh bng thc nghim theo (8-19) ri thay vo (8-24) s tm c a.
Hu ht cc cht in li u biu hin hoc tnh axt hoc tnh baz. Tuy nhin cho
n nay cha c mt nh ngha tng qut mang tnh cht c trng cho mi quan h
tng tc axt - baz trong mi loi dung mi. Do vy cc thuyt axt - baz sau y ch
cp n trng hp dung mi l nc.
Axt l hp cht c cha nguyn t hyro, khi phn li trong nc cho ion H+
Baz l hp cht c cha nhm OH, khi phn li trong nc cho ion HO-
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Quan im trn ca Arrhenuis gii thch tt c nhiu vn thc nghim.
l dung dch cc axt (hoc baz) u c chung mt s tnh cht v u c cha H+ (hoc
HO-); quan h tng tc axt - baz thc cht l phn ng trung ho:
H+ + HO- = H2O
dn in v tnh xc tc ca cc dung dch bin i t l vi ion H+.
Tuy nhin thuyt axt - baz ca Arrhenuis c mt s mt hn ch. l phn t
NH3 khng cha HO-, phn t CO2 khng cha H+ nhng khi ho tan trong nc NH3 th
hin tnh baz, CO2 th hin tnh axt. axt v baz c th phn ng vi nhau m khng
cn phn li thnh ion . V d, HCl khan phn ng vi NaOH khan.
Mt s hp cht in li c cha hyr khi phn li trong dung dch ny th hin tnh
axt nhng trong dung dch kia th hin tnh baz.
V d: Anilin trong amnic th hin tnh axt:
Theo Bronsted, axt l cht c kh nng cho proton cn baz l cht c kh nng
kt hp proton.
Qu trnh ion ho l s tng tc ca cht tan vi dung mi trong dung mi c
th ng vai tr hoc axt hoc baz.
V d:
NH3 + H2O NH +4 + HO-
baz axt
HCl + NH3 NH +4 + Cl-
axt baz
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Nh vy nu i lc n proton ca dung mi ln hn cht tan th dung mi th
hin tnh axt cn nu nh hn th th hin tnh baz.
Tng t nh phn ng xi ho - kh phn ng ca cht ho tan vi dung mi
c xem nh l tng ca hai qu trnh axt - baz lin hp (cp axt - baz lin hp). V
d:
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
axt 1 baz 2 axt 2 baz 1
HCl Cl- v H3O+ H2O l cc cp axt - baz lin hp. so snh mnh,
yu ca cc cp axt - baz ngi ta thng ly cp H3O+ H2O lm chun gi l thang
axt - baz i vi nc.
8.4.3. Tch s ion ca nc - ch s hyr ( pH)
H 2O 5,5.10 6 1 , m 1
C = = = 10 4 mol.m 3 = 10-7 M
H O+ + HO 4 1
(350 + 198)10 .m .mol 2 1
3
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Suy ra: pH = 7 mi trng trung tnh
pH < 7 mi trng l axt
pH > 7 mi trng l baz
Mt cch tng t, ngi ta nh ngha:
pOH = -lg [HO-] (8-26)
V [H3O+] [HO-] =
Suy ra: pH + pOH = p = 14 (8-27)
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Xt mi quan h gia pKa v pKb ca mt cp axt - baz ta c:
i vi axt HA:
HA + H2O A- + H3O+
Ka =
i vi baz lin hp A- ca n: A- + H2O HA + HO-
Kb =
Tch: Ka.Kb = . = [H3O+][HO-] =
Suy ra: pKa + pKb = 14 (8-32)
Nu axt HA tng i mnh (pKa b) th baz lin hp ca n A- yu v ngc li.
* Axit mnh:
Phn ng phn li axt mnh (phn li hon ton ):
HA + H2O = H3O+ + A-
Phn ng phn li nc: 2H2O H3O+ + HO-
Nu b qua cc ion H3O+ do nc phn li ta c:
[H3O+] = [A-] = Ca
Ca l nng mol ca axt
Suy ra: pH = -lg[H3O+] = -lgCa (8-33)
* Axt yu:
Phn ng phn li axt yu:
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
Phn ng phn li nc:
2H2O H3O+ + HO-
Hng s phn li:
[H 3O + ][A ]
Ka =
[HA ]
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Phn ng phn li y ch yu l:
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
Do [H3O+] = [A-]
Nu Ca l nng axt th:
Ca = [HA] + [A-]
suy ra: [HA] = Ca - [H3O+]
Do :
[H 3O + ]
Ka =
C a [H 3 O + ]
K a K a2 + 4K a C a
Suy ra: [H3O+] = (8-34)
2
Nu axt rt yu v nng axt khng qu nh [A-] << [HA]
C th vit [HA] Ca , ta c:
[H 3O + ]2
Ka =
ca
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* Baz yu:
Phn ng phn li ca dung dch baz yu
2H2O H3O+ + HO- (1)
B + H3O+ BH+ + H2O (2)
Cng (1) v (2) ta c: B + H2O BH+ + HO-
Do hng s phn li:
[BH + ][HO ]
Kb =
[B ]
Suy ra:
K b K 2b + 4K b C b
[HO-] = (8-37)
2
Nu baz rt yu v nng baz khng qu nh [BH+] << [B] th c th vit [B]
Cb v:
[HO ]2
Kb = Suy ra: [HO-] = K bC b (8-38)
Cb
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chuyn dch v bn phi. Kt qu l sn phm ca s thu phn c th c tnh axt hoc
baz dn n s thay i pH ca dung dch. Trong thc t thng gp ba trng hp
mui b thu phn sau:
1. Nu mui c to thnh bi baz mnh v axt yu nh Na2CO3, K2CO3,
CH3COONa, KCN... th khi thu phn dung dch mui s c pH >7.
V d: CH3COONa = Na+ + CH3COO-
2H2O ' H3O+ + HO-
CH3COO- + H3O+ ' CH3COOH + H2O
S kt hp CH3COO- vi H3O+ to thnh cht in li yu CH3COOH lm chuyn
dch cn bng in li ca nc, tc l lm tng HO-. Do vy dung dch c tnh baz (pH >
7). Trong trng hp ny, trnh thu phn cn phi cho thm kim. pH ca dung dch
mui loi ny c tnh nh cch tnh pH ca dung dch baz yu (8-37; 8-38)
3. Nu mui c to thnh bi baz yu v axt mnh nh NH4Cl, NH4NO3, AlCl3,
CuSO4... th khi thu phn dung dch mui s c pH < 7.
V d: NH4Cl = + Cl-
2H2O ' HO- + H3O+
NH 4+ + HO- ' NH4OH
S kt hp NH 4+ vi HO- to thnh cht in li yu NH4OH lm chuyn dch cn
bng ca nc v bn phi lm tng ion H3O+, do vy dung dch c tnh axt (pH < 7).
Trong trng hp ny, trnh thy phn th cn phi cho thm axt. pH ca dung dch
mui loi ny c tnh theo cng thc tnh pH ca axt yu (8-34; 8-35).
3. Nu mui c to thnh bi mt baz yu v mt axt yu nh NH4CN, (NH4)2S,
Al2S3, (CH3COO)3Fe... th khi thu phn dung dch mui s c 7 pH 7 tu thuc vo
mi tng quan gia mnh yu ca cc axt - baz c to thnh trong dung dch.
V d: CH3COONH4 + H2O D CH3COOH + NH4OH
K 1,76.10-5 1,79.10-5
Hng s in li ca CH3COOH v NH4OH gn nh nhau nn dung dch
CH3COONH4 c pH = 7.
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8.5. CHT CH TH MU
[HCt m ]
Suy ra: [H3O+] = Ka.
[Ct m ]
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Bng 8.1: Khong chuyn mu ca mt s cht ch th mu
pH 0 3,1 4,4 7 8 9 10 14
da
Metyl da cam hng
cam vng
Qu tm xanh
Trong : v1 = K1.S
v2 = K2.S (aAg, aCl )
K1, K2 - hng s
S - din tch b mt cht rn
Ti thi im cn bng v1 = v2
K1S = K2S a Ag.aCl-
K1
Suy ra : = aAg + a Cl
K2
Tch s ho tan T l hng s khng c ngha nng ca cc ion trong dung dch
bo ho cng l hng s. V d nu trong trng hp trn ta thm HCl vo dung dch th
nng ion Cl- s tng ln. Ti thi im ny ta c:
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[Ag+] [Cl-] > TAgCl
gi tr [Ag+][Cl-] = TAgCl th phi gim nng ion Cl-, ngha l cn bng
chuyn dch theo chiu v2 : (Cl- + Ag+ AgCl),chiu to kt ta AgCl .
Vy mt cht in li t tan ch c th kt ta khi tch s nng ion ca n ln hn
tch s ho tan.
Ngc li nu gim nng ca ion bn phi, v d Ag+ th lc :
[Ag+] [Cl-] < TAgCl
V cn bng s chuyn dch theo hng v1: (AgCl Ag+ + Cl-), hng ho tan
kt ta.
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8.7.2. Cu to mixen ca dung dch keo
Cl-
Cl- Cl-
Cl-
Cl - Cl-
FeO+
+
O
O+
Cl- Cl-
Fe
Fe
FeO + +
Cl-
Cl- FeO
Q
Cl-
FeO [Fe(OH)3]m Cl-
FeO+
+
Nh
n
Ha
Cl-
t keo
Cl-
Fe
O Fe
+ O+
FeO +
Cl-
FeO
Cl-
Cl -
+
n
Cl-
i xe
M
Cl-
Cl - Cl -
Cl-
nhn lp b hp ph lp khuych tn
ht keo
mixen
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- Cc ht keo c kch thc tng i ln so vi kch thc ca phn t v ion nn
khi i qua mng bong bng ng vt th chng b gi li. Tnh cht ny thng c s
dng lm sch keo.
Khi chiu mt chm tia sng qua dung dch keo th s quan st thy mt vng nh
sng trong dung dch. Hin tng ny c gi l hiu ng Tinan (hnh 8.7 H). Hiu
ng ny c gy ra do s tn x ca cc ht keo trong dung dch. Nh tnh cht ny m
c th quan st c cc ht keo di knh siu hin vi.
Nhng tnh cht ca dung dch keo nh p sut thm thu, gim p sut hi bo
ho, tng nhit si, gim nhit ng c u th hin yu hn so vi dung
dch tht. iu ny c gii thch bi nu cng mt nng mol bng nhau th s phn
t c trong mt n v th tch ca dung dch tht s ln hn dung dch keo.
Tt c cc h keo c chia thnh hai nhm ln: Keo a lng v keo k lng.
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Keo k lng (liophob) l keo hu nh khng hp ph cc phn t ca mi trng
phn tn (nu mi trng nc th gi l keo k nc - hyrophob). bn ca keo b
nc c quyt nh bi s tch in cng du ca cc ht keo. Cc keo ca cc hp cht
kim loi nh Au, Ag, Cu, Pt... l nhng keo k nc. Trong v d trn keo AgI v
Fe(OH)3 l keo k nc.
- lm gim bn ca cc dung dch keo th ngi ta tm cch ph v lp v
hyrat ca keo a nc hoc lm trung ho in tch ca keo k nc v lc xy ra s
kt ta keo - s ng t keo.
S ng t keo c th thc hin bng cch cho thm vo dung dch keo mt cht
in li, trn dung dch keo vi mt dung dch keo khc tch in tri du hoc un nng
cc dung dch keo.
S ng t keo c th xy ra thun nghch hoc bt thun nghch. Nu cc ht keo
kt ta khi tip xc vi nc li chuyn thnh dung dch keo th l s ng t thun
nghch, cn nu khng chuyn thnh dung dch keo th gi l s ng t bt thun nghch.
Trong mt s trng hp c th chuyn mt kt ta keo bt thun nghch thnh
thun nghch bng cch cho thm mt lng nh cht in li vo nc. Hin tng ny
c gi l s pepti ho.
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Chng 9
PHN NG OXI HO KH V IN HO
9.2.1. Th in cc
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Kt qu l electron cha trong kim loi d (kim loi tch in m), nc cha
cation kim loi (tch in dng) v do lm xut hin mt lc ht tnh in trn ranh
gii gia kim loi v cht lng (hnh 9.1). Ngi ta ni y xut hin mt lp in tch
kp v hiu in th trn b mt ny c gi l th in cc.
Zn H2O
2e 2e
O Cu2+ O
Zn Cu
Cu2+ +2eCu
Zn-2eZn 2+
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Hai in cc km v ng c nhng vo 2 dung dch mui ZnSO4 v CuSO4
tng ng. Ni hai dung dch bng mt ng cha cht in li bo ho (KCl, NaCl...). Khi
ni hai in cc bng mt dy dn kim loi th do th in cc gia hai cc khc nhau
nn dng electron s chuyn dch t anot (cc km cho electron) sang catot (cc ng
nhn electron).
Vy iu kin cn thit cho mt nguyn t ganvani hot ng l hiu in th
gia hai in cc. Hiu in th ny c gi l sut in ng (S).
Mt nguyn t ganvani c k hiu:
(-) ZnZn2+ Cu2+Cu(+)
Trong vch n biu th ranh gii phn cch gia in cc vi dung dch, vch
kp ranh gii gia cc dung dch, (-) v (+) l du ca cc in cc.
Pt
H2
-
H+2 SO4
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B
Dng electron
Pt Cu
H2
H2SO4 CuSO4
KCl
H2
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Ngc li trn s hnh 9.4 ca pin
(+) PT, H2H3O+ Zn2+ Zn (-)
Vi phn ng to dng:
Zn + 2H3O+ = Zn2+ + H2 - + H2O
c dng in i t phi qua tri, suy ra:
oZn 2 + / Zn = -0,763V
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Bng 9.1.Th chun ca mt s phn ng in cc trong mi trng nc 250C
K hiu in cc Phn ng in cc (vn)
Li+ Li Li+ + e D Li -3,045
K+ K K+ + e D K -2,925
Rb+ Rb Rb+ + e D Rb -2,925
Cs+ Cs Cs+ + e D Cs -2,923
Ca2+ Ca Ca2+ + 2e D Ca -2,870
Na+ Na Na+ + e D Na -2,714
Mg2+ Mg Mg2+ + 2e D Mg -2,370
Be2+ Be Be2+ + 2e D Be -1,850
Al3+ Al Al3+ + 3e D Al -1,660
Mn2+ Mn Mn2+ + 2e D Mn -1,180
Zn2+ Zn Zn2+ + 2e D Zn -0,763
Cr3+ Cr Cr3+ + 3e D Cr -0,740
Fe2+ Fe Fe2+ + 2e D Fe -0,440
Cr3+,Cr2+ Pt Cr3+ + e D Cr2+ -0,410
PbSO4 Pb PbSO4 + 2e D Pb + SO42- -0,356
Co2+ Co Co2+ + 2e D Co -0,277
Ni2+ Ni Ni2+ + 2e D Ni -0,250
Sn2+ Sn Sn2+ + 2e D Sn -0,136
Pb2+ Pb Pb2+ + 2e D Pb -0,126
H3O+ H2 ,Pt 2H3O+ + 2e D H2 + 2H2O 0(theo qui c)
Cu2+,Cu+ Pt Cu2+ + e D Cu+ +0,153
Cu2+ Cu Cu2+ + 2e D Cu +0,337
OH- O2, Pt 1/2O2 + H2O +2e = 2OH- +0,401
Cu+ Cu Cu+ + e D Cu+ +0,52
I- I2, Pt I2 + 2e D 2 I- +0,536
Fe3+ ,Fe2+ Pt Fe3+ + e D Fe2+ +0,771
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Hg2+ Hg Hg2+ + 2e D 2Hg +0,798
Ag+ Ag Ag+ + e D Ag +0,799
Hg2+ Hg Hg2+ + 2e D Hg2+ +0,854
Hg2+,Hg22+ Pt 2Hg2+ + 2e D Hg22+ +0,91
Br- Br2,Pt Br2 + 2e D 2Br- +1,066
Mn2+,H3O+ MnO2 ,Pt MnO2 + 4H+ +2e D Mn2+ + 2H2O +1,236
Cr2O72- ,Cr3+ Pt Cr2O7- + 14H+ +6e D 2Cr3+ +7H2O +1,33
Cl- Cl2,Pt Cl2 + 2e D 2Cl- +1,359
Pb2+ PbO2,Pb PbO2 + 4H+ +2e D Pb2+ + 2H2O +1,455
Au3+ Au Au3+ + 3e D Au +1,50
MnO4-, H3O,Mn2+ Pt MnO4- + 4H+ +3e D Mn2+ +2H2O +1,51
Ce4+,Ce3+ Pt Ce4+ + e D Ce3+ +1,61
Au+ Au Au+ + e D Au +1,70
F- F2,Pt F2 + 2e D 2F- +2,87
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V d: oZn 2 + / Zn = -0,763V v = + 0,799V
nn phn ng xy ra l:
Zn + 2Ag+ = Zn2+ + 2Ag
Qua nhn xt ny suy ra ch nhng kim loi no c th in cc tiu chun nh
hn khng mi y c hyro ra khi dung dch axt long.
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Nh vy phn ng xi ho kh ch c th t xy ra khi E > 0 - tc l DGT <0 (iu
kin t din bin ca qu trnh). Sut in ng c tnh bng cng thc:
S = el - eb (9-7)
Trong : el - th in cc cp oxi ho kh dng hn
eb - th in cc cp oxi ho kh m hn
Gi tr th in cc ca cc cp oxi ho kh trong dung dch nc c tnh theo
cng thc (9.3) v (9.4). Trng hp phn ng in cc xy ra trong mi trng axt hoc
baz th trong phng trnh Nernst s c mt ca [H3O+] hoc [HO-]
V d, i vi phn ng:
MnO-4 + 5e + 8H3O+ = Mn2+ + 12H2O
Ta c:
0,059 [MnO 4 ][H 3O + ]8
MnO ,H O+ ,M2 + / Pt = oMnO ,H O+ ,M2 + + lg
4 3 n 4 3 n / Pt
5 [M 2n+ ]
Vi in cc kh HO-/O2, Pt
O2 + H2O + 2e = 2HO-
1/ 2
0,059 PO 2
Ta c: HO = o
HO / O2 , pt
+ lg
/ O2 , Pt
2 [ HO ] 2
Ta c cc phn ng in cc:
Cu2+ + 2e = Cu oCu2 + / Cu = +0,337V (1)
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Zn - 2e = Zn2+ o = + 0,763V
Chiu phn ng:
Cu2+ + Zn Cu + Zn2+ E = 1,10V
V d 2: Xt chiu ca phn ng
2Cu2+ + 4I- = 2CuI + I2
Bit: oCu2 + / Cu + = + 0,17V ; o2 I / I 2 = + 0,54V
v TCuI = 10-12
Theo bi ra nu ch xt theo th kh tiu chun o 2 I / I2
> o
Cu 2 + / Cu +
th phn ng xy ra
theo chiu
I2 + 2CuI 2Cu2+ + 4I-
Trn thc t do c s to thnh CuI t tan lm nng Cu+ gim dn n th ca
cp Cu 2 + / Cu +
thay i
[Cu 2 + ]
Cu2 + / Cu + = oCu2 + / Cu + + 0,059lg
[Cu + ]
TCuI
Thay [Cu+] = ta c
[I ]
[Cu 2 + ][I ]
Cu2 + / Cu + = 0,17 + 0,059lg
TCuI
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nFE o nE o
lnK = hay lgK = (9-8)
RT 0,059
Trong : Eo - th in cc tiu chun
n - s electron trao i trong phn ng.
9.3.1. in phn
Na+
e-
S Cl- S
Nao Clo
K' A'
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ng thi trn anot xy ra phn ng oxi ho cn Cl- bng nng lng ca ngun
in:
2Cl- - 2e = Cl2
hiu c r hn cc quy lut xy ra trn catot v anot, cn lm quen vi cc
khi nim s phn cc in cc, th phn hu v qu th.
9.3.2. S phn cc
Khi dng in i qua ranh gii phn chia in cc - dung dch th lm cho trng
thi in ca in cc thay i. Hin tng gi l s phn cc in cc. nu s thay
i th in cc dch chuyn v pha dng hn so vi th cn bng th gi l s phn cc
anot v ngc li - s phn cc catot.
S phn cc in cc c chia thnh cc loi nh: phn cc nng , phn cc ho hc,
phn cc in ho.
S phn cc nng sinh ra bi s bin i nng cn lp gn b mt in
cc khi c mt ca dng in i qua. Trong trng hp ny th ca in cc anot tng
(tr thnh dng hn) do nng ca ion kim loi ho tan tng ln, tri li th in cc
catot gim (tr thnh m hn) do nng ion trn b mt ca n gim.
S phn cc ho hc sinh ra do phn ng gia mi trng hoc cht in li vi vt
liu lm in cc khi c dng in i qua lm bin i tnh cht ca b mt in cc dn
n s thay i th.
S phn cc in ho c sinh ra do dng electron (n catot ni vi cc m v
ri anot ni vi cc dng ca ngun in) khng i qua c dung dch in li khi c
in p gia 2 cc cha t c mt gi tr cn thit lm xut hin mt hiu in th
ngc chiu vi chiu ca ngun in ngoi.
9.3.3. Th phn hu
Nh ni trn y, s in phn ch bt u xy ra mt in p hon ton xc
nh. in p ti thiu gia hai in cc s in phn bt u xy ra gi l th phn
hu (k hiu eph). Th phn hu c xc nh bng thc nghim. Trn bng 9.2 l th
phn hu ca mt s cht in phn.
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Bng 9.2. Th phn hu mt s cht in phn vi nng cation 1g-ion/lit
Cht in Cht in
eph(V) Cht in phn eph(V) eph(V)
phn phn
HNO3 1,69 NaNO3 2,15 AgNO3 0,70
H2SO4 1,67 Na2SO4 2,21 CuSO4 1,49
H3PO4 1,70 HCl 1,31 ZnSO4 2,35
NaOH 1,69 HBr 0,94 NiCl2 1,85
KOH 1,67 HI 0,52 NiSO4 2,09
9.3.4. Qu th
Hai qu trnh in ho (mt xy ra trong nguyn t ganvani v mt trong in
phn) u c chung mt bn cht. l phn ng oxi ho in cc. im khc nhau ca
hai qu trnh ny l chng xy ra theo hng khc nhau. Do vy cho s in phn bt
u xy ra, v mt l thuyt ch cn t mt in p c gi tr bng S ca nguyn t
ganvani tng ng nhng ngc chiu.
V d: S ca nguyn t ganvani:
(-) Ni| Ni+2 2Cl-| Cl2 (+)
Vi oNi 2 + / Ni = -0,250V; o2 Cl / Cl 2 = + 1,359V tnh theo cng thc (9-7) l:
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in phn nng chy thng c s dng iu ch cc kim loi hot ng nh
liti, natri, canxi... t cc mui clorua tng ng. Cc mui ny c nhit nng chy thp
hn cc mui khc. i a s cc mui ny trng thi nng chy tn ti di dng ion
c kh nng di chuyn tng t nh ion ca cc dung dch. V d di y l s in
phn nng chy canxi clorua:
CaCl2 = Ca+ + 2Cl-
(-) Katt: Ca+ + 2e = Ca
(+) Ant: 2Cl- = Cl2 + 2e
9.3.5.2. in phn dung dch
Trong dung dch nc ngoi ion cc cht in li cn c cc ion phn li ca nc
H3O+ v HO-. Do vy khi thit lp mt in p gia hai in cc th ion H3O+ cng vi
cation kim loi s i v catot cn ion HO- vi anion s i v anot. Do vy trn cc in
cc s xy ra cc phn ng cnh tranh gia cc ion ca nc vi cc ion ca cht in li.
* Trn in cc catot:
Nu th phng in ca cation dng hn th phng in ca H3O+ th s xy ra s
kh kim loi:
Mn+ + ne = M (1)
Trng hp ngc li th H3O+ s b kh
H3O+ + e = H + H2O
2H = H2-
nhng nng H3O+ rt nh (10-7M) nn ngi ta coi nh H2O b kh
2H2O + 2e = H2 + 2HO- (2)
Nh vy trn in cc catot c th xy ra ba trng hp
1. Nhng ion kim loi c th in cc tiu chun nh (t Li+ n Al3+) khng b kh trn
catot m ch H2O b kh (phn ng 2)
2. Nhng ion kim loi c th en cc tiu chun nh hn hiro nhng ln hn nhm (t
Al3+ n H3O+) b kh cng vi H2O trn in cc (phn ng1v 2)
3. Nhng ion kim loi c th in cc ln hn hidro (t Cu2+ n Au3+) b kh hon ton
trn in cc (phn ng 1)
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Vy khi in phn dung dch nc, ch nhng kim loi no ng sau nhm v
khng k nhm mi thot ra trn in cc.
Nu dung dch cha cc ion kim loi khc nhau th phn ng kh s xy ra theo
hng gim dn th in cc tiu chun tng ng vi kim loi.
V d i vi hn hp Ag+, Cu2+, Fe2+ th Ag+ b kh trc ( oAg +
/ Ag
= +0,779V)
* Trn in cc anot:
Cc phn ng xy ra trn anot ngoi s ph thuc vo s c mt ca H2O cn ph
thuc vo vt liu lm in cc: anot tan v khng tan.
1. Nu s dng anot tan nh Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd, Ni, Fe... th phn ng trn in cc l phn
ng ho tan anot: M - ne = Mn+ ch khng phi anion dung dch b oxi ho.
2. Nu s dng anot khng tan (anot tr) nh than, graphit, Pt th trn in cc c th
anion dung dch hoc ion HO- b xi ho:
- Nu anion dung dch l nhng ion khng cha oxi (Cl-, Bv-, I-, S2-, CN-...) th chng s
b oxi ho trn anot.
V d:
2Cl- - 2e = 2Cl
2Cl CL2
- Nu anion dung dch l nhng ion c cha oxi (NO3-, SO42-, PO43-...) th chng s
khng b oxi ho trn anot m ch c HO- b oxi ho:
HO- - 2e = H+ + O
2O = O2 -
Nhng do nng HO- rt nh (10-7M) nn ngi ta coi nh phn t H2O b oxi ho:
2H2O - 4e = 4H+ + O2
Nu dung dch cha cc anion khc nhau th phn ng oxi ho trn anot s xy ra
theo th t: u tin l cc anion khng cha oxi, tip n HO- v cui cng l cc anion
cha oxi.
V d: S in phn dung dch CuCl2 vi in cc graphit nh sau:
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Catot: Cu2+ + 2e = Cu
Anot: 2Cl- - 2e = Cl2
Cu2+ + 2Cl- = Cu + Cl2
Hay CuCl2 Cu + Cl2
S in phn dung dch K2SO4 vi in cc tr
Catot: 2H2O + 2e = H2 + 2HO-
Anot: 2H2O - 4e = O2 + 4H+
6H2O = 2H2 + O2 + 4HO- + 4H+
Nh vy vng gn catot to thnh kim, vng gn anot to thnh axt. Nu in
phn khng c mng ngn th ion H+ v HO- tc dng vi nhau to H2O nn phn ng
cui cng ca s in phn K2SO4 l:
2H2O = 2H2 + O2
9.4.1. Pin kh
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- Ti cc m:
2Zn 2Zn2+ + 4e
2Zn2+ + 4NH4Cl [Zn(NH3)4]Cl2 + ZnCl2 + 4H+
- Ti cc dng:
2MnO2 + 4H+ + 4e 2MnO(OH)2
Loi pin ny c S khong t 1 - 1,5V
1
2 1. Cc dng (ng)
2. Phn cch in
3
3. Li than ch
4 4. Cc m (nhm)
5
5. Bt nho(NH4Cl)
6
6. Bt (MnO2)
7. Lp v ngoi
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Nhin li
u Cha t oxy hoa
Sa n pham
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Loi pin ny cho dng in mt chiu c in p 0,7 - 0,9V
9.4.3. Acquy ch
Acquy l loi nguyn t ganvani ch to trn c s cc qu trnh in cc hu nh
thun nghch. Mi qu trnh xy ra trong s phng in c th o ngc li trong s tch
in.
Mt trong nhng acquy c in nht v cng l ph bin nht l acquy ch c s
sau:
(-) Pb | H2SO4(32 - 34%) | PbO2, Pb (+)
Qu trnh tch in v phng in xy ra theo phng trnh
phng
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
tch in
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nhc im c bn l dung lng ring nh v thi gian s dng tng i ngn do qu
trnh t phng in khi acquy trng thi khng s dng to ra ch sunfat theo phn ng:
Trn cc Pb:
Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e
2H3O+ + 2e 2H2O + H2
Trn cc PbO2:
PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + 2e PbSO4 + 2H2O + SO42-
Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e
Ngoi ra ngi ta cng s dng tng i rng ri cc loi acquy kim nh: niken -
cadimi, niken - km, bc km.
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S ho tan ca kim loi vo trong axt c xem l mt kiu n mn in ho. Xt
s ho tan ca km vo axt
Zn + 2H+ Zn2+ + H2
Trn y l phn ng tng qut ca qu trnh ho tan. Qu trnh c xy ra
nh sau:
Khi nhng km vo dung dch axt, thit lp mt s cn bng gia kim loi km
v dung dch, mt s ion Zn2+ i vo dung dch Zn - 2e Zn2+ v do in cc, km
tch in m (d electron) - dung dch tch in dng. S to thnh mt lp in cc kp
m trong th in cc ca km m hn th in cc ca hydro s dn n s phng
in ca ion H3O+ trn b mt thanh km theo phng trnh:
1
H3O+ + e H2 + H2O
2
S tiu th electron theo phng trnh ny khin cho mt electron trn km
gim i v do , thit lp li th cn bng (tng mt electron) th km tip tc ho
tan- km b n mn.
Nh vy s n mn in ho c gy bi s ly i cc electron kim loi. Qu
trnh ny khng ch xy ra di tc dng ca ion H3O+ m cn c th bi mt tc nhn
oxi ho bt k, c bit l oxi ho tan trong mi trng n mn. Trong mi trng trung
tnh hay kim s ion ho oxi xy ra theo phng trnh
O2 + 4e + 2H2O 4HO-
Cn trong mi trng axt:
O2 + 4e + 4H3O+ 6H2O
Trong thc t rt t gp nhng kim loi hon ton tinh khit m thng mt mc
no , kim loi c ln mt hoc nhiu cc kim loi tp cht. Cc kim loi nhim tp
cht ny rt d b n mn. Xt s n mn st c ln ng xy ra trong mi trng axt
HCl.
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Fe
H2
H+
Cu
H+
Fe2+
O
Hp cht Fe hay Fe2O3. H2O l thnh phn chnh ca g st.
OH
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9.5.3. Phng php chng n mn kim loi.
chng n mn kim loi hoc hp kim ngy nay ngi ta s dng nhiu phng
php khc nhau, ch yu l:
- To ra trn b mt kim loi cn bo v mt lp ph l kim loi, phi kim loi, oxit...
(cch li kim loi vi mi trng)
- X l v thay i thnh phn mi trng, hoc thay i thnh phn kim loi (hp kim)
- Bo v in ho (bo v catot v anot)
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- gim hm lng cht kh ta c th: hoc lm cho mi trng bt axt trnh n
mn bi s kh phn cc hydro hoc loi oxi ho tan vo mi trng xm thc trnh
n mn bi s kh phn cc oxi.
- Vic s dng cht c ch thng cn c vo iu kin x l vt liu v mi trng. Ni
chung cc cht c ch c dng hoc c tc dng lm gim tc ho tan anot kim loi
hoc lm gim tc gii phng hydro trn catot. V d, bo v gang, thp trong nc
hoc trong cc dung dch mui ngi ta dng NaNO2; bo v cc thit b lm lnh th
dng K2Cr2O7, K2CrO4. Ngoi cc hp cht v c, mt s hp cht c ch thng c
dng l cc amin hu c.
9.5.3.4. Bo v in ho
Vic bo v in ho kim loi c th thc hin bng hai phng php: phng
php bo v catot v phng php bo v anot
- Phng php bo v catot c thc hin khi th ca kim loi chuyn dch v pha m
hn gi tr th catot lm cho tc ho tan ca kim loi gim ng thi lm tng tc
gii phng hydro. S phn cc catot c th thc hin nh mt ngun in ngoi hoc mt
in cc "hi sinh"
+
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ng
ng
Zn2+
Zn2+
Me+ H+
Kem
- Phng php bo v anot c thc hin bng cch chuyn kim loi cn bo v vo
trng thi th ng, mt trng thi m ti th ca kim loi c th t ti mt gi tr xc
nh ng vi gi tr cc tiu ca tc ho tan anot kim loi. Kim loi c th chuyn sang
th ng bng con ng ho hc khi s dng mt s tc nhn oxi ho nh tc dng ca
axt nitric ln thp, nhng cng c th bng con ng in ho khi phn cc anot kim
loi v pha dng hn bi mt dng phn cc anot t bn ngoi.
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TI LIU THAM KHO
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