TABLES OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements
Abstract
List of tables
List of figures
Nomenclature

1. INTRODUCTION TO HIGH ALTITUDE TESTING

1.1 Introduction
1.2 High Altitude Testing
1.3 Pressure Variation with Altitude
1.4 Need for Simulating High Altitude Conditions

2. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH ALTITUDE

ROCKET .
MOTORS
2.1 Ignition Characteristics
2.2 Flow Separation in the Nozzle
of Rocket Motors
2.3 Evaluation of Internal Ballistics
2.4 Heat Transfer with Motor Case and Nozzle with Surroundings
2.5 Subsystem Testing Under Simulated Altitude Conditions
2.6 Thrust Vector Control

3. NOZZLE CONFIGURATION
3.1 Introduction to Nozzles
3.1.1 Uses of Nozzles
3.1.2 Working Principle of Nozzles
3.2 First Stage Rocket Motor Nozzle
 3.3 upper stage rocket motor nozzle
3.4 Methods of High Altitude Simulation

4. SECOND THROAT EXHAUST DIFFUSER (STED)

4.1 Working Principle of STED
4.2 STED geometry
4.3 STED Unstarted condition
4.3.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Unstarted Condition
4.4 STED Started Condition

5. LITERATURE SURVEY

6. TEST-SET UP AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

6.1 Cold Flow Test Installation
6.2 Nitrogen Gas Supplying
6.3 Test Set-Up
6.4 Hot Flow Test SetUp
6.5 Data Processing
6.5.1 Pneumatic System
6.5.2 Instrumentation and Data Acquisition System
6.5.3 Sensor System
6.5.4 Signal Conditioning and Recording
6.6 Pressure Transducer
6.6.1 Introduction
6.6.2 Working Principle of Pressure Transducer
6.6.3 Calibration Of Pressure Transducer

7. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
7.1 Test Configuration
7.2 Phase -1: With Small Vacuum Chamber
 7.3 Phase -2: With Large Vacuum Chamber
7.4 Theoritical Calculations
7.4.1 Nozzle Exit Mach Number
7.4.2 Nozzle Exit Pressure
7.4.3 Nozzle Exit Temperature
7.4.4 Mass Flow Rate
7.4.5 Method for Prediction Of Starting Pressure Of STED
7.4.6 Maximum Diffuser Contraction Ratio for Starting STED

8. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

10. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
 ABBREVATIONS

SED straight Cylindrical Exhaust Diffuser

STED Second Throat Exhaust Diffuser
PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
SA Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model

Nomenclature:

Ae = Nozzle exit cross sectional area

At = nozzle throat cross sectional area

AR = area ratio

Ad/At = ratio of diffuser inner cross-sectional area to throat area

Aso/Asi = subsonic area ratio

De = nozzle exit diameter

Dt = nozzle throat diameter

Dd = Straight Diffuser diameter

L/Dst = ratio of length to second throat diameter

m = mass flow rate

M = Mach number

Me = Mach number at nozzle exit

Mt = Mach number at nozzle throat

Po = stagnation pressure

Pi = Nozzle inlet pressure

R = real gas constant

Ti = stagnation temperature of motor

Te = exit temperature of nozzle

X = axial distance from nozzle exit to start of ramp

= specific heat ratio

= ramp angle

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ABSTRACT:

EXPERIMENTAL & NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION ON THE

STARTING OF HIGHER AREA RATIO NOZZLES OF UPPER
ROCKET MOTORS USING SUPERSONIC EXHAUST
DIFFUSER.

During the development phase of the satellite launch vehicle static testing of rocket
motors for the performance evaluation is very important. Rocket motor designed for
operation at high altitudes and in space are normally provided with large area ratio
nozzles to efficiently utilize the available motor pressure,Po to deliver high specific
impulse. When these motors are tested at sea level conditions the flow separates in
the divergent part of the nozzle due to lack of low pressure environment. Hence they
are tested and qualified in high altitude test facility (HATF). These facilities
invariably utilize supersonic exhaust diffuser (SED) of constant area type or Second
throat exhaust diffuser (STED). SEDs and STEDs are simple and inexpensive devices
capable of simulating low pressure environment for evaluating the steady state
performance of the rocket motors. --

This project work is proposed to deal with the high altitude simulation and
testing of higher area ratio rocket nozzle at sea level using cold flow scaled models.
To evaluate the performance of such nozzles, the low-pressure environment of the
flight situation has to be simulated in the ground testing installation, using an
appropriately designed supersonic exhaust diffusers. This diffuser would use the
kinetic energy of rocket exhaust itself to maintain lower nozzle back pressure.

For this project work, cold flow experiments are proposed to be conducted
with a nozzle area ratio of 70, using the diffuser to simulate the high altitude
condition. The effects of diffuser geometrical parameters on diffuser performance
characteristics were studied. As a part of the project, it is also proposed to carry out
numerical study using commercial CFD software for the above-mentioned
experimental configuration and compares the results.
1. INTRODUCTION:

Rocket motors designed for operation in upper atmosphere or in space, need a nozzle
with higher area ratio for effective utilization of the rocket motor pressure (Po). When
they are tested under sea level ambient conditions, the flow would separate in the
nozzle divergent; consequently the full thrust of the motor is not realized. Therefore
to evaluate the internal ballistic performance of such motors i.e. to realize the design
thrust and to operate the motor without any flow separation sufficient low-pressure
environment has to be simulated in ground testing installations.

Straight Cylindrical Supersonic Exhaust Diffusers (SED) and Second

Throat Exhaust Diffusers (STED) are employed in the high altitude test facilities to
test the performance of upper stage rocket motor which maintain high vacuum level
corresponding to upper atmosphere with in the test cell region or in the vacuum
chamber with help of well established shock structure. The hot gas issuing from the
rocket nozzle evacuates the test chamber by ejector action and low vacuum region is
isolated from the ambient by the presence of oblique and normal shocks. The location
of the shock structure is very sensitive to the parameters such as geometric
configuration of the ejector diffuser, rocket motor chamber pressure and also the
initial pressure transients. Often failures have been witnessed if the geometry or the
starting conditions are not suitable.

But, to achieve the nozzle full flow condition with in the minimum
available Po, the concept of STED is adopted, since it starts at a lower Po compared
to the starting of SED. The reduction in the staring pressure (Po) st, for the STED
could be attributed to the terminal shock occurring at second throat, whose area is
smaller when compared to the main diffuser duct. An optimized duct would also
result in the simulation of higher altitude conditions and the pressure recovery to
nearly ambient would be accomplished through a fully developed shock system,
which is different from that of SED configuration.

According to the conventional definition, the STED is started when the

chamber pressure is independent of the exhaust pressure or in other means when the
exhaust flow occupies the full cross-section of the nozzle and diffuser. At that time
the Mach number at the entrance of the second throat contraction is greater than one.
This is similar to the start condition (or the normal shock swallowing condition) of a
supersonic wind tunnel in which a supersonic flow is established in the second throat
diffuser. Accordingly, for a STED there should be a normal shock occurring a head of
the second throat contraction to ensure that the flow is supersonic in the diffuser.
Moreover, formation of a normal shock is accompanied by the blockage of the nozzle
exhaust mass and an increase in the chamber pressure. Under such circumstances the
system is unstarted.

There are so many ways to simulate high altitude conditions other than exhaust
diffusers like vacuum tanks, mechanical gas exhausters using rotary machinery or
steam or air ejectors. In vacuum tank type of cell, there is a large vacuum vessel that
can be evacuated by relatively small pumps to the low pressure required to simulate
high altitude conditions. But this facility can be effectively used for very short time
intervals. In mechanical gas exhausters, compressors or ejectors are used for pumping
out the rocket exhaust gases for a long duration but only for low mass flow rates. The
above said facilities are expensive, rugged in construction and difficulty in
maintenance due to presence of moving parts compared to exhaust diffusers.
OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the study is to develop an optimum Second

Throat Supersonic Diffuser configuration for starting 70-area ratio nozzle by
conducting a series of cold flow tests. Cold flow tests are conducted with varied ramp
geometrical parameters, in order to study their effect in diffuser starting
characteristics. The diffuser geometrical parameters considered for study are given
below.

High Altitude Testing:

Testing of rockets is an important aspect in the development of systems for launch
vehicles. Rocket motor testing is different from the testing of other engineering
components because of high velocity, temperatures, flow rates, heat transfer rates,
forces and stresses involved. More over the testing is for short duration using
hazardous working fluids. After completing sea-level testing, prior to the actual
launch of rocket powered vehicles, rockets are tested in high altitude test facilities
(HATF). The complexity of modern rocket systems necessitates frequent testing in
high altitude cells.

When rocket propelled vehicles are launched from sea level to high altitudes, the
reduction in the ambient pressure bears an influence upon their performance. Some of
the typical problems associated with the operation of rocket motors under high
altitude conditions relate to integrity and durability, ignition and thrust termination,
rocket performance, base heating, thrust vector control and rocket system operation.

Rocket motors that are designed for use in the earth's upper atmosphere or in space
require a low pressure environment when used at ground level in order to evaluate the
performance of all the components. The rocket motors while operating at high
altitudes or in space experience certain peculiar problems generally not encountered
at sea level. The nature and the extent of these problems cannot be fully understood
or predicted by testing at sea level. In order to study, evaluate and modify the systems
if required, it is essential to simulate the high altitude environment at ground level
and qualify the systems. Evaluation of the effects of high altitude phenomena
therefore requires facilities in which high altitude can be simulated and the rocket
motors are tested in those simulated conditions. The following problem areas are
encountered while operating rockets at high altitudes

High Altitude Test Facility is meant for testing upper stage

solid rocket motors. In this facility, the high altitude environment (i.e. near vacuum
condition) is simulated using Vacuum pumps and Supersonic exhaust diffusers.
The high altitude tests are conducted to evaluate the (i) Vacuum ignition of rocket
motors (ii) Rocket Motor subsystem performance in vacuum (iii) Nozzle full flow
conditions (iv)To estimate the Vacuum specific impulse of the rocket motor.

Rocket motors designed for operation in upper atmosphere or in space, need a nozzle
with higher area ratio for effective utilization of the rocket motor pressure (Po). When
they are tested under sea level ambient conditions, the flow would separate in the
nozzle divergent, consequently the full thrust of the motor is not realized. Therefore
to evaluate the internal ballistic performance of such motors i.e. to realize the design
thrust and to operate the motor without any flow separation sufficient low-pressure
environment has to be simulated in ground testing installations.

In general, a High Altitude Test (HAT) facility consists of various sub- systems like
the large area ratio thruster which has to be tested, a vacuum chamber followed by a
second throat diffuser and an external ejector system .Vacuum chamber is a vacuum
holding device, which isolates the satellite thruster from outside ambient, by
maintaining the low pressure value corresponding to the flight situation.

PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

 Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth. The pressure in the
atmosphere decreases exponentially from earths surface to high altitudes as shown in
the above figure. For altitudes above 40kms the pressure will be in the order of few
millibars. Generally third stage (PS3) and fourth stage (PS4) rocket motors of PSLV
operate in the altitudes higher than 200 kms, where we can find near vacuum
conditions.
WHY TEST AT SIMULATED ALTITUDE CONDITIONS?

Rocket engines and propulsion systems that are designed to operate in space often
require testing under simulated altitude (low ambient pressure) conditions for a
variety of reasons.

Rocket engines often incorporate high expansion ratio nozzles for increased
performance. When these nozzles are operated in an ambient pressure significantly
higher than what they were designed for, the flow in the nozzle will separate from the
nozzle wall, with a resultant reduction in thrust. Separated flow can also cause nozzle
burning due to the shock wave that exists at the separation point, nozzle damage due
to unsymmetrical pressure distribution, and excessive vibration as the separation
point moves erratically around the nozzle.

Ignition characteristics of both solid and liquid propellants are significantly altered.
Solid rocket motors that ignite reliably in a sea level ambient pressure may not obtain
sufficient pressure for propellant ignition in a vacuum environment. Liquid engine
ignition delay caused by vaporization and cooling of the propellants in a space
environment could be masked by testing in an ambient atmosphere.
GENERAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH ALTITUDE ROCKET
MOTORS:

1. Heat Transfer with motor case and nozzle with surroundings

2. Propellant performance
3. Ignition Characteristics
4. Subsystem testing under simulated altitude conditions
5. Thrust vector control

IGNITION CHARACTERISTICS

Many missions have failed due to ignition failure of upper stage motors. The
failures or malfunctions of certain components in the electrical system, structural
failures of the igniters were observed

Ignition of solid propellant could be unsuccessful due to one or more of the following
reasons
1. Malfunctioning of electrical systems
2. Structural failure of the igniters
3. Motor grain surface conditions

In liquid propellant rockets, adequate vaporization must occur for successful ignition.
Another problem is that after prolonged periods of coasting in space, the temperature
of rocket motor hardware and of the propellants are greatly reduced. Propellant
vaporization under these conditions may become so sluggish that ignition becomes
unreliable. Ignition is likely to be even more critical and would require extensive
altitude testing for highly sophisticated vehicles designed for repeated ignition after
days, weeks or even months of coasting.
Flow separation in the nozzle of rocket motors.

Rocket motors designed to operate at high altitudes have nozzles with large area
ratios compared to those of the first stage boosters. Evaluation the internal ballistics
of such rocket motors is not possible in sea level testing because the combination of
motor pressure and nozzle expansion ratio are such that the flow separates in
divergent portion of the nozzle. It is imperative therefore to simulate a low pressure
environment by an amount sufficient to prevent the occurrence of flow separation.
But for the establishment of high altitude test facilities, it would be impossible to
measure accurately the specific impulse under the condition of nozzle flowing full.

Evaluation of the internal ballistics

The actual performance of the motor in terms of thrust, total impulse,

specific impulse under vacuum can be measured accurately only when the nozzle is
running full which is possible only when the back pressure is sufficiently low. These
parameters can be measured only in HAT facility. The solid propellants having for
instance, aluminium 18% would produce around 36% by weight of aluminium oxide
particles in the exhaust. When they impinge on the interior surface of nozzle
divergent, they erode the ablative layers. The extent of erosion due particle
impingement and the loss of thrust due to solid particles in the exhaust gas could be
studied only when the nozzle is flowing full, a condition that can be fulfilled under
simulated high altitude conditions. Such a study helps in optimizing the weight of the
nozzle and in the measurement of the actual thrust and hence the specific impulse
developed by the motor

Heat Transfer with motor case and nozzle with surroundings

The motors which are exposed to near vacuum pressures at high

altitudes, this will greatly decreases the rate of heat transfer between motor to the
surroundings particularly the nozzle and motor cases becomes much hotter than at sea
level. As a result, actual deterioration and failure of motor cases have been found at
high altitudes. It has become necessary to measure the temperatures over the motor
case and nozzle in the simulated conditions before flight.

Subsystem testing under simulated altitude conditions

Sub-systems like gas generator, turbo pumps, control components,

igniters of solid motors etc., are required to be qualified under simulated conditions
for their successful operation.

Thrust vector control

The thrust vector control is obtained by gimballing the nozzle or by

injecting the secondary fluid into the nozzle exhaust or by using flexible nozzle, etc.,
the performance of these devices with high altitude nozzles can be evaluated only in
high altitude test facilities.
 PSLV NOZZLE CONFIGURATION

FIRST STAGE MOTOR NOZZLE (PS1):

Typically the area ratio of

PS1 nozzle will be 9.It has large
motor chamber but lowest area
ratio out of all stages. When fired
under sea level conditions the
nozzle flows full and it gives exact
values of thrust (T) and specific
impulse (Isp) for flight conditions.

THIRD STAGE MOTOR NOZZLE (PS3):

The area ratio of PSLV third
stage rocket motor nozzl is 70.It has
small chamber with highest area
ratio.Higher area ratio needed for
effective conversion of motor
 pressure energy to kinetic energy of the exhaust gas. However, a very long nozzle has
significant mass and itself adds weight. Therefore a length that optimizes overall
vehicle performance typically has to be found.
Flow will separate inside the nozzle if we test the high altitude nozzle in sea
level conditions. The thrust realized will be less than the actual thrust due to flow
separation. Because of uneven flow separation and potentially destructive side loads,
sea level tests of upper stage rocket motors are avoided.
Therefore to evaluate the internal ballistic performance of such motors i.e. to
realize the design thrust and to operate the motor without any flow separation
sufficient low-pressure environment has to be simulated in ground testing facilities.
Pe=1 bar
In this case no separation of flow takes place inside the nozzle and actual thrust and
other ballistic parameters can be realized.
Pe=30mbar

1.2 UPPER STAGE ROCKET MOTORS

Rocket motors designed for operation in upper atmosphere or in space,

need a nozzle with higher area ratio for effective utilization of the rocket motor
pressure (Po). When they are tested under sea level ambient conditions, the flow
would separate in the nozzle divergent as shown in figure-1a, consequently the full
thrust of the motor is not realized. Therefore to evaluate the internal ballistic
performance of such motors i.e. to realize the design thrust and to operate the motor
without any flow separation sufficient low-pressure environment has to be simulated
in ground testing installations. Whereas, the full flow condition of nozzle is shown in
figure-1b.
Fig. 1a. Flow separation in the Nozzle Fig.1b. Full flow of the Nozzle

METHODS OF HIGH ALTITUDE SIMULATIONS:

In a high altitude test facility, the following studies are carried out for
the qualification of rocket motors under vacuum conditions.

Evaluation of vacuum ignition characteristics

Evaluation of steady state performance

Evaluation of tail-thrust characteristics

Different types of simulation techniques are in vogue to test rocket systems under
simulated altitude conditions. The main parameter simulated is the pressure at high
altitude. The most difficult problem in building such altitude chambers is to select
appropriate equipment to pump the exhaust gases out to the atmosphere. Maintaining
the required vacuum pressure in the test cell is the most important design
consideration and it is mainly dependent upon the altitude to be simulated, burning
time and the mass flow rates of the rocket motor.

There are so many ways to simulate high altitude conditions other than exhaust
diffusers like:

Vacuum tanks
 Mechanical gas exhausters using rotary machinery

Steam or air ejectors

Exhaust diffuser

In vacuum tank type of cell, there is a large vacuum vessel that can
be evacuated by relatively small pumps to the low pressure required to simulate high
altitude conditions. But this facility can be effectively used for very short time
intervals. In mechanical gas exhausters, compressors or ejectors are used for pumping
out the rocket exhaust gases for a long duration but only for low mass flow rates. The
above said facilities are expensive, rugged in construction and difficulty in
maintenance due to presence of moving parts compared to exhaust diffusers. Each
one is briefly explained below and its relative merits and demerits are discussed.

The vacuum chamber type test cells are large vessels evacuated by vacuum
pumps. They are suitable for testing igniters and control rockets under pulse mode
operation and for studies on ignition with the main motor, staging dynamics etc. The
test set up with vacuum chamber and vacuum pumping system is shown in figure-2
 Fig.-2 Test set-up of rocket motor in vacuum chamber

The process under study occurs in a very short time interval. The test cell houses the
test stand, load cell, load links, the rocket motor and other fixtures. Data can be
obtained from this kind of facility for short burning time or for very small mass flow
rates and burning times.

The next option would be to use only supersonic exhaust diffuser (SED). A rocket
motor exhaust diffuser is a straight, constant diameter duct attached either directly to
the motor or to a vacuum chamber surrounding the rocket motor, concentric with an
annular gap. Figure-3 & 4 gives the test set-up using only an SED with vacuum
chamber as well as with cell region for the simulation the required altitude and to
maintain the required backpressure at the nozzle exit plane in order to ensure that
nozzle flows full. SED is working as a self-pumping ejector. There are various
methods of attaching SED, depending upon the situation and requirement, to the
vacuum chamber or to the rocket motor or to the nozzle exit. An exhaust diffuser can
also be a duct-varying cross sectional area having a region of minimum area called
the second throat (STED). The rocket fires into the SED and the gases are constrained
to flow through it. The momentum of the exhaust is utilized to lower the nozzle
backpressure. SEDs are well suited for making steady state measurements overlong
durations and are ineffective during ignition, thrust build up and shut down since the
momentum of the exhaust is utilized in evacuating the test cell. Unless the steady
state motor pressure is developed SED would not be useful in other stages of
operation.
 Fig. 3 Test set-up of SED with vacuum chamber.

Fig. 4 Test set-up of SED with cell region

The other stages of operation are motor ignition, starting and shut down
or tail-off phases. Changes in the operating conditions of the rocket motor affect the
performance of an SED.
SEDs are commonly used in high altitude simulation facilities mainly because of
their low cost, simplicity of design and construction and ease of maintenance due to
lack of moving parts. In case the vacuum chamber and the SED are evacuated using
mechanical vacuum pumps prior to ignition, ignition transients can also be studied in
addition to the steady state performance of the motor. The pre-evacuation pressure
depends upon the ignition altitude of the rocket motor and the vacuum chamber is
isolated from the atmosphere cannot be studied. It is possible to study the ignition,
staring transients and tail-off characteristics in addition to steady-state performance of
the motor vacuum conditions.

The rocket nozzle is so arranged that the exhaust gases impinge on the walls of the
SED. The pressure recovery in the SED in the SED may be inadequate to pump the
gases to the atmosphere. Depending upon the pressure rise required and the mass
flow to be pumped, staged steam ejectors can be used. The exhaust gas from the SED
is cooled and then pumped out by the ejectors. Staging of the ejectors is dictated by
the pressure rise required to pump against the atmospheric pressure. Thus ignition
characteristics, steady-state performance and tail-off characteristics can be
determined even with very high area ratio nozzle and low chamber pressure motors.

Second Throat Exhaust Diffusers (STED) as shown in figure-5 & 6 are employed
in the high altitude test facilities to test the performance of upper stage rocket motor
which maintain high vacuum level corresponding to upper atmosphere with in the test
cell region or in the vacuum chamber with help of well established shock structure.
The hot gas issuing from the rocket nozzle evacuates the test chamber by self-ejector
action and low vacuum region is isolated from the ambient by the presence of oblique
and normal shocks. The location of the shock structure is very sensitive to the
parameters such as geometric configuration of the ejector diffuser, rocket motor
chamber pressure and also the initial pressure transients. Often failures have been
witnessed if the geometry or the starting conditions are not suitable.
 Fig. 5 Test set-up of STED with vacuum chamber

Fig. 6 Test set-up of STED with cell region.

The other option would be to use mechanical gas exhausters or steam or air
ejectors in place of vacuum pumps. For establishing a low cell pressure prior to motor
firing and for maintaining this vacuum during tail-off, an auxiliary steam ejector is
used in the STED as shown in fig.7. Conventional rotating machinery like
compressors or ejectors could be employed for pumping out the exhaust gases and
thereby maintaining the required vacuum in the test cell. They are suitable for testing
rockets with low mass flow rates at moderate vacuum levels for long duration.
 Fig. 7 Test set-up of STED with cell region using Ejector.

But, to achieve the nozzle full flow condition with in the minimum available Po,
the concept of STED is adopted, since it starts at a lower Po compared to the starting
of SED. The reduction in the staring pressure (Po) st, for the STED could be attributed
to the terminal shock occurring at second throat, whose area is smaller when
compared to the main diffuser duct. An optimized duct would also result in the
simulation of higher altitude conditions and the pressure recovery to nearly ambient
would be accomplished through a fully developed shock system, which is different
from that of SED configuration.

According to the conventional definition, the STED is started when the

chamber pressure is independent of the exhaust pressure or in other words when the
exhaust flow impinges on the diffuser and isolates the vacuum chamber from the
atmosphere. At that time the Mach number at the entrance of the second throat
contraction is greater than one. This is similar to the start condition (or the normal
shock swallowing condition) of a supersonic wind tunnel in which a supersonic flow
is established in the second throat diffuser.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STED:

The test set up in Fig.-8 shows the arrangement of the whole system in which the
nozzle exhaust is made to im
pinge on the straight diffuser so that it reflects and forms an oblique shock. These
shock patterns are further carried until it becomes weaker and produces a normal
shock at the end of Sec throat diffuser. Further it merges with ambient in the subsonic
diffuser. The flow mechanism is shown in the fig. 8. The hot exhaust gases from the
nozzle exit acts as an ejector and evacuates the cell region, the shock train seals the
diffuser from ambient. This makes the test cell to maintain a low pressure, which will
be less than 10mbar.
 Fig. 8 Schematic of Second Throat Exhaust Diffuser with flow
Mechanism.
During the full flow condition of the rocket motor, the exhaust plume expelled
from the rocket motor at a very high speed (~ 4000 m/s) impinges on the entry duct of
the diffuser wall causing a series of oblique shocks that terminate with a normal
shock at the divergent part of the diffuser. Through this complex shock train system,
the pressure is recovered in the diffuser system by decelerating the supersonic flow to
subsonic flow. The terminal normal shock will be positioned inside the diffuser
system depending upon the pressure recovery of the diffuser (diffuser back pressure).
If the recovery pressure at the diffuser exit is more than the atmospheric pressure, the
diffuser system has adequate self- pumping action and does not require an external
ejector. On the other hand, when diffuser recovery pressure is less than atmospheric,
an external ejector system is required to pull the flow from upstream (diffuser) to the
atmosphere. During the full flow condition of the rocket motor, the momentum of the
rocket exhaust may itself be sufficient to maintain the low vacuum condition with the
help of the shock developed in the second throat diffuser. The complex shock pattern
(series of oblique and normal shocks) in the diffuser system seals the vacuum
chamber from any back flow will spoil the low vacuum level. Also, as the flow is
decelerated in the diffuser system, the temperature across the normal shock increases
which is almost equal to the stagnation temperature of the rocket motor exhaust
(about 3500 K). Therefore, to protect the diffuser wall material from thermal failure,
necessary cooling arrangement should be made. The ejector suction pressure is
almost equal to the diffuser backpressure. Therefore, the performance of the diffuser
depends on the mass flow rate of the driving fluid (nitrogen) used in the ejector.
Hence, a decoupled ejector analysis has been carried out to study the influence of
mass flow rate of the driving fluid on ejector suction pressure. Therefore, the aim of
the present study is to numerically investigate both the flow and heat transfer aspects
to gain a better understanding of the performance characteristics of a second throat
ejector-diffuser system for various ejector flow rates and the associated complex flow
and shock patterns.

The characteristic curve of STED is discussed by Roshchke et al (4) and is illustrated

in figure-9. In region DB of the performance curve, both the nozzle and STED are
unstarted. As Po/Pa increases further, the nozzle flows full, but the STED is unstarted
in the region BB.
 Fig. 9 Characteristic curve of STED

As Po/Pa further increased, the STED also flows full and the shock system is
fully established in the duct. Now the STED is said to have started and the
corresponding motor pressure is the minimum starting of pressure ratio, (P o/Pa)st
of the STED, i.e. point B. Further increase in Po/Pa alters the shock pattern inside
the duct and Pc/Pa varies linearly with Po/Pa and Pc/Pa remains constant in
region CE. Now if Po is decreased, it becomes unstarted at point C i.e. (P o/Pa)op
is called performance hysteresis. STED generally exhibit this type of hysteresis.

Hysteresis is caused by the fact that at point B, the normal shock positioned at
inlet to the subsonic diffuser. As P o/Pa decreases, after the motor burn out, the
normal shock wave travels back along the constant area of the second throat.
Once Po/Pa comes down to such a value that it cannot maintain a supersonic flow
at entry to second throat, the normal shock leaves the second throat, enters the
convergent part becomes unstable travels back and position itself at the nozzle
exit. It can be discerned that P0 corresponding to C is lower than at B. The
minimum operating pressure is lower than the minimum starting pressure ratio. A
STED can start at a lower pressure than an SED.
The main reason why a STED would start at lower pressure than a SED is, the
former has a reduced cross section in the region where the main shock system is
positioned as a consequence of which losses are lower. Nevertheless the starting
mechanism of a STED is far more involved than for SED and is explained below.
The starting characteristics of STED may be divided into two parts: second throat
starting (Mach number at entry to the second throat is supersonic) and ejector
starting (the jet leaving the nozzle striking the STED wall).

When the flow starts in the nozzle immediately after ignition and combustion
of the propellants in the rocket motor, the flow remains initially subsonic in the
nozzle and the STED. As (Po/Pa) continuously increases, resulting in increase in
Mach number, there is a corresponding fall in the static pressure. A j, the area of
the jet increases with the increase in Po. At one instant, Ast/Aj reaches the normal
shock limit for starting. This condition makes the second throat to start i.e. the
flow in the second throat becomes supersonic and this phenomenon is akin to
shock swallowing in a wind tunnel. Once the second throat starts, the test cell is
isolated from the atmospheric pressure. Further increase in (P o/Pa) causes an
increase in Mach number and a corresponding reduction in static pressure, which
pumps down the cell to a lower pressure. Eventually the jet Mach number reach
such a value that the jet impinges on the STED wall and the STED is now fully in
the started state as shown in the figure-10. At this condition as Po increases Pc
also increases in much the same fashion would SED.

Fig. 10 Mach number variation contour of STED.

During the shutdown transient, (Po/Pa) starts decreasing. The normal shock
now standing at the exit of the second throat starts traversing back provided
(Po/Pa) is too low that it cannot maintain a supersonic flow in second throat. The
shock travels back and gets attached to the nozzle exit. This happens at point C.
 STED GEOMETRY:

The supersonic exhaust diffuser, STED may be described as an axisymetric duct

of varying cross section along the length connected to the test cell very much as
shown in fig. It consists of four different geometrical parts along its length namely,
(i) an entry duct of uniform cross section, (ii) a convergent duct, (iii) a second throat
of constant area, (iv) a divergent duct. During the full flow condition of the rocket
motor, the exhaust plume expelled from the rocket motor at a very high speed (~ 4000
m/s) impinges on the entry duct of the diffuser wall causing a series of oblique shocks
that terminate with a normal shock at the divergent part of the diffuser. Through this
complex shock train system, the pressure is recovered in the diffuser system by
decelerating the supersonic flow to subsonic flow. The terminal normal shock will be
positioned inside the diffuser system depending upon the pressure recovery of the
diffuser (diffuser back pressure). If the recovery pressure at the diffuser exit is more
than the atmospheric pressure, the diffuser system has adequate self- pumping action
and does not require an external ejector. On the other hand, when diffuser recovery
pressure is less than atmospheric, an external ejector system is required to pull the
flow from upstream (diffuser) to the atmosphere. During the full flow condition of the
rocket motor, the momentum of the rocket exhaust may itself be sufficient to maintain
the low vacuum condition with the help of the shock developed in the second throat
diffuser. The complex shock pattern (series of oblique and normal shocks) in the
diffuser system seals the vacuum chamber from any back flow will spoil the low
vacuum level. Also, as the flow is decelerated in the diffuser system, the temperature
across the normal shock increases which is almost equal to the stagnation temperature
of the rocket motor exhaust (about 3500 K). Therefore, to protect the diffuser wall
material from thermal failure, necessary cooling arrangement should be made. The
ejector suction pressure is almost equal to the diffuser back pressure. Therefore, the
performance of the diffuser depends on the mass flow rate of the driving
fluid(nitrogen) used in the ejector. Hence, a decoupled ejector analysis has been
carried out to study the influence of mass flow rate of the driving fluid on ejector
suction pressure. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to numerically investigate
both the flow and heat transfer aspects to gain a better understanding of the
performance characteristics of a second throat ejector-diffuser system for various
ejector flow rates and the associated complex flow and shock patterns.
 1. Nozzle and Diffuser Un-started condition:

If the motor chamber

pressure is less than the starting
pressure (Po,start) then the flow
Pvacuum=460mbar(0.45atm)
gets separated inside the
nozzle. We cannot get the
simulated high altitude
conditions because the pressure
in the vacuum chamber is just
half of sea-level pressure. From
the CFD analysis we can
observe backflow at the entrance of vacuum chamber.

Po<Po,start
 2. Nozzle started but diffuser un-started condition:

If the motor chamber pressure

is just less than the starting
Pvacuum=200mbar(0.2atm)
pressure then the nozzle flows
full but the supersonic jet
doesnt impinges on the
straight diffuser wall.

Po<Po,start

3. Both Nozzle and Diffusestarted condition:

If the motor
chamber pressure is
greater than or equal to
 the starting pressure then the supersonic jet impinges on the straight diffuser wall
and evacuates the vacuum chamber and isolates it from ambient by a series of
oblique shock pattern. Re-circulation pattern can be seen at the vacuum chamber
inlet. Pressure inside vacuum chamber reduces to few mill bars. For this case we can
say that the STED is in started condition. We can get simulated high altitude
condition because the pressure inside vacuum chamber is in order of milli bars.

Pvacuum=8mbar(0.007atm)

For a given STED configuration both nozzle and diffuser starts only for
pressures higher than Starting Pressures (P0,start).

For pressures below starting pressure (P0, start) the diffuser doesnt start.

The STED configuration, which starts at low Pressure, can be used to test the
rocket motors of low stagnation pressure. Therefore it is essential to design
STED configuration, which starts at low pressures.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:

COLD FLOW TEST SET-UP

 The cold flow test set-up consists of a 70 area ratio nozzle, a STED system and a
high pressure Nitrogen supply system with pressure regulation unit. The nozzle has a
15 half-cone angle with a throat diameter of 10mm. The schematic of STED is
shown in Fig. 1. The geometric parameters of STED used for the cold & hot flow
tests are given in Table 1.

Table 1. STED Configuration used for Cold and hot flow tests

Diffuser geometric parameters Parametric values

Nozzle Area Ratio(Ae/At) 70

Diffuser Area ratio (Ad/At) 100

Ratio of distance between nozzle exit to start of contraction to 0.55

diffuser diameter (Xc/Dd)

Ramp angle ( c) 6

Diffuser contraction ratio (Ast/Ad) 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, and
0.7
Ratio of Second throat diffuser length to diameter (Lst/Dst) 8

Subsonic diffuser area ratio (Aso/Asi) 4

COLD FLOW TESTS:

It consists of the following subsystems

1. Nitrogen gas supply

2. Test set-up with a simulated rocket nozzle, SED and STED.

3. Instrumentation, data acquisition and processing systems.

Nitrogen gas supply:

A schematic diagram of the general test installation is shown in fig. Compressed

nitrogen gas at room temperature is used as the driving fluid for STED.
Commercially available compressed nitrogen gas at 14Mpa is stored in 2 cylinders,
each having a volume of --- liters. These gas cylinders are charged with dry and
filtered nitrogen, obtained through liquefaction of air and subsequent fractional
distillation of liquid air. This process ensures that the nitrogen is free from moisture,
dust and oil. The cylinders together meet the flow requirements of the test
installation. Nitrogen gas for application in a situation such as the present work
should be devoid of oil and moisture, rest it should condense during the expansion in
the supersonic nozzle. Moreover, nitrogen has a nearly constant ratio of specific heats
in the range of temperatures encountered in the present work, namely 70 to 300 K the
constant value of specific heat ratio simplifies the calculations. Although there are
other gases such as air that possesses this property, N2 gas is more readily available
than air in the clean and dry form required for these tests and hence it was used.
 HOT FLOW TEST SET-UP

Hot flow tests were conducted using solid rocket motors with 70 AR nozzles, using
STED with a small vacuum chamber & a large vacuum chamber of volume 50 m3.
Experimental set-up for the case with a small vacuum chamber is shown in Fig. 5, in
which, the cell region would act as a representative vacuum chamber similar to the
cold flow. For the case with a large vacuum chamber, the test was initiated with a pre
evacuation level of 5 mbar .Similar to the cold flow, a suitable diaphragm was placed
at the entry of the second throat region to isolate the vacuum chamber from ambient
pressure. This test set-up consists of a solid rocket motor, second throat supersonic
exhaust diffuser, vacuum pumping system and a test stand & thrust measurement
system as shown in Fig. 6. The geometric parameters of STED used for this test are
given in Table 1. This is similar to the cold flow configuration
 Test Matrix: All possible test configurations. Including CFD.

TEST SET UP & DATA PROCESSING:

A Cold flow high altitude test facility has been established for testing 70-area ratio
nozzle with Second Throat Exhaust Diffuser (STED). In this facility Gaseous
Nitrogen is used as the driving fluid. The cold flow test set-up is shown in figure-5.
Instrumentation system for the measurement of pressure has been established. The
test facility includes the following subsystems;

i. C-D Nozzle

ii. Second Throat Exhaust Diffuser

iii. Pneumatic system

iv. Sensor system

v. Data acquisition system

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM:

The Pneumatic system consists of 2m3 Nitrogen cylinder at 300bar pressure

and a pressure regulation system. The nitrogen cylinders are connected to the pressure
regulation system through high-pressure hoses. The pressure regulation system
consists of a pressure regulator, a ball valve & a pressure gauge at the downstream of
the regulator (i.e. for control & to monitor the pressure). The pressure regulator is a
dome loaded type regulator with a maximum inlet pressure of 400bar and outlet
ranging from 1 to 173bar. The outlet of the regulator through the valve is connected
to the C-D nozzle using high-pressure flexible hose.

INSTRUMENTATION & DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM:

 The locations of the tranducers are shown in Figs. 5.1 to 5.5. During the course of the
investigations, the following parameters were measured: motor pressure, cell or base
Pressure
pressure, pressures
Ventalong the SED and STED, ambient pressure and outside surface
Pressure
Gauge valve
temperature of water Gauge
cooled SED (hot gas only). Thhe pressure of the N 2 gas on the
high pressure side was measured with a Bourdon gauge. All other pressures were
measured using strain-gauge type, calibrated transducers2cubic
The strainmeter
gauge type
pressure transducersPressure Nitrogen
were used to record the Nozzle inlet total cylinder
pressure (mp1), Cell
Control
pressure (cp1 & cp2)Regulator
valve & Diffuser pressure (dp1 to dp10). The pressure sensor used for

Cell Region

Pc2 Dp2 Dp5 Dp7 Dp9

Po Pc1 Dp1 Dp3 Dp4 Dp6 Dp8 Dp10

nozzle inlet total pressure measurement has a range of 0 to 200bar and the sensor
used for cell & diffuser pressure measurement has a range of 0 to 3.5bar. The pressure
transducer is connected to a SCXI (Signal Conditioning expert Instrumentation)
system, which feeds power supply to the sensor and it also amplifies the sensor
output and the amplified signal is fed to the ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) and
then to the computer. A computer at a sampling rate of 500 samples/sec acquired the
data. The overall accuracy of the pressure measurement chain is 0.4%. The pressure
measurement locations are given in figure-6.
SENSOR SYSTEM:

A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity

and converts it into a signal, which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. It
is a device, which receives and responds to a signal. Its sensitivity indicates how
much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. There are
many types of brands of sensors used depending on the requirement. Here we are
using druck type sensor with the accuracy ranges as given in the Table

Sensors Stagnation Vacuum chamber Diffuser wall

pressure sensor pressure sensors pressure sensors
Parameters (Po) (Cp1 to Cp3) (Dp1 Dp9)

Range 0 - 100 bar 0 - 3.5 bar 0 - 3.5 bar

Accuracy 0.2 bar 2 mbar 2 mbar

SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND RECORDING

This portion of the system from the transducer to the recorder including the
transmission cable and all the intermediate elements constitutes the signal
conditioning system and is shown in Fig 5.7. Low capacitance shielded cables of 10
kHz frequency response were used for connecting the transducers, differential
amplifier and computer (through ADC). The amplifier was located very close to the
transducer. The frequency response of the signal conditioning system is as important
as that of the transducer for obtaining meaningful data. The length of the transmission
cable has a profound effect on the quality of the data. In order to have a sustained
quality, a six wire cabling was used. This is shown in Fig.5.8. The above system
ensures that data transmitted were of high quality. System noise was minimized by
the following methods:

Common grounding for the recorder

Use of shielded cable for electrostatic protection
Provision of shielded power transformer to eliminate the power line
interference.
The amplified signal are then sent to the data recording centre, located near
the test facility. An isolation amplifier is used to eliminate the ground loops
before recording then on an analog magnetic tape recorder.

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER:

INTRODUCTION:

A pressure transmitter senses a pressure and outputs a proportional current signal.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

A strain gauge is a long length of conductor arranged in a zigzag pattern on a

membrane. When it is stretched, its resistance increases. Strain gauges are mounted in
the same direction as the strain and often in fours to form a full 'Wheatstone Bridge'.
 Figure 31: Working principle of strain gauge pressure transmitter

The diagram above represents what might happen if a strip of metal were
fitted with four gauges. A downward bend stretches the gauges on the top and
Compresses those on the bottom. A pressure transducer contains a diaphragm, which
is deformed by the pressure, which can be measured by a strain-gauged element. The
pictorial view of the strain gauge pressure transmitter is given as
 Figure 32: Schematic view of 25 bar pressure transmitter

CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE TRANSMITTER:

The pressure transducer, which we have used in our project, is calibrated

using Dead Weight Pressure Calibrator System. The working and the schematic
diagram of the dead weight pressure calibrator system is given as

Figure 33: Dead Weight Testers

1- Hand pump 5 Weight Support
2 - Testing Pump 6 - Piston
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated 7 - Cylinder
4 - Calibration Weight 8 Filling Connection
Dead weight testers are piston-cylinder type-measuring device. As primary
standards, they are the most accurate instruments for the calibration of electronic or
mechanical pressure measuring instruments. They work in accordance with the basic
principle that P= F/A, where the pressure (P) acts on a known area of a sealed piston
(A), generating a force (F). The force of this piston is then compared with the force
applied by calibrated weights. The use of high quality materials results in small
uncertainties of measurement and excellent long-term stability.
 Dead weight testers can measure pressures of up to 10,000 bar, attaining
accuracies of between 0.005% and 0.1% although most applications lie within 1 -
2500 bar. The pistons are partly made of tungsten carbide (used for its small
temperature coefficient), and the cylinders must fit together with a clearance of no
more than a couple of micrometers in order to create a minimum friction thus limiting
the measuring error. The piston is then rotated during measurements to further
minimize friction.

The testing pump (2) is connected to the instrument to be tested (3), to the
actual measuring component and to the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil or gas
such as compressed air or nitrogen is used as the pressure transfer medium. The
measuring piston is then loaded with calibrated weights (4). The pressure is applied
via an integrated pump (1) or, if an external pressure supply is available, via control
valves in order to generate a pressure until the loaded measuring piston (6) rises and
'floats' on the fluid. This is the point where there is a balance between pressure and
the mass load. The piston is rotated to reduce friction as far as possible. Since the
piston is spinning, it exerts a pressure that can be calculated by application of a
derivative of the formula P = F/A. The accuracy of a pressure balance is characterized
by the deviation spans, which are the sum of the systematic error and the
uncertainties of measurement.

Today's dead weight testers are highly accurate and complex and can make
sophisticated physical compensations. They can also come accompanied by an
intelligent calibrator unit which can register all critical ambient parameters and
automatically correct them in real time making readings even more accurate.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

TEST CONFIGURATION
 The test configurations of Second Throat Exhaust Diffuser for 70AR Nozzle
are shown below. Many cold flow tests are conducted by varying the ramp
geometrical parameters. Based on the contraction ratio of 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5,
0.55, 0.6, and 0.7, the series are named as E series respectively. The tests carried
out by different configurations are tabulated below.

5.1 PHASE I: WITH SMALL VACUUM CHAMBER

Series-1: Ast/Ad Variations

Series- 2: L/D Variations

Series- 3: Aso/Asi Variations

5.1.1 Series-1: Series with X/Dd Variations

Table 3: Test configuration details for various X/D ratio variations for 70AR Nozzle
PARAMETERS Annular
X/Dd Ast/Ad Lst/Dst Aso/Asi
SERIES Gap
0.35
0.4
0.45
6mm 0.55 0.5 8 4
E
0.55
0.6
0.7
Numerical analysis is done E for series

5.1.2 Series 2: Series with L/D variations:

A series of experiments were conducted for different contraction ratios varying

from 0.35-0.7, whereas the X/D ratio is maintained as 0.5 for all the series of tests.
The tests carried out are tabulated below.
5.2 PHASE II: WITH LARGE VACUUM CHAMBER
A series of tests are also conducted with large Vacuum chamber of 0.3m 3 of
volume, as explained in chapter-4. The tests are carried out for the contraction ratio
of 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, and 0.7 by maintaining L/D - 8 and Aso/Asi - 4 as
constants and varying only the contraction ratios, which is listed in the table below.

5.2.1 Series -1: Series with X/D Variations

Table 5. Series with X/D variations

X/D Ast/Ad L/D Aso/Asi

0.35
0.4
0.45
6 mm 0.5 0.5 8 4
0.55
0.6
0.7

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS

In this series of experiments with STED configuration, the convergent divergent

nozzle area ratio considered is 70. Assuming friction is neglected, nozzle exit
pressure, Mach number and nozzle exit temperature are calculated by the isentropic
formulation for the area ratio 70. For the cold flow tests Nitrogen gas is used, as the
driving medium and its specific heat ratio is 1.4.
 A) NOZZLE EXIT MACH NUMBER

Mach number at throat Mt=1

Specific heat ratio =1.4
By substituting the above values the Mach number at exit Me. is 6.39

B) NOZZLE EXIT PRESSURE

For a motor inlet pressure Pi=40bar, Pe is calculated using

By using Me =6.39 the pressure at nozzle exit Pe from equation (1) is 17.15mbar.

C) NOZZLE EXIT TEMPERATURE

Temperature at exit of Nozzle can be found by the following formula

Ti =Inlet temperature of motor =300K

M =6.39
From the above equation, Te = 32.72K

D) MASS FLOW RATE

Mass flow rate at inlet of the motor can be calculated by using the formula

m= CdAtPi

Po=40bar
At= ( /4)102
R=287 J/kgK
To=300K
=1.4
By substituting all the values the mass flow rate calculated as m = 0.738kg/sec.

Similarly for different values of nozzle stagnation pressures and temperature, the mass
flow rate, nozzle exit pressure and temperature are calculated and the values are tabulated
as shown in Table-1.

Nozzle exit Mach number 6.39

Nozzle exit Pressure 17.15 mbar

Nozzle exit Temperature 32.72K

Mass Flow rate 0.74 kg/sec

TEST PROCEDURE

For conducting the cold flow tests, the pressure regulator in the pneumatic
system was set at the required pressure. After setting the required pressure the ball
valve on the regulator downstream is opened and the Nitrogen gas is allowed to
expand through the C-D nozzle. The test duration time is around 15seconds. During
the test the pressure data are acquired through data acquisition system. After the test,
the acquired data will be processed and analyzed for the nozzle and diffuser started
condition.
The diffuser is said to be started, when the cell pressure is equal to or less than the
nozzle exit pressure (i.e. when the flow attaches to the diffuser wall and with a series
of oblique shocks followed by a weak normal shock at the end of second throat
diffuser) Diffuser starting can also be confirmed by the gradual pressure recovery
pattern along the diffuser

Numerical modeling and solution procedure:

This chapter explains the numerical methodology employed to predict the

flow features in the supersonic exhaust diffuser. For the computational analysis, a
half-plane of the axi-symmetry geometry is considered, from the axis to the wall of
the domain consisting of vacuum test chamber, rocket motor, second throat diffuser,
spray cooler and the external ejector system. The model is created using commercial
software Gambit 2.4 and the governing equations of the flow are solved using the
finite volume based commercial CFD solver, Fluent 6.3. A fully coupled implicit
compressible flow solver with Spalart-Allmaras (SA) turbulence model has been
adopted to compute the flow pattern in the HAT facility. For internal compressible
flows, the SA model is known to give reasonably accurate results at relatively low
computational cost. First order unwinding scheme has been used to solve the partial
differential equations for the compressible flow. Since the dimensions of the HAT
facility are very large, stability conditions restrict the upwind approximations to a
first order model only. In general, the fluid properties have been defined as
polynomial functions of temperature, in the form

Assumptions Made
The following assumptions have been invoked while formulating the governing
equations for the HAT facility and the subsystems associated with it.
1. The flow is considered to be axi-symmetric and hence one half-plane of the
geometry is considered for simulation.
2. Gravitational effects are negligible.
3. The exhaust flow from nozzle exit is treated as an ideal gas mixture.
4. Transport properties of the fluid are considered to vary with temperature.
6.2 Governing Equations

The basic fluid flow and associated heat transfer equations that govern the axi-
symmetric compressible flow are:
Continuity equation

r-Momentum equation

z-Momentum equation

Energy balance equation

Equation of state:

Transport Equations for the Spalart-Allmaras Turbulence Model:

The transport properties of viscosity () and thermal conductivity () have been

taken as effective values, which include the effects of turbulent flow. The Spalart-
Allmaras model (with default values of the model constants) has been employed to
predict the eddy diffusivity using the equation

In the above equations,

,
 ,

, ,

Where is related to the scalar measure of deformation rate tensor and is the

viscous damping function. The model constants for the Spalart-Allmaras (SA) model
have been taken as,

0.1355, 0.622, 7.1, 0.3

Boundary conditions:

Governing equations are the same for all fluid flow problems depending situation
of the problem, but the most sensitive factors in numerical modeling that differentiate
one problem from another are the boundary conditions. Thus, specification of
appropriate boundary conditions completes the mathematical formulation of the
problem.
The boundary conditions specified usually belong to one of the categories described
here:

1. Dirichlet type wherein the value of flow variable is specified at the boundary.
2. Neumann type wherein the flux or the normal gradient variable is specified.
3. Mixed type wherein a linear combination of the variable and its derivative is
specified.

The specified conditions employed for the present study are as follows:

Inlet: Prescribed stagnation pressure (Po) and

stagnation
temperature (To) in the case of pressure inlet,
inlet of the rocket motor chamber.
P=Po, T=To
Pressure outlet: Static (gauge) pressure with back flow total
temperature (Tbo) is prescribed at the subsonic
diffuser exit.
Symmetry: A zero normal gradient is applied for the flow
variables v, p and T at the plane of symmetry.
Also, the velocity component across the
symmetry plane is set to zero.
Axis: All the components are considered to have axi-
symmetric flow. The axis boundary is used as
the centerline of an axi-symmetric geometry.
Wall: No slip condition for velocity and adiabatic
temperature conditions are imposed at the walls.
Turbulence Parameters: Hydraulic diameter and turbulence intensity are
prescribed at the inlet and at the outlet boundary
in case of back flow.

GRID USED FOR COMPUTATION

Grid Independence Study
In the simulation of fluid flow problems using numerical methods, the
predicted results depend upon the grid adopted. The mesh generated has to be
sufficiently fie to resolve and capture the flow physics associated with the problem in
detail. Therefore, for a given problem, the sensitivity of the grid on the predicted
results should be shown to be negligible, before proceeding with the detailed
numerical investigations. In the present study, grid independent study has been
carried out for all the subsystems namely, the second throat ejector diffuser (rocket
motor coupled with diffuser) using various structures non-uniform meshes. Finer grid
has been used at appropriate locations in order capture the jet expansion, flow pattern,
shock structure and shock location accurately. In general, small grid spacing has been
employed in the turbulent boundary layer regions adjacent to all the walls. The
number of cells is varied for each subsystem until the changes observed in the
predictions are negligible with respect to further refinement. Simulations are carried
out until the residues fall below 1x10-6 for all he flow variables.
E1 Series (Ast/Ad=0.35)
For the STED configuration with contraction ratio of 0.35 we allowed nitrogen gas to
pass through the STED for different pressures ranging from 25bar to 45 bar and the
graph is plotted for respective vacuum pressure (P c1) Vs motor stagnation pressure
(Mp1). From this graph we can observe that for the motor stagnation pressure is 33.3
bar and the pressure in the vacuum chamber drastically decreases from 190 mbar to
14mbar, which is possible only when both nozzle and diffuser are started. Therefore
the starting pressure for this particular STED configuration is 33.3 mbar.
 Pressure recovery along diffuser for E1 series

DP 1 DP 2 DP 3 DP4 DP5 DP6 DP 7 DP8 DP 9 DP 10

(m bar) (mbar) (m bar) (mbar) (mbar) (mbar) (m bar) (mbar) (m bar) (m bar)
Axial Distance From 30 110 190 330 400 493 575 653 785 980
Nozzle Exit (mm)
VC 111 (35.6 bar) 20.1 72.2 40.5 61.6 76.7 126.9 383.4 553.5 834.5 975.3
VC 112 (30.4 bar) 178 197.9 359.3 534.3 621.2 671.3 780.3 819.3 936.9 1004.3
VC 113 (33.3 bar) 18.1 67.7 37.9 61.2 71.2 131.1 394.2 573.9 857.7 986.9
VC 114 (32.4 bar) 175.4 189.2 394.2 548.9 652.2 662 766.7 801.7 935.8 1002.9
VC 115 (35.8 bar) 20 72.6 40.6 64.2 77 74.6 328.3 502.3 819 987.3
VC 116 (40 bar) 23.7 82.2 46.5 70.9 84.9 83.3 332.7 547.2 827.2 963.9
VC 117 (44.2 bar) 27.4 91.7 52.4 82.2 94.7 92.5 148.5 395.4 790.9 982.5

E2 SERIES
E3 Series:-
E4 SERIES

E7 SERIES
cc
Pressure Recovery Graphs for 0.45 series
Mach number variation along axis for 0.45 series
Pressure Recovery Graphs for 0.5 series
Mach number variation along axis for 0.5 series
Conclusion

Extensive experimental investigation have been carried out on different sizes of

axisymmetric second throat exhaust diffuser (STED) using 70 aspect ratio,
convergent-divergent type nozzle driven by cold nitrogen gas. The effects on the
performance due to the contraction ratio variation were investigated using models of
STEDs. Estimation of starting pressure and cell pressure were carried out using
analytical models. The results from these experimental investigations using cold gas
have been compared with theoretically calculated values. The following are the major
conclusions derived from these investigations.