Safe Mooring Practice

THE MOORING SERIES Edition 2:
The Theory of Mooring

Safe Mooring Practice
Maintenance of Mooring Systems
TRAINERS GUIDE
Author: Sean Gallagher
Videotel Productions
84 Newman Street
London W1T 3EU, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7299 1800

Fax: +44 (0)20 299 1818
Email: mail@videotelmail.com
THE MOORING SERIES Edition 2:
The Theory of Mooring

A VIDEOTEL PRODUCTION
in association with
THE STEAMSHIP MUTUAL UNDERWRITING ASSOCIATION
(BERMUDA) LTD.
The Producers would like to thank the following for their kind assistance:
The Masters, Officers and Crews of
MV Coral Star, MV Lord Hinton, MV Maersk Rosyth
Andromeda Shipping
BP Shipping
ChevronTexaco Shipping Company LLC
IndoChina Ship Management (UK) Ltd
International Maritime Organization
Jebsens Ship Management
Keystone Shipping Company
The Maersk Company
Maritime and Coastguard Agency
Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF)
Shell International Trading & Shipping Company Ltd
United European Car Carriers
CONSULTANTS: TOBY DEAN

PRODUCER: ROBIN JACKSON
WRITER/ DIRECTOR: GEORGE BEKES
PRINT AUTHOR: SEAN GALLAGHER
PRINT PRODUCER: BARBARA STEINBERG
Warning:
Any unauthorised copying, hiring, lending, exhibition diffusion, sale, public performance or other exploitation of this video
is strictly prohibited and may result in prosecution.
COPYRIGHT Videotel 2004
This video is intended to reflect the best available techniques and practices at the time of production, it is intended purely as comment.
No responsibility is accepted by Videotel, or by any firm, corporation or organisation who or which has been in any way concerned with the
production or authorised translation, supply or sale of this video for accuracy of any information given hereon or for any omission herefrom.
Contents Page
1. How to use this training package 1

1.1 Who this training package is aimed at 1
1.2 How to use this Guidebook and the videos 1
1.3 Preparing a training session 2
1.4 Running a training session 2
2. Theory of mooring 4
2.1 Primary forces and factors affecting mooring 4
2.2 Mooring lines 6
2.3 Winches 11
2.4 Printed guides and electronic aids to mooring 15
3. Safe mooring practice 16

Preparing to moor
3.1 Approaching the berth: risk assessment 16
3.2 Making ready to moor 16
3.3 Mooring, tying up and keeping station 18
3.4 Handling mooring lines 20
Winches, windlasses, chains & anchors
3.5 Use of winches 25
3.6 Windlasses, chains and anchors 25
Mooring line systems
3.7 The ideal mooring system 27
3.8 Stoppers 29
3.9 Emergency action 31
Special or hazardous conditions
3.10 Bad weather operations 32
3.11 Mooring at buoys 35
Working with tugs
3.12 Tug operations and towing procedures 41
4. Maintenance of mooring systems 46

4.1 Wire lines 46
4.2 Synthetic lines 48
4.3 Winches 54
4.4 Tails and shackles 54
4.5 Fairleads, windlasses, chains and anchors 55
5. Further information and reading 55
Appendix 1: Assessment quizzes 56
Appendix 2: Performance and characteristics of mooring lines 61
Appendix 3: Case studies of mooring accidents 70

1. How to use this training package
1.1 Who this training package is aimed at

The Mooring Series is a training package for mariners on all types and sizes of vessel. It is
aimed at helping those crewmembers who form your mooring party to berth a vessel with skill
and in safety.
Although the types and positions of winches, mooring lines and other items of equipment can
vary on different vessels, this training package sets out the best-practice mooring procedures
which should apply to any ship and to any port or terminal where you may dock.
Parts of the package

The Mooring Series training package is made up of this Trainers Guide and three programmes
entitled:
1. Theory of mooring
2. Safe mooring practice
3. Maintenance of mooring systems
You may have some or all of these programmes on board. However many of them you have,
you can still use this Guide to learn about those aspects of mooring shown in all of the
programmes.
1.2 How to use this Guide and the programmes

Appointing a Trainer
One person should be appointed to be the Trainer, preferably an officer who supervises the
ships mooring party. To get maximum benefit from this training package the Trainer should aim
to follow the instructions in this Guide as closely as possible.
Learning the training material

During the course of a training session you will be able to instruct crewmembers about (a) the
theory of mooring, (b) safe mooring practice, and (c) the maintenance of mooring systems, or
(d) all three topics together. Each of these three aspects of mooring is covered in this Guide,
and whatever programmes you have can be used to illustrate what is being explained.
It is important that the information in this training package is related to your own vessels
mooring equipment. You must make sure you fully understand every aspect of the safe
mooring procedures described in the videos and in this Guide, and you should learn everything
you can about your own vessels mooring equipment. You can do this, for example, by reading
the manufacturers operating and safety manuals for different items of mooring equipment.
We recommend you read this Guide through to the end before watching the programmes.
Make sure you understand it. Next, watch whichever of the programmes you have all the way
through. If you have all three, start with the Theory of Mooring, then go on to Safe Mooring
Practice, and finish off with Maintenance of Mooring Systems.
Afterwards, watch them again, this time making notes about how the various scenes in each
tie in with the additional information and the diagrams contained in this Guide. You will be
1 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

using this additional information to help explain the procedures the crewmembers will see in
the programme(s). There is a lot of information contained in this package and more than one
training session may be required.
1.3 Preparing a training session

During each training session you will need:
pens and notepads for each person being trained
a large flipchart and different coloured marker pens, or a blackboard and chalk, or large
pieces of paper you can tape onto a bulkhead
different types of mooring lines, each about 2 metres in length (have at least samples of
all the types of line in use aboard your vessel, but if possible have samples of other wire
and synthetic lines the crew may have to handle on other occasions)
if possible, have examples of frayed or damaged lines, or examples of other defective
items of mooring equipment, such as a damaged part of a winch which has been kept
from a previous repair, or a worn brake lining
examples of other items used in mooring, such as stoppers; correctly and incorrectly
spliced lines, and so on.
1.4 Running a training session

Setting the scene for the attendees
First, explain to the crewmembers what the training session is about and what you will expect
them to learn and be able to do once they have completed it. Explain to them how the session
will be run and what they should be doing during it. Tell them there will be a quiz at the end to
check they have correctly understood everything.
Getting their full attention

Mention to the crew how they might be tempted to look around with interest at a port they are
visiting for the first time. They may be thinking about their next meal, or what videos will be
shown in the mess that evening. Tell them that it is during such short moments of inattention
while engaged in mooring operations that many seafarers have been injured and killed.
Examples of accidents which have happened during mooring

Use the case studies described in Appendix 3 to get the group to focus on carrying out
mooring procedures safely. Photocopy the case studies you think are most relevant to your
crewmembers and hand them out.
Begin by discussing the many sorts of things which can go wrong and can cause accidents
during mooring operations. Ask the group to discuss whether any of the accidents described in
the case studies could ever happen to them. Ask them to share their experiences of accidents
and near misses.
Showing the programmes

If you have it, start by showing the Theory of Mooring, and then Safe Mooring Practice,
followed by the Maintenance of Mooring Systems.
Show each video all the way through to the end. Then run them once more, but this time put
the programme on pause after each scene or part of the mooring procedure. Get the crew to
SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 2

discuss what they have just seen. Use the additional information and the diagrams in this
Guide to help you direct and broaden the discussion.
Encouraging discussion
Ask the crew how what they have seen relates to the equipment on board your vessel, and
how it relates to the way they have carried out mooring operations previously. For example,
ask them when they saw such tasks being done properly; have they seen the tasks being done
dangerously? Is their own method of doing such a task different to what was shown? Why is
that? Encourage them to discuss the practical aspects of carrying out the different parts of the
mooring procedures shown in each scene.
Practical training on deck

To better understand certain aspects of safe mooring procedures, you should also carry out
some training on deck, such as:
marking out the snapback zones and fouling areas around each winch
identifying deck and winch blind spots
or examining some winches to see if anyone can spot if there are any signs of potential
defects, such as maybe patches of excess oil, or no grease showing on exposed
machinery, or too much rust on brake rubbing surfaces for instance.
How much information does the group need?

Some sections of this Guide go into a lot of detail about equipment and procedures for mooring.
For example, there is a lot of information about the construction and properties of different
types of mooring lines in Appendix 2. In section 3 there is also a lot of information about tug
operations. Do all your crewmembers need to know about each of these aspects of mooring
operations? It is for you, the Trainer, to decide. Every training group will vary as to how much
they need to learn to be able to carry out their mooring duties efficiently and in safety, and you
can tailor the comprehensive information provided in this Guide to suit your requirements.
Checking everyone has understood: three assessment quizzes

At the end of the training session hand out photocopies of the quizzes in Appendix 1 to each
of the group and get them to answer the questions. Check the answers to ensure everyone
has fully understood everything you have told them. If anyone scores less than 80% of correct
answers in each section of the quiz, then you should go back over those parts which have not
been understood.

2. Theory of mooring
2.1 Primary forces and factors affecting mooring

Seven main factors can affect a ship when it is either being moored or is already moored:
the ships own manoeuvres, if it is still underway

the manoeuvres of any accompanying tugboats
wind
tide and currents
surge from other vessels
waves and swell
the weight and positioning of cargo when either being loaded or unloaded, affecting:
- list
- trim
- change in draught and, consequently, freeboard
While in harbour or alongside properly positioned buoys, the strongest natural forces affecting a
vessels mooring stability are wind, currents and tide. Most modern terminals and ports will
have mooring systems positioned with any current running from the direction of the ships stern
or bows. It will have been designed to cope with the forces caused by up to a 3 knot current, or
by a 0.75 knot current if it is on the beam. Most well designed mooring systems will also be able
to cope with winds of up to 60 knots.
Wind
The speed and force of the wind increases the further above sea level it is blowing. For
example, a 30 knot wind down at sea level can be very much stronger at deck level, and it
might even be much stronger still higher up above deck level, maybe reaching 60 knots or
more. Such strong winds impacting high up on a vessels cargo of containers or any other
cargo stacked on the deck could possibly have a major effect on a ships movements while it is
tied up. A vessels freeboard and cargo can therefore become very important factors in
whether a mooring might quickly become unsafe if a wind suddenly blows up.
Currents
A current usually only becomes important in mooring when three factors combine:
if the vessel has a deep draught (draft);
when there is a current coming from abeam;
and if there is little clearance between the keel and the seabed.
When this situation occurs, then the beam current will be forced around the ships bow or
stern, or both, and will also increase in speed as it passes beneath the keel. These effects will
have to be taken into consideration during mooring procedures. The same effects can happen
when the current is coming from either astern or ahead, although the forces created from
those directions are not so great as from a beam current.

50t 90t 150t 200t
CURRENT (1kt)
0.2 x draught
0.5 x draught
2 x draught
5 x draught
Fig 1: The effect on the force of a current caused by different draughts and underkeel clearances
Calculating the forces

When the speed of either the wind or a current increases, their force gets far, far stronger than
you might expect. This is because their force is proportional to the square of their speed. For
example, the force of a 60 knot wind is four times greater than that caused by a 30 knot wind.
Similarly, the force from a 3 knot current is nine times greater than that caused a 1 knot
current. So when moored, keep a regular check on the speed of the wind and the current, and
calculate any changes in the forces which might be affecting your vessels mooring they
could be very different to what they were a few hours before.
Transverse forces Longitudinal forces

Tonnes Tonnes
Summer DWT Wind Current Wind Current
18,000 loaded 33 30 27 15
ballast 102 7 48 5
70,000 loaded 72 62 37 35
ballast 210 8 52 13
200,000 loaded 106 132 49 73
ballast 378 15 76 23
Table 1: Examples of the sort of weight of force which a 60 knot wind and a 3 knot current can
exert on vessels of various sizes
Tide
Some mooring positions will be affected in ports where there is a large tidal range causing
different berth levels at high and low tide. The ship will naturally move up and down alongside
its berth as the tide ebbs and flows, causing either increased tension in the mooring lines as it
rises, with the resulting danger of a line parting, or decreased tension and slackness as it falls,
with the danger of the ship drifting off position as a result. Compensate for these hazards by
correctly setting any self-tensioning winches and by setting a good deck watch to regularly
check the mooring lines.

Strong winds and fast currents
In the event of very strong winds while moored, it might be better to ballast the ship
down, since the danger to a mooring system from strong winds impacting on a high
freeboard are greater than the danger from the increased force of a current running
beneath a narrow underkeel clearance.
Surge, waves and swell

The effects of surge from passing ships, waves and swell are difficult to foresee. A sensible
precaution is to ask the berthing pilot and harbour authorities for advice if you think there is
the possibility of unusually large waves or swell reaching your vessel, or if there is constant
and heavy ship traffic in the vicinity of your mooring.
It is particularly important to take additional measures with your mooring system if your vessel
is fully loaded, has a deep draft with little underkeel clearance, and is moored close to a
shipping lane. In such circumstances there is a danger of particularly heavy surge from a
passing vessel forcing your ship away from the dock and perhaps causing the lines to part.
Cargo and ballast

Loading and unloading cargo can have all sorts of effects on the disposition of your vessel. The
most obvious are on its freeboard and its gross weight. The sequence and method of moving
cargo can also affect the stability of the vessel, its orientation, or its susceptibility to the forces
of wind or currents. Changes taking place to the ships disposition during loading and unloading
of cargo must be constantly monitored, so that any necessary adjustments can be made to the
mooring system.
Other factors affecting mooring

Aside from the normal, physical factors which can affect the way a ship is moored, there can
occasionally be other aspects which have to be considered, such as a jetty in poor condition,
or one which has dangerous equipment adjacent to the vessels assigned berth, or if there are
too many mooring lines from other vessels attached to the bollards to which your vessel is
being directed.
Although a Master is seldom able to choose his berth; instead going wherever he is directed by
the port authority, or to that part of the jetty where his cargo lies, nevertheless he is entitled to
refuse to tie up at an unsafe berth if he considers it presents an unacceptable risk.
2.2 Mooring lines

Mooring lines come in a wide variety of materials, construction and sizes. Very few vessels still
use mooring lines made of natural fibre materials, such as hemp. Instead, the three main types
of mooring lines in use today are made of :
steel wire, with a core of more steel or of synthetic fibre

conventional synthetic fibres (plastic/nylon rope-like materials)
high modulus synthetic fibre (extra-high strength plastic/nylon rope-like materials)

Mooring lines made of steel wire are often referred to as wires or cables, while those made
of either synthetic or natural fibre are often referred to as ropes.
In general, larger vessels are usually equipped with wire mooring lines fitted to self-stowing
winches, which usually come as standard equipment on newer ships. Smaller vessels may be
equipped with synthetic fibre lines, also mostly on self-stowing winches.
Larger vessels, however, may also have synthetic fibre lines fore and aft for use as first line
ashore, because their light weight and buoyancy make them easier to handle when the ship is
still some distance away from its berth, and can be used to heave the vessel alongside the
berth before their wire mooring lines are deployed.
The many different types and grades of materials from which mooring lines are made each
have their own advantages and disadvantages. Since you will probably have to handle a great
many mooring lines during your time at sea, it is important to understand their characteristics
and handling properties and what different precautions and maintenance procedures you may
have to adopt when using different types of lines.
Strength and elasticity

The two most important factors regarding any type of mooring line are its strength and its
elasticity. The strength of a line means how big a load or weight it will take before it parts, and
this is usually measured in terms of Minimum Breaking Load (MBL).
A lines elasticity is how much it will stretch when subjected to a force, and this is usually
measured in terms of stretch under load. Most conventional synthetic fibre lines have a much
lower MBL, and also stretch far more than steel wire lines. However, steel wire lines and both
conventional and high modulus synthetic fibre lines such as aramid and HMPE (explained more
fully in Appendix 2) each have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Mooring lines made of steel wire, with their great strength and small amount of elasticity, are
regarded as the main components of a large vessels mooring system. However, high modulus
synthetic lines can be as strong as those made from steel wire, size for size. Choosing which
type of lines to use in different positions depends on the situation and conditions at the ships
berth.
Wire mooring lines

Wire mooring lines are mostly used on large vessels because they are:
far stronger per each millimetre of thickness than conventional synthetic fibre lines
(although, high modulus synthetic fibre lines have strength equal to wire)
able to be stored away on drum winches where the biggest reel is usually only suited to
lines up to 44mm in diameter, so not having to sacrifice a high breaking load in order to
get all the length of the line onto the drum.
Synthetic mooring lines

On one hand, synthetic lines have the advantage of being lighter, more flexible, easier to handle
and longer lasting than wire lines. On the other hand, however, they are more easily chafed
and damaged than lines made from steel wire.

While high-modulus synthetic lines have very little elasticity (typically only about 12%, making
them almost comparable to wire lines in their lack of elasticity), conventional synthetic lines
have much greater elasticity, which can be considered either a benefit or a drawback to safe
mooring, depending on a vessels mooring circumstances at the time.
Used properly, the greater elasticity of conventional synthetic lines can provide for better load
sharing between the different mooring lines, so making them less susceptible to sudden
changes in their dynamic load caused by tide, waves or swell, or during loading. Used
improperly, the elasticity of conventional synthetic fibre lines can cause safety problems.
For small and medium sized vessels, the use of conventional synthetic fibre lines by
themselves can be entirely suitable for mooring. For very large vessels, however, steel wire
cables or high modulus synthetic fibre lines are more often used as the main components in a
ships mooring system.
Understanding elasticity, length, dip and bend
Elasticity
Understanding the elasticity (already briefly mentioned in the preceding section) of the lines
you are using for mooring is important for two reasons. Firstly, it helps you understand how
much load or weight different types of line, and of different lengths and thickness, will be
bearing when moored. Secondly, it helps you understand how much the lines might stretch
under those loads, and what this can mean to the ships safety.
How elastic a line can be will depend on several factors, including the material it is made from;
its diameter (thickness), and the load it is bearing. At maximum load a wire cable might stretch
just 1.5% of its length. By comparison, however, a conventional synthetic nylon rope can
stretch as much as a huge 30% of its length under maximum load. A thicker line will stretch
less than one which has a smaller diameter. The heavier the load the more a line may stretch.
All these factors have to be taken into consideration when planning how to moor your vessel.
So, with some berths perhaps needing mooring lines of up to 100 metres each, this can mean
that conventional synthetic ropes alone may not be able to provide a vessel with the accuracy
of positioning needed for the safe loading and unloading of cargo by cranes, hoses or other
dockside equipment. Because of their stretching capacity, a mooring system made up entirely
of conventional synthetic lines might allow a vessel to drift away from its mooring.
Length
When two mooring lines of the same thickness and material are run out alongside each other,
but with one being tied up to a bollard twice as far away as the other, then the shorter line will
bear 2/3 of the vessels load while the longer line will bear only 1/3 of the load. If possible,
therefore, two identical lines warped off in the same direction should be attached to bollards
the same distance away.
The Dip effect

If a mooring line has to be run round a corner or be set at an angle along its length for some
reason, such as when it passes through a fairlead and angles sharply down to a bollard on the
quayside perhaps ten metres below, then its restraining power on the vessel is considerably

reduced. The restraining power of such an angled mooring line is proportional to its angle, so
the bigger the angle in the line then the more the lines power is reduced. For example, a
mooring line angled at 30 has only 87% of its normal horizontal strength, and a line angled at
45 has only 71% of its normal strength.
30
Fig. 2: A short mooring line from a ship to a bollard close to and below its fairlead can mean the line
loses much of its holding power.
The Bend effect

Taking a wire line round a sharp edge or corner might not only cause it damage, it can also
lead to loss of load-holding power. If a wire line is looped horizontally at too big an angle
around something on deck, this also can cause it to lose load-holding power. In such
circumstances the forces of wind and current can be greater than a lines breaking point on its
outboard section, and if the winch brake doesnt render in time then the line can part.
T2 = Theoretical max. loading

after allowing for friction
150 tonnes
re
To sho
150
T1 = Holding power of winch

- say 100 tonnes
Fig. 3: A mooring line running at an angle from a quayside bollard to a deck winch can have its MBL
considerably reduced, with the amount of loss of MBL depending on the degree of angle in the line.
Can you mix your lines?

Using a mix of steel wire and synthetic fibre lines for a mooring system can have advantages,
but can also require increased vigilance because of the greater elasticity of synthetic lines and
the other factors which can affect them. It is important that members of a mooring party
understand these factors.
A careful and well-planned mix of wire and synthetic lines can provide a vessel with the
combined best advantages of both types of lines. The wire cables can provide strength to the
mooring system, while the accompanying synthetic rope lines can allow the normal movement

of the vessel, such as rolling and riding on a swell. Synthetic lines, too, are better than wire
cables for absorbing sudden shock loads, such as a surge from a passing ship. In such
circumstances the elasticity of conventional synthetic lines can take the strain, whereas the
rigid wire cables may part with the sudden shock.
When using wire and conventional synthetic lines together can be a bad mix
When two mooring lines of identical length and maximum breaking load and with the same
lead are used alongside each other, but one is a wire line capable of stretching up to 1.5% of
its length under its maximum load, and the other is a synthetic rope capable of stretching up
to 30% under its own maximum load, then the wire line will take 95% of any extra load put
upon it, while the synthetic rope will only bear 5% of any extra load. Figures 4(a) and 4(b)
demonstrate the disparate strains on lines of different materials and lengths being used
alongside each other.
Steel = 47T
T
Polypropylene = 2
T
100 Nylon = 1T
Fig. 4 (a): The effects of the forces of currents and winds on a vessel using a system of mooring
lines made of different materials, and so with different MBLs, has to be considered.
Length MBL
of line
< 25T
60m
T
150
30m
Same size & > 50T

type hawser
Fig. 4 (b): As the lengths of the lines in a ships mooring system may vary, so also will the MBL of
each line vary in relation to the length of each, with the MBL of a mooring line decreasing as its
length increases.
The best solution

To achieve the best mooring system for your vessel - and there are no cast-iron rules for what
constitutes a perfect mooring system - the answer is to fully understand the characteristics,
capabilities and limitations of all the different types and sizes of wire cables and synthetic fibre
ropes your vessel carries, and know which combinations are best for different berthing
conditions.

If your vessel should use a mixture of synthetic fibre ropes and wire cables then the best and
safest practice is, whenever possible, to use the wire cables for the spring lines and the
synthetic ropes for heaving alongside the berth and then as the head, breast and stern lines in
the mooring system.
Performance and characteristics of mooring lines

The widely varying performance and characteristics of the many different types of wire and
synthetic mooring lines are set out in more detail in Appendix 2 at the end of this Guide.
Check with the port

Some ports will not accept a vessel which only has high modulus synthetic fibre lines. If your
vessel uses these alone and you will be mooring in an unfamiliar port, you should check in
advance with the authorities that your synthetic mooring lines are acceptable.
2.3 Winches
Winches are powered either by electric or hydraulic motors. Steam winches are still used on
some vessels, but are not common today. Most medium or large-sized vessels are now usually
equipped with hydraulic winches, while electric winches are more usually found on smaller ships.
Render and heave

Whether electric or hydraulic, all mooring winches are affected to some extent by a feature
known as their render-to-heave ratio.
Render is the amount of force needed to turn a winch which is set to heave, to pull in its line,
when power is applied. The render value of a winch is always constant. When the winch is
working to heave in a line attached to a load, heave refers to the maximum load weight
which that level of render power going into the winch can safely handle.
Different types and makes of winch have different render-to-heave ratios, but a fairly standard
one is a render force of 35 tonnes needed to turn a winch and give it a heave power of 22
tonnes.
A winchs heave power will always be less than its render power. This is because there is a
loss of pulling power which is used by running the winch. For example: the amount of render
pulling power going into the winch is 35 tonnes. The amount of actual load-bearing heave
power the winch is really capable of handling is 22 tonnes. The difference is 13 tonnes. The
render-to-heave ratio of any winch generally lies somewhere between 1.17 and 2.3, depending
on the type of winch.
You need to know a winchs heave power to calculate whether a winch and its mooring line
are suitable for a particular heaving task.
It is also useful to understand that it will be impossible, and dangerous, to try to heave in a
load once a winch has reached its maximum render power. Remember that a winch brakes
holding power is always greater than its heaving power and so if the brake starts to render, or
slip, it will be impossible for the winch to heave in unless whatever is causing the slippage,
whether excessive load or some sort of obstruction, is reduced.

Render, holding power and line breaking point: working out when a line might part
A winchs holding power (as distinct to its heaving power, which is different) is also
affected by its render value. For example, if a winchs render value is 35 tonnes and its
brake holding power (see pages 12/13) is 65 tonnes, then its total holding power is 100
tonnes. But if this winch is using a mooring line with a MBL of 108 tonnes and allowing
for a reduction in its strength of 20% from wear and tear, then its breaking load is
reduced to just 86 tonnes. This line would then be in danger of parting when used with
that winch which has a combined holding power of 100 tonnes.
Self-tensioning winches
Many vessels are fitted with self-tensioning winches, so crewmembers do not need to have to
spend long periods checking mooring lines. These winches can be pre-set to pay out a mooring
line when the lines tension starts to exceed its setting, or to heave in the line if it slackens
below that setting.
The use of self-tensioning winches can, however, cause a problem with safety. This is because
the winchs limit is its render load, which is smaller than what can be held on the brake. If a
vessel is moored alongside a quay and its springline winches are set to automatically self-
tension, it is possible for them to be activated by the movement caused by wind or currents.
As each winch automatically either pays out or takes in as the vessel see-saws, bit by bit the
ship can pull itself along the quay, possibly moving it out of position away from loading arms
and perhaps breaking hoses connected to the vessel.
Hoses
Fig. 5: A vessel shifting at its moorings can cause hoses and loading arms to break, possibly
resulting in pollution or expensive damage.
Such movement can be checked by also using mooring lines secured to bollards or to braked
winches. If possible, regularly inspect a mooring system which is using tension winches while
the vessel is at its berth.
Winch brakes
The holding power of a winchs brake varies from vessel to vessel, although it will always be
greater than the render power of the winch. A winchs brake holding power depends on how
many layers of line are on its drum, with its holding power decreasing as layers of line increase
on the drum.

1st layer
R1 4th layer
R2
RB
RB
Brake holding power

55 tonnes Brake holding power reduced
RB = Brake Radius to 40 tonnes as radius R2
increases to 4th layer
Fig. 6a: With a smaller layer mooring line Fig. 6b: With 4 layers of mooring line now around
around its drum, this winch has a brake its drum, the winchs brake holding power has
holding power of 55 tonnes been reduced to 40 tonnes.
Non-split drum winches

The brake holding power for winches with non-split drums is usually given in terms of the
number of layers of line it takes on. Although it is good practice to see that a mooring line is
taken in by a drum in an even, symmetrical pattern rather than piling up on only one side or
in the centre, it is particularly important that this is done with non-split drum winches.
Layers of mooring line on drum Brake holding capacity

1 100% 55 tonnes (approximately)
2 88% 48 tonnes
3 80% 44 tonnes
4 73% 40 tonnes
5 67% 37 tonnes
6 61% 34 tonnes
Table 2: Typical loss of brake holding power for each equal layer of mooring line on a drum
If it is not already known, crewmembers should always check the manufacturers instructions
or the vessels operating manuals to determine the winchs brake holding capacity and the line
layer it applies to (if the line layer is not specified then it should be assumed it refers to the
first layer).
Split-drum winches
Split drum winches help reduce crushing damage to mooring lines and so are mostly used with
steel wire mooring lines. The brake holding power for split drum winches always refers to a
single layer of wire mooring line on the tension drum.
To maintain the maximum holding power of a split drum winch brake there should only be a
single layer of wire or rope on the tensioning drum. This will give a constant torque and gives
the best use of the winch brakes holding power. A second layer would increase the radius at
which the line would pull against the brake.

The use of a tensioning drum also helps to avoid crushing any lower layers of wire or rope on
the storage drum. This is of special importance when using wire lines which are more
susceptible to damage through crushing. Using a tensioning drum also helps to avoid rope
jamming in the lower layers, which might damage the rope as well as cause a delay in the
mooring operations.
Reeling
Reeling lines onto a drum in the wrong direction can cut its brake holding power by up to 50%.
If they have not been marked by the manufacturer with the correct reeling direction, then the
deck officer should clearly mark them heave in and slack out. Winches fitted with disc brakes
do not have to be marked as they cannot be reeled in the wrong direction. Where a band brake
is fitted to a winch it allows the line to be pulled directly against its fixed end.
Pinned end
of brake band
Pay out
direction
Brake tension
application
Floating end
of brake
Anchored end
of brake
Fig. 7: The correct way of reeling a wire mooring line onto a winch drum.
Wrong use of the brake

A winchs brake should only be used for stopping and holding its drum. It is not intended for
use in controlling the rate at which a line is paid out or taken in. If a line has to be slacked
down then the winch should be put in gear, the brake released, and then the line walked back
as it comes off the drum.
A line should never be slacked down just by releasing the brake alone as this means there is a
lack of control on the line, and it is therefore not completely safe. For example, if there are two
mooring lines running in the same direction and sharing the load, then suddenly transferring all
of that load to one of the lines, which could happen if winches are not under control, might
cause it to part. Using the brake by itself to pay out a mooring line also causes uneven wear on
the brake band, which can contribute to it losing power later on.

2.4 Printed guides and electronic aids to mooring
Most busy ports and terminals have their mooring arrangements and other details set out in
publications such as Guide to Port Entry. As well as these aids, many vessels now have
electronic chart systems, and nearly all of these will contain detailed diagrams showing port
layouts, navigational aids and moorings, and other port facilities. However, caution needs to be
taken when using electronic charts in approaching and entering port as their precision and
detail may not be sufficiently accurate to be used as the primary means of manoeuvring the
ship to its berth.
CDs are increasingly available showing port layouts, navigational aids, moorings and other port
facilities. Many of the worlds larger harbours and ports now also have their own websites
which can provide information on port layout, directions for navigation and positions of
navigational aids, Notices for Mariners, tidal information, special instructions about anchoring,
and regulations concerning such matters as explosives and LPG/LNG vessels, as well as
information about moorings and other port facilities. Charts showing port layouts and
information about facilities and procedures are also commercially available on the websites of
nautical publishers. These can be accessed from an internet-connected computer.

3. Safe mooring practice
3.1 Approaching the berth: risk assessment

Carrying out a risk assessment of mooring at a berth is particularly important when it is the
first time your vessel docks at a particular harbour or anchorage. Preparing a risk assessment
encourages the officer responsible for making the mooring arrangements to make a thorough
analysis of all the factors involved and helps identify the things which could go wrong. If a Pilot
is being used then his advice should be sought.
There are no fixed rules about how risk assessment should be done. However, in preparing an
assessment the aim should be to identify:
hazards the vessel might encounter

preparations or controls needed to avoid them
likelihood of something going wrong with the mooring operation
degree of possible damage to the vessel, or danger to the mooring party
level of risk
action plan required to minimise the risks
The main factors which need to be taken into account in a risk assessment for a mooring
operation include:
the approaches
water depth
state of tide and currents
other vessels moored nearby
the position of cranes, loading arms and other equipment on the quay
ship traffic
weather forecast
loading or unloading requirements
the ships schedule
port authority regulations and requirements
the vessels security
safe placement and landing of the gangway
The result of a carefully worked out risk assessment should be a well structured plan covering
all stages of the mooring operation, the vessels subsequent activities of loading and unloading,
and the vessels later departure.
3.2 Making ready to moor

Well before the vessel approaches its berth, the deck officer in charge of mooring should have
ensured that mooring lines are in good condition. This task can usually only be done in the
approaches to the port or berth, since mooring lines are normally stowed away and
inaccessible at sea (ideally, the lines should also be again inspected for damage once the
vessel has later left its berth).

Winch brakes or securing devices should be checked that they are in efficient operating order,
and that they have a holding power of at least 60% of the breaking load of the vessels chosen
mooring lines for the berth ahead.
Any known defect in the vessels mooring system or limitation of mooring winch brakes should
be reported to the Pilot and the Terminal before arrival so that if necessary additional
precautions may be agreed.
Port operators must provide linesmen to assist with all berth movements. The vessels
crewmembers and port personnel must not jump between the vessel and the quay to moor or
unmoor their vessel. Should there be a delay in the arrival of linesmen, the Master should
advise the provider of the service. A Master is entitled to refuse to moor or unmoor if linesmen
are requested and are not available.
The port authority should have the vessels berthing movements planned in advance. Prior to
the vessels arrival in port, the Master should seek to confirm berthing arrangements with the
port authority or Pilot, as appropriate. The Master remains at all times responsible for the
safety of his vessel and crew and has the right to refuse to berth in any location which he feels
may place either his vessel or crew in danger.
A mooring partys first task is usually to lay the messenger lines and the first ashore lines out
on deck. Next, the winch covers have to be removed so that the lines can be inspected and, if
instructed, made ready to have nylon tails fitted to them.
The deck officer in charge of the mooring party should have a checklist of items to tick off as
he goes along to ensure that everything is ready and that all the necessary standard
precautions have been taken. A general pre-mooring checklist could contain items such as:
Mooring checklist Yes No

Mooring lines in good condition
Mooring lines flaked out neatly to minimise tripping hazard
Mooring lines correctly spooled on drums (pulling against
fixed pin of brake)
Spare mooring ropes available
Fairleads, rollers, bitts and chocks in satisfactory condition
Deadmen and roller fairleads well greased and free to turn with
little sign of grooving
Brake linings and pins appear in good condition
Winch seatings and connections to deck sound
Anchor chain stoppers in good condition and effective
Anchors cleared and ready for immediate use (except while
alongside, when the locking bar should be in place)

As the vessel approaches the port or anchorage, the Pilot will come aboard. He and the Master
will discuss such matters as the use of tugs and the mooring arrangements at the vessels
assigned berth. Sometimes the Pilot might suggest using extra mooring lines if the weather,
currents or other conditions suggest it might be safer. It is the Masters responsibility, in
consultation with the Pilot, to select the appropriate combination of mooring lines for the berth
the vessel will be using, usually based on the customary arrangement of three headlines, two
breast lines and a spring line.
It is also the Masters responsibility to ensure that there is sufficient water under the vessels
keel at all times. The port or terminal authority should be able to provide the necessary
information about water depth, quays and other details.
It is the responsibility of the Master, or sometimes the deck officer in charge, as to how, when
and in what order the mooring lines should be put ashore and this should be advised to the
mooring stations prior to arrival at the berth to allow adequate planning.
Communications
Vessels should endeavour to maintain a listening watch on the nominated VHF/UHF channel.
3.3 Mooring, tying up and keeping station

During berthing and unberthing procedures, there should always be enough deckhands in the
mooring parties stationed at each end of the vessel, with an officer in charge of each group.
Prior to proceeding to stations, the officer in charge should go on to the bridge to discuss the
mooring plan with the Master and the Pilot, if he is there. The plan should include where he
intends to take tugs, his line plan at the berth, and the sequence of running lines.
As the vessel approaches its berth, the officers in charge of the mooring parties will take up
their positions - from where they can see as much of the mooring deck areas and as many
members of the mooring parties as possible. Although they will be supervising the mooring
parties and the mooring operations, they should not actively take part in the process.
Each member of the mooring party should know what his specific duties are. The deck areas
where mooring operations are taking place should be off-limits to all other crewmembers not
engaged in line handling activities. Areas of deck where mooring operations are taking place
should be kept free of clutter or any loose tools or pieces of equipment.
The vessels heaving line should be constructed with a monkeys fist at the heaving end. This
should only be made of rope and not contain any additional weighting material which might
injure a stevedore as it is thrown ashore.
Ropes and wires which are stowed on reels should not be used directly from stowage, but
should instead be run off and flaked out on deck in a open and safe manner, ensuring there is
enough slack to meet any unexpected circumstances. If there is any uncertainty as to how
much rope might be needed, then the whole reel should be run off.
Where moorings are to be heaved on a drum end, there should be one crewmember stationed
by it, supported by another crewmember backing and coiling down the slack. Three turns on

the drum end are enough to complete the task. A wire on a drum end should never be used as
a check wire.
The officer in charge of the first line ashore must make sure that it does not take the full
weight of the vessel if it has too much head or astern way on.
First Line Ashore

Today, most vessels will use a synthetic rope as their first line ashore because its
lightness of weight and buoyancy makes it easier to handle for both the vessels mooring
party and the quayside mooring team. However, its subsequent use as part of the
vessels overall mooring system will depend on the other types of lines being used in
the system.
Tying up
Mooring lines leading in the same direction of restraint should be of similar material and
construction throughout their lengths from the jettys mooring points to the vessels securing
points. Particular care should be taken to ensure sufficient transverse restraint from breast
moorings.
Mooring proceeds in a predetermined order which will have been agreed between the Master
and pilot, usually in the sequence of spring lines, breast lines, headlines and stern lines.
Make sure that a steel wire line is never led across a fibre rope on a bollard. As with the use of
the vessels fairleads, wires and ropes must always use different bollards or parts of the
vessels superstructure.
Keeping station
As soon as the vessel is secured, brakes on all mooring winches should be firmly applied. Full
pressure or power to all mooring winches should be maintained at all times when alongside.
On split drum mooring winches, only one layer of rope should be permitted on the working half
of the drum.
An efficient watch must be maintained on the vessels mooring lines at all times to ensure the
lines are properly tensioned and adjusted when required. The deck watch should make regular
checks that mooring winch brakes are applied at the correct setting, and that self-tensioning
winches are correctly set and functioning properly. Ultimately, however, it is the Masters
responsibility to ensure that his vessel remains securely moored at all times.
Using the mooring lines to warp or check the vessel has to be done with care, and the mooring
party should stay clear of the lines if this is being done.

3.4 Handling mooring lines
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should be worn by the mooring party during berthing
operations, including:
overalls
safety boots with slip resistant soles
gloves
safety helmets complete with chinstraps
high visibility garments
suitable wet and cold weather clothing
Lifting lines
If there are enough crewmembers to help, it is best to lift a line and carry it across the deck
(although if a line is too heavy for the mooring party to lift, then it may be dragged). Dragging a
line across the deck can cause it to suffer abrasion and damage, especially from rough or
sharp edges. Also, dirt or grit can be picked up and can work their way into the strands of the
line and cut the inside fibres.
Health check for wire lines

Before being used, a wire mooring line should always be carefully examined for broken strands
of wire, sometimes referred to as snags. The more snags there are then the weaker the cable.
If you think a line has a lot of snags, report it immediately to an officer. He can then consult the
manufacturers specifications to see if it should be scrapped.
Examination of the line should always take place in good time to allow it to be replaced if
necessary well before it has to be used for berthing. If rust is spotted on a wire then this
should be removed using a wire brush.
Good wire handling practice

never allow the wire to cross over its lower layer
on a drum at an angle. It damages the wire and
weakens the line
never kink the wire. It opens the lay and
weakens the line
never open a new coil of line without using a
turntable or something similar. Without it, the
line can kink and become damaged.
Fig. 8: Use a turntable or similar device when unrolling a new coil of wire mooring line in order to
avoid kinks occurring.

Handling of synthetic fibre lines
Always wear the appropriate safety personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves and
hard hat, when handling synthetic mooring lines, especially those which will be put under load.
When making synthetic fibre lines fast to bitts, do not use a figure of 8 arrangement by itself
to turn them up, but instead put on two round turns around the leading post (or around both
posts if they are small) then put on your figure of 8 to make it secure.
Fig. 9: Using round turns before

making a figure of eight when
fastening a synthetic mooring line
to bitts makes the line safer and
easier to handle.
A synthetic mooring line should only be attached to another line using a shackle or some other
sort of other approved connection of sufficient strength. All mooring lines should come with a
manufacturers certificate giving its MBL (Minimum Breaking Load). These should be kept and
the ropes marked with an identifying number so that their MBL and period in service can be
checked at any time.
Synthetic lines should not be surged from drum ends or bitts as the heat caused by the friction
can melt them. Also, synthetic lines should not be run through leads which are off at an angle
from the drum, as this can cause the line to chafe and damage. Make sure that all fairleads and
warping drums are free from rust, dents or jagged edges, as these could damage the lines.
Make sure that roller heads are always well lubricated.
When a line might suddenly snap

It is important to be able to recognise when a line is getting near to snapping, or to recognise
when a sudden change in weather or other changes in circumstances may be placing a strain
on a mooring line which it will be unable to hold. Some day a mariners life maybe even your
own might depend on that knowledge.
When a new wire line is first used and a load placed on it, a small amount of stretch will take
place on the line. This is because all its component wires will be bedding down, as they are
forced by the pressure of the new load to squeeze into a tighter formation round each other.
This is known as constructional stretch, and it is permanent the line will always keep that
extra piece of stretched length.

During later use with other loads, when the wire line is subjected to loads up to 65% of its
manufacturers stated MBL, it will experience yet more stretching but, on these occasions,
once the load is removed the line will usually shrink back to its normal length.
However, if the line is used to hold a load of over 65% of its recommended MBL, then there
is an increased danger that a sudden moment of stretch could result in the line parting.
Many mariners have been killed or badly maimed by snapped and whiplashing lines in such
circumstances.
Be aware of load weights on lines at all times and know their critical danger
breaking points.
Typical Line Breaking Points

180 kg wire lines Typical breaking load Typical breaking load
with fibre core with wire core
28mm (6 x 36) 46.6 tonnes 50.3 tonnes
36mm (6 x 36) 77 tonnes 83.2 tonnes
40mm (6 x 36) 95 tonnes 103 tonnes
44mm (6 x 41) 115 tonnes 124 tonnes
Table 3: Typical breaking loads for different diameters of round strand, Equal Lay, wire mooring lines

Rules of Line Safety
Always, always.
Wear protective safety gear when handling lines
Keep clear of any bight in a line. If it suddenly tightens you could be caught and killed
Stand well clear of a taut line under load
Try to keep in control of a line
Try to make sure the line is properly secured so as to prevent its loss
Try to anticipate any situation which may cause a line to run out of control
Never try to catch a runaway line by grabbing it with your hands or by stepping on it
Keep well clear of any whiplash/snapback zones
Never, never.
never pay out a synthetic fibre line on the drum end, as this can cause it to heat up and
melt and may then stick dangerously to the drum or bitt. Always walk a winch back to
take the weight off the line
never stand close to a winch drum or bitt when holding a synthetic line as you may get
pulled into it if the line jumps. Always stand at least one metre away
never apply too many turns to the line as it makes it difficult to let go easily. Three turns
are enough with any synthetic line
never bend the line too much
never stand in the bight of a line
never stand too close to a line under load in case it parts
never leave tools or other objects lying around on the deck near a line under load, as it
may send them flying if it parts and catches them
never allow more of the mooring party than is necessary to stand near a line under load
Whiplash, or snapback: when a line can strike faster than a cobra!

When a synthetic line parts it can do so with virtually NO WARNING. This whiplash, or
snapback, effect has been the cause of many fatal accidents, and the possibility of it happening
on board your vessel has to be taken very seriously.
When a line is under load it stretches, causing high levels of energy to build up in it. The longer
the length of the line being stretched and the bigger the weight of the load it is holding, then
the greater will be the amount of energy building up. With synthetic fibre lines being able to
stretch much more than steel wire lines, the danger of whiplash is therefore much greater, and
the energy force it can then release on parting can also be so much greater and therefore
much more deadly.
Unlike a wire line, which can sometimes give a warning by making a singing noise when under
extreme load and experiencing extreme tension or stress, a damaged or overloaded synthetic
fibre line about to snap may not give any advance warning sounds or indications that it is
about to part. The first indication may be the sudden loud crack as it parts. To help this
situation, some synthetic fibre lines now have a brightly coloured strand woven into them
which are designed to be a first to go early warning indication of a line being in imminent
danger of parting.

Danger zones
To avoid the danger of whiplash, or snapback, crewmembers in the mooring party should stand
well away from the likely path of a parting line. This can be the immediate area around the
lines path, as well as across a wide area behind points such as fairleads, or where the line has
been secured or looped around. All of these can be danger zones in which the remainder of
the line can instantly and dangerously whiplash back along its entire length.
Point of
Break Snapback Danger Zone
Point of
Restraint
Fig. 10(a): Where a mooring line is running directly from the winch to a bollard
through a fairlead directly ahead of the winch, the snapback area where the parted line might
whiplash forms a narrow cone, the length of which will depend on where the line parted.
Point of
Break
Fairlead Snapback
Danger Zone
Point of
Restraint
Fig. 10(b): Where a mooring line has been run around a fairlead or any other piece of deck gear the
snapback area where a parted line might whiplash is more difficult to predict, and will depend on
the angle of the line and where it parts.
Since it is impossible to predict exactly when a line will part, or at which point along its length
it will break, it can be difficult to mark out a precise danger zone. However, you can estimate
what areas of the deck could be in that danger zone and ensure that as few crewmembers are
in that area for as little time as possible.
Other precautions you can take include planning a safe approach to a mooring line, and doing
whatever work is necessary when the line is slack or has only a little tension on it. Otherwise,
stand well away whenever possible from a line under tension. And never, never try to test the
tension on a line by standing on it or by kicking it this is a very stupid practice, and very
dangerous!

Performance and characteristics of mooring lines
The widely varying performance and characteristics of the many different types of wire
and synthetic mooring lines are detailed in Appendix 2 at the end of this Guidebook.
Line handling on a passenger ships

Handling mooring lines on passenger ships can have added difficulties. Mooring duties are
usually carried out in a small and very confined deck area specially set aside. In a more open
area of deck, a line which has parted and is whiplashing usually tends to fly up and over;
however, in an enclosed areas, a parted line can easily fly up and hit an overhead deck, so
making its course much more unpredictable and dangerous.
3.5 Winches
Correct use of winches
A winchs brake should be used only for stopping and holding its drum. It is not intended for
use in controlling the rate at which a line is paid out or taken in. If a line has to be slacked
down then the winch should be put in gear, the brake released, and then the line walked back
as it comes off the drum.
A line should never be slacked down just by releasing the brake alone, as this means there is a
lack of control on the line, and it is therefore not completely safe. For example, if there are two
mooring lines running in the same direction and sharing the load, then suddenly transferring all
of that load to one of the lines, which could happen if winches are not under control, might
cause it to part. Using the brake by itself to pay out a mooring line also causes uneven wear on
the brake band, which can contribute to it losing power later on.
Basic winch safety

deck working areas around winches should be painted with a non-slip type of paint
make sure the winch operator can see the officer in charge at all times
never leave a winch running without an operator being at the controls
never lash a winchs or capstans controls in the on position
never stand on the winch to get a better view
never try to clear any obstructions on the drum without first shutting down the winch
when using a double barrel winch make sure the drum not in use is clear, or out of gear
never handle a line on a drum end unless there is another crewmember there to remove
or feed the slack to you
never work too close to drum when handling a line as it could suddenly run in faster and
trap your hand
if any shield covers are missing from protecting moving parts get them replaced
always wear your PPE at mooring stations
3.6 Windlasses, chains and anchors

Your vessel will have a set procedure for anchoring, and you should read and understand this
procedure.

General anchoring and weighing anchor procedure
Before an anchor is used, a competent deckhand must check the brake of the windlass to
ensure it is on, and then clear away voyage securing devices. Whenever possible, the anchoring
party should stand aft of the windlass. All should be wearing PPE, including safety glasses.
Whoever is in charge of anchoring operations must make sure that the bridge is kept
constantly informed about what is happening, what is about to happen, and any other
appropriate information.
During the anchoring procedure a sharp lookout should be kept to ensure no small boats or
tugs are in the vicinity of the anchor dropping point. This is especially necessary before the
anchor is let go.
If the anchor is being let go from the stowed position and then fails to run when the brake is
released, do not attempt to shake the cable to try to release it. Instead, apply the brake, put
the windlass in gear, and then walk out the anchor before letting it go.
On weighing anchor the cable should stow automatically, and while it is doing so nobody
should go into the cable locker. Anchors housed and not needed should be properly secured to
prevent accidental release.
Avoiding anchor loss

Where anchors have been lost this has usually been due to either the vessel still going too fast
when dropping anchor, or not enough anchor cable having been paid out at the start before
finally letting go. To minimise the chance of losing an anchor and its cable, the deck officer in
charge of the procedure should reduce the vessels speed to either dead stop or slightly astern
before letting go.
In deep water an anchor can also be further protected from loss by being walked out, which
means running it out with the windlass kept in gear, which helps provide greater control of the
anchors movement. For very large vessels with heavy anchors and cables, the anchor should
be walked all the way out to avoid excessive strain on the brakes (and on the bitter end if the
brakes fail to stop the anchor and chain). Keeping the windlass in gear and if possible fitted
with a speed limiter, not only gives more control, it also helps reduce wear on the brake lining.
It should be taken out of gear and the brake applied in order to bring the vessel up.
Anchor chains, or cables

Even when your vessel is equipped with a cable counter it is still recommended that your
anchor chains or cables be brightly marked in lengths, such as with white paint or with
regularly spaced stainless steel bands. It is also recommended that the second shackle from
the bitter end is painted red, or marked in some other way.
Windlass brakes
Windlass brakes are at their strongest when tightened up as soon as the maximum weight
comes on the anchor cable. It should not then be necessary to make any other adjustment to
the brake, since any change in the load caused by the tide or wind can be taken by the cable
stopper.

Cable stoppers
Cable stoppers are an important part of the anchor cables restraining equipment and are
intended to take the anchoring load. They must always be used whenever the vessel is at
anchor. Stoppers should be put on the cable, along with its securing chains, once the anchor is
home and secure. Stoppers should only be used after the windlass brake has been set, so that
the brake provides extra holding power to the stopper.
Fig. 11: Anchor cable stoppers must be applied after the windlass brake has been set.
When a stopper is being used with a particularly heavy load then it may be necessary to tie it
down in order to prevent it jumping. Stoppers should also be put on the cable once it is home
and secure.
Mooring line systems

3.7 The ideal mooring line system
The experienced mariner will know that factors like the speed and direction of the wind and
currents can unexpectedly change, and that vigilance is needed at all times to make suitable
adjustments to the mooring arrangements.
Nevertheless, Figure 12 shown below sets out an efficient mooring system suitable for meeting
the stresses and strains placed on mooring lines by the forces of wind, tide and currents,
whether meeting the ship transversally (beam on) or longitudinally (from the direction of the
bow or stern).
After Breast Lines Breasting

Dolphins Walkways
Stern Lines Head Line

Spring Lines
Forward Breast Lines
CL
Fig. 12: A typical mooring arrangement designed to meet the forces of winds and currents.

Which lines matter most?
In safely securing your vessel to a mooring, all lines can play an important part. However,
experience has shown that in certain circumstances some lines can take a greater share of the
vessels load.
The most commonly used mooring system uses spring lines, fore and aft, breast lines, fore and
aft, and head and stern lines. In nearly all cases it is recommended that:
breast lines act as your vessels main safeguard against transverse forces pushing it off
its berth, and should be as long as possible
spring lines act as the main counterbalance to longitudinal forces
short lines should be used with caution, as they take a disproportionate share of the
strain, and can also be more adversely affected by tidal forces.
Head lines and stern lines prevent the ship from yawing.
Ideally, wire cables or high modulus synthetic ropes should be used for spring lines and
conventional synthetic fibre ropes used for head lines, breast lines and stern lines.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that these are not rules that must be applied in every mooring
situation. In some situations a long headline and a long stern line can assist with the vessels
safe longitudinal movement nearly as much as spring lines. Similarly, it could sometimes be
argued that a stern breast line from the offshore quarter is better than a near side quarter line.
The way to successful mooring is through understanding the dynamic forces operating on your
vessel while it is moored, and understanding the efficiencies of different mooring systems and
different configurations of lines.
Not every line pulls its equal weight

In the example shown (Figure 13), a moored vessels head lines, positioned at 45 to the
breast lines, usually contribute up to 40% of the mooring systems restraining power to
hold the ship in position, while the vessels breast lines and spring lines together provide
the other 60% of the holding power.
Tranverse force
Fig. 13: In an extreme mooring situation, such as when the vessel is riding high and there are both
a wind and a current meeting it beam on, these will usually produce a force occurring within a 25
angle to the beam, and so more aligned to the ships breast and spring lines. But even if the wind
and current did align more directly with the head line, that line would still only provide less than half
the total restraining force on the ship, while the breast and spring lines together would be providing
well over half the total restraining power securely gripping the ship.

3.8 Stoppers
Stoppers for wire lines
Stoppering a steel wire before turning it up on the bitts can be done either by using a specially
made stopper, such as the carpenter stopper shown in Fig.15, or if this is not available, then by
using a length of chain instead. Rope should never be used as a stopper as it does not have
enough grip on the wire line.
Fig. 14: Carpenter stopper
When using a carpenter stopper it should have the same breaking load as the wire line on
which it is being used. A good safety benefit of this type of stopper is that it is self-tightening
and can be left in position unattended. Also, so long as it is the right size and design for the
thickness and lay of the line on which it is being used, it will not damage it. Carpenter stoppers
are normally available for lines up to 20mm diameter, but lines bigger than that become
difficult to handle.
Chain stoppers come in different sizes and grades, and crewmembers should become familiar
with what is used on their vessel. They should know:
size; the diameter of the chain link

type; whether close link chain, its grade of tensile steel (high grade, used on most
vessels, is around 63 kg/mm2, although even tougher grades with higher breaking loads
are also used on some bigger vessels in certain circumstances)
length; usually 45 metres.
Secured end Free end
Fig. 15(a): Cow-hitched chain stopper.
If a chain stopper has to be used, then it must only be attached to the mooring line using a
cow hitch, sometimes known as a lanyard hitch, and never by using a clove hitch, which is not
sufficiently secure and can slip.

Fig. 15(b): A chain stopper should never be attached to a mooring line using a clove hitch knot, but
instead use a cow hitch knot.
During every refit it is important that a ships chain stopper should always be tested for defects
and re-tempered, and that a record of this procedure is kept.
Chain size Typical breaking load

12mm 7.2 tonnes
16mm 12.7 tonnes
20mm 19.9 tonnes
Table 4: Breaking loads for different sizes of high tensile steel chain stoppers, which are usually less
than the breaking loads than the mooring lines on which they are attached.
Giving steel wire cables some elasticity when necessary

It can be helpful in some circumstances for steel cables to be given some extra, temporary,
elasticity - for example, when there is the risk of the vessel being subject to heavy swell or
strong currents, or of being buffeted by strong surge from passing vessels. In such situations
some elasticity on the steel cable can help reduce the sudden impact and extra strain on the
cable and the ship, which could possibly result in the cable parting.
Elasticity can be temporarily added to a wire cable by joining a nylon or other conventional
synthetic fibre rope tail to it. This should be done by using a special stainless steel shackle
designed especially for the purpose, so as to avoid wear on the wire cable. Preferably, Mandel
or Tonsberg-type shackles should be used. An ordinary D or bow shackles must not be used if
it can be avoided, as they are not designed for this purpose and can soon cause damage to
both the wire cable and nylon tail.
Fig. 16: Stainless steel shackle used to attach a nylon tail to a wire mooring cable

A temporary tail should not be more than 11 metres in length in order to avoid the wire cable
being given too much elasticity, as this could contribute even more strain on the wire cable.
The eyes of the tail should be sheathed in a leather or plastic glove to protect them from
chafing.
Synthetic tails lose strength more rapidly than steel wire, so all such tails, other than those
made of nylon, should be of a minimum breaking strength 25% greater than the MBL of the
wire cable to which they are attached. A nylon tail, however, which loses strength even more
rapidly than other synthetic fibres, should be of a strength 37% greater than the wire cable to
which it is attached.
All parts of this type of arrangement the nylon or other synthetic tail, the wire cable and the
connecting shackle should be inspected frequently for signs of wear.
Stoppers for synthetic lines

Different types of synthetic fibre lines need the right type of rope stopper. Fibre stoppers
should be used on the double and, where possible, should be of the same type of material as
the line on which they are being used. Ideally, the stopper should:
be flexible
as narrow in diameter as possible
have minimum possible stretch
maximum possible melting point
have a combined strength of at least 50% of the MBL of the line on which it is being
used.
Fig. 17: The correct way of stoppering off a synthetic mooring line.
3.9 Emergency action

Sudden and unexpected changes in load (see Forces and factors affecting mooring, page 4)
can sometimes cause a winchs brake to slip and pay the line out, resulting in the vessel
drifting off its berth. If a sudden increase in line load did cause a winchs brake to slip, the
winch will not have the power to heave in (see earlier section on brake holding power).
If the vessel is drifting off its mooring, the OOW or the Master must be alerted immediately.
They must be quickly told of the cause of the drifting. They will then decide what action to
take.
The principles for alerting others to a mooring emergency are the same as for other types of
emergency:

make a quick and accurate assessment of the situation
alert the Master or OOW
communicate the situation clearly
start working to the pre-planned procedure for dealing with the situation (your vessel
should have an emergency procedure already in place for dealing with this sort of
situation, as it should for all other types of emergencies).
Do you know?
An officer supervising mooring duties should know:
the size, length and type of all the mooring lines, along with their age and condition
the heaving power and render value of each mooring winch
their type of brake and its holding power at which layer
if the render value and holding power together of each winch is higher than its lines
MBL (making a reduction of 20% to allow for wear and tear).
Special or hazardous conditions

3.10 Bad weather operations
Mooring at below zero temperatures

Extreme cold causes seawater to freeze at around 1.5 C, although the exact freezing point
depends on how salty the water is. When ice forms on a vessel it can burst pipes, immobilise
moving parts of machinery, and make equipment difficult to handle. If a vessel has been iced-
up and will soon be berthing then steps need to be taken to prepare it for mooring while it is
approaching port (see also the Videotel training programme The Cold and Heavy Weather File).
Ice
Blue ice and anti-skid paint should have already been put down on the focsle, poop deck and
other mooring areas if a forecast of sub-zero temperatures has been received by the vessel,
and this should help prevent the formation of ice or make it easier to remove any that has
already formed.
Anchors
Anchors must be kept free of ice, which can either be chipped off or broken off through a
process of alternately heaving them in and walking them back.
Lines
Except for those already wound on a winch, mooring lines should be kept stored below deck,
then brought out just before berthing to be flaked on wooden gratings and covered with
tarpaulins until needed for use in mooring operations. Even so, lines kept like this may still
become so stiff in the sub-zero temperatures that they are difficult to manhandle or to wind
around a winch drum. Spare, pliable lines should be kept ready below decks in anticipation of
such difficulties.
When paying out a line it should make as little contact with the water as possible to avoid it
freezing up and becoming stiff and difficult to work. During iced-up conditions it is better to
keep the lines as taut as possible to prevent the vessel falling off and allowing ice to form
between the ship and the quayside.

Winches and windlasses
On the first warning of sub-zero conditions, a thick layer of grease mixed with some antifreeze
solution should be applied to all moving parts on winches and windlasses. Oil, hydraulic and
electrically-driven systems may need to be kept on regular periods of slow turning to keep
them free from ice.
Mooring party and deck conditions

When engaged in mooring operations, the wind chill factor will affect the air temperature,
making it considerably colder and therefore more difficult for crewmembers to carry out their
duties. When mooring and departing crewmembers should stay out of the wind for as long as
possible.
Wind chill temperatures

Wind speed (knots) Actual air temperature (C)
9 -4 -8 -12 -16 -20
Temperature including windchill factor (C)
3 0 -4 -8 -12 -16 -20
5 -4 -8 -13 -17 -22 -26
11 -10 -15 -21 -26 -31 -36
16 -14 -20 -25 -31 -37 -43
22 -17 -23 -29 -35 -41 -47
27 -18 -25 -31 -37 -43 -49
32 -19 -26 -32 -39 -45 -51
38 -20 -27 -33 -40 -48 -52
43 -21 -27 -34 -40 -47 -53
49 -21 -27 -34 -40 -47 -53
54 -21 -27 -34 -40 -47 53
Table 5: The shaded area shows where a crewmembers exposed skin can freeze within just 60
seconds, even quicker if he touches frozen metal
Preparing mooring equipment in sub-zero conditions

Action Equipment Responsibility
Protect with grease Anchor stoppers Bosun
Riggings
Engaging gears
Clutches
Windlasses
Protect with covers Control boxes Chief Officer
Motion levers
Mooring lines
Protect with low Hydraulic systems Chief Engineer
temperature oil
Heating fuel oil Bunkers, double-bottomed Chief Engineer
tanks, steam driven
systems

Maintain circulation by Hydraulic systems Chief Engineer
keeping running on slow turning Steam driven systems
Drain off any water and Chain lockers Chief Officer
keep empty before
entering iced waters
Clear ice accumulation to Deck Chief Officer
prevent build up of ice
and slipping. Apply blue salt
Clear ice accumulation Anchors Bosun
Keep under cover until Lines Bosun
needed and have spares
available in case of freezing
Drain or stopcock or blank Water cooled mooring Chief Engineer
the water inlet systems
Hydraulic system cooler
Table 6: Preparations and precautions to be taken when preparing to moor in foul conditions
Mooring in poor visibility

Whether because of fog or snow, if visibility is poor when you are about to enter a port with
which you are not familiar there are several choices:
anchor outside the port in a safe place until visibility improves

request a Pilot
request tug assistance
proceed to the berth anyway, relying on your radar, electronic charts and lookouts
Although the final decision as to which of these options to select is the Masters, it will
probably be necessary to consult with the port authority, as the vessels allocated berth might
only be reserved for a limited period.
Mooring arrangements in a high security risk port

There are many concerns about terrorism and also the increasing numbers of people who are
seeking to leave their native lands, often by stowing away on vessels known to be heading for
more attractive countries.
So before entering a port where there may be a security risk, you may need to do a special risk
assessment and some extra pre-planning of your mooring arrangements. This will ensure your
security and to prevent unauthorised people climbing aboard by using the ships mooring lines
(see the Videotel training programme Coping with Stowaways, which describes precautions
which can be put in place) and to prevent unauthorised goods being placed aboard.

3.11 Mooring at buoys
Mooring at buoys is a highly specialised procedure, and there is another Videotel training
programme which goes into more detail on the complexities of the subject (entitled Mooring at
Buoys). Nevertheless, there are some basic procedures and precautions which illustrate how
this procedure is different to mooring at a quay.
When slip wires are to be used for mooring to buoys or dolphins, the eyes of the wires should
never be put over the bitts, because when it comes to slipping the mooring it may not be
possible to slacken the load sufficiently to lift the eye clear. To prevent accidental slippage of the
wire eyes over the bitts or other obstruction the eyes should be sized, partially closing the eye.
Conventional or multi-buoy moorings (CBM or MBM)

Although mooring at a CBM or MBM is not a precise science and there are several different
ways to successfully do it, Fig 16 below shows the standard, generally-accepted method of
doing so, using both forward anchors and with the stern secured to an arc of buoys with
several mooring lines. This arrangement can take considerable skill, a lot of time and much
manoeuvring to successfully carry it out.
Fig. 16: Setting up such a mooring arrangement using buoys and anchors and without the
assistance of tugs will often require the use of nearly all the ships mooring equipment
To set up this mooring arrangement, the vessel begins with what is known as a running moor.
This manoeuvre is usually started with the buoys to which the vessel is going to be made fast
lying to its port. This positioning enables the vessel to get maximum manoeuvring benefit from
its anchors once they are dropped during the manoeuvre. Nevertheless, the running moor
manoeuvre can still be carried out if the vessel starts off with the buoys to starboard.

The running moor
D
C C
Y Hose
B
A
Fig.17: The running moor procedure
The vessel moves slowly towards the forward end of what will be her final berthed position, and at
an angle of nearly 90 to what will be its final moored position Fig 17 (a)
At the right moment the starboard anchor is let go and the cable run out, while the vessel
continues to move ahead. Again at the right moment the engines are put astern and the rudder put
hard to port Fig 17 (b)
By careful manoeuvring, using the engines and helm, the vessel will aim to line up its stern
approximately with the middle of the group of buoys. Once it has achieved a satisfactory position,
the vessel lets go its port anchor and stops engines Fig 17 (c)
Now, by a skilful combination of paying out and taking in the anchor cables, while at the same time
using its helm and engines in forward and astern, the vessel can then manoeuvre itself towards its
intended final berthing position. Fig 17 (d)
Once roughly in its intended berthing position, the engines are cut, the anchor cables made fast,
and mooring lines are quickly run out to each of the buoys where once fastened they can be used
to help position the vessel exactly where intended, and all lines are then made fast. Fig 17 (e)
Advance preparation pays off

The success of the running moor procedure greatly depends on dropping the first anchor in
exactly the right spot. If that first anchor misses it mark and is dropped too far away, it is
almost impossible to successfully complete the rest of the manoeuvre and the vessel will have
to heave up and start all over again.
To avoid this possibility it can be helpful if the vessels approach course to the dropping point,
as well as the dropping point itself, are both marked by leading lines or ranges.

During the running moor manoeuvre, the mooring lines being used will experience far greater
loading than in normal mooring procedures, so it is recommended that only lines on drums are
used while it is in progress. Before embarking on such a complicated manoeuvre it is also
recommended that all winches and lines be carefully checked that they are in good order.
Safety check
The running moor procedure also requires considerable moving about around the deck by
those crewmembers taking part in its operation, so it is best if other crewmembers are kept off
deck to prevent them getting in the way at a difficult moment. Finally, this mooring procedure
should be done under the supervision of an experienced officer, using crewmembers
experienced in mooring duties. The officer should carefully brief those crewmembers taking
part beforehand about the different stages in the procedure and the responsibilities each
person will have. Where there is restricted searoom for manoeuvring, some terminals may
provide their own mooring team to perform the operation.
At many CBMs, a vessels own moorings are often supported by shore wires run from the
buoys or from the sub-sea platforms. It generally needs experienced seamen to be able to
manhandle these heavy wires around a warping drum of a winch and from there to the bitts.
When stopping off the wires before securing them to the bitts, carpenters stoppers of an
appropriate size should be used.
Performing a running moor operation means that there will often be mooring boats at the
vessels stern and when there are lines in the sea. It is therefore very important to have
constant communication between a lookout stationed at the stern, the officer in charge of the
operation, and the bridge in order to ensure neither boats nor lines get caught up in the
propellers during all the manoeuvring taking place.
Unmooring
When the vessel is unmooring, the shore wires need to be stoppered off with the carpenters
stopper, transferred to the winch drum and then walked back, using slip wires if necessary.
No full length wire should ever be let go on the run as it could whiplash and injure someone.
As the anchors are weighed and all the lines heaved in the vessel will then move forward to
clear the buoys. The windward mooring line is usually the last to be let go so as to prevent the
stern swinging on to the lee buoys.
Whatever the type of berth a vessel is moving away from, special vigilance must always be
kept to ensure that the stern lines are always kept clear of the propeller. It is easy for the
officer in charge of the mooring party or the crewmembers responsible for handling the stern
lines to fail to keep their attention on where the line is in the water. Allowing a line to foul the
propeller can have serious consequences for the ships schedule.

Single buoy mooring (SBM)
SBM equipment
When tying up to a Single Buoy Mooring (SBM), the vessels bow is usually secured to the buoy
with two special lines attached to a swivel on the buoy. This swivel mechanism allows the
vessel to freely swing around the buoy as the wind or tide might take her.
Chain support buoy

Mooring assemblies
Pedestal fairlead
Buoy tanker
Fairlead
Stopper or
Smit bracket
Floating hose strings
Launch
Pick-up
arrangement
Fig. 18: Single buoy mooring arrangements need special lines and equipment which are normally
provided by the terminal or port authority
As the vessel is only moored at one point on her structure all her load, plus the considerable
extra forces added through the movements made by the action of the wind, tide and currents,
is taken up by that pair of special lines. These, therefore, are always supplied by the terminal
authorities, and both are usually 120 - 190mm diameter and made from either nylon or
polyester, giving each an especially high MBL.
Single buoy mooring line Minimum Breaking Loads

Line diameter Nylon Polyester
120mm 305 tonnes 219 tonnes
Table 7: Few vessels will normally carry lines of this size and strength, and they are usually provided
by a terminal authority to be specially used for a SBM arrangement.

In a SBM arrangement, the vessel tends to swing around far more than when conventionally
moored. This extreme swinging can cause the mooring lines to continuously chafe on the
fairlead. To stop this happening, chafe chains are attached to the end of each mooring line and
positioned through the fairleads then secured to chain stoppers or brackets (known as Smit
brackets) specially attached to the focsle for this purpose. Chafe chains are normally 76mm
diameter links with safe working loads (swl) of 250 tonnes, or 54mm links with 100 tonnes swl
for vessels below 100,000 DWT.
Fig 19: A SBM chain stopper of the tongue type
Mooring procedure
Each of the SBMs mooring lines and chains are supported by its own small buoy, while an
80mm diameter and 150 metre long polypropylene floating pick-up line is attached to the end
of each chain.
Before the vessel begins her run in to the buoy, a 75mm messenger line should be secured to
a winch, from where a 90 metre length should be kept ready on the focsle, with the loose end
having been run through the chain stopper in one of the bow fairleads. This will be used as a
pick-up line to heave in the SBMs chains and hawsers.
Be prepared
During such mooring operations, whether SBM or MBM, emergency equipment should
always be available on deck in the event of an unexpected accident. This should include:
large axe
sledgehammer
crow bar
fire extinguishers
spare lifejackets
The mooring operation is usually supervised by a pilot stationed on the bow along with the
officer in charge of the mooring party who should be in radio communication with the bridge
to pass on the pilots orders and other information. At no time during the operation will the
vessel drop anchor, except in a great emergency, so as to avoid damaging undersea pipelines
and the SBMs own anchoring gear.

When the vessel closes on the SBM the messenger line is passed down to a mooring boat,
whose crew will attach it the SBMs pick-up rope. When the mooring boat is clear the pick-up
line should then be winched in until the chafe chain is brought through the fairlead and then
quickly secured to its stopper or bracket on the focsle. Once the chain is secured the pick-up
rope should be walked back until its weight is all on the stopper r bracket
While winching in the pick-up line and chain, it is important that they should always be kept
slack, otherwise it can be dangerous to crewmembers if they tighten before the chain is properly
secured to the stopper. Good communications between the bridge and the pilot and officer
stationed in the bows and careful manoeuvring of the ship may be needed to keep the line slack
until the chafe chain has been properly secured to the stopper. The pick-up line by itself should
never be winched in an attempt to heave the vessel into position or to try to hold its position.
Special connections
If the chain is to be attached to a Smit bracket then the vessel is usually expected to have a
mooring chain already connected to the bracket before it arrives at the SBM. Once the chafe
chain is heaved aboard, it is then stoppered off using special chains and stoppers supplied by
the terminal authority. The chafe and mooring chains should then be linked up with a special
shackle supplied by the terminal.
While moored
Although it is not so necessary to set a watch or regular inspection on a SBM, as it can often
be with a conventional mooring systems lines, bearing in mind that the vessel is not anchored
it is recommended that an experienced crewmember should be set to watch the SBM and the
mooring lines, in case the vessel begins to yaw alarmingly or perhaps begins to ride up to the buoy.
Unmooring
Unmooring the vessel from the SBM is generally a simple process of unfastening the chains
from the stoppers, walking them back to be paid out through the fairlead, and then using the
pick-up rope to drop them back down to the water to be unfastened by the mooring boat.
Whether unmooring from a CBM, MBM or SBM, the officer in charge, as when engaged in
mooring, should again have an unmooring checklist, such as:
Unmooring checklist Yes / No

Areas cleared for mooring lines flaked to minimise tripping hazard
Mooring lines correctly spooled on drums (pulling against fixed
pin of brake)
Safety equipment available
Fairleads, rollers, bitts and chocks in satisfactory condition
Deadmen and roller fairleads well greased and free to turn with little
sign of grooving
Brake linings and pins appear in good condition
Winch seatings and connections to deck sound
Anchor chain stoppers in good condition and effective
Anchors locking bar ready for immediate use
Ready to check mooring lines for condition once taken in

3.12 Tug operations and towing procedures
Tugs can be in attendance when you are berthing either to act as a precautionary escort, to
stand-by in case their assistance is needed, or to actively provide assistance when it is already
known that it will be needed. The main purpose of an escorting tug is to assist
a vessel if it meets an emergency and cannot control its own course or speed. The tugs duty
would then be to take the way off the vessel and control its course and speed. Whatever the
circumstances when working with tugs during mooring operations, two factors are very
important in making your procedures safe:
good communications with the tugs
understanding how tugs operate
The Pilots responsibilities

If your vessel has taken on a Pilot it is his responsibility to advise the Master on:
tug rendezvous position
number and type of tugs needed
towline forces that may apply
planned speed and route of the tow, and any hazards
how the towline is to be taken aboard by the crew
the tugs manoeuvres during berthing
emergency procedures
the release of the towline
primary and secondary VHF channels to be used for communications
If a Pilot is not involved in the tug operation then it is the responsibility of the port or terminal
authority to agree these factors with the Master.
Pre-planning and communications

It is important that Tugmasters should be briefed in advance about the planned use of their
vessel during the towing, and this should be the responsibility of the Pilot or, if there isnt one,
then the Master. The Tugmaster should then be kept fully informed while a mooring operation
is in progress. It is preferable that communication between your vessel and tugs is done
directly between the Master and the Tugmasters, with the deck officer in charge of the
mooring gang also in communications with all those involved in the mooring operation.
During tug manoeuvres events may have to happen quickly, such as perhaps the tug having to
rapidly make fast with the vessel being escorted. This sort of contingency procedure needs to
be agreed in advance. Poor pre-planning and poor communications between a towed vessel
and its tugs have been the causes of many accidents.
Towing procedures
Tug towlines can kill
As with mooring lines, dynamic forces occur in a towline which can become extremely
dangerous. These forces are generated by actions such as the sudden accelerations of the tug,
unexpected manoeuvres, wind and waves, and many other factors. Any of these, either
individually or together, can create excessive load on the towline which can have dangerous, or
even deadly, consequences.

Towline angle
There is a serious danger of a tug capsizing when its towline reaches a large angle to the fore
and aft line and the tug is unable to slip her tow.
To reduce the danger, tugs engaged in harbour duties will usually have towing gear which is
designed to minimise the prospect of overturning due to the lead of the towline, commonly
referred to as girding or girting. This may be done by fitting a permanent towing arrangement
involving the use of a gob rope.
A tugs towing hooks should have some means of quick release, which can usually be
controlled from both the wheelhouse and the after deck, as well as at the hooks
themselves.
The towing arrangement between your vessel and the tugs should be regularly monitored
during a tow, and when towing off a winch, the scope should be adjusted from time to time to
avoid concentrated stresses.
Towing arrangements
Towing arrangements and procedures should always reduce to a minimum any danger to
personnel during the operation. The design and arrangement of towing fittings should be able
to cope with any emergency situations as well as normal towing conditions.
Sufficient spare equipment to completely re-make the towing arrangements should always be
readily to hand. Secondary or emergency towing arrangements should be fitted on board the
tow so it can be recovered by the towing ship in the event of a failure of the main towing
system or supporting equipment.
All equipment used in a towing arrangement should have proper certification and any
areas of contact between the tow line and the structures of both the tug and the towed
vessel should be suitably protected.
The form of towing arrangements on harbour and coastal tugs will depend mainly on the
requirements of individual tug operators, but they are normally of wire rope and/or synthetic
rope. Synthetic rope is most commonly used in towing due to its elasticity and its ability to
absorb dynamic loads generated in harbour or coastal uses. With the different types of
synthetic ropes having the markedly different properties and handling characteristics, these
might affect the way a tug operates and how it reacts to different manoeuvres performed by
your vessel.
Breaking loads
Towing standards for tugs operating in harbour and coastal areas depend on operating to
Breaking Loads (BL) for towlines, which have been assessed and adjusted by different towing
companies, Tugmasters, and rope manufacturers through years of experience and the
requirements of particular applications.
The ratio of BL to effective bollard pull (EBP) may vary between two to four times the EBP.
Some operators require a towlines BL to be six times the EBP - for example where a dynamic
load on a towline may exceed the EBP. A low safety factor will adversely affect the towline life.

Operators and tug captains will have operating experience and views on the use of stretchers
in any towing arrangement. However, the inclusion of unsuitable non-approved elements, such
as old vehicle tyres, should never be allowed in any towing arrangement.
Tow lines
Although most tugs use synthetic fibre towlines, other towlines for use in harbour can be:
a single steel wire

a steel wire towline, stretcher and steel wire pendant
a synthetic fibre rope towline with or without the fibre rope pendant
A spliced line should never be used as a towline.
It is not recommended that a vessels own mooring lines be used for towing, as their strength
and structure may not be able to hold the tugs towing force, particularly the more powerful
tugs used in large ports and terminals. Given that the BL of mooring lines used by a bulk carrier
of 500,000 tonnes and 200,000 tonnes dwt should be about 70 tonnes and 50 tonnes
respectively, and that assuming an attendant tug will have an EBP of 30 tonnes, then the BL for
the tugs towlines should be about 4 x 30 = 120 tonnes. Clearly, the mooring lines used by both
those bulk carriers do not meet the required BL strength.
High-modulus synthetic fibre ropes are usually used as escort towing lines. The minimum
bending diameter for such ropes is normally around 10 times rope diameter for plaited lines,
and 8 times for braided lines. It is generally accepted that a towline with a minimum diameter
of 60 centimetres, or around 24 inches, and with a MBL of 400 tonnes is needed for an escort
pull-back service.
If a tug uses wire cables for towing, extra care must be taken if, for some reason, one of the
towed vessels own synthetic fibre lines is to be used instead as the towline. The tugs towing
gear might be pitted and abrasive from previously using wire lines, which could cause the
synthetic line to part.
Safe handling of tug tow lines

It is important that crewmembers on a towed vessel stay well clear of a tugs towline at all
times, unless the officer in charge gives a specific instruction otherwise.
Crewmembers of the vessel being towed must not handle the tow line unless and until the
officer in charge of the mooring party gives such an instruction. Crewmembers must never
respond to any instructions from the tugs crew, and should never let go a tug towline unless
their own officer instructs them to do so.
When a tugs towline is being secured to your vessel or let go, the officer in charge of the
mooring party should be carefully watching the procedure to make sure that no load comes on
the line before it is secured or while it is in the process of being let go. The bridge should notify
the tug that is fast only when the officer in charge of the mooring party has indicated that all
men are well clear of the towline. When letting go the line, it should not be thrown off the bitts
and run out. Instead, always take care to slack the line back to the fairlead in an orderly
manner.

If the towline has an eye then heave it past the bitts to allow enough slack to be able to handle
the line, then stopper off the line and put the eye on the bitts. Never try to secure the line on
the bitts if you do not have enough slack line to be able to handle it easily. If the towline does
not have an eye and is to be turned up on the bitts then it must always be stoppered off
before it is handled.
Planning a tow
The route to be followed should be planned in advance, taking into account such factors as the
anticipated weather, tidal streams and currents, the size, windage and displacement of the tow,
and any navigational hazards. Weather routing advice should be used where available. Careful
consideration should be given to the number, size and EBP of the towing ships to be employed.
There should also be a contingency plan to cover the sudden onset of bad weather, particularly
regarding arrangements for heaving to or taking shelter.
Where the towing operation falls under the jurisdiction of the port authority, any certificate
issued should specify the intended general route, indicate any special conditions, and should
also note the responsibility and authority of the Masters of both the tug and tow to be able to
alter the proposed route should circumstances require this action.
Precautions when being towed

Tows should exhibit the navigation lights, shapes and make the sound signals required by the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972. The reliability of the lights and
sound signals and their ability to function for the duration of the tow should be checked well in
advance of the tow taking place. When practicable, a duplicate system of lights should be on
hand and ready for use.
Before being towed, the watertight and weathertight integrity of the vessel should be
confirmed by an inspection of the closing arrangements for all hatches, valves, air pipes, and
other openings through which water might enter the towed vessel and affect its stability. It
should also be confirmed that any watertight doors or other closing arrangements within the
hull are securely closed and that any portable closing plates are in place. Cargo, equipment and
stores being carried on a vessel being towed should be carefully examined to ensure that they
are properly stowed and secured for the tow and for the weather conditions.
Some port authorities have regulations which specify that for certain types of vessel or
cargoes, a tow should not proceed until an inspection of the vessel to be towed has been
carried out by the Tugmaster.
A vessel being towed should, of course, be equipped with an anchor suitable for holding the
vessel in severe weather conditions, that is securely attached to a chain cable or wire and
which is arranged for quick release in an emergency.
Lifejackets and lifebuoys should be provided to all those on the deck of the tow, even if only for
short periods. Boarding facilities should be rigged on each side of the tow so that crew from
the tug can board the towed vessel at any time.

In an emergency
Should the tow become a direct danger to navigation, offshore structures or the coastline
through breaking adrift or for any other reason, then the Master of the towing ship is bound by
SOLAS V/2 to communicate the information by all the means at his disposal to ships in the
vicinity, and also to the harbour authorities. The appropriate pendants should also be hoisted.
In such circumstances the arrangements for recovering the tow, should it break adrift, are to
seasonal weather conditions and area of operation.

4. Maintenance of mooring systems
Most vessels operate a planned, regular maintenance schedule of all their mooring equipment
wires, ropes, winches, stoppers, shackles, windlasses and anchor chains. These maintenance
schedules should be arranged in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
4.1 Wire lines

Inspection
Regular checking and maintenance of wire lines helps prevent any damage already on them
from becoming worse and reduces the danger a damaged cable can cause to those handling it.
It is usually impractical or unnecessary to give a detailed inspection to the entire length of a

line every time it has been used. Nevertheless, it is recommended that each wire mooring line
should have its entire length carefully inspected at least once a year. There should also be
regular visual inspections of each line at least once every four months. It is also recommended
that no wire line be kept in service for longer than seven years.
During the regular visual inspections of wire lines they should always be carefully examined for
broken strands of wire, sometimes referred to as snags. The more snags there are then the
weaker the cable. If you think a line has a lot of snags, report it immediately to an officer. He
can then consult the manufacturers specifications to see if it should be scrapped.
Care of wire lines

The regular wire line maintenance schedules should always include such basic tasks as:
removing the entire wire from the winch or its compartment for careful inspection
removing the entire wire from the winch or compartment to grease or oil it, as rust on a
wire line reduces its strength very quickly
regularly end-for-ending each line to ensure that each end gets the same level of wear
and tear. End-for-ending of each line should be done at least every four months.
Crewmembers involved in wire line inspections should have a checklist of particular potential
problem areas on a line which require special attention. A typical list can include areas such as:
the lines lower length, where experience has shown that it can suffer extra wear and
tear, especially where the line has had considerable use and has been end-for-ended
several times
eyes shackled to synthetic tails where there may be exceptional wear and tear. This
examination should include special check on any talurit splices shackled to the tails
at compensation sheaves and within one metre of either side
at the winch drum, checking dead laps, crossover points and at the drum flanges
at sheaves
where the line passes sheaves or onto the drum during snatch or at maximum or
minimum acceleration
areas exposed to abnormal environmental conditions
any other areas likely to have suffered damage during a recent mooring operation.

Discarding wire lines
While examination of synthetic fibre lines often give several clues and some visual evidence
about the condition of a rope line and how safe it is for continued use, it is less easy and
straightforward to judge the condition of a wire line.
The first step in assessing the condition and safety of a wire line is to consult the
manufacturers instructions. Along with whatever information is provided in that, there are also
other criteria to indicate a wire line may be ready to be withdrawn from use.
For example, the number of broken wires visible on a line three or more breaks in one or
adjacent strands is a cause for concern. Damage to the end of the line or near the end is also a
danger signal more than three broken wires within 6mm of the termination means action
must be taken. A reduction in diameter of more than 10% in a six or eight strand line, or more
than 3% in a multistrand line, means a closer assessment of the line must be made. Signs of
internal or external corrosion, signs of heat damage, slackness in the wire, areas of
deformation, all of these are indications that the condition of the wire line needs to be drawn
to the attention of an officer.
Some shipping lines do have their own set criteria for discarding a line. One such checklist
gives this advice:
Wire Rope Removal Criteria

Condition Action
Deterioration of the termination Discard
Deterioration of the core Discard
Wear Consider how severe it is
External corrosion Consider how severe it is
Internal corrosion Consider how severe it is
Deformations Consider how severe they are
Thermal damage Discard
Groups or areas of broken wires Discard
Number and nature of broken wires See manufacturers recommendations
Splicing wire lines

Wire mooring lines usually come from the manufacturer ready fitted with steel eyes. If an eye
has to be replaced then the new eye should be spliced in using at least five full tucks and two
half tucks. Some shipping companies have a standard procedure of returning lines to the
manufacturer to have new eyes put in. If repairs are being done on board to wires fitted to drum
winches, short splices should never be used as these can cause damage to the line as it is being
reeled in. The bigger a wire cable then the more difficult it becomes to splice in a new eye.
Putting a new wire line on a winch drum

Right and left-handed lays have to be fitted differently to winch drums. Lines with wires which
have a right-hand lay should be threaded into the drums eye to the left of the barrel hard
against the winch wall and going in an anti-clockwise, winching-in, direction. Conversely, lines

with wires which have a left-hand lay should only be threaded into the drums eye to the left of
the barrel hard against the winch wall, and should be stowed onto the barrel in a clockwise,
winching-in direction.
Fitting a line with a right-hand lay Fitting a line with a left-hand lay
Fig. 19: Mooring lines made of different lay directions have to be fitted to winch drums differently to
prevent damage to the lines.
4.2 Synthetic fibre lines

Although synthetic lines have many advantages over wire lines, they are subject to damage
more easily and so have to be more regularly and carefully inspected than wire lines.
Inspection
An inspection of all the ropes for abrasion damage, signs of heat damage or any other faults
should take place every time a vessel de-moors. Particular attention should be given to splices
and areas where the line has been in contact with the vessels structure. A more systematic
inspection of the entire length of each line should take place at least once a year.
During its inspection, a rope line should be laid out straight on the deck. A crewmember given
the task of examining it should run the rope through his hands and closely examine it a half
metre at a time, while always rotating it to be able to see each side of it. Strands should be
lightly prised apart to examine the interior of parts of the line and check for powdering or
crumbling fibres.
Powdering between the strands of a rope or flakiness and crumbling in the fibres are signs of
excess wear or damage to a synthetic fibre line, and signal the danger of it being reduced in
strength. You must then consider whether to cut out the damaged section and splice in a new
section, or whether to discard the entire line and replace it with a completely new one.
Ideally, the checking process should be done using a checklist, which should include items
such as:
deterioration of fibres
chafing and wear
strands fused by friction or other heat
cuts or abrasions
chemical damage or discoloration by an unknown agent

The frequent close visual inspections of rope lines must also include making sure that any
splices are still in good order and, where possible, examining the inner core of the line.
Like wire lines, synthetic mooring lines should also be end-for-ended regularly, at least every
four months, to ensure that each end gets the same level of wear and tear.
Replacing lines
When replacing a worn line on a winch, the line must be wound onto the drum in the correct
direction. The pay out direction should be marked on the winchs drum. A turntable should be
used to unwind a new coil of line to avoid kinking, or else it can be uncoiled from the outer
end and the coil rolled out on deck.
If an 8-strand rope line is to be used on winches and with more than one layer then the rope
should be wound onto the winch under a load of about 10% of its Minimum Breaking Load.
Splicing synthetic lines

It is preferable to use mooring lines which are completely sound and undamaged. Ideally, a
mooring line should not have any splices at all. However, keeping all your mooring lines entirely
free of splices is not always a practicable precaution to implement. So all splices in synthetic
fibre lines should have at least five tucks and use all the rope strands. It is also important to
whip all the strands before splicing. One manufacturer of synthetic mooring lines recommends
that a splice on a 64mm stern rope should be 1300 1400mm long.
After being spliced, a lines breaking load is reduced by 10%, which stays the same even if
several splices are put in. Plaited lines normally have special instructions from the
manufacturer as to how to put in a splice and these instructions should be followed, as should
the instructions from the manufacturers of all the ropes being used.
Chafing
Synthetic lines are liable to chafing. To protect them, all contact surfaces such as fairleads and
rollers should be clean and smooth. Any rough surfaces or jagged edges must be welded up and
faired. Where steel wire ropes are also in use these can cause damage to the vessels decks and
so there should be regular inspections to spot any damage and grind the damaged area smooth.
Tube chafe guards, as recommended by the ropes manufacturers, can also be used.
Storage
Synthetic fibre lines not in use should not be left exposed in the sunshine for too long. If they
have to be kept on deck they should be covered with tarpaulins.
Fibre lines should be stored away in a clean, dry location out of direct sunlight. They should not
be placed on concrete or rough floors or dirty decks as dirt and grit can be picked up which
could damage the fibres. Instead, ropes should be stored off the floor, on something like
palettes, which can allow air to circulate around them. Ropes should not be stored near
chemicals or paint, or where fumes from chemicals or paint can reach them. They should
always be kept away from any heat. Fibre lines should never be dried by putting them near
heaters or warm spots.
Care should be exercised when storing 3-strand ropes to ensure that no kinks or hockles occur.
A kink can reduce the strength of a rope by 30%, and although the kink can be removed it will
still leave a weak point in the rope. So the rope should be coiled with the lay of the rope and
uncoiled in the opposite direction. Although braided and plaited ropes cannot be hockled, poor
handling can lead to excessive twisting, and so these ropes should be coiled in a figure of 8.
When to scrap a rope line

There are no hard clear rules as to when a synthetic fibre line needs to be scrapped and
replaced, except that it must be done well before the line becomes so reduced in strength or
so damaged that it becomes dangerous. Awareness of a lines load history along with
continuous examination of it before, during and after each use will help in spotting the danger
signs. There are several important factors that must always be kept in mind when considering
a lines condition.
Condition or use Effect

Line strength Using the strongest grade of material reduces the stress on it
while in use and gives it a longer lifespan
Extension A line with low extension under a working a load can give better
control, but a shock load on such a line can cause it to part
unexpectedly. Lines with a very high extension under load can
experience a greater amount of abrasion as they run over guides
or sheaves because of the extra movement and rubbing of the line
Working load A working load is any weight or stress under normal use, and is
referred to as a percentage (%) of the lines indicated break
strength when new. A general rule is that a lines working load
should not be more than 20% of its break strength. Lines which
take a load greater than this, or which experience a sudden hock
load, can build up unseen damage from fatigue and cause it to
part unexpectedly
Shock load A shock load is when any sudden, unexpected heavy weight or
load or stress is put on a line. Anything over 10% of a lines normal
working load is a shock load. Too many shock loads or incidences
of overloading cause unseen damage to build up in a line, making
it liable to part unexpectedly
Bending Bending a line round a sharp bend causes it stress and a
substantial loss of strength. Different sheaves should be used for
wire and synthetic lines. The diameter of a sheave used for a
synthetic line should always be at least 5 x the diameter of the
line (while for some synthetic lines it should be as much as
20 x the lines diameter)
Terminations Although a line is most easily terminated with a knot, this is not
the best practice as a knot can reduce a lines strength by as
much as 50%. Instead, lines should always be spliced according
to the manufacturers instructions
Storage Lines should be stored in a clean, dry, well-ventilated area
(preferably on gratings) which is out of the sunlight and away
from any chemicals, fumes or direct heat

Coiling Badly stowed lines can cause kinks and hockles (gouges or cuts)
to occur, which can reduce the strength of a line by up to 30%.
Even when they are removed or repaired they still leave a weak
point in the line. Lines should be coiled with the lay of the line and
uncoiled in the reverse direction. Although braided and plaited
lines cannot be hockled they can suffer from excessive twist from
incorrect handling, and so should be coiled in a figure of 8 to
ensure they run free when in use.
Table 6: Conditions or use which can affect the safety and lifespan of a line
Factor Effect
Abrasion The surface of a line needs regular examination. A new line
coming into service quickly takes on a slightly rough, furry
appearance, which is normal. However, the furriness can hide
more serious abrasion damage. There should be close inspection
of between a lines strands and yarns for signs of wear. Also, look
for powdering of the fibres, which signals excessive wear and a
loss of strength
Stiffness Areas or lengths of stiffness in a line indicate it has suffered shock
loads, and it should be considered with caution and suspicion
Glazing Glazed areas indicate where a line has been subject to excess
heat which made its fibres melt and merge together, causing a
serious loss of load strength in the line. The heat may have been
experienced when the line surged on capstans or ran over
non-moving sheaves or rollers, or when lines rubbed against each
other. Different synthetic fibre materials have very different
temperature melting points, and this needs to be taken into
account, but glazed areas in a line invite closer examination and
consideration of a lines strength and safety
Diameter With any line which has a different weave and construction in its
inner core from its outer core, if it should have an area or length
of varying diameter then this can indicate internal damage from
overloading or shock loads, inviting closer examination and
consideration of its strength and safety
Colour All lines soon get dirty and discoloured, but patches of prominent
or unusual discoloration should be closely examined as they could
indicate chemical contamination
Loose strands A few pulled or cut strands here and there in a line will have little
effect on its load strength. However, these need to be considered
as whether they were caused by abrasion or through internal
stress. If it looks like they were caused by stress then this can
soon cause more strands to part, and so the line must be closely
monitored in the future
Table 7: Factors which can signal a rope is nearing retirement

Some shipping lines use a set inspection checklist which dictates when a line being examined
must be discarded or the damaged section or sections removed and the rope spliced. One
such typical checklist, suggested by a rope manufacturer, looks like this:
Rope Inspection Record

Rope number:
Material & construction:
Date first used:
Dates & ports used:
Inspection Checklist
Condition Discard?
Rope diameter reduced by abrasion:
3 strand by 10%
8 strand by 25%
12 strand by 25%
Braidline (double braid) sheath by 50%
Superline sheath by 100%
Cut strands
3 strand: one or more adjacent strands cut
8 strand: one or more adjacent strands cut
12 strand: two or more adjacent strands cut
Braidline (double braid) three or more adjacent strands cut
Superline: any damage visible to core
Irregular or uneven diameter

Areas of reduced diameter
Areas of enlarged diameter
Inconsistent flexibility
Areas of stiffness
Heat fusion
Lengthy areas of fused strands
Discoloration
Areas of unnatural chemical discoloration

Disposal
When it is decided to scrap a line, it must be disposed of in accordance with MARPOL Annex V
requirements; namely, that all redundant mooring lines must be landed ashore and disposed of
in accordance with the shipping companys own Garbage and Waste Management Plan, which
should be set out in its standard procedures manual.
4.3 Winches
Each winch should be checked to ensure that the heave-in and slack-out markings are
clearly visible on the control system. If they have faded then they should be re-marked.
Each winchs clutch should be checked to ensure it is engaging smoothly and the controls are
well lubricated, and that the connecting surfaces of the drive mechanism are free of wear. The
condition of the drums and Gypsey head need to be examined for any pitting or abrasions
which could damage the lines. Hydraulic lines and pumps must be checked regularly, including
the switchgear and other electrical components.
On electric winches, the switch contacts and brushes need to be inspected according to the
manufacturers instructions. The motor bearings should be replaced at the intervals specified
by the manufacturer. The motor casing should be regularly inspected for any accumulation of
water. The windings insulation resistance must be regularly checked to ensure it is at the
required level. A dropped level might indicate moisture in the insulation layers.
Checking a winch brakes condition

A winchs brake linings will be gradually reduced through normal wear and tear and, when that
occurs, its brake power will also be reduced. Each winchs brake holding power should
therefore be tested, measured and recorded at least once a year, and if possible this should
also be done after any long period of heavy loading (see OCIMF publication Mooring Equipment
Guidelines, section 7.5.5). Each winchs brake should also be regularly examined for excessive
rust or signs of it wearing out.
As the end of a passage approaches, it is important to check each winchs brake condition and
make sure that all controls and operating handles are oiled and greased and ready for use, and
that the brake drums and linings are clean and reasonably dry.
Even brakes that are covered will have been contaminated by salty air and seawater. Seawater,
ice, oil or rust on a winchs drum or brake lining can seriously reduce a winchs brake holding
power by as much as 75%. Moisture can be removed by running the winch slowly with the
brake lightly applied. It is difficult to completely remove oil from a brakes lining and so it
usually needs to be replaced. Rust can be chipped and scraped off. Always clean up any
hydraulic or lubricating oil lying on the deck around a winch.
It is particularly important that all linkages are well greased and run freely. If they are not
running free, the winch operator may think the brake has been properly applied when has not.
This will cause a resulting loss of holding power and pay out on the rope, causing further wear
on the brake.

4.4 Tails and shackles
Nylon or other synthetic tails, along with the shackles with which they are attached to the
lines, should be inspected frequently for signs of wear and corrosion. Shackles should be
examined for damage, and any found to be deformed should be discarded rather than repaired
as a repaired shackle will have lost its strength. A nylon tail which has been elongated more
than 15% of its original length should also be discarded.
4.5 Fairleads, windlasses, chains and anchors

Fairleads need to be regularly checked to ensure they are running freely and that there are no
abrasions or jagged edges which could damage lines running through them. They should be
regularly lubricated. If a fairlead has become stuck or is difficult to turn it can be released by
using a lever and rope.
After any long period when the anchors have not been used it is recommended that the anchors
and cables should be walked out, with the windlass in gear, to check it is in good condition. The
opportunity should be taken at the same time to grease the windlasss bearings, brake linkages
and other moving parts, and to check for dirt, rust, excess moisture or any other hazards.
Windlass brakes need regular and careful maintenance, particularly with greasing and
adjustment. Where there are linkages in the brakes mechanism these must be kept well
greased and running free.
A badly running or damaged linkage or other part of the brakes mechanism can cause the
operator to think that the brake is fully and safely on when instead it is just stuck. If it
suddenly and unexpectedly comes free this can be dangerous.
It is sometimes necessary to make adjustments to the brake to compensate for worn brake
linings. The manufacturers instructions will tell you if this is necessary and how to do it. It is
also important to regularly examine a brakes bearing keep and ensure its nuts and cotter pins
are still tightly in place. This should be done especially after the brake has had a refit or any
other work has been done on it.
If there is any doubt whatsoever about the efficiency of a windlasss brake at any time then it
should be fully examined and tested before being used.

5. Further information and reading
Code of Safe Working Practice for Merchant Seamen,

Maritime and Coastguard Agency United Kingdom
Effective Mooring, Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF), UK
Guidelines and Recommendations for the Safe Mooring of Large Ships
at Piers and Sea Islands, OCIMF, Witherby & Co., London, UK, 1978.
International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals,
Oil Companies International Marine Forum
Hawser Guidelines and Procedures, Oil Companies International Marine Forum, 1988
Harbour Masters Report
Mooring Equipment Guidelines, Oil Companies International Marine Forum
Mooring Guidebook
Tug Guide
The Cold and Heavy Weather File, Videotel Marine International
Coping with Stowaways, Videotel Marine International

Appendix 1. Assessment quizzes
(more than one answer may be correct)
Theory of Mooring
1. Which of these factors can affect a vessels moorings?

(a) wind (b) currents (c) the way the cargo is loaded (d) all of these
2. What will the force of a wind blowing at 30 knots at deck level be on a cargo of containers
stacked 21 metres above deck level? Will it be:
(a) much the same (b) less (c) greater (d) depends on the wind direction
3. How many times greater is the force of a three-knot current on a vessels hull compared to
that of a one knot current?
(a) much the same (b) double (c) three times greater (d) nine times greater
4. In ports with a large tidal range, what is the best precaution to take to maintain the vessels
safe station?
(a) use self-tensioning winches and post a regular deck watch
(b) use extra-long mooring lines all round the vessel
(c) use the largest steel wire lines the vessel has available
(d) check the tide tables and inspect the moorings each high and low tide
5. Which of these materials is least used today for mooring lines by large commercial vessels?
(a) natural fibre (b) synthetic fibre (c) high modulus synthetic fibre
(d) steel wire
6. What is a 6 x 36 mooring line?

(a) a line constructed from six strands of an inner core made of one type of synthetic fibre
material surrounded by 36 strands of a second layer of a different type of synthetic fibre
material
(b) a line constructed from 36 strands of an inner core made of steel wire surrounded by six
strands of a second layer of synthetic fibre material
(c) a line constructed from six strands of an inner core made of steel wire surrounded by 36
strands of a second layer of steel wire
(d) a line constructed from 36 strands of an inner core made of one type of synthetic fibre
material surrounded by six strands of a second layer made from a different type of
synthetic fibre material
7. What does MBL stand for?

(a) Maximum Bollard Layers (b) Maximum Breaking Load
(c) Maximum Ballast Level (d) Maximum Berth Length
8. What does ABL stand for?

(a) Average Breaking Load (b) Admiralty Ballast Limitations
(c) Auxiliary Buoy Lead (d) Afterdeck Buoyancy Line

9. What is the least MBL a carpenter stopper should have when used on a wire mooring line?
(a) at least half that of the line (b) the same as the line
(c) twice that of the line (d) three times that of the line
10. Which of these is the strongest type of synthetic fibre rope in common use today?
(a) nylon (b) aramid (c) polypropylene (d) HMPE
11. Which is the only one of these lines that floats?

(a) polyester (b) polyester/polypropylene
(c) polypropylene (d) aramid
12. How much elasticity does a high modulus synthetic fibre rope typically have?
(a) None (b) 1 2% (c) 4 5% (d) about 10%
13. How much elasticity can a conventional synthetic fibre rope typically have in some
circumstances?
(a) about 4 5% (b) about 10% (c) about 30% (d) about 60%
14. If your vessel is using a mix of wire and synthetic fibre lines in its mooring system, which
lines should the synthetic lines preferably be used for rather than wire?
(a) head and stern lines (b) spring and breast lines
(c) spring and head lines (d) breast and stern lines
15. The speeds of the currents in a coastal harbour are:

(a) unpredictable (b) predicted in tide current tables
(c) generally constant (d) usually too weak to have any effect on a well-moored vessel
Answers
1. (d); 2. (c); 3. (d); 4. (a); 5. (a); 6. (c); 7. (b); 8. (a); 9. (b); 10. (b); 11. (c); 12. (b); 13. (c);
14. (a); 15. (a);

1. What is the correct way to thread a steel wire mooring with a right-handed lay onto a
winchs drum barrel?
(a) start in the centre of the drum and run the line from right to left and always in a clockwise
direction
(b) start hard against the barrels right wall and going in clockwise, winching-in direction
(c) start hard against the barrels left wall and going in an clockwise, winching-out direction
(d) start hard against the barrels left wall and going in an anti-clockwise, winching-in direction
2. What is the difference between the render power of a winch and its heave power?
(a) The heave power is always greater than the render power
(b) The heave power is always less than the render power
(c) They are equal
(d) It depends on the type of winch
3. What is the revolving drum of a winch used to haul lines known as?
(a) bull gear (b) gypsy (c) spinnaker (d) wildcat
4. What is known as a wildcat during mooring operations?

(a) a deeply grooved drum on the windlass with sprockets which slot into the links of the
anchor chain
(b) a winch which is running out of control
(c) a mooring line which has jumped off the gypsy
(d) a mooring line which has parted and has whiplashed back across the deck
5. How are winch pipelines best protected from damage by ice?

(a) applying grease to them (b) draining all fluid out of them when not in use
(c) keeping them covered up (d) running a blowtorch along them every 6 hours
6. What is the best way to prevent machinery like winches and windlasses from icing up?
(a) run the machinery for ten minutes during every watch
(b) keep them well greased with a mix of grease and anti-freeze
(c) keep them covered up
(d) all of these
7. What is the best way to prevent mooring lines from freezing solid in bad weather?
(a) keep them under cover until they are needed
(b) keep them well greased up
(c) clear the ice of them daily using blowtorches and wire brushes
(d) coat them with anti-freeze solution six hours before mooring operations begin
8. What should be the minimum holding power of a winchs brake in relation to the mooring
line on it?
(a) 25% (b) 40% (c) 60% (d) 100%
9. What does CBM stand for?

(a) Centre of Buoyancy Mark (b) Conventional Buoy Mooring
(c) Capstan Barrel Meridian (d) Channel Buoy Map
10. What does MBM stand for?
(a) Main Breakwater Mark (b) Middle Berth Mooring
(c) Mooring Berth Measurements (d) Multi-Buoy Mooring
11. As your vessel is being towed by a tug you notice another ship coming from starboard is
about to pass between you and the tug. What would you expect the tug to do?
(a) turn hard to port (b) turn hard to starboard
(c) sever the towline (d) slow down and pay out the towline
12. What does girting mean?

(a) a vessel being damaged or capsized by its towline
(b) making a formal complaint of bad seamanship
(c) a tug being forced backwards by its tow
(d) a towline parting
13. Who has the ultimate and final responsibility for giving orders regarding what to do with a
towline attached to your vessel?
(a) the Tugmaster (b) your vessels Master
(c) the Pilot (d) your vessels deck officer
14. What is the usual order of engaging mooring lines?

(a) spring lines first, then breast lines, then head lines and stern lines
(b) head and stern lines first, then spring lines, then breast lines
(c) spring lines first, then head and stern lines, then breast lines
(d) head line first, then breast lines and spring lines together, then the stern line
15. When unmooring the vessel, who decides in which order the lines are to be let go?
(a) the officer in charge of the mooring party
(b) the Harbourmaster
(c) the person in charge of the linesmen ashore
(d) the Master (in consultation with the Pilot)
Answers
1. (d); 2. (b); 3. (b); 4. (a); 5. (c); 6. (d); 7. (a); 8. (c); 9. (b); 10. (d); 11. (c); 12. (a) 13. (b)
14. (a); 15. (d)

1. How are steel wire mooring lines usually treated to prevent corrosion?
(a) galvanised (b) greased (c) copper plated (d) manganese-coated
2. What is the first and most obvious signs on a wire mooring line indicating it is becoming
worn?
(a) heavy rust on several sections (b) a singing noise when it is under strain
(c) snags appearing along its length (d) it becomes more pliant and easier to handle
each time it is used
3. What does a glazed surface on a synthetic rope indicate?

(a) it has been treated with an anti-corrosion solution
(b) it is a high-modulus rope
(c) it has lost a large part of its strength
(d) it has been contaminated with oil and needs to be cleaned
4. How many broken strands in a wire line mean it must be removed from service?
(a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 20% (d) 25%
5. What percentage of broken strands in an eye of a wire line mean it must be re-made?
(a) 10% (b) 15% (c) 20% (d) 25%
6. What do polyethylene ropes have to be checked for in particular?

(a) extra stretching
(b) discolouring due to chemical sensitivity
(c) unpleasant smell indicating chemical attack
(d) burn damage because of their low melting temperature
7. What elongation on a nylon tail would mean it has to be discarded?

(a) 10% (b) 15% (c) 25% (d) 30%
8. How much abrasion damage to a synthetic fibre rope mean it must be discarded?
(a) Any sign of abrasion damage means it must be discarded
(b) 5% (c) 10% (d) 15%
9. How much rust can be allowed to build up on a wire line before it must be removed?
(a) none should be allowed
(b) small surface patches here and there are alright
(c) when any rust patch becomes so hard it cannot be scraped off with a pocket knife
(d) when there is continuous rust longer than an arms length
10. What is the minimum frequency in which synthetic lines should be end-for-ended?
(a) after every third mooring in which it has been used
(b) monthly (c) quarterly (d) annually
Answers
1. (a); 2. (c); 3. (c); 4. (b); 5. (a); 6. (d); 7. (b); 8. (c); 9. (a); 10. (c)

Appendix 2. Properties of wire and synthetic mooring lines
Steel wire lines, or cables
The standard steel wire line

Most standard marine wire mooring lines consist of a central solid core of flexible steel or
synthetic fibre, surrounded by an outer layer of six thinner wire lines. These six outer lines are
themselves each made up of either 36 or 41 thinner, individual lengths of solid wire line.
Fibre core Wire core
6 x 36 6 x 41 6 x 36 6 x 41
Fig. 20: Cross-sections of typical wire mooring cables
The different constructions and sizes of wire cables are described by the number of strands
and the number of wires in each strand. For example, a smaller 6 x 7 wire cable will consist of
six strands over a steel wire core, with each strand made up of seven wires (six wires twisted
around a central one).
Steel wire lines are usually galvanised to help prevent corrosion from seawater.
Wire cables with synthetic fibre cores are best suited to when the vessel being moored needs
smaller mooring lines which are easier to handle manually, such as if they need to be turned
up on bitts or bollards.
Wire cables with steel cores are best suited to larger vessels where the mooring cables will be
not be manhandled so much by crewmembers, but instead will be played out and taken in on a
storage drum winch. A steel core in a wire line provides it with greater strength and helps
reduce the effect of the crushing it receives as it is wound onto the drum and a possible
gradual reduction in its minimum breaking load (or MBL, explained below) which it can suffer
as a result of being bent around the drum (Fig. 21 shows the effect of a wire line being bent in
a winchs drum).
95 5
Percentage of original breaking strength
Percentage of original breaking strength
S
PE ES
RO RO
P
ED D
90 O RD R DE 10
LC CO
TE
E RE
S FIB Fig. 21: The loss of breaking load when
85 15 wire lines are bent around winch
drums or pulleys which have small
diameters.
80 20
75 25
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Bending ratio-drum or pulley/rope dia. ratio

Many new ships today are built with mooring lines, both wire and synthetic, stored and
terminated on self-tensioning winches, so making the use of mooring bitts unnecessary. This
arrangement has the added advantage of allowing just two crewmembers to form a mooring
party if necessary in some circumstances.
The language of steel wires

The manufacturers of wire mooring lines use their own terms and words, and knowing some of
these can help you understand how different types of wire line are made and what their
advantages are.
Size
The size of wire mooring line being used is usually referred to by the number of the smallest
individual wire lines which go into making up each of its six outer strands, for example, a 6 by
36, or a 6 by 41. These wire lines are made of different grades of steel, but are mainly either
145 kg/mm2 or, more often, the 180 kg/mm2 grade which combines better overall performance
with a high load tolerance. Wire cables such as these used for mooring are made in diameters,
or thickness, ranging from 22mm to 40mm.
Lay: the twisting of individual strands of wire, or of lines made up of many of them twisted
together to form an even thicker line.
Fig. 22: Three strands being intertwined in a

right-hand lay to form a bigger strand
which, in turn, will then be used with other
identical strands to make up a full-size
mooring line.
Ordinary lay: when the lay (or direction of twist) of the individual wires making up an outer,
bigger cable are twisted in the direction opposite to that in which the outer, bigger cable itself
is twisted.
Right or left hand lay: the direction the strands are twisted in around the central core.
Mooring lines supplied to vessels are usually right hand lay, unless the vessels owners or
Master specifies otherwise.

Fig. 23: A left-hand ordinary lay mooring line
(left) and a right-hand ordinary lay mooring line
(right).
Equal lay: when successive layers of wires are twisted over the preceding inner layers at the
same angle.
Fig. 24: Equal lay construction of a mooring

line. Size for size, mooring lines made of equal
lay are stronger than those made of cross lay
(see below), having up to 14% greater MBL (see
below) due to less spinning loss (see below),
while equal lay mooring lines also suffer less
internal wear than those made of cross lay.
Cross lay: when successive layers of wires are twisted over the preceding inner layers at
increasingly greater angles.
Fig. 25: Mooring lines made of cross lay

construction are more flexible than those
made of equal lay, but they are not as strong
and are more liable to internal wear and tear
because of the greater area of contact
between the different layers of coiling wires.
Langs lay: when the lay (or direction of twist) of the individual wires making up an outer,
bigger cable are twisted in the same direction in which the outer, bigger cable is twisted.
Langs lay is not suitable for making mooring lines.
Fig. 26: Although a line made up using Langs

lay is a stronger construction than ordinary lay
it has a tendency to untwist and come apart
more quickly, and so is unsuitable to be used
as a mooring line.

Minimum Breaking Load (MBL): The least load or weight at which the manufacturer
guarantees a wire mooring line will definitely part, having been established during tests at the
factory. However, a mooring line subjected to sudden or extreme additional marine and other
natural forces, such as wind and currents, can still snap apart when the vessel moored is less
than the lines MBL. New lines should always come with a certificate of MBL, which should be
consulted to understand its specification.
Aggregate Breaking Load (ABL): The sum total taken together of all the breaking loads of
each of the individual wires used to make one mooring line
Spinning loss: During the manufacture of wire mooring cables some of its strands suffer
damage and lose strength, so the real breaking point of a mooring cable is always less than its
stated ABL. The loss of strength is known as its spinning loss (as when all the individual strands
are being woven together, or spun)
Strand: The largest single element used in the final stage of the rope-making process, done by
the joining and twisting or braiding together several yarns or groups of yarns
Yield point: The point at which a mooring line experiences a very sharp increase in the stress
upon it as the load it is holding increases. It is at this point that a mooring line can suffer
distortion and damage.
Synthetic fibre lines, or ropes

In most vessels around the world, the use of synthetic fibre lines has now almost entirely
replaced that of natural fibre lines, both of which are still often referred to as ropes. There is
a wide range of synthetic fibre lines available, made of materials such as nylon, polypropylene
and polyester, and very often lines made of combinations of several different synthetic
materials.
With the use of synthetic lines so widespread it is important that mariners thoroughly
understand their different properties - the different advantages and disadvantages each may
have - as these can be very substantial. Understanding these differences could one day help
to prevent an accident.
Construction of synthetic lines

Synthetic lines generally are made up in one of two different forms of construction, or lays.
Synthetic lines are made in either a hawser lay or in plaited lay (sometimes also referred to
as braided).
Synthetic lines made of hawser lay are not in much use today because they can be prone to
kinking and are also stiff to handle. Instead, the most common constructions of synthetic fibre
lines are 8-strand plaited (sometimes called square braid), and double braid (sometimes
called braid on braid).

Fig. 27: Fig. 28: Fig. 29:
Hawser-laid rope mooring lines 8-strand, or square braid, uses This plaited inner line with
are seldom used now. a mix of right and left-hand lays a tight woven outer sheath
is almost unkinkable and is made of a different
very flexible. material is used for first
line ashore, or as spring,
head or breast lines.
Synthetic fibre lines are also available in a construction similar to wire lines, using six strands
of nylon wound around a solid nylon core. This construction, given nylons already high
strength, provides even an even greater MBL and lower elasticity than most other synthetic
lines of a comparable size.
Recently available are other new forms of constructions of synthetic lines, designed to provide
even greater strength and reduced elasticity and for use in very specific situations. The
manufacturers specifications for these specialised lines should always be checked to make
sure their properties and MBL are appropriate for the task you are planning.
Rope type Weight Typical breaking Typical extension

(kg/100m) load (tonnes) (at 50% breaking load)
Nylon 265 72 12%
Polyester 328 67 10%
Polypropylene 185 47 9%
Polyester/polypropylene 242 58 14%
HMPE 184 240 1%
Aramid 293 160 2.5%
6-strand nylon 245 81 16%
Table 9: Typical weight, breaking load and elasticity of an 8-strand plaited line of 64mm diameter
made out of different synthetic fibres, along with the results for a special 6-strand nylon line (note:
these figures are for a used line, as the extension for new lines would be much greater).

Diameter Nylon Polyester Polypropylene Polyester Aramid 6-strand
(mm) /Polypropylene Nylon
40 30 27 19 24 73 31
44 36 33 23 28 88 42
48 42 38 27 33 105 50
52 49 45 31 39 123 54
56 56 51 36 45 145 66
60 64 57 41 50 163 74
64 72 67 47 58 185 81
72 90 83 58 72 232 114
80 110 103 72 88 290 135
Table 10: Typical MBL in tonnes of 8-strand plaited lines and of a special 6-strand nylon line
Differences in synthetic fibre materials: learning your lines

The four most common materials from which synthetic mooring lines are made are nylon,
polyester, polypropylene, and a mixture of polyester and polypropylene. All have different
properties and handling characteristics and these are listed on the next few pages.
Nylon
This is the strongest of the conventional synthetic fibre rope materials. Nylon, also known by
its chemical name polyamide, has been widely used in marine mooring and towing lines since
the 1950s. It has the lowest stiffness modulus, and thus it is favoured where high extension is
very important. It is the strongest of the conventional synthetic fibres when dry. However,
when nylon ropes become wet they can lose up to 20% of their strength. Wet nylon can also
suffer loss of strength from creep and internal abrasion from repeated heavy loading, generally
resulting in shorter service life.
Good points: * very high strength even with sustained loading

* strong resistance to chemical attack from alkalis, oils and organic solvents
Bad points: * can be damaged by acids
* its high extension makes it no use for mooring vessels which need to be
kept very steady
Floats? No
Melts at: 250C
Polyester
This is the heaviest of the synthetic fibre rope materials. Polyester mooring lines are longer lasting
than nylon, and very strong polyester ropes are now being used which are made from newer
types of high-quality polyester fibres. Polyester ropes can be as strong as nylon when dry and do
not lose strength when wet. Polyester ropes are therefore becoming more favoured in many
conventional marine applications, and are good candidates for deep water mooring systems.
Good points: * lowest extension under load of all synthetic fibres (except for Aramid)
Bad points: * not as strong as nylon
* heavy
* can be attacked by alkalis

Floats? No
Melts at: 230 260 C
Polypropylene
Polypropylene ropes are no longer allowed to be used as mooring lines. This material is the
lightest of the synthetic fibre ropes and comes in different grades. Because it is lighter than
water, ropes made of polypropylene were often favoured for this reason, and also for their lower
cost. However, polypropylene is weaker than either nylon or polyester. Polypropylene rope can
heat up and lose strength during high-speed cyclic loading and may creep under high loads.
Due their ability to float, polypropylene ropes are considered ideal for use as messenger lines,
but they are not allowed by the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals for any
other mooring purposes.
Polypropylene and polyester yarns are sometimes combined in ropes. These hybrid ropes can
have strength and stiffness properties similar to those of all-polyester ropes but with lower
weight and cost, and they can have greater resistance to surface abrasion and heat build-up
than all-polypropylene ropes.
Good points: * resists chemical attack by acids, alkalis and oils

* Does not lose strength when wet
Bad points: * can be attacked by bleaching agents and some industrial solvents
Floats? Yes
Melts at: 170 C
Polyester/Polypropylene
This is the much lighter than polyester, but heavier than polypropylene and makes for a useful
general purpose line
Good points: * resists chemical attack by acids, alkalis and oils

* moderately light and moderately strong
* highest UV resistance of any synthetic fibre material
* good abrasion resistance
* good strength-to-weight ratio
Bad points: * not as light as polypropylene and not as strong as polyester or nylon
Floats? No
Melts at: 170 C
Aramid
This is the strongest of all the synthetic fibre materials, an extra-high modulus synthetic fibre,
and with the lowest extension. Aramid was the first high-performance fibre to be developed
and was introduced about 40 years ago. It was first used for mooring buoys, then later for deep
water platforms. Today it is used extensively for ships mooring systems particularly for sprint
and breast lines. Aramid fibres are made up of tiny crystal particles woven into individual
strands which are then woven into mooring lines. To illustrate its strength, the body armour
worn by policemen and soldiers is made of Aramid.

Good points: * exceptional strength, equal to steel
* good resistance to cuts
* resists chemical attack
* excellent strength-to-weight ratio
* highest resistance to heat of any synthetic fibre material
* hardly any creep
* does not rust
* does not need lubrication
* lighter and easier to handle by mooring gangs than wire lines
Bad points: * heavy
* not suitable for use in large braided or plaited lines
* expensive
* moderate-to-poor resistance to abrasion
* difficult to splice
* can suffer from fatigue leading to failure
* lighter and easier to handle by mooring gangs than wire lines
Floats? No
Melts at: 260 C
HMPE
High Modulus Polyethylene (HMPE) is almost as strong as Aramid. High modulus polyethylene
(HMPE) lines are made from a crystalline type of material similar to Aramid, although
chemically different. HMPE is nearly as strong as strong as Aramid, and it floats in water.
However, it has a relatively low melting point, and also has a tendency to creep and so can
break at sustained high loads. Nevertheless, HMPE does not suffer from axial compression
fatigue problems, has a low coefficient of friction, and has very good abrasion resistance. HMPE
is particularly highly resistant to acids, caustic soda, benzene and other aggressive materials
and contaminants.
Good points: * exceptional strength, equal to steel

* highest strength-to-weight ratio of any synthetic fibre
* highest abrasion resistance ratio of any synthetic fibre
* low stretch
* good fatigue resistance to tension, bending, abrasion and cuts
* resists chemical attack
* good flex fatigue resistance
Bad points: * low melt point
* more prone to damage than steel wires
* expensive
* susceptible to creep
Floats? Yes
Melts at: 150 C

Pros and cons between wire , HMPE and Aramid lines
Characteristics wire HMPE Aramid
Resists abrasion X X
Floats X X X
Cost X X
Easy to handle X
Life span X
Easy to maintain X
Manpower needed X
Mooring time X
Pollution risk X
Safety X
Easy to splice X
Stretch or elasticity X
Weight X
UV resistance
Table 11: Medium and large vessels can use a combination of both types of synthetic lines and also
wire lines for mooring, although such a mixture can make sometimes it much more difficult to work
out how best to set up and monitor the ships mooring system so as to effectively counteract the
forces working against it. The main problem with mixing the three different types of lines is their
very different levels of elasticity.
Newer high performance lines

Vectran, a liquid crystal aromatic polyester (LCAP), is a more recent type of high modulus line,
mostly being used at present by shore-based industries. It has better resistance to axial
compression fatigue and creep than Aramid, although it is also much more expensive than
either Aramid or HMPE. However, rope manufacturers are currently looking at ways of
producing less expensive LCAP lines for use in mooring.
Another new high-performance synthetic fibre which may soon come into service as mooring
lines is polybenzoxazole (PBO), which has recently been developed by the United States Air
Force. PBO is very, very expensive, although it has even higher strength and higher modulus
than any other high performance synthetic fibre, except for some very special, extremely high
modulus types of Aramid such as Kevlar 49.

Appendix 3. Case studies of mooring accidents
Case study 1: A damaged line costs a man his leg
The morning after Christmas Day the young port services officer at Freemantle Port in
Australia returned to duty after two days leave. While helping to supervise the mooring of a
liner trade vessel which plied between Asia and Australia, the eye of a mooring line gave
way while the vessels crew was applying tension to one of its stern lines. In less than a
fraction of a second, the remnant of the line attached to the bollard on the quay whipped
across to where the officer was standing and sliced almost right through his right leg just
below the knee, leaving it hanging on by a few scraps of sinew and skin. Although rushed to
hospital immediately, the young mans leg had to be amputated.
Later investigation revealed that the line had been previously damaged, but that no one had
thought to splice out the damaged section or to replace the line.
Case study 2: The officer said: Two ropes will be enough, but one parted and
sliced off his head
While mooring at a temporary berth before moving next day into its designated berth for
taking on cargo, the officer in charge of the ore carriers deck party gave the order to use
just two mooring lines to secure the vessel to its position, believing that as it was light in the
water without its cargo of aggregates, and with good weather and sea conditions, then just
the two lines would be sufficient.
However, he had failed to take into account two factors: firstly, that the tide was on the turn,
and quickly brought about a fast current; secondly, and more dangerously, nobody had
noticed that one of 8-strand conventional synthetic fibre mooring lines being used had been
reduced through abrasion by nearly one third of its diameter along a half-metre of its length.
This line should have been replaced if the damage had been spotted.
The effect of the current on the damaged line was to cause it to part without any warning,
giving the whiplashing length attached to the ship such speed and force that it struck the
officer, who was unfortunately standing in the lines snapback zone, and sliced off part of his
head, killing him instantly.
Case study 3: Nobody noticed the lines had become too tense
A container ship was unloading in an Alaskan port which is known to have a large rise and
fall of tide. The ship was suddenly hit by squalls which, despite it having run out extra
mooring lines, blew the vessel off the quay. The deck officer went forward with some crew
to adjust the lines. While he was standing on the mooring deck one of the lines parted and
whiplashed back, and before he could move out of the way it struck him in the head causing
severe injuries. Nobody had previously noticed any warning signs that some of the mooring
lines had been put under extreme tension when the squall shifted the vessel. If they had
realised the lines were so taut as to be dangerous then they should not have gone out on to
the mooring deck until the bow thruster had been started and was able to take some of the
weight off the ropes.

Case study 4: The chief put his foot in it and almost lost it
The crew of a tanker preparing to sail had been sent to stations and the vessel was singled
up while awaiting customs clearance. The last two lines on the foredeck were those
permanently stored on the windlass drums.
Customs clearance was received and the order given to let go forward. When the foredeck
crew tried to slack down the line on the starboard drum for letting go it would not do so. No
one had realised that the berth had been exposed to a heavy swell which had caused the
vessel to surge continually whilst alongside. The surging action had resulted in the mooring
rope on the starboard windlass drum becoming buried in itself. And so when someone went
to slacken down the line it jammed.
The chief officer attempted to pull the line clear. To do so he put his foot on the winch-
bearing A-frame support located forward of the starboard drum. The A-frame support was
close to the drum face, which had four flat bar stiffeners welded to it. The stiffeners passed
close to the support, creating a guillotine-like effect. When the drum suddenly began to
rotate the officers foot was caught in the machinery through the gap, and despite wearing
steel-capped safety boots he suffered severe injury to his toes. Fortunately, he was
immediately rushed to a hospital where extensive microsurgery managed to save his foot.
The ships winch drums were modified soon afterwards to prevent such an accident
happening again. Nevertheless, this shows the dangers of working too close to winches. The
accident would have been avoided if the chief officer had used some other way of freeing
the rope, which did not involve getting so close to the winchs machinery. One possible way
might have been to put a stopper on the mooring rope while continuing to veer, so using the
power of the winch to free the rope, but without it being necessary for anyone to be too
close to it.
Case study 5: Not securing the winch cost him his hand
While doing routine servicing of a hydraulic winch, an engineer was injecting a de-greasing
solution at 90 bar. Although he had switched the winch off at the controls, he had failed,
however, to disconnect the power supply completely. During the work on the internal
mechanics of the winch he inadvertently nudged the on circuit, setting the gears in motion.
His hand was crushed, and later had to be amputated.
The instruction manual for the winch would have specified that it should have been
completely disconnected from the power source before any work was undertaken on its
interior mechanical assembly.

Case study 6: A risk analysis can save a lot of later grief
A tanker was approaching an oil jetty, one which had been specifically designed for small
vessels, typical of many such jetties in South East Asia. The berth consisted of a central
section containing the loading arms, on either side of which was a mooring dolphin
connected to the berth by walkways.
The tanker manoeuvred alongside the berth in a light condition and without tug assistance.
Its forward draft was only 0.6 metres, and the wind was blowing onto the berth as the
Master made his approach into the current. As he stopped his vessel parallel to the berth,
the high windage forward caused the bows to fall off. The bow of the vessel entered the
space between the dolphin and the berth, coming to rest with the bow in contact with the
central section. To extricate himself the Mmaster put his engines astern and, in doing so, the
focsle railing caught one of the chicksands and severely damaged it.
This incident could have been avoided if a proper risk analysis of the mooring had been
made in advance. Had this been done then a decision might have been taken to ballast the
forward end of the tanker to reduce the windage and increase the grip of the forefoot in the
water, or if operational considerations made this impracticable, then the assistance of a tug
might have been considered. Repairs to the loading arm cost US$100,000. In a similar
incident another vessel demolished four chicksands, causing US$2million worth of damage.
Case study 7: Never assume anything during mooring operations
A 9,000 tonne vessel was manoeuvring alongside a berth under pilotage, but without tug
assistance. The intended berth was between another vessel and a floating pontoon. Two
head ropes were run ashore by the forward mooring boat. The Pilot then called in the stern
mooring boat to run the after back spring, since the tide was from ahead. However, before
this could be done, the vessel started to be set astern and the pilot instructed the stern
mooring boat to keep clear because he was about to use the main engines.
The vessel was manoeuvred ahead and the Pilot again called in the stern mooring boat.
However, there was some difficulty in securing the two head ropes ashore, and the vessel
started to drift astern again. Although the Pilot could not see the stern mooring boat he
assumed it was clear of his propellers and began to use the main engines again to
manoeuvre the vessel ahead.
The wash from the propellers caused the stern mooring boat to capsize, throwing its two
crewmen into the water. Fortunately, both men were wearing self-inflating life jackets and
managed to climb uninjured onto the floating pontoon.
This event demonstrates the need for good communications between all those involved in
mooring operations, and for always getting confirmation that something that should have
been done has indeed been done, such as that mooring boats are clear of the propellers
before the main engines are used. The accident also demonstrates the need for everyone
engaged in mooring operations to always wear an inflatable life-jacket.

With hindsight, it is probable in this case that if a single head rope could have been secured
quickly it would have enabled the vessel to be held against the tide without any further need
of the main engines
Case study 8: Watch that line!
A small harbour tug was acting as stern tug to a 920,000 tonne vessel which was
berthing in good weather and tidal conditions. In repositioning herself and passing
across the stern of the larger ship when the ship's engines were running ahead, the towline
came under very heavy load and quickly reached an angle of 90o to the fore and aft lines,
causing the tug to capsize within seconds. Both crewmembers on the tug drowned.
Case study 9: When patching up can kill
A small tug was towing a barge at the approaches to a pier off the west coast of Ireland.
The crew of the tug had used an old car tyre to join two lengths of rope to form a longer tow
line. During the tow the tug accelerated, causing the tow line to part where it was tied to the
tyre. The part of the line still attached to the tyre whiplashed back towards the barge, where
it struck and killed a crewman standing at its bow.
Case study 10: Out of sight, out of mind then dead
While assisting with the berthing of a tanker, a tugs tow rope was led from its towing hook
to the centreline at the stern of the tanker. A bridle wire was led from a winch through a
swivel block, located at the stern of the tug, to a saddle attachment positioned around the
tow rope.
The mooring manoeuvres reached a stage when the use of the bridle arrangement was no
longer needed, and two of the tugs crew left the wheelhouse to get ready to retrieve the
bridle wire. One of them went to the after working deck and stood between the leads of the
tow rope and the bridle wire. When the bridle wire was slackened, done from a control
position in the wheelhouse, the slackening caused the saddle attachment to slide very
quickly down the tow rope which, in turn, caused the bridle wire to hit the crewman, killing
him instantly.
This event demonstrates the importance of making sure that all those engaged in mooring
operations should be clearly visible to whoever is in charge, or that they are in
communication with the supervisor. In this case, the dead man had been in a position on the
after working deck which was out of sight of both the Tugmaster and the bridle wire winch
operator at their control positions in the wheelhouse.

Case study 11: Only six minutes from disaster
A 10,000 tonne cargo vessel was being towed upriver at 5 knots at night to its discharge
berth by two tugs when they came into an unexpected fog bank. The river was narrow and
the bow and stern towlines were each only 30 metres long. In the fog the vessels Master
and the Skippers of both tugs all became disorientated by lights on the river bank on each
side. During the confusion, to avoid hitting each other and with the danger of running
aground or the towlines girting the tugs, all three vessels each took their own independent
actions. However, within six minutes all three vessels had collided with each other.
At the later inquiry the reasons for the disaster were found to be complex, but at the heart
of the accident was found to be a fundamental failure of communications between all three
skippers and the pilot on board the towed vessel, as well as a very praiseworthy reluctance
by the two tug skippers to immediately slip their towlines at the first hint of trouble because
they wanted to try to save their tow from grounding.
An important lesson learned from this event was that during towing operations good
communications between everyone involved is vital especially in case weather and
visibility conditions worsen.

NOTES

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Safe Mooring Practice

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THE MOORING SERIES Edition 2:

The Theory of Mooring

Author: Sean Gallagher

Tel: +44 (0)20 7299 1800

The Theory of Mooring

CONSULTANTS: TOBY DEAN

COPYRIGHT Videotel 2004

1. How to use this training package 1

3. Safe mooring practice 16

4. Maintenance of mooring systems 46

5. Further information and reading 55

Appendix 1: Assessment quizzes 56

Appendix 2: Performance and characteristics of mooring lines 61

Appendix 3: Case studies of mooring accidents 70

1.1 Who this training package is aimed at

Parts of the package

1.2 How to use this Guide and the programmes

Learning the training material

1 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

1.3 Preparing a training session

1.4 Running a training session

Getting their full attention

Examples of accidents which have happened during mooring

Showing the programmes

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 2

Practical training on deck

How much information does the group need?

Checking everyone has understood: three assessment quizzes

3 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

2.1 Primary forces and factors affecting mooring

the ships own manoeuvres, if it is still underway

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 4

Calculating the forces

Transverse forces Longitudinal forces

5 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

Surge, waves and swell

Cargo and ballast

Other factors affecting mooring

2.2 Mooring lines

steel wire, with a core of more steel or of synthetic fibre

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 6

Strength and elasticity

Wire mooring lines

Synthetic mooring lines

7 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

Understanding elasticity, length, dip and bend

The Dip effect

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 8

The Bend effect

T2 = Theoretical max. loading

T1 = Holding power of winch

Can you mix your lines?

9 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

Same size & > 50T

The best solution

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 10

Performance and characteristics of mooring lines

Check with the port

Render and heave

11 SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES

SAFE MOORING PROCEDURES 12

Brake holding power

Non-split drum winches

Layers of mooring line on drum Brake holding capacity