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Chapter 8 Dams - General Cef312
Chapter 8 Dams - General Cef312
According to Material
~ Rigid dams constructed of rigid materials such as masonry,
concrete, steel or timber. Example: Gravity dams, and Arch dam etc.
Advantages
Relatively more stronger than earth dams
Well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest
Can be constructed of any height, provided suitable
foundation is provided
Specially suited to areas where heavy downpours occur
Requires least maintenance
Failure is not sudden
Cheaper in long run
Disadvantages
Constructed only on sound rock foundations
Initial cost is high
If mechanized plants, such as manufacturing and
transporting mass concrete, curing of concrete etc. are not
available, a gravity dam may take more time to construct
Require skilled labour or mechanized plants for
construction
Difficult to allow subsequent rise in height unless specific
provisions have been made in the initial design.
Gravity Dams
For dams upto height 100m, the horizontal seismic coefficient shall be
taken as 1.5 times seismic coefficient (h) at the top of the dam
reducing linearly to zero at the base. Vertical seismic coefficient shall
be taken as 0.75 times the value of h at top reducing linearly to zero
at the base.
Seismic Waves
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all
directions through the Earths layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface.
These waves are of two types - body waves and surface waves;
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earths surface and consist of Love waves
and Rayleigh waves.
Body waves consist of PrimaryWaves (P-waves) and SecondaryWaves (S-waves).
Under P-waves, material particles undergo extensional and compressional strains
along direction of energy transmission, but under S-waves, oscillate at right angles to
it.
Love waves cause surface motions similar to that by S-waves, but with no vertical
component. Rayleigh wave makes a material particle oscillate in an elliptic path in
the vertical plane (with horizontal motion along direction of energy transmission).
P-waves are fastest, followed in sequence by S-, Love and Rayleigh
waves. For example, in granites, P- and S-waves have speeds ~4.8
km/sec and ~3.0km/sec, respectively.
S-waves do not travel through liquids. S-waves in association with
effects of Love waves cause maximum damage to structures by their
racking motion on the surface in both vertical and horizontal
directions.
When P- and S-waves reach the Earth's surface, most of their energy is
reflected back. Some of this energy is returned back to the surface by
reflections at different layers of soil and rock.
Shaking is more severe (about twice as much) at the Earth's surface
than at substantial depths. This is often the basis for designing
structures buried underground for smaller levels of acceleration than
those above the ground.
Strong Ground Motions
Shaking of ground on the Earths surface is a net consequence of motions
caused by seismic waves generated by energy release at each material point
within the three-dimensional volume that ruptures at the fault.
These waves arrive at various instants of time, have different amplitudes and
carry different levels of energy.
Thus, the motion at any site on ground is random in nature with its
amplitude and direction varying randomly with time.
Large earthquakes at great distances can produce weak motions that may not
damage structures or even be felt by humans.
However, from engineering viewpoint, strong motions that can possibly
damage structures are of interest. This can happen with earthquakes in the
vicinity or even with large earthquakes at reasonable medium to large
distances.
Earthquake Related Terminology
The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or
Hypocenter, and the point vertically above this on the
surface of the Earth is the Epicenter.
The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as Focal
Depth, is an important parameter in determining the
damaging potential of an earthquake. Most of the
damaging earthquakes have shallow focus with focal
depths less than about 70km.
Distance from epicenter to any point of interest is called
epicentral distance.
Magnitude
earths crust
The waves impart accelerations to the foundations under the dam and causes its
movement
In order to avoid rupture, the dam must also move along with it
This acceleration introduces an inertia force in the body of dam and sets up
stresses initially in lower layers and gradually in the whole body of the dam
Earthquake wave may travel in any direction and for design purpose, it has to be
resolved
In horizontal directions
The intensity of an earthquake at a place is a measure of the strength of
In India, the entire country has been divided into five seismic zones
According to its revised version (IS 1893-2002) the seismic zone map is
may be used
dam will be lifted upward and becomes closer to the body of the dam
Thus the effective weight of the dam will increase and hence the stress
Thus reducing the effective weight and the stability of the dam and
(. . = )
Where, W is the total weight of the dam
K
The net effective weight of the dam = W M
L
IF = M
Where, Kv = is the fraction of gravity adopted for vertical acceleration, such
as 0.1g or 0.2, etc.
Then, the net effective weight of the dam
K
= W M M = [1 ]
L
In other words, vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of the dam
material and that of water to [1 Kv] times their original unit weight.
Horizontal acceleration may cause the following two
forces:
1. Hydrodynamics pressure and
hydrodynamics pressure.
Fig. 1 Hydrodynamic Pressure by a Horizontal Earthquake
According to Von-Karman,
= 0.555 M M X (1)
YZ
= = = . M 2
[\
According to Zanger,
= 0.726 M M 3
Where,
= M (4)
= 0.726 M X 5
Where,
= is the angle in degree which the u/s face of the dam makes with the horizontal
= 0.299 X (7)
rs
= 0.299 M
o.tXu MZ
= 0.412 M 8
If the u/s face is partly inclined (fig. 2 a) which does not
extend to more than half the depth of the reservoir it can be
taken as vertical
If the slope extend to more than half the depth (fig. 2 b) the
overall slope up to the whole height may be taken as the value
of in Eq. (6).
Fig. 2
In addition to extending the hydrodynamic pressure, the horizontal
This force is generated in order to keep the body and the force into
the body and the foundation of the dam together as one piece
When the reservoir is Empty, this force would produce worst results if
The stability analysis for reservoir empty case may be carried out only on
the basis of wt. of the dam by ignoring earthquake forces and keeping the
section free from any tension.
The amount of this horizontal inertia force is equal to the
= = M M = M (9)
Where,
= height of water from top of crest to bottom of trough in metres
V = wind velocity in km/hr.
F = Fetch or straight length of water expanse in km
Fig. 3
The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by,
= 2.4 M
|}
Its acts at metres above the sill water surface
X
~|}
The pressure distribution may be assumed to be triangular of height as shown
[
in fig. 3
The total force due to wave action (Pw)
1 5
= 2.4 M M M
2 3
Pw = 2 M M X = 2 9.81 X
= 19.62 X
[
This force acts at a distance above the reservoir surface
Wave pressure
Waves are generated on the reservoir surface because of the wind
blowing over it. Wave pressure depends on the height of the wave
developed.
The pressure intensity due to waves is given by
pw = 2.4 w hw (t/m2)
where pw is the maximum unit pressure which occurs at 1/8 hw
meters above still water surface.
For design purpose, the pressure distribution may be assumed to be
represented by a triangle of height equal to 5/3 hw. Hence the total
pressure pw is
Pw = 2000 hw2 (kg/m)
and this acts at a distance of 3/8 hw above the reservoir surface
Ice pressure
Important for dams constructed in cold countries. The ice formed
on the water surface of the reservoir is subjected to expansion and
contraction due to temperature variations. The coefficient of
expansion of ice being five times more than that of concrete, the
dam face has to resist the force due to expansion of ice.
An average value of 5 kg/cm2 may be taken as allowable pressure
under ordinary conditions.
Wind pressure
It is a minor force and need hardly be taken into account. Normally
taken as 100 to 150kg/m2 for the area exposed to wind pressure
Silt pressure
If is the submerged unit weight of silt and is the angle of
internal friction and h is the height to which the silt is deposited,
the silt pressure is given by
1 2 1 - sin f
Ps = g ' h
2 1 + sin f
According to IS : 6512-1972
Horizontal silt and water pressure is assumed to be equivalent to
that of a fluid weighing 1360 kg/m3, and
Vertical silt and water pressure is determined as if silt and water
together have a density of 1925 kg/m3
Combination of load for design
Normal load combination
~ Normal water surface elevation, ice pressure, silt pressure and
normal uplift
~ Normal water surface elevation, earthquake force, silt pressure
and normal uplift
~ Maximum water surface elevation, silt pressure and normal uplift
Extreme load combination
~ Maximum flood water elevation, silt pressure and extreme uplift
with no drain in operation to release the uplift.
IS Recommendations (IS:6512-1984)
Gravity dam design shall be based on the most adverse loading conditions
A, B, C, D, E, F or G given below using the safety factors prescribed
Load combination A (construction condition): Dam completed but no
water in reservoir and tail water
Load combination B (Normal operating condition): Full reservoir
elevation (or top of gates at crest), normal dry weather tail water, normal
uplift, ice and silt (if applicable)
Load combination C (Flood Discharge condition): Reservoir of maximum
flood pool elevation, all gates open, tail water at flood elevation, normal
uplift, and silt (if applicable)
Load combination D: Combination A with earthquake
Load combination E: Combination B with earthquake but no ice
Load combination F: Combination C but extreme uplift (drainage
inoperative)
Load combination G: Combination E but extreme uplift (drainage
inoperative)
Modes of failure
Overturning
Sliding
Compression or Crushing
Tension
Overturning takes place when resultant force at any section cuts
the base of the dam downstream of the toe.
factor of safety against overturning
F.S. = Righting moments / Overturning moments
F.S should not be less than 1.5
IS Code Recommendation
Before a gravity dam overturns bodily, other types of
failures may occur, such as cracking of the upstream
material due to tension, increase in uplift, crushing of
toe material and sliding.
A gravity dam is, therefore, considered safe against
overturning if the criteria of no tension on the upstream
face, the resistance against sliding as well as the quality
and strength of concrete/masonry of the dam and its
foundation is satisfied assuming the dam and foundation
as a continuous body.
Sliding
A dam will fail in sliding at its base, or at any other level, if the
horizontal forces causing sliding are more than the resistance available
to it at that level.
Factor of safety against sliding =
actual coefficient of static friction () / sliding friction
Sliding factor is the minimum coefficient of static friction required to
prevent sliding
If H = sum of the horizontal forces causing the sliding and V= is
the net vertical forces
V + b.q
Shear Friction Factor (S.F.F.) =
H
Where b = width of dam at the joint,
q= average shear strength of the joint which varies from about 1400
kN/m2 (14 kg/cm2) for poor rocks to about 4000 kN/m2 (40 kg/cm2)
for good rocks
The factor of safety against sliding shall be computed from the
following equation (IS method) and shall not be less than 1.0.
The coefficient of friction Loading F.S. S.F.F.
varies from 0.65 to 0.75. Condition against
sliding
The factor of safety against
(F.S.S.)
sliding should be greater
A, B, C 2.0 4.0
than the value given in the
Table
D, E 1.5 3.0
F, G 1.2 1.5
The value of internal friction may be estimated for the purpose of
preliminary designs on the basis of available data on similar or
comparable materials.
For final designs, however, the value of cohesion and internal
friction shall be determined by actual laboratory and field tests.
The shear strength (q) at the base and other joints can be increased
by providing steps at the base and measures are taken to ensure
better bond between the dam base and the rock foundation.
Compression or crushing
In order to calculate the normal stress distribution at the base, or
at any section, let FH be the total horizontal force, FV be the
total vertical force and R be the resultant force cutting the base at
an eccentricity e from the centre of the base of width b (Fig.),
which is equal to
b/2 where is the distance of the resultant force R from the
toe given by
Compression or crushing
The normal stress at any point on the base will be the
sum of the direct stress and the bending stress. Thus,
direct stress cc is
t = shear stress
pn = normal stress
s1 =
( p n - p sin f
2
)
cos f 2
For downstream, the worst condition will be when there
is no tail water. In the circumstance,
s 1 = p n sec 2 f
Shear stress
Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, we
get
t = p n tan f
Stability analysis: Gravity method - Analytical
Consider unit length of the dam. Calculate all vertical forces acting
i.e. weight of dam, weight of water acting on the inclined faces,
uplift pressure and inertial forces due to vertical acceleration. Find
their algebric sum V
Find sum of horizontal force H, and the horizontal pressure due
to hydrodynamic pressure.
Find out the sum of the overturning moments M0 and the sum of
righting moments MR at the toe. Find M = MR M0
Find out the location of the resultant force R from toe
-
x=
M
V
Find out the eccentricity e of the resultant R, fro the centre as
b -
e= -x
2
pn =
V 6e
1 +
b b
pn =
V 6e
1 -
b b
Find out the principal and shear stress at toe and heel
Find Factor of safety against overturning = MR/ M0
Find the factor of safety against sliding
Sliding factor = V/ H
Shear friction factor = ( V + b q)/ H
q = average cohesion or shear strength of the joint the value
of which varies from 1300 kN/m2 to 4500 kN/m2 for good
rock to 650 kN/m2 to 1300 kN/m2 for concrete
B = width of the joint or section
A = area of the joint = bx1 for unit length of the dam
Example 1
Fig. 1 shows the section of a gravity dam (non-
overflow position) built of concrete. Calculate
(neglecting Earthquake effects)
1) The maximum vertical stresses at the heel and toe
of the dam
2) The major principal stress at the toe of the dam
3) The intensity of shear stress on a horizontal plane
near the toe
Weight of water
supposed on d/s - (+) 1/2 x 4 x 6 x 1 x 9.81 = 118 1.33 (+) 157
face
V1 - V2 = 43049
Horizontal Forces
Water Pressure
On d/s face P' (-) 1/2 x 58.9 x 6 = 177 2.0 (+) 353
Y[oYn u n.nY
Pv = [1 ] = 768.73 (1 1.065)
~u ~u
f
H>
g w (G + 1)
Galleries
Opening left in the dam for the following purposes
To provide drainage of the dam
To provide facilities for drilling and grouting operations for
foundations
To provide space for header and return pipes for post cooling of
concrete and grouting the longitudinal joints after completion of
dam
To provide access to observe and measure the behavior of structure.
To provide an access of mechanical contrivances needed for the
operation of outlet gates and spillway gates.
Joints, Keys and Water Seals
Joints
~ Construction joints
~ Contraction joints
-Transverse joints
-Longitudinal joints
Keys to permit the transfer of shearing stresses from one block to
another
Water sops to prevent leakage of water
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES for DAM
CONSTRUCTION
Thank You
End of Chapter