Stenter exhaust heat recovery for combustion air preheating

1. 1. In this project, the option of preheating the air using the exhaust heat has been studied.
An Air to Air heat exchanger has been designed and fabricated for experimental purposes.
The experimental results have resulted in the design for a techno economically viable heat
recovery unit. Project ReportIndian Institute of Technology Bombay Heat Transfer Laboratory
6/6/2005
2. 2. 1 Chapter 1 IntroductionThe term stenter can be said to have achieved the importance of
magic word in the world oftextiles. The presence of one or more stentering machines, or
simply stenters, in a textile dyehouse indicates the status of the outfit. Although in good old
days, this word was not known tothe cloth bleacher and the dyer, yet, he was fully aware that
unless the cloth is stretched to its fullwidth, it would be very difficult for him to have a
satisfied client. In due course, the significanceof stenters in a textile machine has been
recognized to such an extent that currently it has beentermed as the heart of the textile
processing house. If the stenter fails, the entire process comesto a standstill. The versatility
of this machine certainly justifies the importance attached to it bythe textile processor. In
recent years, several economic forces have been at work that haschanged the structure of
the economy. Factors such as globalization and trade liberalization,among others, have
intensified competition resulting in the reallocation of resources amongsectors in all over the
world. To be internationally competitive in this rapidly evolving anddynamic trading
environment, textile producers are striving for improvements in productivity andefficiency. So
the technicians have applied their minds to various improvements in stenters andhave now
elevated the status of the stenter to become the most important machine, having
anunquestionable position in the textile processing department. Several techniques are
beingdevised aiming at improvements in stenters. This project deals with such a technique in
detail.
3. 3. 21.1 Opportunity for Energy SavingTextile stenters have two main purposes convection
drying so as to remove themoisture in the fabric and secondly to provide for fabric width
control. Drying isachieved by impinging high velocity air jets uniformly across the full width of
the fabricon both sides. The air being used is heated to a temperature of about 90 to 160oC.
Thehot air is recirculated and a certain amount of air is continuously removed from
thesystem through exhaust fans so as to avoid buildup of excessive humidity. To that
extent,the system is supplemented by fresh air. So the major source of waste heat in the
stenteris the hot humid air from the exhaust. In the case of stenters with thermic fluid
heaters,the exhaust temperature can be as high as 160oC. High exhaust temperatures
provide theopportunity to recover this heat in order to reduce the operating cost. Heat in
stenterexhaust being a major loss of textile industry, installation of heat recovery systems
willresult in substantial energy savings.1.2 ObjectiveThe aim of this project is to design a
heat recovery and exhaust air cleaning system thatwill recover the stenter exhaust heat and
utilize it as per the requirements in the industry.This heat shall be used to preheat the
combustion air which is to be supplied to stenterburner. In both the cases, heat recovery
system condenses pollutants out of the exhaustair. The various objectives of this project are
as follows:(a) Studying the conventional systems for stenter exhaust heat recovery, their
advantages and limitations(b) Designing a system for recovery of exhaust heat for
preheating of combustion air(c) Simulation of the performance of this system and analyze its
economic viability(d) Fabrication of a prototype of this system and carry out the experiments
to validate the design
4. 4. 31.3 Overview of the ProjectThe project has been planned to accomplish in three stages.
These stages are:(a) Literature survey(b) Design of the proposed system and calculation for
economic viability(c) Experiment on new system, error analysis and detailed economic
studyThis report opens with an introduction. This chapter starts with a brief note stating
theimportance of stenters in textile industries, then it deals with the objective of project
andfurther discusses the scope of energy conservation in these stenters. Finally a layout
 ofthe report is presented.The second chapter presents an evolution, construction, basic
parts, classification,working principle and the modernization of the stenters. This chapter
emphasizes thevarious functions that stenters are performing these days in textile
processing houses andalso the changes that have been brought in the stenters for higher
production andefficiency.The third chapter starts with a brief introduction of heat exchangers
and then discussesthree important heat exchangers which are being used for stenter
exhaust heat recovery invarious industries at present. This chapter emphasizes the various
advantages andlimitations of the existing systems and also suggests a new design with the
methods toovercome those earlier limitations.The fourth chapter presents the detailed design
and fabrication of a prototype of the air toair heat recovery unit. The experimental results
have been used for final designing of theheat exchanger. Further, economic viability of such
a system is looked into.The fifth chapter concludes the report. It also describes the work that
need to be done infuture.
5. 5. 4 Chapter 2 Stenters: Basic Functions and ModernizationIn good old days, in the wool
industry, the metallic frames on which the woolen fabrics werestretched, used to be called
wool-tenters. When the stretching operation was applied to thecotton industry, this term
was transformed into Stenter. The early stentering machines wereused as width equalizing
stenters where a small amount of heat was given at the selvedges byarranging finned steam
pipes below the stenter chains. These machines are now retained as thebatching stenter
for the purpose of cropping and shearing. At the intermediate stages ofdevelopment the
machine was used as an equalizing and drying stenter where blowers and fanswere used to
dry the fabric in addition to equalizing of fabric width. The modern stenteringmachines known
as the finishing, equalizing and drying stentering ranges are required to do awide range of
finishing operations besides the conventional ones like drying and equalization ofthe fabric
width.2.1 Utility of a StenterAfter preparation, washing or coloration, fabrics need to be dried.
This is usually carried out intwo stages. The first stage is mechanical dewatering using
centrifuges, mangles and vacuumslots. Mangling is the most cost effective way of removing
water mechanically but water
6. 6. 5retention levels are still quite high. Centrifuging can only be used for relatively small
batches offabric. It is more effective than mangling but costs almost twice as much in terms
of the energyrequired per kg of water removed. It is a method more commonly associated
with the woolindustry. Suction or vacuum slots are the most effective way of mechanical
dewatering (exceptfor woolen fabrics where water removal under suction is poor) but they
are the most expensive.Improved drying rates alone may not be sufficient to justify the
expense. An alternative use ofvacuum slots is the recovery of chemicals from pad finishing
operations. It is sometimes the casethat they are bought for the chemical savings alone.The
second stage involves heating the fabric and removing the remaining water by
evaporation.This is done using either drying cylinders (intermediate drying) or stenters (final
drying). Dryingcylinders are basically a series of steam-heated drums over which the fabric
passes. It has thedrawback of pulling the fabric and effectively reducing its width. For this
reason it tends to beused for intermediate drying. On the other hand, the stenter is a gas-
fired oven, with the fabricpassing through on a chain drive, held in place by either clips or
pins. Air is circulated above andbelow the fabric, before being exhausted to atmosphere. So
drying with stenters avoids anydrawback of reduction in fabric width. As well as for drying
processes, the stenter is used forpulling fabric to width, chemical finishing and heat setting
and curing. It is a very versatile pieceof equipment.2.2 The Sections of the Stentering
RangeThe main sections of the stentering range can be classified as follows: a The entrance
zone of the stenter in which the width equalizing and adjusting take place. It is narrower at
the actual entrance and tapers into a wider width till the end of the section i.e. up to the
heating chambers. The fabric is pulled during the passage of the fabric in this section b The
intermediate zone, consisting of the fabric compensating device, weft correcting system,
crease removing and selvedge uncurling devices, fabric selvedge guiding and introduction
 zone. c The finishing zone, consisting of the finishing padder and its component parts. The
fabric is introduced into the finishing padder, squeezed to a planned retention percentage.
7. 7. 6 d The drying zone, consisting of the number of drying chambers according to the drying
process planned. Each of the drying chambers consists of suitable positioned blower fans
with fan motors, nozzle sets for blowing the hot air on the fabric and heating registers which
heat the air coming from blower fans and achieve the desired effect. e The delivery zone,
consisting of fabric releasing system, cooling device, plaiting device and the type of batching
system which may have been selected. This zone permits the cooling of the fabric before it is
stripped off the pins or clips at the take off point. In some stenters air blower is arranged after
the drying section for adequate cooling of the fabric. Fresh air to bring down the temperature
is blown onto the fabric with the help of suitable ducting and nozzles.2.3 PerformanceThe
stenter has a dual function to perform. It is required, as mentioned earlier, not only toequalize
the fabric width, but also to dry the materials at ideal drying conditions, at a pre-determined
production speed and to impart to the fabric under process, the desired and wellexpected
final finish. Special attention is being paid to the temperature during drying, thecomposition
of the drying medium, the resultant moisture content, and ultimate dimension andthe finish of
the fabric.Depending on the types of fabric being processed on the machine, the processor
has to decide asto whether the material should be processed through the gripping system,
i.e., the clip type stenteror the non-gripping pin type stenter. Generally, woven goods are run
through the clip links, withthe exception of the very delicate materials. Superfine fabrics and
knit goods as well a crepe clothare treated on the pin stenters. For the sake of convenience it
is generally preferred to install astenter having a pin and clip type execution.The fabric is
introduced to the finishing padder, squeezed to a planned retention percentage andthen is
passed on to the stenter through a systematic crease removing and guiding system to
thechain links pair. The fabric is held at the selvedges by two endless chains, which convey
thesame through the body of the stenter, in which hot air is blown over the cloth and also
from
8. 8. 7below. The cloth is released from the grip at the end of the machine. An attempt is made
toretain in the cloth an optimum moisture content equivalent to the regain of the fiber
concerned.After emerging from the outlet the cloth is rolled in a batch or plaited down as per
convenience.The endless chains, because of their endless character, turn round at the exit
end, after releasingthe fabric selvedges, and run back through the drying zones, back to the
starting point. At thisstarting point, the chains again take up the selvedges of the newly
entering fabric, which isrunning continuously, and repeats the process through the drying
zones.2.4 Type of Heat SourcesA variety of heat energy sources are used to heat the drying
medium from which the heat isdistributed through heating registers or heat exchangers. a
Steam: High pressure steam from the boiler mains is fed to the heat exchangers located in
the drying chambers. The steam pressure is regulated at a point, which is in the vicinity of
the stenter in order to maintain a continuous and consistent supply of steam at the desired
pressure and temperature to the heating registers. The temperature reached by steam at
reasonably high pressures is around 165C, which is adequate for drying, curing and cross-
linking the chemical reactants. Therefore the use of steam is limited to drying purposes only.
Circulation of hot air, which follows the exchange of heat, is effected by means of suitably
designed, motor driven blower fans. Highly super heated steam is usually not used due to
operational difficulties at higher pressures. b Steam and electrical heating: Electrical heating
systems for attaining higher temperatures required for heat setting of fabrics are also used.
These systems are used along with pressurized steam for normal drying purposed. The main
problem with this system is cumbersome design features and maintenance of both type of
heating arrangements. However, exclusive electrical heating arrangements are made in
small production houses where boilers could not be installed. This process is slightly costlier
because of high cost of the electrical energy compared to gas and oil.
9. 9. 8 c Thermic fluid or hot oil: Hot oils or thermic fluids are also circulated through heating
registers when higher temperatures are required. One of the most redeeming features of this
 system is that the same thermic fluid can be heated and recirculated through the stenter or
any other drying machines. The whole circulation is effected under normal pressure, with
suitable control valves for each of the drying chambers. After flowing through the hot oil
registers throughout the dry and heating zones, the oil is pumped back to the storage cum
expansion tank. From the expansion tank, it flows to the oil-heating tank, is brought to the
required temperature and is then again circulated through the drying machine. d Direct
heating by oil burning: In this system, each stenter chamber has its own oil burner
arrangement. The flames are discharged on one side of the heat exchanger. The oil burner
design and position is arranged in such a manner that the system can impart sufficient heat
recovery for one standard drying chamber, along with necessary oil spray, air mixing device,
and igniting device. Sometimes, oil combustion products are directly fed into the chamber but
are not preferred because of oil spots and soot formation owing to incomplete combustion. e
Direct gas firing: Some stenter chambers are designed to be heated by direct gas firing with
natural gas being used as the fuel. The heat in the gas flame is taken up by the air from the
blower fans and passed on to the fabric surfaces. It is possible to control the gas flame in
such a manner that the hot medium temperature is adequate for drying, and when needed,
for the thermo-setting process, as the case may be. Indirect firing though a heat exchanger
can also be used for gas-produced heat but they are usually avoided because the
arrangement is very costly and the drying efficiency goes down by 20 to 30 %.2.5 Modern
StentersTowards the latter half of the seventies, the mounting cost of energy and other
utilities had a veryadverse effect on the textile industry, because of its highly vulnerable
nature in respect of thecosts of power, water, labour and raw materials. Attempts were
therefore made by textile
10. 10. 9machinery manufacturers all over the world to develop new models of stenters which
wouldenable savings in costs, with special reference to energy.2.5.1 Features of Modern
StentersAdvanced stenters with special features are now available. Some of the features are
highlightedbelow. a Padding Mangle: Before entering the stenter, mechanical squeezing of
fabric is done to remove moisture. This decreases the thermal load on the stenter. A device
known as padding mangle with large diameter rollers provides even squeeze across the
width of the fabric. The speed of the padding mangle is synchronized with the speed of the
stenter. b Weft Straightener: Fabric straightening equipment is integrated in the stenter entry
for reliable correction of skew or bow distortions before gripping or pinning-on of the fabric a
great advantage with tension-sensitive knit fabrics. The combined bow/skew straightening
unit comprises two bow rollers with two downstream skew straightening rollers. Separately
driven rollers permit adaptation to the requisite fabric tension. c Overfeeding: The overfeed
assemblies permit reliable pinning-on of even the most delicate fabrics. The selvedge
uncurlers or edge spreaders feed the fabric to the overfeed assemblies directly from behind,
for uniform pinning on. Adjustment of the mechanical overfeed input is possible from -15% to
+40%. In special cases, this can be increased to give a higher rate of shrinkage. The edge
tension can be adjusted for each side separately. d Edge Gumming and Trimming: The
selvedge trimmers cut precisely and reliably with a minimum loss of fabric, even at high
speeds. Unpinning of tension-sensitive fabrics takes place without stretching the edges.
Powerful injection blowers extract the trimmed selvedges from the machine. e Fabric Edge
Heating: Infrared heated hot air dryers are provided directly in front of the first drying
chamber to dry the gummed fabric edges. This ensures that the fabric edges are not damper
than the rest of the fabric, permitting an increase in the production speed. f Moisture Control:
Control systems are provided to measure and control the moisture on the fabric leaving the
stenter. Moisture level is continuously compared with a pre-set value and accordingly the
stenter speed is regulated, automatically.
11. 11. 102.5.2 Energy Conservation Aspects in StenterSeveral aspects need to be incorporated
in the new stenters for achieving energy efficiency.Utilization of full width of the stenter
should be ensured to avoid wastage of energy; otherwisethe specific heat consumption in
the case of narrow width will be higher. It is recommended toutilize at least 75 to 80% of the
 width of the stenter, to optimize on energy. The stenters shouldbe equipped with specially
designed heat transfer system and nozzles. This should ensure thatthe hot air is circulated
more number of times than the conventional stenters and maximummoisture is removed
before exhaust. Heat recovery systems should be installed to extract heatfrom outgoing
vapours and to pre-heat the input air. Thermic fluid heating/steam heating can beused in
stenters depending on temperature requirements. If steam is used 100%
condensaterecovery should be ensured. Flash steam recovery system may also be
considered. The flashsteam may be used in any low-pressure machines viz., jiggers,
recuperators of mercerizingmachines, soapers, washing machines, etc. Periodic cleaning of
filters is necessary since cloggedfilters will impair drying efficiency, resulting in energy loss.
The chamber doors should be leakproof so that hot air is not lost to the atmosphere.
Adequate insulation of top, bottom, sides, etc.should be ensured. The blower motor should
be interlocked with main drive such that when themachine stops, fan blower motors are also
stopped. Automatic moisture measurement andcontrol system should be provided to avoid
over-drying of the fabric.2.6 Heating and Circulation of Drying MediumThe drying medium
utilized in the stentering machine is moist air. For the purpose of being usedas drying
medium, the air heated by some convenient heat transfer system in which it isnecessary to
utilize heat energy in some easily procurable form. The device should be able toheat the air
up to 160 C in case of normal drying and 210 C in case of thermosetting stenters.As shown
in figure 2.1, the hot gases are forced into pairs of tapered ducts, extending across thewidth
of the fabric and then discharged onto the fabrics through specially designed nozzle sets.In
some stenters, the ducts have nozzles, running full width to provide uniform distribution of
airmedium i.e. hot air. The drying medium being blown over the fabric from top and bottom
has thesame temperature and in most cases, have the same heating source. Other designs
have circularnozzles arranged to strike the fabric at a particular angle. Usually in fabric
drying, slightly more
12. 12. 11air is forced into the bottom ducts, to support some of the weight of the fabric and
because thebottom of the fabric is wetter than the top. Supporting the weight of the wet fabric
helps toprevent excessive sagging, particularly in knitted fabrics. The hot drying medium,
after beingforced against the fabric surface makes its way towards the side of the stenter
where it iscollected by one fan, and then gets re-circulated. Exhaust Heater Fan Damper
FabricFresh Air Figure 2.1: Airflow Pattern (www.greenbusinesscentre.com)At the top of the
compartment, a damper is placed to regulate the rate at which, exhaust gases,including
steam, are removed into an exhaust duct. The damper has to be appropriately regulatedand
opened to an optimum level so that the composition of the medium is maintained. This
willenable to adjust an economic drying rate and also keep a control over the fuel cost.
Generally,10% steam is allowed to be exhausted from the damper.
13. 13. 12There are two kinds of drying chambers based on the airflow patterns and the
construction of fansand blowers. a The one-and-one countertype drying chamber: Each
drying chamber compartment comprises of two identical sections, one being the mirror
image of the other. Section wise construction of the one-and-one counter type chamber also
enables transport of the machine in pre-assembled condition. b The two-and-two
countertype drying chamber: Each compartment has two fans, located on one side of the
compartment. The compartments, identical in design, are lined up, facing each other in pairs
so that one compartment is positioned with its two fans on the right and next one with its two
fans on the left.2.7 Modification in DesignThe design aspects of the stentering machine and
the drying chambers have now been modifiedin the following manner to improve production
and efficiency. a The design of the drying chamber has now been modified in such a manner
that the total volume of the hot air medium handled at one time is about 15 % less than the
erstwhile models. b The moisture content of the drying chamber is constantly measured and
setting is done for optimum moist content. Substantial saving of heat energy can be achieved
by following this technique. c Spring-loaded telescopic curtains are arranged at the entrance
and delivery end of the drying zones. This also helps saving the heat energy. d The angle of
 the first set and the last setoff nozzles is rearranged in such a manner that the airflow is
directed inside the drying zone and no portion of the blown medium escapes outside the
drying zone. This arrangement helps in energy saving to some extent. e The packings
arranged at the sliding doors and panels are thoroughly rechecked for thickness, dimensions
and resilience, ensuring that there is no leakage from the drying zones from these parts. f
The inlet of fresh air inside the drying zone in such a manner that the proportion of stem: hot
air is not disturbed at all.
14. 14. 13g Enclosure of the stenter chain positions along the rails and the moving clip links, in
the entrance zone and the delivery zones in order to minimize the heat losses due to
dissipation.h Construction of partitions in between the standard drying chambers and the
thermosetting chambers to retain the maximum heat energy within the drying chambers
owing to differences in the temperatures of the drying medium between the drying chambers
and heat setting chambers.
15. 15. 14 Chapter 3 Heat Exchanger TechnologyHeat Exchanger is a device which is used to
transfer heat from one fluid to another through aseparating wall. Although there are many
different sizes, levels of sophistication, and types ofheat exchangers, they all use a thermally
conducting element; usually in the form of a tube ora plate; to separate two fluids, such that
one can transfer the thermal energy to the other.3.1 Energy Saving in StentersAs discussed
earlier, one of the means of improving the thermal efficiency of the stenter is byrecovering
some of the heat, which will, otherwise be wasted. Waste heat recovery from thestenter is
possible in two ways:(a) Waste heat recovery from the hot condensate and flash steam(b)
Waste heat recovery from the exhaust gassesWaste heat recovery from the condensate is
easier. As the condensate comes from steamtraps, flash steam is produced. The flash steam
may be condensed in a direct contactcondenser where cold water will extract its heat.
Whereas the hot condensate may be returnedto the boiler feed water tank, by using a
centrifugal pump. On the other hand, recovering heatfrom the exhaust air probably offers the
greatest potential reducing fuel consumption.
16. 16. 15Air to Air Heat ExchangerThe hot stenter exhaust gas at up to 160C is transported by
the existing waste air fansthrough the bare tube heat exchanger into the atmosphere. The
cold, clean fresh air(approximately 50% of the waste air volume) is drawn in by the fresh air
fan in counter-flowto the waste air, through the heat exchanger and into the stenter. As it
passes through the heatexchanger, this air is preheated to approximately 100C. This hot air
can be used in theburner of the stenter itself so as to lessen the requirement of fuel in the
burner. The onlyproblem is that the burners will have to be modified in order that they are
capable of acceptingthe air at high temperature. This process is illustrated with colour coding
in the followingfigure. Figure 3.1 Schematic of a stenter with and without Air to Air Heat
Recovery Unit (www.monforts.com)
17. 17. 163.2 Prior ArtPresently, there are three kinds of heat recovery systems which are using
waste heat fromstenter exhaust gases to preheat combustion air for the stenter or to heat
water for otherprocesses within the factory, such as fabric dyeing. The existing systems are
as follows3.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger: It consists of a bundle of parallel tubes
thatprovide the heat-transfer surface separating the two fluid streams. The fresh air or
waterpasses axially through the inside of the one inch tubes; and the exhaust gas passes
over theoutside of the tubes. Baffles external and perpendicular to the tubes direct the flow
across thetubes and provide tube support. Tubesheets seal the ends of the tubes, ensuring
separation ofthe two streams. The thermal performance of such a heat exchanger is high but
it can befurther increased by using some efficient fins.The use of large diameter tubes
increases the size of this heat exchanger. Also it usually hasto be located at a place where
there is room to open it up for cleaning purposes. It can bemade more compact by using
small diameter tubes. This will also increase the heat transfercoefficient slightly. A better
arrangement of tubes will result in high heat transfer coefficient,low pressure drops and
reduction in volume of heat exchanger. The separation and dischargeof condensate of
exhaust gas over the tubes also make this a complicated system.3.2.2 Z-Duct Plate Heat
 Exchanger: Developed and marketed by Des ChampsTechnologies, it is a unique system
designed specifically to permit the recovery of largeamounts of energy from stenters that
would otherwise be wasted. Counter flow of fresh airand exhaust gas streams are brought
into close proximity, separated by one continuous,dimpled and folded sheet of aluminum.
The heat transfer surface is formed into a matrix withtwo completely separate and distinct air
passages. The ends of the matrix are sealed forminimum leakage, virtually eliminating cross-
contamination. The spacing between plates canbe varied to allow for optimum energy saving
effectiveness and may be different for each airstream in the event of unbalanced air flow
through the heat exchanger. The Z-Ducts arehighly efficient, low cost heat exchangers with
no moving parts to break down or replace. Inaddition to being very effective at energy-
transfer, the Z-Duct is able to operate at a relatively
18. 18. 17low internal pressure drop. This is a result of the Z-Duct being constructed entirely
ofprimary heat-transfer surface.The heat-transfer matrix consists of formed and folded 8 mm
thick aluminum with truncateddimples formed into the plates to effect plate-spacing that can
be varied separately for eachflow stream. Variable plate-spacing allows maximum
performance for each application. Theends are sealed with refractory cement leading to a
heat exchanger with virtually no airleakage between air streams. Series 85 heat-exchangers
have high sensible efficiency, lowmaintenance, and good serviceability. Figure 3.2 Z-Duct
Heat recovery unit (www.deschamps.com)The disadvantage of this type of heat exchanger is
that it does not work efficiently if thetemperatures are very high so it can not be used if the
stenter is being used for heat settingprocess. Apart from that, it is suitable only for small flow
rates so it can not be scaled upefficiently to make it suitable for big industries.3.2.3 Bry-Air
Heat pipes: Developed and marketed by Bry-Air Inc. U.S.A., Bry-Air heatpipe is a self-
contained, passive energy recovery device. One of the good features of the heatpipes is that
they have no moving parts and hence require minimum maintenance. They arecompletely
silent and reversible in operation and require no external energy other than thethermal
energy they transfer. Heat pipes are robust and can withstand a lot of rugged
19. 19. 18handling.From construction point of view, the Bry-Air heat pipe comprises of three
elements, a sealedcontainer, a capillary wick structure and a working fluid. The capillary wick
structure isintegrally fabricated into the interior surface of the container tube which minimizes
heat lossacross fin tube bond. Figure 3.3 Integral finned construction (www.bryair.com)The
Bry-Air heat pipe transmits thermal energy by evaporation and condensation of theworking
fluid. The working fluid inside the heat pipe is in equilibrium with its own vapour asthe
container tube is sealed under vacuum. Thermal energy applied to the external surface ofthe
heat pipe causes the working fluid near the surface to evaporate instantaneously.
Vapourthus formed absorbs the latent heat of vaporization and this part of the heat pipe
becomes anevaporator region. Due to the pressure gradients thus created within the heat
pipe by the rapidgeneration of vapour near the surface, the excess vapour is forced to a
remote area within theheat pipe having low temperature and pressure. The vapour then
travels to the other end of thepipe where the thermal energy is removed causing the vapour
to condense into liquid again,thereby giving up the latent heat of the condensation. This part
of the heat pipe works as thecondenser region. The condensed liquid then flows back to the
evaporator region to be reused,thus completing a cycle.Heat is removed from the external
surface of the condenser region by conduction, convectionor radiation. The heat pipe works
continuously in a close-loop condensation/evaporation cycleand thus, the capillary pumping
force is established within the wick structure that returns the
20. 20. 19working fluid from the condenser region to the evaporator region. The transfer
efficiencylevel of each heat pipe is 99%. Figure 3.4 Functioning of a Heat Pipe
(www.bryair.com)Bry-Air industrial and commercial heat pipe heat exchanger contains a
number of heat pipes.These heat pipes are placed horizontally across the width of the
exchanger and pass through acenter seal partition to avoid cross contamination. The
exchanger is installed across two side-by-side air ducts. The exhaust air and the supply air
are discharged in counter flow directionacross the exchanger through the ducts to facilitate
 the maximum energy transfer. The heatpipes pick up the thermal energy from the exhaust
(evaporator region) and transfer it to supplyair (condenser region). Figure 3.5 Heat Pipe heat
exchanger (www.bryair.com)3.3 The Proposed Design MethodologyKeeping in view the
existing designs, a heat exchanger is being aimed at that is supposed toovercome the
limitations of these designs. Hence, it will prove to be a better alternative for
21. 21. 20 heat recovery from stenter exhaust. This puts certain requirements on the design if it
has to prove better than its present counterparts. 3.3.1 Requirements of the design (a) Low
cost: Should have a payback period of lesser than 6 months. (b) High thermal effectiveness
and low pressure losses: These affect an efficient heat recovery process. (c) Minimum
weight and volume: The weight is directly proportional to material cost and a small volume of
the unit makes it easier to handle. These requirements may be fulfilled with small hydraulic
dimensions of primary heat transfer surfaces. 3.3.2 Design Parameters The design
parameters for the system are as follows (a) Feed air inlet temperature, Tfi 30C (b) Feed air
exit temperature, Tfo 80 - 90C (c) Exhaust air inlet temperature, Tei 90 - 160C (d) Exhaust
air exit temperature, Teo 50 - 80C (e) Mass flow rate of feed air 8000 kg/h (f) Mass flow rate
of exhaust air 8000 kg/h (g) Line Pressure ~ 1 bar (h) MOC GI (thermally stable up to 420C,
UTS 500 MPa) Tei = 90 - 160 oC Teo = 80 - 50 oCme = 8000 kg/h Tfo = 80 - 90 oC Tfi = 30
oC Figure 3.6 The Design Conditions
22. 22. 213.3.3 Heat Transfer GeometriesThe next stage in design of the heat exchanger is the
selection of the appropriate geometry forthe heat transfer surfaces of the heat exchanger.
The various heat transfer geometries that areavailable are as follows (a) Primary Surface
Geometry: These surfaces have passive enhancement of heat transfer process as opposed
to active techniques such as surface vibration etc. In the passive techniques secondary flows
structures are created by means of curved and interrupted duct surfaces which disturb the
insulating near wall layers and thus improve heat transfer process in the duct. (b) Plate-fin
Geometry: Plate fin recuperators consist of flow separating metal sheets with supportive
offset strip fin secondary surfaces between them. The efficiency of heat exchange to the
separating metal sheets from the secondary surfaces depends on the fin height, material
conductivity, etc. An advantage is the capability for operation with a high internal pressure.
This configuration has higher mass of the recuperator unit than the primary surface types of
surfaces. (c) Tubular Geometry: It consists of thin walled small diameter tubes. While thin-
walled small diameter tubes have high cost, tubular geometries have excellent pressure
containing capability. Also they come with the option of enhancement of heat transfer
coefficient with the incorporation of tightly wound spring acting as fin.By having a look at the
design conditions one can easily determine that the most suitablegeometry for the system
would be primary surface geometry. This choice arises from the factthat the line pressure is
1 bar which removes the requirement of the capability forwithstanding high internal pressure.
Also primary surface geometry offers improved heattransfer and low cost and hence it wins
over other options.The next step is to choose from three different primary heat transfer
geometries, namely theCross Corrugated (CC) surface, the Cross Undulated (CU) surface,
and the Cross Wavy (CW)surface. A comparative study of these surfaces shows that the CC
surfaces having thesmallest P/Hi ratios result in the smallest matrix volumes and lowest
weights. Also suchsurfaces are simple and easy to fabricate. Therefore, Cross Corrugated
surface is chosen for
23. 23. 22the heat exchanger element of the unit to be designed for stenter exhaust heat
recovery forcombustion air preheating.Figure 3.7 Cross Corrugated (CC) surface Figure 3.8
Cross Undulated (CU)surface Figure 3.9 Cross Wavy (CW) surface3.3.4 The Initial Proposed
DesignThe heat exchanger that is being designed is going to be modular in nature. Such a
designwill facilitate easy scaling of the system according to the requirements of different
types ofstenters having different capacities. Initially a prototype of about one-hundredth of
therequired size will be targeted.
24. 24. 23The proposed design utilizes corrugated GI sheets. The arrangement shown in Figure
3.10is just a module of such a heat exchanger having 15 sheets. The sheet thickness of 0.5
 mmwould suffice the purpose here and also provide with cost benefits. The width of the
sheetwould be 0.76 m and length would be 1 m. The sheets are put on top of one another at
anangle of about 2 degrees so as to form flow passages from within the corrugated surfaces
asshown in figure 3.10. Thus, a stack of sheets with flow passages between them is
obtained.The feed air and exhaust air can be made to pass through alternate flow passages
along thecorrugations of the sheets thereby exchanging heat. Top View Front View
Perspective View Figure 3.10 The Proposed Design
25. 25. 24These sheets need to be held in place with the help of fasteners at two or if required
all fourcorners. Simple nut and bolt arrangements can be used as fasteners. With the use
offasteners, each of the sheets can be maintained at the required distance and angle from
othersheets. The benefit of such an arrangement is that it will lead to turbulence in the flow of
airstreams. We know that in a turbulent flow, the boundary layer formation does not take
placeas in the case of laminar flow. Also formation of boundary layer is undesirable because
itinhibits heat transfer across itself. Therefore, present arrangement helps in better heat
transfer.Various heat exchanger parameters are presented in table 3.1. Table 3.1 Heat
exchanger parameters Parameter Value Surface Area of each sheet 0.816 m2 No. of Sheets
in the stack 96 Total Heat transfer Surface Area 156.67 m2 Volume of the stack 0.59 m3
Surface Density 266.27 m2/m3 Total Area of Flow Cross Section 0.59 m2 Mass Flow rate of
exhaust air 8000 kg/h Volume flow rate of exhaust air 2.45 m3/s Velocity of flow for exhaust
air 9.3 m/s3.3.5 The Modified DesignThe proposed design discussed in section 3.3.4 may
suffer from lack of support on the sheetswhich may cause the heat exchanger element to
become disoriented as flow passes through it.Also, the air flow velocity through the design is
very high which might lead to high pressuredrops within the heat exchanger element. Also it
might be possible to save upon material cost
26. 26. 25by going for thinner sheet. Thus some modification is required in design which
canovercome these shortcomings.A modified design is proposed as follows. A sheet
thickness of 0.15 mm is taken to reducethe material cost. The material of construction is
changed to Stainless Steel (Grade SS 304)instead of Galvanized Iron. This grade of steel
has excellent temperature withstandingcapabilities and is virtually corrosion free in the
operating conditions of the present case.In addition to this, the angular shift between
successive sheets is increased to affect a betterheat transfer by breaking the boundary layer
to a greater extent. Also the need for spacers isvirtually eliminated in the design so
proposed. The spacing between sheets is maintained bythe cross corrugated arrangement
itself.It was decided to seam weld the cross corrugated sheets being stacked to form the
heatexchanger by taking them pair by pair. This ensures minimum risk of cross
contamination.One pair of such sheets makes up a heat transfer cell. Such cells are stacked
on top of eachother to form the heat exchange matrix. The cold stream of feed air is to flow
from within thecells formed by seam welding of sheets. The hot stream, which is nothing but
the flue gasesfrom the stenter exhaust, is to flow over these cells and in the process,
exchange heat with thecold stream. This flow pattern ensures that the heat exchange matrix
is accessible forcleaning and removal of the impurities that might deposit over the surface
due to the flow ofexhaust gases. If the hot stream was to flow from within the cells, they
might get clogged upthereby affecting the performance of the heat exchanger.With these
considerations and some heuristics in mind, a design is arrived at. This design isshown in
Figure 3.11. The heat exchanger is to consist of several stacks of the cell shown inthe figure.
This design has been fabricated and subjected to testing, and based on theseexperimental
results, final designing of heat exchanger is to be proposed.
27. 27. 26 Projected area on one side 787.5 cm2 Heat Exchange area on one side 1.12 x
(787.5) = 882 cm2 Perimeter 1.136 mm Figure 3.11 The Modified DesignThe accompanying
calculations and analysis is as follows, .Mass flow rate of exhaust gas, m eg = 8000 kg/h =
2.2 kg/sFor the purpose of designing this heat exchanger, we may use simple corrugated
parallel SS304 sheets of 0.15 mm thickness. Now, for the design conditions, 160 90 80
30LMTD = C (3.1) 160 90 ln 80 30 = 59 CThe given flow is estimated to behave similar
 to a flow through parallel plates of similardimensions. Thus for such a flow, hDNuH = 8.235 =
(3.2) k
28. 28. 27D = 2 W = 11 mmk = 0.0479 W/m-Kh = 39.5 W/m2-KNow say we are designing for a
heat duty of 186.7 kW which gives us . QAht = (3.3) U LMTD 186.7 1000 2 = m 20 59.4 =
157.1 m2Further, a,120C = 0.898 kg/m3 . mva = (3.4) a Acs = 3.87 m/s va DRe =
(3.5) = 929Thus, the flow through the sheets would be laminar. The pressure drop for this
flow can beestimated using the following relation, 2 f l va p = (3.6) 2 g D 64 f = (3.7) Re
p = 597.13 Pa = 0.006 barThus the flow encounters a pressure drop of only about 0.6% of
line pressure. Variousparameters of this design are presented in table 2.2
29. 29. 28 Table 3.2 Heat exchanger parameters for the modified designParameter
ValueSurface Area of each cell 0.176 m2No. of cells in the stack 900Total Heat transfer
Surface Area 157.1 m2Volume of the stack 0.467 m3Surface Density 340.11 m2/m3Total
Area of Flow Cross Section 1.14 m2Mass Flow rate of exhaust air 8000 kg/hVolume flow
rate of exhaust air 2.45 m3/sVelocity of flow for exhaust air 2.15 m/s
30. 30. 29 Chapter 4 Fabrication and testing of Heat ExchangerThe heat recovery unit for stenter
exhaust heat recovery is to be made out 0.15 mm thicksheet of stainless steel (SS 304). The
fabrication process incorporates several stepsstarting from cutting the sheet to corrugation of
the sheets to seam welding and headeringof the heat exchanger cells. All these steps are
described in this chapter. Also included isthe testing procedure for the prototype and
calculations for performance of the same.4.1 Fabrication of Heat Exchanger CellsThe
fabrication process for making the heat exchanger element starts with shearing piecesof SS
304 to the required dimension. The pieces so cut are then going to be subjected tothe
process of corrugation. The pieces are then to be washed to remove any impurities ontheir
surface. After corrugation, the sheets are to be seam welded in pairs to form cells.Following
the seam welding, the cells are to be subjected to multiple passes of shearingand seam
welding to arrive at the required shape. After the cells are ready, they are to be
31. 31. 30headered to allow for the passage of air through them. The cells can then be
assembledone on top of another to form the heat exchanger element.The processes are
listed as follows in their order of occurrence:a Shearing piecesb Washing and dryingc
Corrugationd Seam Welding and Shearing of cellse Pinching of cellsf Welding of headering
arrangementg Preliminary leak testingEach of these processes shall be taken up individually
now and discussed in detail.4.1.1 Shearing piecesIt has been observed that during
corrugating, a rectangular piece of sheet shrinks alongone diagonal and hence the
dimensions of the corrugated sheet change. This has to beborn in mind before determining
the dimensions of the SS 304 sheet to be cut.It has been experimentally found that for
achieving a width of 230 mm in a length ofabout 480 mm, one has to cut a sheet of 480 mm
by 275 mm. Another considerationbefore the sheet gets cut into pieces is that it must be
done in such a fashion that the sheetis corrugated perpendicular to the grain. Also the
corrugations are to be done in a way sothat they are almost parallel to the longer edge of the
piece being corrugated. Therefore,the sheet to be cut for corrugation has to have its longer
edge perpendicular to the grainof the steel roll. This consideration results in the orientation
for the sheets to be cut asshown in Figure 4.1
32. 32. 31 Figure 4.1 The sheet to be cut from the sheet rollAfter being cut from the roll in
accordance with the consideration above, the sheet issubjected to the process of
corrugation. As mentioned earlier, one of the diagonals of therectangular sheet becomes
shortened owing to corrugation. This phenomenon isdemonstrated in Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2
Shrinkage of SS sheet due to corrugation
33. 33. 32As shown in the figure, the rectangular sheet cut from the roll takes the shape of
aparallelogram following corrugation. According to the design, the heat exchange cells areto
be cross corrugated, thereby implying that the corrugated sheet shown in Figure 4.2 isto be
aligned with another similar sheet as shown in Figure 4.3. However, due to theshape, the
sheets do not match. Therefore, it is necessary to cut such a shape off from theroll of
stainless steel that after corrugation gives matching pairs. Figure 4.3 Misalignment of
 corrugated sheetsIn view of this consideration, the diagonally opposite edges of the
rectangular pieces arecut to an extent that would result in perfectly matching corrugated
pairs of sheets. It wasobserved that the corrugated sheet misalignment was coming out to be
15 mm. Therefore,same amount of material needs to be cut from diagonally opposite
corners. This leads usto arrive at the final shape of sheets that are to be cut from the roll of
SS 304. The shapeis shown in figure 4.4.
34. 34. 33 A B C D Figure 4.4 Final shape of SS 304 sheet to be cut from rollThis shape is
arrived at by first cutting off a width of 275 mm from the roll as shown inFigure 4.1 and then
placing a template according to Figure 4.4 made out of polypropylenesheet onto the
rectangular piece so cut and shearing the corners off. The four corners ofthe sheet are also
named A through D in the order shown. These names are marked ontothe sheets with the
help of permanent markers. This helps in the process of corrugationto avoid wrong way of
corrugating.4.1.2 Washing and DryingThe pieces of sheets that are cut as discussed in the
previous section are taken directlyfrom a steel roll. As such, they might be contaminated with
several impurities that canhinder the quality of the final product. For example, the seam
welding operation canresult in a lot of sparking, burn holes and consequently weak weld if
the workpiece is not
35. 35. 34clean. To cater to this need, the pieces of stainless steel sheet are washed with soap
andwater and dried to ensure a clean surface.4.1.3 CorrugationThe washed and dried pieces
are then to be corrugated. This process is carried out byfeeding the sheets into the rollers
designed for the purpose. The roller assembly consistsof two meshing rollers having involute
tooth profile. As the sheet passes through them, itbears the impression of the teeth of the
rollers and hence becomes corrugated. The teethprofile determines the pitch and depth of
the corrugations that have impression on thesheets. The roller assembly is driven by a motor
that powers the top one of the rollers.The second roller is driven by the movement of the first
roller. The rollers are made tothe dimensions listed in table 4.1 Table 4.1 Attributes of the
corrugating rollerS no Attribute Value (mm) 1 Addendum 90 2 Dedendum 87 3 Pitch 10 4
Pitch Circle Diameter 88.5 5 Length 600As discussed before, the cells are to be made in a
cross corrugated fashion. This isachieved by corrugating the sheets at an angle so that when
they are placed on top of oneanother with their respective corrugations pointing in different
directions, crosscorrugated profile is achieved. This is demonstrated in Figure 4.5. The sheet
becomesshortened along one of its diagonals after corrugation. So it is important to feed
thecorrect side into the rollers.
36. 36. 35 Figure 4.5 Cross corrugated sheetsThe angle for cross corrugation has been kept as
20o. This means that each sheet has tohave the corrugations making an angle of 10o with
the longer edge. Though heat transferin cross corrugated passages is known to be maximum
at around 55o the value cannot beadapted in this case. The angle cannot be lesser than 4o
or greater than 29o, the formerlimit coming from the fact that the sheets might fall into each
other and the latter comingfrom the fact that the flow will encounter more resistance from the
corrugations leadingto increased pressure drop. Another prime consideration in this case is
that the seamwelding is affected by the angle of corrugations. If the welding is to be
doneperpendicular to the corrugations, it leads to the pinching of corrugated ends and leads
toimproper weld. So the present angle of 20o is decided upon and taken up for
corrugating.To ensure that the corrugations are at an angle with the edge of the sheet, the
feeding isalso done at the required angle. The sheet is fed into the roller with a tilt of 10o with
thecorrugating teeth of the same. The roller assembly is shown in Figure 4.6. Figure 4.6
Roller assembly
37. 37. 36While feeding the sheets into the roller assembly for corrugating, following
precautionsare to be observed, a The sheets shrink along the diagonal that is fed first into
the roller. Therefore, always the uncut corner should be fed first. All the sheets are to be
corrugated by first feeding the corner marked D. Precaution should be taken not to feed
any other corner into the corrugating roller. b The roller assembly has a provision to adjust
the spacing between the rollers at both ends to accommodate various sheet thicknesses. It
 should be ensured that the spacing on both ends of the rollers is equal. In other words, the
roller teeth should be meshing to the same extent on both ends before carrying out the
process of corrugation. c The rollers and the sheets to be fed should be clean. Any impurities
present shall be pressed against the surface of the sheet due to the force of the roller. This
might cause imperfections in the corrugations. Also, contaminated surfaces are not desirable
during subsequent fabrication. d It should be ensured that after getting corrugated the sheet
is coming out of the roller properly. Care should be taken to avoid the buckling of the sheet
which may spoil its profile. e The rollers are driven by a high torque. Therefore it is advisable
to not wear loose clothes while operating them and also to take care while feeding the sheets
so as to not let the hands get hurt by the rollers.4.1.4 Seam Welding and ShearingThe
sheets are to be made into pairs with cross corrugations as shown in Figure 4.5.They are
then to be seam welded from all sides leaving only opening for headeringarrangement. The
process of seam welding is carried out on SMW 50 resistance seamwelding machine.
38. 38. 37 Figure 4.7 SMW50 Resistance Seam Welding MachineThere are several parameters
of welding that come into play at this point. They are listedas follows.4.1.4.1 Welding
ParametersThe following settings are for a sheet thickness of 0.15 mm a Electrode Speed:
The electrode speed is governed by a voltage variac that governs the input voltage to the DC
motor driving the electrode. The related attributes are as follows Unit % age of maximum
value Range 0 100
39. 39. 38 Set Value 19-20% Calibration 100% = 1m/minb Weld Force: Weld force is an
important parameter for obtaining satisfactory weld. It is delivered by the hydraulic cylinder
mounted on top of the driver electrode. Weld force is governed by the pressure of the air line
fed into the machine. Unit kg/cm2 Range 0 -10 kg/cm2 Set Value 3 kg/cm2c Pulsation: The
pulsation switch is located on the electronic control panel. If pulsation is required for the
welding process, this switch should be on. The switch being on indicates that the weld cycle
shall occur in accordance with the heat cycle and cooling cycle settings of the electronic
panel.d Weld / No-weld: The weld / no-weld switch is located on the electronic control panel
beside the Pulsation switch. This switch can be used to set the welding cycle to weld or no
weld. No-weld cycle implies that no current passes through the electrode at all and hence no
welding takes place. No-weld cycle can be used to flatten the workpiece before actual
welding to minimize the arcing and ensuring a satisfactory weld. If this switch is on indicating
weld, current passes through the electrodes as per the pulsation settings and welding takes
place accordingly.e Squeeze time: Squeeze time is set on the electronic control panel by
adjusting the first two digits shown on the panel. The two digit number corresponding to the
squeeze time of weld cycle corresponds to the number of squeeze cycles occurring.
Squeeze time is the time during which no current is passed through the electrodes and no
movement of the work piece takes place. Squeeze time occurs in the beginning of the
welding process.
40. 40. 39 Unit Cycles (Two digits) Range 0 99 Cycles Set Value 50 Cycles Calibration 1 cycle
= 1/50th of a secondf Heat cycle: Heat cycle is set on the electronic control panel by
adjusting the third digit from left. Heat cycle setting determines the number of cycles during
which current passes through the electrodes and heating of the workpiece occurs due to
resistance to the flow of current. Unit Cycles (One digit) Range 0 9 Cycles Set Value 3 5
Cycles Calibration 1 cycle = 1/50th of a secondg Cool cycle: Cool cycle is set on the
electronic control panel by adjusting the fourth digit from left. Cool cycle setting determines
the number of cycles during which no current passes through the electrodes and no heating
of the workpiece occurs. Cool cycle accommodates the expansion of the workpiece due to
heating cycle. A heat cycle of 3 and a cool cycle of 1 indicate that heating time is to cooling
time ratio is 3:1 for the respective welding cycle. Unit Cycles (One digit) Range 0 9 Cycles
Set Value 1 Cycle Calibration 1 cycle = 1/50th of a secondh Hold time: Hold time is set on
the electronic control panel by adjusting the last two digits from the left shown on the panel.
The two digit number corresponding to the hold time of weld cycle corresponds to the
 number of hold cycles occurring. Hold time is the time during which no current is passed
through the electrodes and
41. 41. 40 no movement of the work piece takes place. Hold time occurs at the end of the
welding process. Unit Cycles (Two digits) Range 0 99 Cycles Set Value 15 Cycles
Calibration 1 cycle = 1/50th of a second i Percent heat: The percent heat is set using the
knob at the bottom of the electronic control panel. It determines the amount of current that
flows through the electrodes during the time of weld. The greater the current, the more is the
heating that takes place during the welding process. Unit % age of maximum value Range 0
100 Set Value 5 - 9% Calibration 100% = 12800 Amperes approx.The effects of different
welding parameters on the weld have been thus described. Eachsetting of the seam weld
machine corresponds to a combination of all the weldingparameters. Several settings were
tried before arriving at the present setting of themachine that delivered leak proof seam weld.
These are listed in table 4.2
42. 42. 41 Table 4.2 Settings for SMW50 Seam Welding MachineS no Welding Parameter
Setting 1 Setting 2 Setting 3 Setting 4 1 Electrode speed (% of max. value) 21 19 19 19 2
Weld force (kg/cm2) 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3 No Weld passes (nos.) 1 1 1 0 4 Weld passes (nos.) 1
1 1 2 5 Squeeze cycles (nos.) 50 50 50 50 6 Heat cycles (nos.) 3 3 5 5 7 Cool cycles (nos.) 1
1 1 1 8 Hold cycles (nos.) 15 15 15 15 9 Percent heat (% of max. value) 5 10 7.5 7.5 Weak
Holes in Leakage Good 10 Remarks about welding quality Weld Weld from Weld WeldThe
cells are then seam welded according to the setting 4 described above. There arefour welds
to be done onto the cells. Two of the welds are along the longer edge of thecells. The other
two welds are at an angle with the shorter edge. An opening of 100 mmwidth is left for the
flow to enter the cell. After welding the extra material is to beremoved by shearing. Due to
welding, the cells might become a little twisted causingthem to lose their flatness to some
extent. Therefore a mask has been designed formarking off a length of 410 mm in the
welded cell for shearing. The welding andshearing process takes place in the following order.
1 The sheets cut to size and corrugated are held in welding frame A which is made for the
purpose. The frame is shown in Figure 4.8
43. 43. 42 Figure 4.8 Fixture for Seam Welding the Long Edge2 Edge AB is welded according to
the settings described above3 Edge DC is welded according to settings described above4
The welded cell is taken out of the frame and the extra material is sheared off as shown in
the following figure Figure 4.9 Heat Exchange Cell with Long Edges Welded5 After shearing
the extra material out of the welded seams, the cell is held in a mask and marked for
shearing to a length of 410 mm as shown below
44. 44. 43 Figure 4.10 Mask for Marking Length 6 The length of 410 mm is sheared off 7 The cell
is then held in the frame B as shown in Figure 4.11 and the slant edges are welded Figure
4.11 Fixture for seam welding the slanting edge 8 The extra material is sheared offThe cell is
complete with respect to welding and shearing after the above procedure
45. 45. 444.1.5 Pinching of CellsThe cells so formed are now to be provided with an
arrangement for flow to be admittedinto them. Such an arrangement has to be leak proof to
avoid the mixing of the twostreams exchanging heat. Initially it was thought to seal the
alternate layers of corrugatedsheets with metal adhesive to make them leak proof. However,
the metal adhesive didnot adhere to the smooth surface of stainless steel and hence the idea
had to be dropped. Figure 4.12 Initially proposed headering arrangementAnother headering
arrangement was thought of that comprised of joining three SS 321tubes onto the opening
left for flow admission. This seemed favourable owing to severalconsiderations such as the
fact that tube arrangement can be made absolutely leak proofby brazing them. The tubes
have good pressure sustaining capabilities. It was thenrequired to pinch the opening to form
the grooves required for entering the three tubesinto the cell. After getting pinched, three
tubes fit perfectly into the opening of 100 mm.For the purpose of pinching, an aluminium die
is fabricated. The die consists of two halfinch aluminium bars into which three holes are
drilled with a diameter of 11 mm andtheir centres separated by 25 mm.
46. 46. 45The initial arrangement for carrying out the pinching operation is described
henceforth.Both the halves of the aluminium die so formed are welded onto one inch
aluminiumangles to allow the die to be fixed onto a bench vice. Now the die is ready for
pinching.Three tubes of 3/8 diameter and 1 length are inserted into the opening of the
cells upto length. The cell with these tubes jutting out is held in the die and bench vice
istightened onto the cell. The tubes press against the matching holes in the die from
withinthe cell opening and the latter comes to bear the impression of the tubes. Figure 4.13
Initially fabricated die for pinchingHowever, there were certain shortcomings of the pinching
arrangement described above.Firstly, there was no provision for locating the sheets while
pinching. Therefore thepinching was non uniform. Secondly, there was no way to ensure that
the tubes arehomogenously inserted to a depth of in all the cases. In view of all this, the
pinchingarrangement was modified as follows. A stainless steel frame was made to hold
thesheets while pinching was carried out. The aluminium die was fixed onto this frameitself.
The frame was also provided with an arrangement for ensuring that the tubes gointo the cell
opening uniformly to a depth of in all cases.
47. 47. 46 Figure 4.14 Pinching FrameThe following procedure was adopted for pinching the
cells in the new frame, 1 The welded and sheared cell is placed into the frame 2 The three
1 tubes are inserted into the cell openings on each side 3 The dies are mounted onto
tubes such that the cell skin is held between the tube and the die 4 The frame is tightened to
hold the sheet in place 5 The frame is held in the bench vice and dies are pressed against
each other 6 After fully tightening, the vice is let loose and the frame is disengaged Figure
4.15 Pinched cell and tubes to be inserted
48. 48. 47Shown above are the pinched grooves for holding the headering tubes that are
formedonto the cells as a result of pinching.The sheets are pinched according to the
following scheme to ensure that when they arestacked one on top of another, the headered
tubes do not get in the way of them beingapart by the required distance. A hexagonal
arrangement of tubes is desirable to ensurethis which places a requirement onto the
pinching orientation. This is demonstrated inFigure 4.16, Figure 4.16 Stacking Arrangement
of cells4.1.6 Welding of headering arrangementThe tubes are to be welded onto the cells
and the gaps between the tubes are to be sealedoff to render the cells leak proof. The gaps
between the tubes are sealed by seam weldingthem. Since the tubes are only inside the
cell opening, long seam welds aresufficient to seal the gaps. Tubes are inserted into the
grooves made by pinching andthen the cell is fed into the seam welding machine as shown
below.
49. 49. 48 Figure 4.17 Seam welding the pinched openingsFollowing this operation, the tubes
come to be set in their respective positions. The taskonly remains to silver braze their sides
to render them leak proof. This has to be doneskilfully. The flame from the brazing torch
should not directly hit the cell, it should onlyhit the headering tube and the heat from the
flame should be used to melt the fillermaterial onto the cell surface. A small mask is used to
ensure that the tubes remain intactin their positions while brazing. This is shown in the
accompanying figure. Figure 4.18 The mask used for brazing the cellsFollowing these
operations the headering provision is complete. The cells can be nowstacked one on top of
the other according to the arrangement shown in Figure 4.16
50. 50. 494.1.7 Preliminary leak testingThe cells so formed are now tested for leaks. This is
done by sealing off all the headeringtubes except one. The cell is submerged in a bath of
water and then air is blown into thecell from the one open header tube to check if there are
any leaks. The leaks, if any, canbe cured depending upon where they occur. The several
probable sites for leaks to occurare seam welding, brazing, and corrugated sheets. The
leaks occurring in seam weldingcan be cured by re-welding locally at the site of the leak. The
imperfections in brazingcan be overcome by depositing more material onto the site of the
leak. Any leaks due toholes in corrugated sheets can be overcome by sealing with loctiteTM
silicone adhesive.4.2 Assembly of cellsThe cells fabricated according to the procedure
outlined in section 4.1 are subsequentlyassembled to form a heat exchanger matrix. Five
 cells are taken for fabrication of theprototype of the actual heat exchanger to be tested.
These cells are stacked one on top ofanother as shown previously in Figure 4.16 and
headered to form the heat exchangerprototype. Figure 4.19 Heat exchanger prototype
51. 51. 50After that, the cells are fitted with 2.3 mm thick plate with holes corresponding to
theheadering tubes on both sides of the cell stack. The tube ends are inserted into the
plateup to an extent that they just come out of the other end. These ends coming out are
thenwelded to fix them to the plates. Figure 4.20 Welded tube endsSubsequently, an
arrangement for directing flow onto the headered tubes is to be made.This is done by
providing triangular ducts at the ends where the tubes are brazed. Thetriangular ducts are
fitted with tubes to admit flow. The assembly is shown in Figure4.21; the cold stream enters
the cells through the triangular ducts whereas the hot streamflows from over the cells.After
providing ducts for the flow passage, the prototype to be tested is put in anenclosure made
of SS 321 stainless steel. The enclosure is provided with a duct for flowat one end of the
cells and the other end is kept open. The heat exchanger assembly isshown as follows
52. 52. 51 Figure 4.21 Heat exchanger prototype assembly4.3 Performance Evaluation of Heat
ExchangerThis section outlines the various tests and calculations required to assess the
performanceof the heat exchanger.4.3.1 Tests to be PerformedFollowing two tests are to be
performed for evaluating the performance of this system. a Calibration of Thermocouples:
This is a pre-requisite for the performance of any experiment, so as to obtain an error
estimate of the data. A calibration procedure was adopted over a range. The thermocouples
and digital indicator used are quite new and in good condition.
53. 53. 52 b Calibration of Flow meter: The flow meters being used to determine the flow rate of
the hot stream and the cold stream is to be calibrated. The coefficient of discharge is to be
found out for the flow meters. This is done by passing water flow through them and
maintaining similar Reynolds number as the air flow. The water passing through the flow
meter is collected and actual flow rate is obtained by dividing the amount of water collected
by the time it took to collect. The flow shown by the flow meter is calibrated against the
actual value of flow so obtained. c Performance Evaluation of Heat Exchanger Unit: The
performance of the heat exchanger so fabricated is to be evaluated by the virtue of
experimentation. This is done by admitting two streams of hot and cold air through the
respective flow passages and determination of the heat transfer taking place from one
stream to the other.4.3.1.1 Thermocouple CalibrationCalibration of thermocouple wires is a
primary step for conducting the experiments.Thermocouple can be calibrated using ice point,
steam point or calibration over a rangeof temperature. In this experiment the range of
temperatures of operation of fluids is wellwithin 3oC to 100oC. So all thermocouples wires
have been calibrated between thistemperature range of 3oC to 100oC using water as
discussed in Appendix I.4.3.1.2 Calibration of flow meterThe flow meter used for
determination of flow through the prototype is a venturimeter.The dimensions of the same
are shown in Figure 4.22
54. 54. 53 Figure 4.22 Venturimeter for flow measurementAimTo calibrate the flow meter for air
flow by maintaining similar flow conditions for waterstreamApparatusVenturimeter, pressure
gage, digital indicator, water flow line, vessel, stopwatchExperimental Setup a Venturimeter
is connected in a flow line to admit water b Tappings are provided for reading the flow in the
venturimeter c Vessel is placed at the end of flow line to collect the flowing water d Tappings
are connected to the pressure gageProcedure a Flow is admitted into the flow meter and
then it flows into the vessel b Digital indicator is switched on c As soon as the venturimeter
shows a steady value of flow, vessel is emptied and placed again in place to collect water d
Stopwatch is switched off when vessel is full
55. 55. 54ObservationsThe observed values are tabulated as follows Table 4.3 Observations for
venturimeter calibration Pressure Drop Time taken to fill theS No Coefficient of Discharge pd
vm (bar) vessel w.c (s) 1 0.0045 101 1.307 2 0.012 62 1.306 3 0.017 51.73 1.326 4 0.023
43.9 1.333Sample CalculationCorresponding to the first observation,Pressure drop across
venturimeter, pd vm I = 0.0045 barTime taken to fill 33.5 kg water, w.c = 101 sNow, ratio of
 throat diameter to inside diameter of the venturimeter is given by d throt.i = (4.1) d vt .id
throt.i = 0.019 md vt.i = 0.038 m = 0.5Mass flow rate of water as measured by venturimeter
is given by
56. 56. 55 1mvt = d 2 throt .i 2 pd vm w (4.2) 1 4 4For the present case, substitution of values
in the expression yields,m vt = 0.276 kg/s = 16.6 kg/minActual flow rate of water measured
by collecting 36.55 kg of water 36.55kgmactual = (4.3) w.c = 0.362 kg/s = 21.7 kg/minThe
coefficient of discharge is defined as the ratio of actual flow rate to that measured
byventurimeter m actualCd = (4.4) mvt = 1.307ResultThe venturimeter was calibrated
against actual flow values and coefficient of dischargewas obtained as the average of
measured values. The value of coefficient of dischargeobtained is 1.318.This value is cross
checked by connecting the venturimeter to the line that goes throughthe air heater assembly.
The electric power consumed by the heater is converted intothermal energy. So by knowing
temperature change to be from 45 oC to 160 oC, we canestimate the mass flow rate which
can verify that shown by venturimeter.pd vt = 0.014 barm vt = 0.015 kg/s
57. 57. 56 112.07587kWh 111.71902kWhPheater = (4.5) 9 h 60 = 2.379 kW = m actual C p.a
Ta (4.6)This gives,mactual = 0.0197 kg/sThe discharge coefficient is given by equation 4.4
m actualCd = mvt = 1.313Which is in good agreement with the one obtained before.4.3.1.3
Performance Evaluation of Heat Exchanger UnitA prototype of five cells is taken for testing.
The results are then to be extended to thedesign of the entire unit.AimTo evaluate
performance of heat exchanger and obtain the experimental values of overallheat transfer
coefficient.ApparatusThermocouples (K type) accuracy +/-1oC, temperature indicator
accuracy +/- 0.1oC,Venturimeter (2 nos. ), digital pressure transducer, digital indicator, 9 kW
electric heater,centrifugal blower (2 nos.)Experimental SetupImportant features of the setup
are the following:
58. 58. 571 The 9 kW capacity heaters are connected to the system so that hot air can be
supplied to it.2 Air streams are admitted into the system with the help of two centrifugal
blowers.3 One thermocouple each is used for measuring the temperature at cold air inlet and
exhaust. Three thermocouples were used to measure hot air exhaust. Hot air inlet was
governed by PID controller to a value of 160 oC.4 The digital pressure transducer is
connected between the cold air inlet and outlet to get the cold air side pressure drop. The
setup is shown below Figure 4.23 Setup for prototype testing5 The apparatus is insulated
using blocks of calcium silicate and then additionally covered with heatlon sheet.
59. 59. 58 Figure 4.24 Insulation of test moduleProcedure1 Electrical connections to the blowers,
heaters, pressure indicator and temperature indicator were made.2 The heater was turned
on and the flow rate was adjusted to get the desired hot air flow3 Temperature and pressure
drop readings were registered after they stabilized.4 Based on the temperature and flow
readings obtained, heat duty and the overall heat transfer coefficient of the system was
calculated.ObservationsZero error in measurement of pdvt.ha. = 0.0055 barZero error in
measurement of pdvt.ca. = 0.0140 barThe temperatures together with the pressure drops
across venturimeters and across theflows on both sides are measured and tabulated as
follows
60. 60. 59 Table 4.4 Performance of Heat Exchanger Unit S. tha.i. tha.o.1 tha.o.2 tha.o.3 tca.i.
tca.o. pdvt.ha. pdvt.ca. pdha pdca o o o o o o No. C C C C C C bar bar bar bar 1 29.2 28.3
34.3 27.5 27.4 28.1 0.0180 0.0270 - - 2 160 70.5 60.4 68.2 46.3 71.8 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020
0.023 3 160 77.9 66.6 75.1 47.3 77.5 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 4 160 80.7 71.2 78.4 47.6
79.4 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 5 160 85.7 74.2 84.0 48.1 82.3 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020
0.023 6 160 89.5 78.8 86.7 48.9 83.6 0.0194 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 7 160 92.8 81.6 89.9 49.1
84.1 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 8 160 93.9 83.4 91.0 49.4 84.5 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020
0.023 9 160 97.8 89.4 94.8 50.4 86.6 0.0196 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 10 160 98.9 90.1 95.0
51.2 86.9 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.024 11 160 100.1 91.4 95.7 51.3 87.7 0.0195 0.0280
0.0020 0.024 12 160 99.9 91.8 96.1 51.4 88.1 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 13 160 100.3
92.1 96.4 51.4 87.6 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020 0.023 14 160 100.3 92.3 96.5 51.3 87.7 0.0195
0.0280 0.0020 0.023 15 160 100.3 92.4 96.5 51.4 87.7 0.0195 0.0280 0.0020
 0.023Precautions and sources of error1 Precautions are to be taken to ensure that no leaks
develop during the assembly of the heat exchanger, because any leaks will give faulty
results experimentally.2 It must be ensured that the heaters are not overheated. The PID
controller display should be used to determine whether the heaters are getting overheated.3
Heat loss should be minimized by insulating the apparatus.Calculations, results and
discussionHot air inlet temperature, tha.i = 160 oCHot air exit temperature, tha.o = ( tha.o 1 +
tha.o 2 + tha.o 3) / 3 (4.7)
61. 61. 60 = 96.4 oCCold air inlet temperature, tca.i = 51.4 oCCold air exit temperature, tca.o =
87.7 oC eff = 33.42 %Air flow rate, ma = mvt C D (4.8) = 19.35 g/s 160 96.4 87.7
51.4LMTD = C (4.9) 160 96.4 ln 87.7 51.4 = 48.75 oCHot side heat duty, Qh = m a C p .a
t ha.i t ha.o (4.10) = 0.01935 kg/s 1.05 kJ/kg oC 63.6 oC = 1.27 kWCold side heat duty, Qc
= m a C p .a t ca.o t ca.i (4.11) = 0.01935 kg/s 1.05 kJ/kg oC 36.3 oC = 0.737 kWAht =
0.882 m2Overall heat transfer coefficients can be evaluated as, QhUh = (4.12) Aht LMTD
= 29.54 W/ m2-K QcUc = (4.13) Aht LMTD
62. 62. 61 = 17.17 W/ m2-KThe difference between the heat duty on the hot side and that on the
cold side is 0.53 kW.This is a representative of heat losses from the apparatus that remain
despite theinsulation provided. There is a need to provide a better insulation that can be
achieved bycovering the apparatus with glass wool. A reduction in heat loss can improve
theperformance of the heat exchanger prototype being tested.The pressure drop on the cold
air side is at a high of 0.023 bar. In addition to the dropacross the heat exchanger prototype,
this also owes heavily to certain sites where the flowis undergoing sudden expansion or
contraction. Also the headering tubes are 1.2 mmthick. If this thickness can be reduced to
say 0.5 mm, the pressure drop is expected tocome down by a factor of 2.5 approximately
due to increase in area of flow to the headerinlet.The heat duty on the cold side is at a low of
0.737 kW which can be improved upon byminimization of heat loss. Anyhow, even if the
present loss is to be considered, the valueof heat duty can be doubled by increasing the area
of heat transfer to twice its presentvalue. In such a case, the cells will have to be made
longer by 342.4 mm. Therefore, thenew cells will be 752.4 mm long instead of a present
value of 410 mm. This will give aheat duty of 1.474 kW on the cold side which is the
productive heat duty.The flow rate through the test module of 5 cells is 19.3 kg/s which is
114 times less thanthe maximum allowable flow through the complete heat exchanger. So,
the heatexchanger has to be arrived at by scaling the prototype through a factor of 114.
Thenumber of cells to be used for the heat exchanger comes out to be 570. These cells
canbe arranged in three stacks of 190 cells each. In the complete heat exchanger, the
heatduty on the cold side would then be again the duty for the test module scaled by
114,giving a value of 168 kW.The attributes of the final design are summed up in table 4.5
63. 63. 62 Table 4.5 Heat exchanger parameters for the final designParameter ValueSurface
Area of each cell 0.352 m2No. of cells in the stack 570Total Heat transfer Surface Area
200.6 m2Volume of the stack 0.542 m3Surface Density 369.95 m2/m3Total Area of Flow
Cross Section 0.72 m2Mass Flow rate of exhaust air 8000 kg/hVolume flow rate of exhaust
air 2.45 m3/sVelocity of flow for exhaust air 3.41 m/s4.5 Economic AnalysisIn this section,
with the help of calculation, economic viability of the modified designwill be assessed. Each
cell would weigh about 400 grams of SS 304. Taking the cost ofSS304 sheet to be about Rs.
300/- per kg, the cost of heat exchanger made out of 0.15mm thick sheet comes out to be
about Rs. 60,000/-.Considering about twice of this to be the installation cost, we arrive at a
cost figure ofroughly Rs. 1,20,000/-Now to calculate the saving in fuel consumption,Type of
fuel = furnace oil,Calorific Value = 9650 kcal/kg = 40337 kJ/kgPrice of fuel = Rs.13.8 per kg