Masaryk University

Faculty of Arts

Department of English
and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Vra Slovkov

Historical Terminology in Translation of

Non-Fiction
B.A. Major Thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Simona Mazov

2007
 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

..
Authors signature

2
 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor Mgr. Simona Mazov for her assistance and valuable
advice.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ................... 1

2. ROBERT JOHN WESTON EVANS AND HIS BOOKS IN ENGLISH AND CZECH 3

3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND . 5

3.1 TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL NON-FICTION AS A SUBFIELD OF SPECIALISED

TRANSLATION .. 5

3.2 PROBLEMS OF EQUIVALENCE 8

3.3 TRANSLATION PROCEDURES ACCORDING TO NEWMARK ... 10

3.3.1 Literal Translation ... 10

3.3.2 Transference . 10

3.3.3 Naturalisation ... 11

3.3.4 Cultural equivalent .. 11

3.3.5 Functional equivalent .. 12

3.3.6 Descriptive equivalent . 12

3.3.7 Synonymy . 12

3.3.8 Through-translation . 13

3.3.9 Shifts or transpositions 13

3.3.10 Modulation 14

3.3.11 Recognised translation . 14

3.3.12 Translation label .. 14

3.3.13 Compensation ... 15

3.3.14 Componential analysis . 15

3.3.15 Reduction and expansion . 15

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 3.3.16 Paraphrase 16

3.3.17 Other procedures ..... 16

3.3.18 Couplets, triplets, quadruplets 16

3.3.19 Notes, additions, glosses .. 17

4. ANALYSIS .. 18

4.1. METHOD 18

4.2. PRACTICAL ANALYSIS .. 19

4.2.1. Names of institutions and functionaries . 19

4.2.2. Geographical names . 22

4.2.3. Names of persons .. 26

4.2.4. Names of significant events and documents .. 28

4.2.5. Names of denominations .. 30

5. CONCLUSION ..... 34

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY . 37

6.1. PRIMARY SOURCES .... 37

6.2. SECONDARY SOURCES ... 37

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Extracts from The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700: An

Interpretation and Vznik habsbursk monarchie 1550-1700 .. i

APPENDIX 2: Extracts from Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual History,

1576-1612 and Rudolf II. a jeho svt: Mylen a kultura ve stedn Evrop 1576-

1612 ... iii

APPENDIX 3: Note on terms and names by R. J. W. Evans and Poznmka

k termnm a vlastnm jmnm a nzvm translated by Lenka Kolov ... v

APPENDIX 4: Table of names of institutions and functionaries

APPENDIX 5: Table of geographical names

APPENDIX 6: Table of names of persons

APPENDIX 7: Table of names of events and documents

APPENDIX 8: Table of names of denominations

6
 1. Introduction

Every text to be translated requires a specific translational approach or a specific

application of the translation theory. The translator has to bear in mind that there are no

general rules which, if obeyed, will lead to a good translation. Therefore, the translation

theory has to be modified in order to fit the given text. The translator should take into

consideration other issues apart from the text itself, such as the facts the text deals with

and differences between source and target culture.

The main purpose of this thesis is to examine the problem of translation of

terminology in historical non-fiction and to find some problems specific to this area of

translation.

I chose two books written originally in English by the same author, Robert John

Weston Evans and his monographs Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual

History, 1576-1612 and The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700: An

Interpretation. Each of these was translated into Czech by a different translator, Milo

Calda and Lenka Kolov respectively.

These books are especially interesting for a translation analysis, since most of

the terms and names were translated from Czech or German into English by Robert

Evans. One of the crucial questions is therefore to what extent the translators realised

the fact that they are dealing with back-translation and verified the terms using

appropriate Czech literature.

Furthermore, it is necessary to keep in mind the differences between English and

Czech readers. An English reader will probably never be expected to have such deep

knowledge of the topic as his or her Czech counterpart. I will therefore study not only

the preciseness of the terms but also the way the text was adapted to suit the needs of

the Czech readership.

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 I will divide terms and names appearing in these books into five thematic

groups. Then I will study the usage of translation procedures defined by Peter Newmark

depending on the thematic group and on the translator.

I suppose that the translators worked with specialised literature written in Czech

and verified the terms and therefore recognised translation will be the predominantly

used procedure. Furthermore, since the TL readership is expected to have deeper

knowledge of the topic than the SL readership, I assume that the translators used

reduction very often as well.

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 2. Robert John Weston Evans and his books in English and

Czech

Robert John Weston Evans (* 1943) studied history, German studies and

Slavonic studies at the Cambridge University. He has been particularly interested in

early modern east-central Europe. After mastering Czech, he started to cooperate with

Czech historians and translated The Thirty Years War by Josef Poliensk from Czech

into English. He also worked for The English Historical Review and he is a Fellow of

the British Academy (Calda Rudolf II a jeho svt Introduction). His current research

deals with the history of Hungary. He also studies history of Wales, history of twentieth

century east-central Europe and the importance of language in the history (Professor

Robert Evans).

Rudolf II and His World and The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy are among

his most important works. In Rudolf II and His World, Evans gives a deep analysis of

cultural and intellectual life at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia

and Hungary (Rudolf II and His World 1) Rudolf II of Habsburg. Evanss book also

gives a political and religious background to this era. Evans tries to explain some

aspects of Rudolfs personality.

The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy covers a more extensive period. In spite

of the fact that culture, religious symbols and what Evans calls popular magic play

important parts in this book as well, Evans concentrates more on the development of the

particular parts of the Habsburg Monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire and compares

the acceptance of the Habsburg dominance in the provinces. He also pays more

attention to the political history and the problems of Reformation and Counter-

Reformation in the Habsburg lands.

9
 As far as the translators are concerned, Milo Calda is an experienced translator

of both literal and specialised texts (Seznam publikac). Furthermore, a team of

specialists cooperated on the translation (Calda Rudolf II. a jeho svt 384). Lenka

Kolov also translates both fiction and non-fiction, but she translates from French

mostly (Kolov, Lenka). Unlike Milo Calda, she translated on her own (Kolov

Vznik 595).

10
 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 TRANSLATION OF HISTORICAL NON-FICTION AS A SUBFIELD OF

SPECIALISED TRANSLATION

Bohuslav Ilek defines specialised translation as translation of scientific and

technical texts and texts dealing with some branches of humanities (13). However, he

also admits that it is problematic to draw a strict line between specialised and artistic

translation, as an example he mentions translation of historical fiction or popular

science (Ilek 13). Historical non-fiction is problematic as well, particularly when

dealing with popular historical works. However, even academic writing should be

written in a readable style.

Ilek gives the following characteristics of specialised translation:

Firstly, the work should have a particular scientific or scholarly background; its

framework is defined before the reader even begins to read (Ilek 13).

The framework of historical works is obvious: the history. However, the book

must be also considered in the relationship to the historiography of the target and source

culture, since in both of them the level of historical research dealing with a particular

period or locality is different.

Secondly, specialised texts are accompanied by other non-linguistic signs, such

as mathematical symbols, pictures or tables (Ilek 13).

In historical works, the readership can usually find a large number of pictures of

important places, paintings of significant personalities, statistical tables and historical

maps.

Thirdly, the structure of a book as a whole, in the same way as the structures of

particular parts, play important parts (Ilek 13). The translator should be very careful

11
about precise formulations of arguments, analyses, definitions, hypotheses and theses

(Ilek 13).

The structure of a historical work depends on its topic. When dealing with

political history or being a biography, the chapters are usually in chronological order.

However, a book concerning social, economic or cultural history might be structured

rather thematically as a whole and chronologically within the particular chapters.

Fourthly, the language of specialised texts is standardised. The form of the text

depends on the type of the text and should not be changed either by the author or by the

translator (Ilek 14). The text should be precise and rational (Ilek 14).

As far as the historical non-fiction is concerned, all these depend on the

particular text, since some popular non-fiction may use expressions which are more

appropriate for fiction. Moreover, the author can be witty or ironic even in an academic

piece of writing.

Fifthly, the vocabulary of specialised texts can be divided into three groups:

general words, terms common to more than one science or humanity and terms

connected only to the particular field of study (Ilek 14). The terms are made up by as

few words as possible and at the same time carrying as much meaning as possible (Ilek

14). The translator should be also careful about collocations (Ilek 15). Terms are

significant for typical grammatical structures (e.g. gerunds, nouns preferred to verbs)

and unemotional expressions (Ilek 15).

Words belonging to all of these three groups can be found in historical non-

fiction. Terms common to more fields appear particularly when historians use methods

of other humanities or sciences (e.g. economy, statistics, philosophy, psychology).

Historical terms may not be as clearly visible as for instance mathematical or biological

terminology and there might be a higher degree of ambiguity as it is with most

12
humanities (Strakov Termn 91), but translators should be as accurate as possible

when dealing with them.

Another important issue mentioned by Ilek is syntax. He gives features of

sentences in specialised texts, such as logical structure of sentences, long sentences, a

large number of passives and expressions used for connecting of ideas (e.g. vzhledem k

tomu, e..., as mentioned above...) (Ilek 15).

Again, the syntax depends on the particular type of text and on the particular

author. Some historians prefer sentences without much coordination and subordination,

but others prefer to express as many details as possible in one sentence thus making

more complex syntactical structures (Chamonikolasov).

Ilek concludes that the main purpose of a specialised text is to write about real

world as precisely as possible and the content is therefore much more important than the

form (16). The language should not turn attention to itself (Ilek 16).

Peter Newmark distinguishes three stylistic scales: scale of formality, of

generality or difficulty and of emotional tone (A Textbook 14). According to these, the

style of historical non-fiction can be defined as formal, educated and factual.

There is no doubt that the main purpose of historical non-fiction is to describe

the real world as precisely as possible, or rather to describe it as it was in the past. The

information presented to the reader is of crucial importance. However, history is, in a

much higher degree than other humanities, close to literature, since it presents stories

of people. The only difference is that the historical accuracy of these stories prevails

over the artistic intentions of the author. Still it is necessary to bear in mind that a

historical text, either original or translated, should be a pleasure to read.

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 3.2 PROBLEMS OF EQUIVALENCE

As Strakov puts it, the problem of equivalence is one of the most important in

the linguistics of translation (Lingvistick pohled13). Susan Bassnett stresses the fact

that equivalence does not mean sameness, since sameness is impossible between two

different languages (29). She considers Anton Popovis typology of equivalence useful

for the beginning of further research (29). Popovi distinguishes four types of

equivalence: linguistic equivalence is word for word translation, paradigmatic

equivalence is equivalence of the elements of grammar, stylistic (translational)

equivalence is equivalent function of elements in SL and TL and textual (syntagmatic)

equivalence means the equivalence of form and shape (qtd. in Bassnett 25).

The analysis of a translated sentence from Rudolf II and His World according to

Popovis criteria will bring more specific conclusions:

THE history of the Holy Roman DJINY Svat e msk nroda

Empire from the Peace of Augsburg nmeckho v obdob od augpurskho
to the Defenestration of Prague has mru po praskou defenestraci jsou
traditionally been seen as the uneasy tradin povaovny za neklidnou
prelude to a holocaust of hitherto pedehru k vlenmu masakru, kter
unparalleled violence and destruction. mrou nsil a destrukce pekonal ve,
co djiny do t doby poznaly.

(Rudolf II and His World 5; Rudolf II a jeho svt 21)

There is no doubt that these two pieces of text are equivalent, all the

information presented in the English original appear in the Czech translation.

Linguistic equivalence should be of crucial importance, since the content is more

important than the form. Every word important for conveying the message is translated

(e.g. historydjiny; Defenestrationdefenestrace), but it is not precisely word-

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for-word translation, since the terms have often a different grammatical structure (e.g.

Peace of Augsburgaugpursk mr), recognised translation may differ a great deal

as well (Czech BrethrenJednota bratrsk (Rudolf II and His World 23; Rudolf II a

jeho svt 39)) and when considering grammatical words there is no word-for-word

equivalence at all. This problem is solved at the level of grammatical equivalence.

Every part of speech must be translated. However, the words themselves can differ a lot

(e.g. hitherto unparalleled......pekonal ve, co djiny do t doby poznaly.

Stylistic equivalence is less problematic, as culture-specific expressions are usually

terms that are dealt with at the lexical or syntactic level. The form and shape of the

whole text does not have to be changed much in order to be equivalent. The greatest

differences that could influence the form of the Czech translation are usually solved at

the level of grammatical equivalence.

It seems that translators of historical texts have to be particularly cautious at the

level of linguistic and grammatical equivalence. It is not necessary to depart from the

original significantly, except for translation of terms and names and some grammatical

or syntactic structures specific to the particular languages.

Another problem of equivalence is what Newmark calls equivalent frequency

of usage (Approaches 145). Not only should the words used be semantic equivalents,

they should have similar frequency of usage in the languages as well.

This frequency of usage should also correspond to the style. For instance, the

name of the Slovak capital can be found in esk nrodn korpus 21,465 times as

Bratislava and only ten times as Prepurk. However, almost all the ten instances were in

historical contexts. Furthermore, in historical non-fiction originally written in Czech, it

is common to use the word Prepurk (e. g. Janek 59; Mikulec 85; ornej 217). The

15
translator should therefore be in accordance with the frequency of usage in this kind of

books.

3.3 TRANSLATION PROCEDURES ACCORDING TO NEWMARK

This part of the theoretical background is based on A Textbook of Translation

and Approaches to Translation by Peter Newmark.

3.3.1 Literal Translation

Newmark claims that literal translation is the most important translation

procedure and it should be used always when it secures referential and pragmatic

equivalence to the original (A Textbook 69). When referring to translation of

institutional terms, Newmark calls literal translation coincidental and recommends

using it only for transparent terms (Approaches 75).

There is no doubt that literal translation plays an important part in translation of

historical works, but the translator must bear in mind that he or she works with a

specialised language. Therefore it is necessary to verify every term using reliable

literature. It is better to combine this procedure with another one and create couplets or

triplets.

3.3.2 Transference

According to Newmark, transference is the process of transferring a SL word to

a TL text as a translation procedure (A Textbook 81). The transliteration (conversion

of different alphabets) may also be a part of this procedure. Sometimes a translator

decides to combine this procedure with a different one, then he or she creates a

couplet. Newmark defines categories that should be transferred. They are names of all

living and most dead people, geographical and topographical names, names of

periodicals and newspapers, titles of literary works, plays, films, names of private

companies and institutions, public or nationalised institutions, street names, and

16
addresses. However, the translator should always search for an established translation,

since if it exists, it should be used instead of the transference (A Textbook 82).

Transference is an important process when translating historical non-fiction,

especially when translating a work concerning a foreign culture. Many names of towns

and personalities important for the national history do not have any official equivalent,

therefore the original name must be preserved. Sometimes the translator borrows the

name from another language, since the name is established in the target culture through

another language. Proper names usually remain unchanged, e.g. Velk Mezi

(Making 63; Vznik 78) or Octavio Piccolomini (Making 202; Vznik 237).

3.3.3 Naturalisation

The word is adapted to the TL through the change of pronunciation and

morphology (A Textbook 82).

This procedure is applicable to historical literature translated into Czech, but as

in English it should be used mainly when an established naturalised term exists

(Approaches 77).

3.3.4 Cultural equivalent

This procedure is not very accurate as a word unknown to SL culture is

substituted by a word which has approximately the same function in the SL culture (e.

g. Abitur is translated as German A level) (A Textbook 83).

This procedure is not appropriate for translation of historical non-fiction. The

approximate synonyms can be misleading and the reader can misinterpret some

historical facts.

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 3.3.5 Functional equivalents

This procedure is again used for translation of culture-specific expressions. The

SL culture-specific expression is not substituted by TL culture-specific expression, but

by a culture-free word (e.g. SejmPolish parliament) (A Textbook 83).

This procedure is more adequate when translating historical non-fiction.

Although this kind of works usually expects an educated reader, not all the words,

especially cultural terms must be necessarily known to him or her.

3.3.6 Descriptive equivalent

A culture-specific expression is not substituted, but described (e. g. machete a

Latin American broad, heavy instrument) (A Textbook 83).

This procedure is also adequate for translation historical works, since some local

and obsolete words do not have any cultural or culture-free equivalent, e.g. total

reconquestcelkov optovn dobyt dve katolickch zem (Making 41; Vznik

61).

3.3.7 Synonymy

Newmark recommends this method when there exists no one-to-one equivalent

of a word in SL in the TL. However, this cannot be done if the word plays an important

part in the componential analysis (A Textbook 84).

This method can be used when describing historical personalities or expressing

opinions on some historical events. However, the translator must be careful and he or

she must not misinterpret some subjective opinions that can be expressed by the author.

In the case of descriptions, the translator should look up similar descriptions in books

written originally in TL. However, this method cannot be used for translation of

terminology.

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 3.3.8 Through-translation

According to Newmark, through-translation is the literal translation of common

collocations, names of organisations ... the components of compounds and perhaps

phrases (A Textbook 84).

As with literal translation, this procedure must be used carefully when

translating historical non-fiction and preferably combined with another procedure. Still

it occasionally appears on its own, for instance Bohemian chanceryesk

kanclstv (Making 199; Vznik 235) or for translation of descriptive terms, such as

abortive Protestant revolt of 1547nespn protestantsk vzpoura z roku 1647

(Rudolf II and His World 33; Rudolf II. a jeho svt 53).

3.3.9 Shifts or transpositions

This procedure is used when a change of grammatical structure of a segment of a

text is necessary. There are four types of transpositions. The first one, involving the

change from singular to plural and change of the position of the adjective is automatic

and always compulsory. The second one is used when a grammatical structure from the

SL text does not exist in the TL. The third type of transposition is applicable if the

grammatical structure from the SL exists in the TL, but is not appropriate in the given

context. The fourth type of shift is adequate when there is a virtual lexical gap

between SL and TL. This gap is replaced by a grammatical structure (A Textbook 87).

This procedure is very common when translating from English to Czech and

vice versa, because the grammatical systems differ a lot. However, when considering

translation of established terminology, the grammatical structures are established as

well and therefore the translation procedure used is recognised translation.

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 3.3.10 Modulation

Newmark describes several types of modulation, in order to avoid defining this

process as almost everything beyond literal translation" (A Textbook 88). These types

are positive for double negative, alternatives, abstract for concrete, cause for

effect, one part for another, reversal of terms, active for passive, space for

time, intervals and limits, change of symbols (A Textbook 89).

Several of the types of modulation are applicable to translation of historical non-

fiction in general (e.g. changes of passive and active tenses), but they are not suitable

for translation of the terms proper.

3.3.11 Recognised translation

Translators should use already established translations of institutional terms. If

they do not agree with them, they can gloss them (A Textbook 89), but it is not

appropriate to change them.

This rule is easily applicable to historical works. As in other humanities and

sciences, several terms can describe one concept and several concepts can be described

by the same term. The translator should bear this fact in mind and try to look up several

translations, compare their usage and frequency and only then choose the right one.

However, recognised translation should be the most frequent procedure used, for

instance Bohemian Chanceryesk kancel (Rudolf II and His World 19; Rudolf

II. a jeho svt 35).

3.3.12 Translation label

This procedure is what Newmark calls provisional translation (A Textbook

90), it should be in inverted commas and it is usually literal translation.

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 This procedure is applicable to the translation of historical terminology, but

should be combined with another procedure, e.g. letzter Ritterposledn ryt

(letzter Ritter) (Rudolf II and His World 14; Rudolf II a jeho svt 31).

3.3.13 Compensation

This procedure is adequate when something from the original text is lost during

the translation and is later compensated (A Textbook 90).

This procedure is not applicable to the translation of any terms.

3.3.14 Componential analysis

During this procedure lexical units are split up into its sense components and

one word can thus be translated as two, three or more words (A Textbook 90).

This procedure is not applicable to the translation of terminology.

3.3.15 Reduction and expansion

Although Newmark considers them imprecise, he does not reject their usage in

special cases (A Textbook 90).

These procedures are of crucial importance, because the readerships of the

source and target cultures have significantly different levels of knowledge of the local

history. Reduction is used, since some omissions of widely known facts concerning the

target culture are necessary, for instance High Steward (Obersthofmeister)nejvy

hofmistr (Rudolf II and His World 40; Rudolf II. a jeho svt 60). Expansion is

appropriate when the author gives details about the source culture or if he does not give

enough information concerning the target culture, which would be irrelevant for the

readers in SL but would be very useful for readers in TL, e.g. basilicabasilika sv.

Ji (Rudolf II and His World 26; Rudolf II. a jeho svt 46).

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 3.3.16 Paraphrase

Paraphrase is an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of

the text (A Textbook 90).

This procedure is not applicable when translating historical terminology; the

descriptive equivalent should be used instead.

3.3.17 Other procedures

Newmark gives instances of other procedures, but he does not consider them

appropriate. They are equivalence and adaptation. Equivalence is used when notices,

familiar alternatives, phrases and idioms are to be translated. Adaptation is usage a

recognised equivalent between two situations (A Textbook 91).

These procedures are connected to the language of fiction, therefore they are not

applicable to translation of historical terminology.

3.3.18 Couplets, triplets, quadruplets

If two, three or four procedures are combined when translating one translation

problem, the procedure is called couplet, triplet or quadruplet respectively (A Textbook

91).

This procedure is crucial for translating historical cultural terms, i.e. issues

specific to a specific culture, but not proper names (Approaches 70). The procedures

usually combined are transference, literal translation, functional equivalent, descriptive

equivalent, through-translation, recognised translation and translation label, e.g. local

Landgerichtmstn zemsk soud (Landgericht) (Making 169; Vznik 200),

confessio Bohemica esk konfese (confessio Bohemica) (Rudolf II and His

World 30; Rudolf II. a jeho svt 50).

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 3.3.19 Notes, additions, glosses

Newmark divides additional information provided by the translator into tree

groups, cultural, technical and linguistic (A textbook 91). It can be presented either in

the text proper or in the form of notes (A Textbook 92).

This procedure is also easily applicable to translation of historical terminology.

The only constraint is that the original scholarly works proper have usually an extensive

number of notes and adding further ones might be very confusing for the reader.

Therefore, additions in the text are more suitable, for instance Hausordnungd

habsburskho domu (Hausordnung) (Rudolf II and His World 58; Rudolf II. a jeho

svt 82).

23
 4. ANALYSIS

4.1 METHOD

The research is based on the first two chapters of Rudolf II and His World (The

Habsburgs, Bohemia, and the Empire, The Politics of Rudolf pp. 583) and two

chapters of The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy (Austria: The Habsburg

Heartland, Bohemia: Limited Acceptance pp. 157234) and several other randomly

chosen terms from these books.

Since the usage of the translation procedures differ according to the type of the

terms, I divided the terms into five thematic groups: names of institutions and

functionaries, geographical names, names of persons, names of events and documents

and names of denominations.

None of the chapters contains an equal number of terms from each group, which

is necessary in order to make conclusions not only about the different methods of the

particular translators but also about the procedures depending on the kind of term. I

chose sixty terms from each group, thirty from each book. In this way, a corpus

containing 300 items and their translations is created.

Then I sorted out the terms according to the translation procedures used. As not

all the procedures are applicable to translation of historical terminology, only the

relevant procedures are included in the research. They are transference, descriptive

equivalent, through-translation, recognised translation, translation label, reduction and

expansion, couplets and notes, additions and glosses.

Citations of particular terms in the practical analysis are given in the tables in the

appendices 48. Each table provides terms from one thematic group. The terms are

organised into subgroups according to the translation procedure used.

24
 4.2 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

4.2.1 Names of institutions and functionaries

The state administration plays an important part in studying the political history

of a country. It is closely connected to the history of law (Jank 10). Both the studied

books deal with the state administration of the Habsburg Monarchy and the Czech

lands.

The number of terms translated by a particular procedure is shown in the table:

Recognized Translation
Recognized Through-
Procedure transl.+ Reduction Transference Expansion label+
transl. transl.
transference transference

Lenka
18 8 1 1 1 1 -
Kolov

Milo
10 4 11 3 1 - 1
Calda

Both translators use recognised translations of the terms most often. This is

usually the only suitable procedure, since most of the terms are originally Czech or have

established Czech equivalents, e.g. grand burgravenejvy purkrab, Privy

CouncilTajn rada.

However, several terms have to be treated carefully, since it is problematic to

define the proper recognised translation.

In the Middle Ages hofmistr was the head of the royal court (Jank 55). Later,

his duties increased and this function split into two, one of them still being in charge of

the court, the other one having many political functions (Jank 72). It is necessary to

distinguish between these two. The Czech language usually uses the term hofmistr for

the former functionary and nejvy hofmistr for the latter. R. J. W. Evans translates

these terms as major-domo, high steward or simply Steward. Although Evans

includes the German or even the Czech equivalent in the original text occasionally, the

25
ambiguity cannot be always avoided. However, the translators verified the terms and

translated them according to their factual meanings. Moreover, the term major-domo

does not necessarily mean hofmistr. Divi ernn mentioned by Evans as major-

domo to King Frederick was in fact hejtman Praskho hradu in the late 1610s

(Petr 16), which Lenka Kolov translated correctly. This shows that it is necessary

to consider the term within its context and not to rely on recognised translation only.

Some terms might be problematic, since they do not have fixed Czech

equivalents. German term Oberststallmeister have two Czech equivalents: nejvy

tolba (Maa 446) or nejvy podkon (Zloha). Evans writes about master of the

horse (or Master of the Horse). Translators of both studied books are in agreement

and use the term podkon, but the modifier differs: Kolov uses vrchn and Calda

nejvy.

Milo Calda tends to reduce the amount of presented information about the

names of the functionaries more than Lenka Kolov. He gives only the Czech names

of most functionaries, where Evans puts English translations along with the German

originals (e.g. High Steward (Obersthofmeister) is translated as nejvy hofmistr).

In contrast, Lenka Kolov always gives the Czech name along with the German

equivalent, if Evans gives terms in both languages (e.g. lord-lieutenant

(Landeshauptmann, Landmarschall) is translated as zemsk hejtman

(Landeshauptmann, Landmarschall)). Milo Calda sticks to couplets only when

translating important Austrian or German institutions Austrian Chancery

(sterreichische Hofkanzlei)rakousk kancel (sterreichische Hofkanzlei).

This is caused not only by different attitudes of both translators but also by the

structure of the original. Robert Evans uses translation couplets in Rudolf II and His

26
World more than in The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy. The translator of the latter

book has therefore more opportunities to reduce the terms.

Translation couplet is used by both translators for translation of the term

Reichskammergericht, but the translations proper differ significantly. Milo Calda

translates this term as ... sk komorn soud, Reichskammergericht .... In contrast,

Lenka Kolov translates Germanys supreme court, the Reichskammergericht as

nejvy sk soud Reichskammergut. In this way she created an impression that

nejvy sk soud is the Czech name of this institution. However, Germanys

supreme court is officially called sk komorn soud (Vojek 58). Moreover,

nejvy sk soud was created in the Habsburg Monarchy in 1849 (Fiedler 41) and

is therefore something completely different. The German term itself is not transferred

correctly as well, Reichskammergut does not mean the same as

Reichskammergericht.

Transference without any other procedure is used for translation of a single

concept which is mentioned in three different languagesGerman, Hungarian and Polish

(Hochadel, fnemesseg, szlachta nobility in English). They are used in order

to show that the aristocracies of the particular lands were different in spite of belonging

to one social group. In both the English and the Czech versions the meanings of the

words are known from the context, therefore it is not necessary to give any translation

or definition.

Expansion is used for translation of the term diet. According to The Oxford

Dictionary of English, diet is a legislative assembly in certain countries or a regular

meeting of the states of a confederation. The Czech translation is thus snm. Lenka

Kolov added a modifier to this noun in order to make the term more specific:

27
zemsk snm. Therefore, the term is more precise and the reader can understand the

organization of the state institutions better.

Through-translation used by Lenka Kolov (Bohemian chancery translated

as esk kanclstv) is inappropriate, since the established name of this institution is

esk kancel (Jank 118).

The only couplet consisting of translation label and transference is translation of

lezter Ritter as posledn ryt (letzter Ritter).

Another peculiarity of the original text is frequent usage of German terms

without any translation or description. Robert Evans obviously expects his English

readers to have some previous knowledge of the terminology. Both Czech translators

solve this problem in the same way they treat the word as if it was in English and use

recognized translation into Czech, for instance Landeshauptmanzemsk hejtman,

Reichstagsk snm.

Names of institutions and functionaries are the most culturespecific

expressions. Translators verified the terms and used recognised translation most often.

The second most important procedure is translation couplets. Their usage in the

translated texts usually corresponds with their usage in the original, particularly in

Lenka Kolovs translation. Milo Calda reduces these couplets and uses only the

Czech equivalents more often.

4.2.2 Geographical names

This group includes names of cities, small towns, geographical areas and

significant buildings. Geographical names along with names of persons (see the next

chapter) are proper names, i.e. names that refer to a single entity (Newmark

Approaches 70).

28
 The number of names translated by a particular procedure is shown in the table:

Transference Transference
Recognised
Procedure Reduction Transference Expansion + recognised + Addition
translation
translation transference

Lenka
15 6 6 1 1 1 -
Kolov

Milo
17 6 4 2 - - 1
Calda

The attitudes of the translators do not differ as much as in the previous chapter.

Slight differences are usually caused by the original.

The procedure used depends wholly on the origin of the geographical name.

From this point of view, the name can be divided into two groups: names of Czech

towns and other localities and names of non-Czech origin. As far as the former group is

concerned, the translators do not have many possibilities. The name originally exists in

Czech and there is no need to give any equivalents in another language (which was

sometimes useful with institutional names). Therefore, transference is used for names

written in Czech in the original (Valask Mezi, Mikulov), recognised

translation for those written in German (Budweisesk Budjovice, Pilsen

Plze) and reduction for cases when Evans uses translation couplets (Brno

(Brnn)Brno, Slavkov (Austerlitz)Slavkov). Similar conclusion can be made

about Slovak names, the only difference is that these are translated from German as well

as Hungarian (ZipsSpi, EperjesPreov).

Names describing German or Austrian localities can be transferred as well, if the

original German name used by Evans corresponds with the Czech usage (Brixen).

However, most of them have names that are established in English and these must be

then translated into Czech. These names are usually established in Czech as well,

29
therefore recognised translation is the most suitable procedure (PassauPasov,

MunichMnichov).

Names of localities in Hungary, Italy and other countries might be more

problematic, because Czech readers might not be as familiar with them as they are with

Czech, Slovak and German names. In these cases translation couplet is the most

appropriate way of translation (FiumeFiume (Rijeka)). Lenka Kolov transferred

Pisino (Mittelburg) as Pisino (Mittelburg) creating thus a different type of translation

couplet. The procedure seems to be suitable, however, this town has also a Croatian

name Pazin and according to esk nrodn korpus this version of the name is more

suitable for Czech (Pazin found seven times, Pisino or Mitterburg were not found at all).

Therefore, recognised translation would be more appropriate.

Geographical names constitute a serious problem for an English author writing

about what is known as Central Europe. Robert Evans deals with this problem in

Note on terms and names (Appendix 3) and gives a Glossary of the more important

place-name variants (Making 459-461).

Evans himself admits in his Note that his usage of the names is not

consistent at all. His main goal was to use names familiar to the Western readership or

names appropriate for the given period. Thus, Austrian towns bear their German names

and Czech towns German or Czech names depending on the local usage. In the case of

Hungary, Evans chose the language of the place names on the bases of what he calls

common sense. This inconsistency is another problem for a translator of his work,

because terms that are the most appropriate for the Western readership would confuse

a Czech reader.

The translation of Evanss Note proper constitutes the first problem. He gives

examples of inappropriate usage of place names and refuses to use some Czech terms

30
(such as Drkoln or Vratislav). The translation of some of these examples would be

irrelevant, since they are in fact used in the Czech version. Lenka Kolov decided to

include Evanss remark in the Czech edition (Appendix 8), but avoided the examples

and added her own remark explaining which place names she chose. She also changed

the glossary and added Czech and Slovak names of some towns (Vznik 528-530).

Several interesting translation solutions will be presented now:

Milo Calda bears in mind that the translation will be read by the Czech

readership. Therefore, he usually omits information he expects to be widely known

among Czech readers (e.g. Prague in Bohemia is translated as Praha). In contrast,

he gives interesting details where the original seems to lack something (e.g.

Hradschin castle, palaces, cathedral, basilica in one (Rudolf II and His World 26)

is translated as Prask hrad s krlovskm palcem, adou dalch palc, katedrlou a

basilikou sv. Ji (Rudolf II. a jeho svt 46)).

The problem of the name of the Slovak capitol was already mentioned (see p. 6).

The particular translations will now be dealt with. Milo Calda seems to be familiar

with Czech historical books, because he translates Pressburg as Prepurk. Lenka

Kolov deals with this problem differently. She translates Pozsony consistently as

Bratislava and the first mention of this town is translation couplet, i.e. Pozsony

(Bratislava).

Since the usage of geographical names is inconsistent even in the original, the

translators were forced to treat each name separately. Recognised translation is used for

Czech and Slovak towns appearing in the originals in German or Hungarian. It was also

used for translation of important European capitals and some German and Hungarian

towns which have established names in both English and Czech. Robert Evans often

gives the geographical names in two language versions, these are usually reduced.

31
Transference is used for translation of names of Czech or German towns, which Robert

Evans left unchanged in the English original.

4.2.3 Names of persons

This group includes names of significant personalities such as monarchs,

religious functionaries, authors and noblemen.

The number of names translated by a particular procedure is shown in the table:

Recognised
Procedure Transference Expansion Reduction
translation

Lenka Kolov 13 9 8 -

Milo Calda 16 10 4 1

This group of names is the least varied as far as the translation procedures are

concerned. Recognised translation is used for names of personalities of international

importance, such as monarchs or popes (Charles VI Karel VI.; Gregory XIII

eho XIII.). Sometimes only the first name is translated and the surname is

transferred (Stephen Bthorytpn Bthory; Mathias GallasMaty Gallas).

Interesting subgroup of recognised translation consists of names of monarchs.

Names of Habsburg sovereigns are usually used without any surname since this is

known from the context (Maximilian IIMaxmilin II.). However, other monarchs

have to be specified somehow. English usually uses the preposition of and the name

of the country the monarch ruled (Elisabeth I of England) or more countries if

possible (Lewis II of Bohemia and Hungary). Czech, in contrast, gives the

specification before the name (anglick krlovna Albta I.) or uses a real surname,

i.e. the name of the monarchs house (Ludvk II. Jagellonsk). However, this is not a

rule, e.g. the Winter King is only rarely referred to as Fridrich Wittelbask (Maur

32
114). The Czech history knows him as Fridrich Falck (Poliensk 112; ornej 232),

in English Fredrick of Palatinate, Palatinate meaning Rnsk Falc (Gunnoe)

Transference is used either for personalities known in both cultures with

established non-translated names (Jean Bodin; Martin Huerta) or for personalities

important only for the Czech culture whose names could be ambiguous if translated

(Vilm Slavata).

Expansion is usually used for names of significant Czech personalities whose

whole names and titles are not so important for the English readers. For example, the

first name of Eva Batthyny is mentioned in The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy

only in the Index (490). In the text proper, she is referred as spirited Czech wife (a

Lutheran Lobkovic) of Ferenc Batthyny (69). In the Czech version, her full name is

given (Vznik 83). Lenka Kolov obviously bore in mind that this piece of information

is relevant for Czech readers and it would not be suitable to avoid it in the text. The

discrepancy between the usages of expansion of both translators is caused by the

characteristics of the original texts. The chosen chapters of Rudolf II and His World are

oriented towards general information concerning the political and intellectual situation

in Europe. In contrast, the chosen chapters of The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy

are oriented more towards the situation within the Habsburg Monarchy, particularly the

Czech lands. Therefore, more Czech names worth expanding appear in Vznik

habsbursk monarchie (e.g. HarrachKarel hrab Harrach; Jaroslav Martinic

Jaroslav Boita z Martinic).

The only example of reduction is the name of the Roman emperor and Bohemian

king Charles IV of Luxemburg. In English, it is necessary to stress which Charles IV

is mentioned, but the name of this monarch has long been established in Czech,

therefore there is no doubt about who Karel IV. is.

33
 Robert Evans explains the way he uses names of persons in his Note as well

(Appendix 3). He usually uses native Christian names, but after 1650 he chooses

German first names even for Bohemian personalities. Hungarian names remain

unchanged.

Names of nobles constitute a specific problem. Evans retains the German

preposition von when writing about German noblemen. However, Czech usage might

differ (e.g. Christoph Simon von ThunKrytof imon Thun; Bruno von

MansfeldBruno z Mansfeldu). Evans has anglicised Czech names containing the

preposition z as painlessly as possible (Appendix 3). Occasionally he writes the

name in English without any preposition (Otto Heinrich WartenbergOta Jindich z

Vartenberka). He also uses the preposition of instead of z (Konrd of Vechta

Konrd z Vechty). Again, this inconsistency forces the translators to treat each name

separately, since there exist no rigid rules. The verification of the names in appropriate

literature is the only reliable method.

Names of personalities are expanded most often, since Robert Evans does not

usually give full names of Czech nobles. Recognised translation is used for translation

of names of monarchs and personalities of international importance. Robert Evans

sometimes translates only the first name into English, in these cases recognised

translation is applied as well. A significant number of internationally significant

personalities have the same name in both Czech and English, their names are therefore

transferred. Transference is also used for translation of Czech or German names which

Robert Evans did not change when he translated them into English.

4.2.4 Names of events and documents

This category includes names of significant historical events and documents of

political importance.

34
 The number of terms translated by a particular procedure is shown in the table:

Rec. Transfer Rec. transl+ Through- Descript. Reducti Transl.

Procedure Extension Addition
transl. ence transference transl. equivalent on label

Lenka
22 3 3 - 1 1 1 1 -
Kolov

Milo
18 3 1 2 1 1 1 - 1
Calda

The terms in this category differ considerably and therefore the procedures used

are more varied than in the previous chapters.

Furthermore, there are less culture-specific terms than in the previous three

chapters. Many of the events or documents had political impact all over Europe,

therefore their names have long been established in both English and Czech (e.g.

Council of Trenttridentsk koncil).

The terms transferred are all of non-English origin. The translators preserve the

italics of the original in all instances (e.g. Vierklosterstreit, Privilegium Maius)

except for the Czech terms (e.g. Obnoven zzen zemsk).

Expansion is used mainly for making the original terms clearer, for instance

Compromise of 1867 translated as rakousko-uhersk vyrovnn z roku 1867, or

more natural for Czech readers, for example Bohemian revolt translated as esk

povstn would be understood, but esk stavovsk povstn collocates much more.

Couplet is used for translation of a term where there exists an established Czech

equivalent and the Latin term used in the original is suitable as well (confessio

Bohemicaesk konfese (confessio Bohemica)).

Through-translation is used for the first time in this group. However, in this case

the terms are rather descriptions of the events and therefore an established equivalent

does not exist and the translator has to describe the term in Czech in the same way as it

35
was done in English (twenty-seven traitors executed in 1621 on the Old Town Square

of Praguedvacet sedm zrdc popravench v roce 1621 na Staromstskm nmst v

Praze).

The usage of descriptive equivalent (coup de main of Jacques Clment

translated as zavradn Jindicha III. Jacquem Clmentem is used to avoid the

ambiguity of the term coup de main. Evans himself later in the book mentions this

event and explicitly describes it as assassination of Henry III of Valois (Rudolf II and

His World 279).

The only instance of translation label, i.e. the massacre of St. Bartholomews

day translated as bartolomjsk noc, appears to be somehow unnecessary.

Bartolomjsk noc is a recognised term in Czech (Bartolomjsk noc) in the same

way as massacre of St. Bartholomews day (Saint Bartholomews Day) in English

and there is no need to label the Czech term with inverted commas.

Names of documents and events are significant for considerable variability of

used procedures. Recognised translation plays an even more important role than in the

previous groups, since some terms are of international importance. Terms consisting of

more than one word have to be treated individually, because Czech and English require

different grammatical structures. Transference is used for terms appearing in Czech or

German even in the original. Extension is more usual than reduction, because several

terms could be ambiguous or imprecise if translated otherwise. The translators also add

explanations to German terms.

4.2.5 Names of denominations

This group includes names of denominations, church functionaries and offices,

religious documents and religious services.

36
 The number of terms translated by a particular procedure is shown in the table:

Recognised
Transference+
Recognised Descriptive translation+
Procedure Transference recognised Reduction Expansion
translation equivalent recognised
translation
translation
Lenka
22 4 2 1 1 - -
Kolov

Milo
24 4 - - - 1 1
Calda

The difference between recognised translation and other procedures is the most

significant in this group. The second most popular procedure is transference which in

this case relies on the close relationship between the original and the translation caused

by the Latin origin of these terms. The other procedures do not play important parts in

the translation process. This can be explained by the fact that religion (in this case the

Christendom) is common to both source and target culture and most of the terms are

established in both cultures and do not need any further explanations.

There appear several interesting terms among the recognised translations.

Still, there exists a typical Czech churchthe Czech Brethren even among the

denominations. The Czech official name is Jednota bratrsk (ornej 193), but Evans

finds literal translation of this term (i.e. Unity of Brethren) meaningless (Rudolf II

and His World 31) and therefore calls them Czech (or Bohemian) Brethren or simply

Brethren. In Czech it can be found under various names such as Jednota (ornej

193), et brati (ornej 224) or Brat (ornej 193). The translators differ

significantly in the usage of these names. Evans mentions the Brethren eight times in

the first chapter of Rudolf II and His World (pp. 31-33 ), out of these eight instances

four are translated as et brat, one instance brat, one as Jednota, one as

Jednota bratrsk once the term is used as an adjective bratrsk. I found eight

mentions of the (Czech) Brethren in the first chapter of The Making the Habsburg

37
Monarchy in order to have a comparable sample with previous book. Lenka Kolov

translates this term seven times as "Jednota bratrsk" and only once as "et brati".

This is one of the rare examples when Calda sticks to the English original more than

Lenka Kolov. Jednota bratrsk is usually used in general contexts (esk nrodn

korpus), but historical non-fiction uses all the terms approximately equally (ornej 193,

224; Vlka 8690).

Another interesting sect is the Anabaptists. In this instance, the translations also

differ significantly, because Lenka Kolov always refers to them as anabaptist, but

Calda calls them novoktnci. Both terms are proper in Czech. However,

anabaptist are not to be found in esk nrodn korpus. On the other hand,

Novoktnci appear forty-seven times. Czech historical literature seems to prefer

novoktnci as well (Poliensk 59, 60) that is why the term novoktnci is

according to Newmarks frequency equivalent rule more suitable.

Transference is used for Latin terms describing either religious documents

(Index), rites (sub una specie) or organizations (Collegium Germanicum), most of

these are of international importance.

Another example of how the translators deal with the same term is the name of a

papal document In Coena Domini . Evans uses this name in italics and with all first

letters capitalised, once he calls it bull (Making ), another time encyclical (Rudolf II and

His World). Lenka Kolov uses inverted commas and makes only I and D capitalised

In coena Domini. Milo Calda transcribed the English name In Coena Domini.

This way of writing the name may be influenced by the English original, because proper

Czech name is In coena Domini (In coena Domini).

The only usage of reduction is when the death of Rudolf II is described. Evans

wrote that last rites of Catholic Church which Calda translated as posledn

38
pomazn. According to The Oxford Dictionary of English last rites are (in the

Christian Church) rites administered to a person who is about to die, therefore it is

necessary to strengthen which Christian Church is meant. In Czech, however, posledn

pomazn can be performed only by a Catholic priest (Szabo), therefore the name of

the Catholic Church can be omitted.

Expansion is used in a similar case. One of the meanings of the verb receive is

to eat or drink (the Eucharistic bread or wine) (receive), but in Czech it is more

precise to expand the term as Milo Calda does, i.e. pijmout viaticum.

Terms describing denominations are the least culturedependant ones, therefore

other procedures than recognised translation play only an insignificant role.

Transference is used for translation of Latin words which are common to both source

and target culture.

39
 5. CONCLUSION

The aim of this thesis was to study problems connected to the translation of

terminology in historical non-fiction. I wanted to find out to what extent the translators

worked with Czech specialised literature and how they adapted the text to suit the needs

of the Czech readership. I used Peter Newmarks division of translation procedures and

presumed that recognised translation and reduction would be the prevailing procedures.

In spite of the fact that both translators treat the text slightly differently (Lenka

Kolov tends to stick to the English original more than Milo Calda), the individual

approaches of the translators are not the crucial factor determining the translation

procedure used.

The most important factor that influences the translation procedure used is the

type of the term. As I supposed, recognised translation is the most often used translation

procedure no matter what the term is. However, the proportion of the usage of other

procedures differs significantly. Transference is usually used for translation of proper

names, either with significance only in the local context, or, in contrast, with names

established in both English and Czech. Couplets are more usual in the original version,

however, in the translated version, the Czech term often suffices. Sometimes the

translators use a couplet consisting of the Czech term and its German or Latin

equivalent. Additions and other kinds of notes do not almost appear at all, since the

target readership is familiar with the meanings of the terms. Through-translation of

terms is rare as well, since most of the terms have long been established in Czech.

Apart from my presupposition, reduction is not the second most important

procedure within all thematic groups. Translators usually use it to reduce original

translation couplets, particularly when translating names of functionaries and

geographical names. The number of reduced terms can be compared to the number of

40
expanded terms. Translators often use expansion to give full names of important

personalities or to specify historical events.

Generally speaking, concepts important for all countries of early modern Europe

and thus for both the English and Czech culture (such as religious issues or some

important events) are more likely to be translated using recognised translation without

any significant changes.

On the other hand, when dealing with terms specific to Czech culture, the

translators use various procedures, among which not only reduction but expansion as

well play significant roles. Reduction is used when the original gives information

widely known to the Czech readership and expansion is used when the amount of

information given in the original does not suffice.

Both translators bore in mind that they were dealing with a back-translation and

verified all terms. They were also trying to use terms more likely to appear in Czech

historical non-fiction than in non-scholarly works. Milo Calda seems to be more

successful in achieving this.

Both translations show that the translators conducted extensive research into the

history of the Habsburg monarchy in given period and allowed Czech readers to enjoy

the work of Robert Evans in their native tongue. At the same time, these translations

help historians and history students to penetrate more deeply into the historical

problems and view Czech history from a different point of view.

The language of historical non-fiction is a specialised language and has to be

therefore treated differently from non-specialised language, although even layman can

easily understand historical non-fiction. At the same time, the translator has to bear in

mind that historians know their own terminology as other specialists do.

41
 However, what the translation of historical non-fiction has in common with

other kinds of translations, is the crucial problem of the discrepancy between the source

and the target culture. Therefore, it is necessary to think of a reader not only as of a

layman or a specialist, but mainly as of a part of the Czech culture.

42
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

6.1 PRIMARY SOURCES:

Calda, Milo, trans. Rudolf II. a jeho svt: Mylen a kultura ve stedn Evrop 1576-

1612. By R. J. W. Evans. Praha: Mlad fronta, 1997.

Kolov, Lenka, trans. Vznik habsbursk monarchie 1550-1700. By R. J. W. Evans.

Praha: Argo, 2003.

Evans, R. J. W. The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550-1700: An Interpretation.

Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979.

---. Rudolf II and His World: A Study in Intellectual History 1576-1612. London:

Oxford University Press, 1973.

6.2 SECONDARY SOURCES:

Bartolomjsk noc. Ottv slovnk naun: Ilustrovan encyklopaedie obecnch

vdomost. Tet dl: BBianchi. Praha, 1890.

Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. London: Routledge, 1991.

Calda, Milo. Introduction. Rudolf II. a jeho svt: Mylen a kultura ve stedn Evrop

1576-1612. By R. J. W. Evans. Praha: Mlad fronta, 1997.

esk nrodn korpus - SYN2006PUB. stav eskho nrodnho korpusu FF UK,

Praha 2006. <http://ucnk.ff.cuni.cz>.

Chamonikolasov, Jana.Comparing the Structures of Texts Written in English and

Czech. ELF: E-Learning na FF MU. Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University,

Brno. 10 Apr. 2007

<http://www.phil.muni.cz/elf/mod/resource/view.php?id=49893>.

ornej, Petr et al. Djiny zem koruny esk I: Od pchodu Slovan do roku 1740. 2nd

ed. Praha: Paseka, 1993.

43
"diet2 noun" The Oxford Dictionary of English (revised edition). Ed. Catherine Soanes

and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online.

Oxford University Press. Masaryk University. 23 March 2007

<http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t

140.e20957>.

Fiedler, Frantiek, et al. esk politika, dl druh, st prvn. stava mocnstv

rakousko-uherskho. Praha: Jan Laichtern, 1907.

Gunnoe, Charles D., Jr. Palatinate The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed.

Hans J. Hillerbrand. Oxford University Press, 1996. Masaryk University, Brno,

Czech Republic. 7 Apr. 2007

<http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t

172.e1043>.

Ilek, Bohuslav. Msto teorie odbornho pekladu v soustav vd o pekladu. Preklad

odbornho textu: Prce 1. celottnej konferencie o preklade odbornho textu na

Pedagogickej fakulte v Nitre v septembri 1972. Ed. Anton Popovi. Bratislava:

Slovensk pedagogick nakladatelstvo, 1977. 9-24.

In coena Domini. Ottv slovnk naun: Ilustrovan encyklopaedie obecnch

vdomost. Dvanct dl: Chsv. Jan. Praha, 1897.

Istria: General Data CroMaps Navigator 2005. 26 Apr. 2007

<http://www.cromaps.com/en/counties/istarska/county/general-data.html>.

Jank, Jan, and Zdenka Hledkov. Djiny sprvy v eskch zemch do roku 1945.

Praha: Sttn pedagogick nakladatelstv, 1989.

Janek, Josef. Rudolf II. a jeho doba. Praha: Paseka, 2003.

44
Kolov, Lenka. Severoesk vdeck knihovna. 20 Apr. 2007

<http://monkey.svkul.cz/cgi-

bin/k6?ST=03&SID=001128FDD9&L=00&KDE=067&RET=Kol%C3%A1%C

5%99ov%C3%A1%2C+Lenka%3B+P%C5%99ekladatel+%5C%5C730%5C>.

Maur, Eduard. Zimn krlovna. Krlovsk trilogie. Ed. Jaroslav echura. Praha:

Rybka, 2002. (114-120).

Maa, Petr. Svt esk aristokracie (1500-1700). Praha: Lidov noviny, 2004.

Mikulec, Ji. Leopold I.: ivot a vlda baroknho Habsburka. Praha: Paseka, 1997.

Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1988.

---. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1988.

Petr, Josef. Staromstsk exekuce. Praha: Mlad fronta, 1985.

Poliensk, Josef. Ticetilet vlka a evropsk krize 17. stolet. Praha: Svoboda, 1970.

Professor Robert Evans. 1 Feb. 2007. University of Oxford. Faculty of History. 7

March 2007. <http://www.history.ox.ac.uk/staff/postholder/evans_rjw.htm>.

receive verb The Oxford Dictionary of English (revised edition). Ed. Catherine

Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference

Online. Oxford University Press. Masaryk University, Brno, Czech

Republic. 1 Apr. 2007

<http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t

140.e64348>.

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