Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vol 15 No 7 - June 2016
Vol 15 No 7 - June 2016
Vol 15 No 7 - June 2016
ORG
International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
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Vol.15 No.7
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VOLUME 15 NUMBER 7 June 2016
Table of Contents
Special Education Administrators Perceptions of Responsibilities and Challenges .................................................... 1
Juanell D. Isaac, Teresa M. Starrett, and Jane B. Pemberton
The Impact on Absence from School of Rapid Diagnostic Testing and Treatment for Malaria by Teachers .......... 20
Andrew John Macnab, Sharif Mutabazi, Ronald Mukisa, Atukwatse M. Eliab, Hassan Kigozi and Rachel Steed
Theory of Planned Behavior: Sensitivity and Specificity in Predicting Graduation and Drop Out among College
and University Students ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
Catherine S. Fichten, Rhonda Amsel, Mary Jorgensen, Mai N. Nguyen, Jillian Budd, Alice Havel, Laura King, Shirley
Jorgensen and Jennison Asuncion
Integrating Educational Modules for Children with Chronic Health and Dental Issues: Premise for Community-
based Intervention Framework in Developing Country ................................................................................................ 78
Ma. Cecilia D. Licuan, PTRP, MAE, Ph.D.
Using Debate to Teach: A Multi-skilling Pedagogy Often Neglected by University Academic Staff ..................... 110
David Onen
Constructivism- Linking Theory with Practice among Pre-Service Teachers at the University of Trinidad and
Tobago .................................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Leela Ramsook and Marlene Thomas
Pupil Perception of Teacher Effectiveness and Affective Disposition in Primary School Classrooms in Botswana
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Molefhe, Mogapi and Johnson, Nenty
1
Introduction
Researchers have attempted to define the role of the special education
administrator over the past 50 years by looking at their responsibilities and the
challenges they faced (Kohl & Marro, 1971; Marro & Kohl, 1972; Hebert & Miller,
1985; Arick & Krug, 1993; Wigle & Wilcox, 2002; Thompson & OBrian, 2007). In
1971, Kohl and Marro conducted the first national study concerning special
education administrators. This study provided a baseline of information
regarding responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators in
areas such as program administration and supervision, organizational
characteristics and programming elements, and selected administrative opinions
(Marro & Kohl, 1972). Have the responsibilities and challenges of special
education administrators significantly changed since that time?
Methodology
The participants for this study included special education administrators
from school districts in the state of Texas. The population sample came from the
2013-2014 Texas Council of Administrators of Special Education (TCASE)
Directory consisting of special education administrators from rural, suburban,
and urban districts. Additionally, the TCASE Directory includes twenty
Regional Education Service Center (ESC) Directors who oversee staff
development and provide support to special education administrators within
their regions. The Regional ESC Directors were excluded from the population
sample since they are not directly responsible to a school district or educational
cooperative. A total of 515 special education administrators in the state of Texas
were contacted in 2014 via e-mail to solicit input regarding the background
characteristics, responsibilities and challenges of the special education
administrator utilizing a survey.
A non-experimental research design was utilized through survey
methodology to describe perceptions of special education administrators
responsibilities and challenges. A comparative study was conducted between
special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban districts.
The survey was modeled after the first national study of special
education administrators in public schools conducted by Kohl and Marro (1971).
In the final report by Kohl and Marro (1971), suggestions were made for further
investigations to enhance the knowledge pool regarding special education
Results
Of the special education administrators responding to the survey, 61.2%
were from rural school districts, 27.6% from suburban and 11.2% from urban. Of
those, 73% listed employment as the local school district, while 23.7% showed an
education cooperative unit. The remaining administrators indicated a shared
services agreement, countywide school district, State School for the Deaf and
State School for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Approximately 91% of the
special education administrators were non-Hispanic or Latino and White with
85.5% of the special education administrators being female. Those responding
overwhelmingly held a masters degree and additional courses (65.1%) or a
doctoral degree (18.4%). The majority of the individuals held mid-
management/principal certification (77.6%) while the second most common
certification was that of special education teacher (73.7%). Twenty-four special
education administrators (15.8%) had no administrative certification. Seventy-
five percent of special education administrators without administrative
certification came from rural school districts, 16.7% came from suburban school
districts, and 8.3% from urban school districts.
Responses from special education administrators were analyzed to
determine the level of importance for 39 statements of responsibility using a 5-
point Likert scale and the level of challenge for the same statements using a 4-
point Likert scale. Table 1 identifies the special education administrators mean
average for the perceived level of importance for each responsibility statement to
effectively manage the special education program. Table 2 identifies the mean
average for the perceived level of challenge for implementing that responsibility.
Standard deviations were included for each responsibility and level of challenge.
Each table provides the category of each responsibility and the responsibility
statement. The responsibility statements are ranked from the most essential to
the least important in level of responsibility and from the most substantial to the
least in level of challenge. Responsibilities and level of challenges that showed a
significant difference between special education administrators in rural,
suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas are noted in bold print
and starred.
Special Education Administrators Level of Responsibility
The top three responsibilities considered most essential were in the area
of policy development: (a) knowledge of federal and state special education law,
(b) implements the policies established by federal and state law, State Board of
Education rules, and the local board policy in the area of special education, and
(c) knowledge of state level assessment procedures and requirements (Table 1).
The responsibilities that were considered the least important involved
personally providing direct service to students with disabilities and evaluation
of special education and general education staff. The majority of special
education administrators (63.8%) did not consider the responsibility of
personally providing direct service to students with disabilities as applicable to
them. A higher percentage of special education administrators from rural
(19.4%) and suburban (11.9%) school districts considered this very important to
essential when compared to special education administrators from urban school
districts (5.9%). This may imply that special education administrators do not
consider personally providing direct services to students with disabilities a
special education administrators from suburban school districts and 28.0% from
rural school districts.
Challenges Faced by Special Education Administrators
Of the 39 responsibilities special education administrators were asked to
identify the level of challenge, collaboration between general education and
special education from the program development category was considered the
highest ranked level of challenge followed by two responsibilities in the budget
category: compiling budgets and cost estimates based upon documented
program needs and ensuring that programs are cost effective and funds are
managed prudently. The lowest rated challenges were personally providing
direct service to students with disabilities from the staffing category and two
responsibility statements from the evaluation of staff category: evaluates
secretarial and/or clerical staff and evaluates special education teachers on
campuses through the designated teacher appraisal system.
Three responsibility statements showed a significant difference between
rural, suburban, and urban school districts regarding the level of challenge as
perceived by special education administrators. Two of the responsibility
statements were from the program development category: collaboration between
general education and special education and demonstrates skill in conflict
resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community. Special
education administrators from suburban school districts (90.4%) considered
collaborating between general education and special education as either
somewhat of a challenge (45.2%) or a substantial challenge (45.2%) compared to
special education administrators in rural (37.6%; 37.6%) or urban (35.3%; 17.6%)
school districts. Special education administrators in suburban school districts
(54.8%) considered demonstrating skill in conflict resolution with
administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community somewhat of a challenge
(28.6%) or a substantial challenge (26.2%) compared to 51.6% of special
education administrators in rural school districts (37.6%; 14.0%) and 29.4% of
special education administrators in urban school districts (29.4%; .0%). This may
be due to the level of experience portrayed by special education administrators
in larger or urban school districts.
The final responsibility statement that showed a significant difference in
level of challenge between rural, suburban, and urban school districts was
contracting with outside providers of special services for students with
disabilities in the staffing category. The majority of special education
administrators from urban school districts (35.3%) did not consider contracting
with outside providers of special services a challenge while 11.9% of special
education administrators from suburban school districts and 7.5% of special
education administrators from rural school districts did not consider the
responsibility a challenge. The majority of special education administrators from
suburban (42.9%) and rural (35.5%) school districts considered the responsibility
somewhat of a challenge compared to only 23.5% of special education
administrators from urban school districts. This may be due to the availability
of contract providers in smaller districts. Related service personnel may be more
difficult to acquire to provide services for students with disabilities in smaller
districts without a substantial cost to the school district.
Table 1: Continued.
Level of
Type Responsibility Responsibility
M SD
PRD Creates supportive and safe learning environments 4.24 1.17
EOS Evaluates secretarial/clerical staff 4.16 0.91
Consults with parents regarding the evaluation and
PRD 4.11 1.04
placement of their children
Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas
PRD 4.07 0.83
and information to other professionals
Assists with alignment of student goals with standards-
PRD 4.07 1.18
based goals
Articulates the districts mission and goals in the area of
PRD special education to the community and solicits its 4.07 1.02
support in realizing the mission
Participates in the development of district goals and
POD 4.05* 1.03
objectives
Selection of instructional materials used in special
PRD 4.02 0.99
education program
Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping
PRD 4.01* 1.09
of facilities for students with disabilities
Consults with teachers regarding the evaluation and
PRD 3.97 1.07
placement of their students
Maintains a current inventory of supplies and equipment;
BGT recommends the replacement and disposal of equipment, 3.96 0.88
when necessary
Facilitates/promotes the use of technology in the
PRD 3.90 0.91
teaching-learning process
Evaluates itinerant staff (i.e. VI teacher, counselor, special
EOS 3.81 1.39
education nurse)
Participates in committee meetings to ensure the
PRD appropriate placement and development of individual 3.71 1.14
education plans for students with disabilities
Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with
PRD 3.66 1.46
administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community
Attends school board meetings regularly and makes
POD 3.45 1.22
presentations to the school board
Assists in general education walk-throughs and/or
EOS 2.84 1.46
evaluations
Evaluates special education teachers on campuses through
EOS 2.53 1.64
the designated teacher appraisal system
Personally provides direct service to students with
STA 1.89 1.35
disabilities (including teaching and/or assessment)
*p = <.05
Level of Responsibility:
1 = Not Applicable; 2 = Not Important; 3 = Somewhat Important; 4 = Very Important; 5
= Essential
BGT = Budget; EOS = Evaluation of Staff; POD = Policy Development; PRD =
Professional Development; STA = Staffing
Table 2: Continued.
Level of
Type Responsibility Challenge
M SD
Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with
PRD 2.43* 1.01
administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community
Maintains a current inventory of supplies and equipment;
BGT recommends the replacement and disposal of equipment, 2.40 0.94
when necessary
Selection of instructional materials used in special
PRD 2.36 0.84
education program
Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas and
PRD 2.34 0.89
information to other professionals
Provides access to appropriate materials needed for
PRD 2.32 0.86
instruction
Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping of
PRD 2.28 0.90
facilities for students with disabilities
Policy Development
Knowledge of federal and state special education law 7.61 6 .268
Knowledge of state level assessment procedures and
9.70 6 .138
requirements
Implements the policies established by federal and state
law, State Board of Education rules, and the local board 23.22 9 .006*
policy in the area of special education
Recommends and consults on policies to improve
programs that impact students with disabilities 50.55 12 .001*
Participates in the development of district goals and
61.35 12 .001*
objectives
Attends school board meetings regularly and makes
60.08 12 .001*
presentations to the school board
Table 3: Continued.
Program Development X2 df Sig.
Consults with teachers regarding the evaluation and
placement of their students 50.41 9 .001*
Consults with parents regarding the evaluation and
39.07 12 .001*
placement of their children
Discusses special education programs, personnel, and
students with building administrators 9.23 6 .161
Participates in committee meetings to ensure the
appropriate placement and development of individual 53.33 12 .001*
education plans for students with disabilities
Ensures that student progress is evaluated on a regular,
systematic basis, and the findings are used to make the 45.21 9 .001*
special education program more effective
Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping
of facilities for students with disabilities 72.67 12 .001*
Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas
and information to other professionals 24.93 12 .015*
Facilitates/promotes the use of technology in the
teaching-learning process 70.59 9 .001*
Provides access to appropriate materials needed for
instruction 27.50 9 .001*
Encourages the use of effective, research-based
instructional strategies 38.30 9 .001*
Creates supportive and safe learning environments
69.71 12 .001*
Assists with alignment of student goals with standards-
based goals 105.26 12 .001*
Collaboration between general education and special
education 105.11 9 .001*
Encourages the use of assessment to inform instruction
75.51 9 .001*
Selection of instructional materials used in special
education program 53.38 12 .001*
Articulates the districts mission and goals in the area of
special education to the community and solicits its 59.08 12 .001*
support in realizing the mission
Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with
administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community 163.21 9 .001*
*p < .05
Discussion
Findings from this study reveal minimal diversity in gender, ethnicity,
and race among special education administrators with the majority of special
education administrators being female, Non-Hispanic or Latino and White.
Compared to previous studies there has been no change in ethnicity or racial
composition of special education administrators yet there has been a significant
change in gender from previous studies. In the study by Kohl and Marro (1971),
75% of special education administrators were male and 25% were female. Arick
and Krug (1993) reported a larger percentage of male (65.5%) special education
directors than female (34.5%) as did Wigle and Wilcox (2002) with 53% of the
special education directors being male and 47% female. There were an equal
number of males and females as special education administrators in a study by
Thompson and OBrian (2007). Thompson and OBrian (2007) identified no
diversity in racial composition in their study since all participants were Non-
Hispanic and White.
The minimal degree held by special education administrators in the
current study was a masters degree with 18.4% of special education
administrators holding a doctorate degree. Due to the mandatory legislation
and the complexity of special education there is a need for highly competent and
trained administrators in the areas of special education (Forgnone & Collings,
1975). In a study by Thompson and OBrian (2007), 7.5% of 67 special education
administrators had a master's degree, 55.2% had a masters degree with
additional graduate credit, and 32.8% had a doctorate degree. Compared to the
current study, a higher percentage of special education administrators held
doctorate degrees in the Thompson and OBrian (2007) study.
The current study reflects an increase in special education administrators
with general education administrator certification and special education teacher
certification compared to previous studies. Kohl and Marro (1971) identified
43.5% of special education administrators as having a general administrator
certification, 32.0% having a special education administrator certification and
37.6% having a special education teacher certification. Arick and Krug (1993)
reported 58.3% of special education administrators having certification in special
education administration and 64.0% in special education teacher certification.
Special education administrators in the state of Texas are not required to have a
special education administration certification which may account for the
increased number in general education administration certification. State
certification requirements are one way to ensure that special education
administrators are adequately prepared as their job responsibilities increase and
become more diverse (Prillaman & Richardson, 1985).
Knowledge and implementation of federal and state special education
law at the local level continues to be a top priority for special education
administrators, as well as, a challenge. The findings in the current study support
the work by Nevin (1979) who noted interpretation of state and federal laws was
an essential competency and Prillaman and Richardson (1985) who espoused the
importance of special education administrators being able to interpret outcomes
of court cases and translating law into local policy and practice. As noted by
Tate (2010) the importance of having a good background knowledge of special
education law cannot be undermined. Thompson and OBrian (2007) reported
that legal issues were a difficult aspect of being a special education
administrator, which reflects the importance of having knowledge of federal and
state special education law, which was the highest rated challenge in the policy
development category.
Interestingly, the responsibility that was considered the least essential
and less of a challenge in the area of policy development was attending school
board meetings regularly and making presentations to the school board. In the
current study, 19.7% of special education administrators considered attending
Conclusion
Though the face of the special education administrator has changed from
primarily male to female, there are some facets of being a special education
administrator that has remained the same. Policy development which
encompasses knowledge and implementation of federal and state law
concerning special education continues to be the primary responsibility for
special education administrators. However, there is an increased number of
special education administrators who are involved in the development of
policies at the local level.
The importance of collaboration between general education and special
education continues to be a very important to essential responsibility but
somewhat of a challenge for special education administrators. Interestingly,
there appears to be a decrease in the evaluation of special education staff at the
campus level by the special education administrator and personally providing
direct service to students with disabilities as the importance of administrative
responsibilities have increased such as compiling budgets and legal issues.
Overall, as the level of responsibility has increased for special education
administrators, the level of challenge has increased.
Differences were noted in level of responsibility and level of challenge
for special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school
districts. A higher percentage of special education administrators in suburban
school districts considered collaboration between general education and special
education an essential responsibility when compared to rural and urban school
districts. Contracting with outside providers of special services was a greater
responsibility and challenge for special education administrators from rural and
suburban school districts than special education administrators from urban
school districts. Special education administrators from suburban and urban
school districts are more concerned about monitoring staff caseloads than special
education administrators from rural school districts. Special education
administrators from urban school districts were more involved in the
development of district goals and objectives than rural and suburban school
districts while a greater percentage of special education administrators from
rural and suburban school districts had more responsibilities for program
development than special education administrators from urban school districts.
A higher percentage of special education administrators from suburban school
districts considered demonstrating skill in conflict resolution with
administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and the community as a substantial
challenge when compared to rural and urban special education administrators.
It is clear that the role of the special education administrator requires
diversified skills to meet the responsibilities and challenges that are faced today.
It is essential for todays special education administrator to have a clear
understanding of federal and state special education law for the implementation
of special education programs. One of the challenges for the future will be to
increase the diversity of special education administrators.
Limitations and Future Research
There were limited research studies that involved responsibilities and
challenges of special education administrators. Reviews of literature noted the
lack of research available (Finkenbinder, 1981; Crockett, Becker, & Quinn, 2009).
The length of data collection for survey responses covered a two week
period. Most responses occurred within six hours of notification. This was
applicable to the initial notification and the two reminders seeking participation
in the study.
Use of an electronic survey may have excluded some special education
administrators from participation in this study. Though all special education
administrators on the TCASE list had access to e-mail, some may prefer a pencil
and paper format as opposed to an electronic format. Establishing rapport with
an individual is more difficult through an electronic format, which may have
resulted in reduction of respondents.
The sample population was limited to special education administrators
within the state of Texas. Therefore, results may not be generalized across other
states but only representative of the population in the state of Texas.
Future research is needed to identify the difference between actual
responsibilities of special education administrators and job descriptions. Are
there factors that influence a special education administrators contract days
such as a difference between responsibilities during the school year and during
the summer? Additionally, factors should be identified that influence a special
education administrators decision to remain in the field of special education or
leave the field of education.
References
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Rachel Steed
Hillman Medical Education Fund
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Introduction
Malaria is the principal reason why a child will be absent from school where
the disease is endemic and the main reason a school-aged child will die in
sub-Saharan Africa. The burden of malaria and negative impact on education is
greatest amongst children in low resource settings and rural areas (Brooker, et al.,
2000; Jukes, et al., 2008; Kimbi, et al., 2005). The duration of malaria-related
absence from school, frequency of absence due to repeated infection, compromise
to learning due to residual malaise after sub-optimal treatment or when
permanent neurological complications occur with falciparum malaria all
negatively impact childrens education (Kihara, et al., 2006; Kimbi, et al., 2005;
Snow, et al., 2003). To minimize the adverse effects (morbidity) of malaria the
WHO advocates early, accurate diagnosis of infection and prompt, effective
treatment within 24 hours of the onset of illness (WHO, 2014).
Schools promoting health using the WHO Health Promoting School (HPS)
model provide opportunities within the formal curriculum to improve
knowledge and conduct a range of activities to educate pupils about healthy
practices (Macnab, et al., 2013; St Leger, et al., 2009; WHO, 1997). But, while
many schools in Africa do this in the context of malaria (Macnab, et al.; 2014), the
impact of such programs is limited because it is difficult to make a diagnosis of
malaria as symptoms are not specific, and diagnostic blood tests are often not
readily available. In addition, a lack of knowledge about appropriate treatment
and limited access to care in the community commonly contribute to malaria
morbidity (Kallander, et al., 2004). Hence, simple, accurate and inexpensive
diagnostic tools and wider availability of effective therapy are recognized as
urgently needed to reduce the impact of this disease on children (Mutabingwa,
2005).
The combined use of Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) kits to diagnose malaria
with administration of Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) in those
testing positive meets this need. RDT/ACT use has improved the accuracy of
diagnosis and efficacy of treatment for malaria, but deployment of RDT and ACT
has been slow, especially in low resource settings. This is because the social
engagement necessary to spread the knowledge that this approach is effective
and make it accessible to rural populations has been missing (Mutabingwa, 2005).
Our hypothesis was that if school-based rapid diagnostic testing for malaria by
teachers was made available, all sick children usually sent home with a
presumed infectious illness would be screened using RDT, and be given ACT
when they tested positive. Educational benefit would accrue from a significant
reduction in days absent from school; less absence being a surrogate measure for
reduced morbidity from malaria. Also, in addition to improving school
attendance, better health outcomes should translate into an enhanced ability to
learn and better educational attainment in the long-term. An improvement in
childrens knowledge and community practices related to malaria would be a
secondary outcome.
Importantly, RDT kits are now available in Uganda and the feasibility of using
them has been demonstrated in rural clinics (Guthmann, J, et al., 2002; Kilian, et
al., 1999), and most recently in shops selling medicines (Mbonye, et al., 2010).
However, training low cadre health care workers, including school nurses, to use
these simple kits has not been done. Artemisinin-based combination therapy has
been adopted as a first line treatment for malaria, but while village health
workers have been taught home-based management of fever and ACT
administration, school nurses have not been trained comparably (Presidents
Malaria Initiative, 2005).
Malaria RDT kits provide a diagnosis in minutes by detecting the presence of
malaria parasites in human blood. RDT kits vary, but the principles of how they
work are similar (WHO, 2015; Wongsrichanalai, et al., 2007). Most are packaged
for individual use and include a lancet to obtain blood from a finger-prick. A
drop of blood from a potentially infected individual is put onto a strip of
nitro-cellulose housed in a plastic cassette to test for the presence of specific
proteins (antigens) produced by malaria parasites. If malaria antigens are
present, they bind to the dye-labeled antibody in the kit, forming a visible
complex in the results window. A control line confirms the integrity of the
antibody-dye conjugate. The sensitivity and specificity of RDTs are such that they
can replace conventional testing for malaria (Abba, et al., 2011; Murray, et al.,
2008).
ACTs are the best anti-malarial drugs available nowadays, and the first-line
therapy for P. falciparum malaria recommended by WHO for use worldwide
since 2001 (International Artemisinin Study Group, 2004; Malaria Consortium,
2016; WHO, 2016). Natural Artemisinin is sourced from Artemesia annua; the
herb, native to China, has a long-standing reputation for efficacy in treating
fevers; Artemisinin is now also made synthetically. ACTs combine Artemisinin,
which kills the majority of parasites within a few hours at the start of treatment,
with a partner drug of a different class with a longer half-life, which eliminates
the remaining parasites (Benjamin, J, et al., 2012). Several preparations combining
these two components in a single fixed-dose tablet are now available. Benefits of
ACTs include high efficiency, fast action, few adverse effects and the potential to
lower the rate at which resistance emerges and spreads; to make best use of ACT
issues related to access, delivery and cost have to be addressed (Malaria
Consortium, 2016).
Since 2006 we have used the WHO Health Promoting School (HPS) model to
engage communities in rural Uganda and deliver low cost health education in
schools (Kizito, et al., 2014; Macnab & Kasangaki, 2012; Macnab, et al., 2014).
From dialogue with teachers in these communities we learned that absence from
school due to malaria is high and most children sent home due to febrile illness
do not subsequently access clinics where RDT/ACT are used, due to factors
including distance, cost, and lack of awareness of the importance of treatment.
Hence the logic of our initiative to offer school communities teacher training and
support to enable school-based RDT and ACT to be provided. The incentive for
teachers was the potential to improve the education of their pupils by reducing
the length of time they are absent from school due to malaria, and decrease the
negative impact that sub-optimal management of this disease is known to have
on childrens ability to learn.
This intervention was designed as a logical and medically expedient response
to the concern voiced by teachers in Uganda. However, the same barriers to
childhood education exist worldwide where malaria is endemic, hence the broad
relevance of the health promotion model we describe, particularly for schools
serving children in rural resource-poor settings.
Methodology/Approach
This initiative was delivered as a community outreach project conducted in 4
newly established health promoting schools by the Health and Development
Agency (HEADA) Uganda. HEADA is a non-governmental agency funded by
the Hillman Medical Education Fund to implement comprehensive health
education, treatment, and support programs in Western Uganda. The project
employed the principles of participatory action research and followed
recommended steps for achieving participation and trust in communities
engaged in health promotion. Action research is problem-centered,
community-based and action-oriented. It is an interactive process that
co-develops programs with the people who use them and balances collaborative
problem-solving action(s) with data collection and validation of efficacy (Baum,
et al., 2006). Community trust comes via conscientious dialogue, synergistic
engagement, joint decision-making, and feedback that shares what does and does
not work (Laverack & Mohammadi, 2011; Macnab, et al., 2014b). Figure 1
summarizes the steps taken to implement this project.
In the school communities dialogue established how absence from school due
to malaria has a negative impact on the education of a large number of pupils.
The teachers described that their current practice was to send children home who
were sick or had fever; they assume many have malaria but it is left to the parents
to decide whether action to diagnose or treat their child occurs. Many children
are absent for more than a week, and often those returning clearly remain unwell
and unable to participate fully in class for several days, or even weeks.
keeping; needle safety and waste disposal techniques; and post exposure
prophylaxis standard operating procedures and access to anti-retroviral therapy
in case of accidental needle pricks. Practical competency was evaluated and a
post-test administered. A refresher course was given in Year 2.
The RDT kits used were: Malaria Ag pan/Pf Malaria test kits Malarascan
(Zephyr Biomedical Systems) which targets HRP2 and Pan Aldolase of
Plasmodium falciparum and other less common Plasmodium species (P. vivax,
and P. ovale); sensitivity (96.3%) and specificity (98%) are high.
In Year 2 the protocol added screening with RDT for malaria and treatment of
those testing positive with ACT by the trained teachers. A single dose ACT
preparation was used rather than the conventional 3-day 12 hourly regimen to
ensure a full course of treatment was completed; this was to avoid the potential
for partial treatment bias if any of the five additional doses that would have had
to be given at home were missed. The ACT chosen was Arco
(Artemisinin-Napthoquine) (Midas Care Uganda, Ltd). The drug was given with
milk or juice to aid tolerance and taken under teacher supervision. Children were
observed for at least 1 hour for side effects; the protocol called for another dose to
be given if vomiting occurred.
Throughout the 2-year intervention HEADA and representatives from the 4
communities maintained dialogue to sustain the program and promote new
knowledge about malaria and encourage behavioral change community wide. In
the schools, this involved the core approaches of the WHO HPS model (Macnab,
2013): classroom education to increase knowledge and school-based activities to
develop practices and behaviors that benefited the children in the context of
malaria. Assessment of childrens knowledge preceded these activities and
post-intervention assessment followed for comparison. In the community
HEADA provided feedback via workshops on the conduct and efficacy of the
school-based intervention.
Results
Four primary schools were engaged in geographically separate low resource
rural settings in south-western Uganda; Bwizibwera Town School, Rutooma
Modern, Kaguhanzya Primary and Ruhunga Primary. Ninety kilometers
separated the 4 schools; a motorcycle and fuel costs were included in the budget;
HEADA staff travelled more than 20,000 km in the course of coordinating the
project. Total pupil enrollment was 1764 in Year 1 and 1774 in Year 2 across
classes primary 1 7.
Community-based dialogue (May September 2013) led to the collaborative
decision to introduce school-based teacher-administered RDT and ACT. Quotes
from Head Teachers include 1) This is exactly what we need, testing and
treating malaria at school. We are ready to collaborate. 2) Our children suffer
from fever and malaria, but we send them home where they are given local herbs
and paracetamol. Malaria affects childrens brains and ability to learn; it is a great
opportunity for us to be trained to prevent this from continuing to happen. 3)
Our teachers are enthusiastic about being involved in testing and treating
children after they have undergone training. Our School Board Chairman has
endorsed the idea. We are grateful for this initiative.
Baseline assessment, logistic planning, teacher training and inquiry of how sick
children sent home were managed by parents took place in Year 1 (September
2013 - August 2014), and RDT/ACT intervention with ongoing evaluation
followed in Year 2 (September 2014 - August 2015). This allowed a 2-year
evaluation where pre and post intervention data were collected over comparable
3 term periods during 2 consecutive school years, recognizing the seasonal nature
of malaria.
Childrens knowledge and awareness about malaria causation, transmission,
prevention, diagnosis and management were assessed in classroom sessions.
Pre-intervention, less than 20% of children knew mosquitos transmitted the
disease, the relevance of bed nets as a preventive measure, how diagnosis is
made and the importance of prompt and effective treatment. By Year 2
essentially 100% of children had a comprehensive grasp of these facts, knew the
symptoms and signs of probable infection and how to access appropriate
diagnosis and treatment.
Inquiry by anonymous questionnaire established that all teachers except one
wanted to be trained to do RDT for malaria, and all would administer ACT and
agree to take on the responsibility and additional work of evaluating sick
children as per the action protocol. The schools calculated that each needed 2
trained staff to conduct the duties required; one as the primary evaluator and one
to be available as back up throughout the intervention. A total of 11 teachers were
trained in interactive workshops over 2 years; performance at school and
refresher course evaluation confirmed all had good knowledge retention and
practical competency. Safe waste disposal was ensured by use of sharps boxes
for used blood lancets and biohazard bags. No adverse events requiring
anti-retroviral treatment occurred; every 50th positive RDT was checked by a
laboratory and all proved accurate.
Figure 2.
Management by parents of a subset of 104 febrile children with symptoms compatible
with malaria after they had been sent home from school.
In Year 1 the management of 104 febrile, sick children was evaluated once they
were sent home from school. All had symptoms compatible with malaria,
however, parental management of the majority was not in keeping with WHO
Pre-intervention Year 1
Children (total) 1764
Age range / years 5-13
Gender M/F % 49/51
Schools Bwizibwera Rutooma Ruhunga Kaguhanzya
Children by school. 412/424 451/451 189/185 712/715
Year at start/at end
Sick/sent home Total 953
Sick/per school 221 200 218 314
Sick/per term
Tested RDT n/a
Positive RDT n/a
MALARIA
Positive vs Negative n/a
RDT
Treated ACT n/a
Absence (Days) Sick 6.5 (3.17) 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.6
sent home TOTAL
Absence (Days) Sick n/a
sent home RDT =
MALARIA
Absence (Days) Sick n/a
sent home RDT =
NEGATIVE
Intervention Year 2
Children (total) 1774
Age range / years 5-13
Gender M/F % 49/51
Schools Bwizibwera Rutooma Ruhunga Kaguhanzya
Children by school. 422/422 451/451 189/188 712/712
Year at start/at end
Sick/sent home Total 1066
Sick/per school 263 201 300 302
Sick/per term 56/127/80 27/97/77 55/135/110 70/133/99
Tested RDT 1066
Positive RDT 715 27/92/49 20/74/57 28/68/106 35/98/62
MALARIA
Positive vs Negative 168/263 151/201 202/300 195/302
RDT
Treated ACT 715 27/92/49 20/74/57 28/68/106 70/133/99
Absence (Days) Sick 2.55 (3.35) 2.4 2.8 3.0 2.5
sent home TOTAL p< 0.001
Absence (Days) Sick 0.59 (0.64) 0.49 0.66 0.72 0.48
sent home RDT = p< 0.001
MALARIA
Absence (Days) Sick 4.62 (3.54) 4.1 6.1 4.5 3.8
sent home RDT =
NEGATIVE
Discussion
This study shows that the education of children in rural Uganda can be
advanced by training teachers to screen children for malaria using RDT and
provide immediate ACT treatment at school for those infected. This intervention
significantly reduced the number of days of schooling missed due to malaria, and
prompt effective treatment is known to reduce long-term complications that
negatively impact a childs ability to learn.
Amongst sick primary school children, who teachers would otherwise just
have sent home, 67.5% tested positive for malaria and received ACT. Within
hours, many of these children felt well enough to rejoin their class rather than go
home, presumably due to the promptness of treatment relative to their symptoms
beginning, and rapid parasite clearance rate achieved by Artemisinin (Benjamin,
et al., 2012). Overall, the duration of absence from onset of malaria symptoms to
return to class for the children teachers treated fell 60.8% when compared to the
duration of absence in the pre-intervention cohort sent home with a presumed
infectious illness.
This translates to a reduction from more than a week of absence to less than 1
day of education lost in children diagnosed and treated with our school-based
intervention. With prior research emphasizing that up to 50% of preventable
school absenteeism is due to malaria (Brooker, et al., 2000), RDT /ACT use by
trained teachers offers an effective means to combat morbidity from malaria
amongst school children.
Importantly, while children diagnosed and treated in this initiative missed less
school because they recovered quickly, from what teachers reported it is also
probable that they recovered more completely. The observation that they
interacted and behaved normally on return to class suggests that having malaria
which was diagnosed and treated promptly had little or no long-term
consequences on their ability to learn. Hence, although not directly measured, it
is likely that school-based RDT /ACT programs can improve overall learning
potential and educational outcome.
In this context it is relevant that malaria in Uganda is predominantly caused by
Plasmodium falciparum (cerebral malaria). Such infection is often associated
with loss of cognitive and fine motor function when diagnosis and treatment are
delayed or absent. Educational compromise often results because the resulting
loss of function may be permanent and can involve all cognitive spheres
(language, attention, memory, visuospatial skills and executive functions)
(Birbeck, 2010; Fernando, et al., 2003; Jukes, et al., 2008; Kihara, et al., 2006; White,
et al., 2013; WHO, 2015).
The potential for school-based RDT/ACT to provide important educational
benefits through the early diagnosis and effective treatment it affords is endorsed
by studies in schools where children take prophylactic chloroquine to prevent
malaria. In these children improved educational attainment is evident in addition
to reduced absence from school, when they are compared to children given a
placebo (Fernando, et al., 2010; Jukes, et al., 2006).
With any school-based intervention teacher participation and the feasibility,
sustainability and validity of what is done are clearly relevant. It was the teachers
in the participating schools who identified that malaria was a barrier to their
pupils education. They participated willingly in the required skills training,
successfully delivered RDT and ACT at school, consistently collected the data
necessary to evaluate efficacy and sustained the intervention. The broader
community (parents, elders, health teams) endorsed a school-based intervention,
reported seeing benefits for their children as it was implemented and felt better
US$ 0.50 per kit. But how easy it is to perform the diagnostic test and train
personnel to use a given RDT kit are additional considerations (Moody, 2002).
We chose to use a relatively expensive (US$ 2.2) single dose ACT formulation to
eliminate any partial treatment bias during our evaluation phase. Now a
conventional 3-day, 6 dose ACT preparation is being used which is considerably
cheaper (US$ 1.0).
Other school-based health promotion programs involving teachers have
already proved valuable and cost-effective, including nationwide anti-helminth
treatment in Uganda (Brooker, et al., 2008b), provision of intermittent
anti-malarial therapy in Kenya (Okello, et al 2012; Temperley, et al., 2008) and
prophylactic chloroquine in Sri Lanka (Fernando, et al., 2006). Teachers have also
administered various diagnostic and treatment protocols successfully in
Tanzanian schools (Magnussen, et al., 2001). Analysis also shows that health
program delivery costs can be reduced by having teachers implement them
(Drake, et al., 2011).
The WHO health promoting school model engages each school in the context of
the local community (Lasker & Weiss, 2003; Zakus & Lysack, 1998) with
recognition of the central role of teachers (St Leger, et al., 2009; Tang, et al., 2009).
This ensures that day-to-day realities and local imperatives are reflected in the
design and conduct of programs developed to address any health problem
(Laverack & Mohammadi, 2011; Macnab, et al., 2014b). In our four project schools
teachers input was central to the development of a realistic school-based strategy
for RDT/ACT, and ongoing active participation by the staff was integral to the
success of the intervention. Interestingly, two funding submissions were
unsuccessful as reviewers stated that teachers would not be prepared to conduct
RDT, not be willing to invest the additional time required to evaluate the
children, and be unable to sustain the intervention over time. Inquiry in Year 1
found the first 2 assumptions incorrect and 3 years later all 4 school communities
continue to provide RDT/ACT, and teachers, pupils and parents all report
benefits to learning in parallel with better health in participating children.
No complications were reported from teachers performing RDTs or giving
ACT. We did follow recommendations to deploy RDT expertise by conducting
our teacher training using good visual aids and ample opportunities to practice
practical skills (Murray, et al., 2008). Neither the refresher training provided
midway through the project nor the confirmatory checks by a laboratory on
every 50th positive RDT sample identified any concerns; both were considered
important for quality assurance.
We recognize limitations in what we report. Principally, we recognize that the
outcome measure encapsulating educational compromise and malaria morbidity
that we used was absence from onset of illness to return to school. Using this
measure we can only compare Year 2 data for children RDT positive for malaria
with Year 1 data from the overall cohort sent home with presumed infectious
illness. This is because in Year 1 it was not feasible to follow each child in the
community to establish if parental care resulted in a diagnosis of malaria, and if
so what treatment ensued. However, the >10 fold difference in the duration of
absence between children in the intervention and pre-intervention years strongly
supports benefit from the school-based RDT/ACT model that we designed and
prospectively evaluated. Also, because 67.5% of sick children in Year 2 were RDT
Conclusions
School-based RDT/ADT provides a valid extension of proven care entities able
to positively impact the high morbidity from malaria to a child population
known to be at significant risk.
Providing RDT/ACT in the school setting is a logical response to the global
burden of malaria on the health and educational potential of children, especially
in low resource settings.
Childrens ability to learn is enhanced by rapid diagnosis and prompt,
effective treatment because they miss significantly less school. Communities also
report their children appear healthier; probably as early intervention reduces
overall morbidity in both the short and long term.
Implementing school-based RDT/ACT is feasible. Communities who
recognize the relevance are readily engaged, and teachers have welcomed
training and sustained program delivery.
We suggest that our health promotion model of providing RDT/ACT in the
school setting is broadly applicable to other schools in sub-Saharan Africa, and in
other low resource settings globally where morbidity from malaria is high.
Acknowledgement
This paper is dedicated to the memory of Faith Gagnon who helped conceive
the concept of school-based care for children with malaria at the Stellenbosch
Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS) international colloquium on WHO Heath
Promoting Schools in 2011, and contributed throughout her life to medical
research to improve the lives of children.
This project was made possible by financial support from the Hillman Medical
Education Fund.
We acknowledge the many contributions made by the teachers and children
who participated and the collaboration and support of the parents, elders and
village health teams in the four rural Ugandan communities where the schools
were located.
The authors collaborated as a team from the Health and Development Agency
(HEADA) Uganda to plan, deliver and evaluate this health education project.
HEADA is a non-governmental agency established in Mbarara to implement
comprehensive health education, treatment, and support programs in schools
and rural communities in Western Uganda.
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Introduction.
Academic persistence and graduation are important to students (better jobs),
colleges and universities (funding issues), parents (who often pay the fees), as
well as society at large (better educated work force). Postsecondary institutions
are highly invested in improving retention and graduation rates (Selingo, 2015).
Yet, postsecondary graduation rates are typically below 55% (ACT, 2006;
Jorgensen et al., 2005; Shapiro, Dundar, Yuan, Harrell, & Wakhungu, 2014).
Prediction of graduation and drop-out has a relatively poor track record (e.g.,
Jorgensen, Ferraro, Fichten, & Havel, 2009). Models are especially poor at
predicting drop-out. This is the case even if many variables such as grades,
gender, and survey results are included (Jorgensen, Fichten, & Havel, 2008).
What is needed to identify students at risk is a brief paper and pencil measure
that correctly identifies both those likely to graduate and those likely to drop
out.
are thinking of dropping out. What if the measure predicts one better than the
other?
Actual
Graduated Dropped Out Marginal Sum
Will Graduate a =450 c =400 850
Predicted
Will Drop Out b = 50 d = 100 150
Marginal Sum 500 500 1000
Actual
Graduated Dropped Out Marginal Sum
Will Graduate a = True Positive c = False Positive a+c
Predicted
Will Drop Out b = False Negative d = True Negative b+d
Marginal Sum a+b c+d a+b+c+d
Table 1 shows that our hypothetical questionnaire correctly classified 550 of the
1000 students (i.e., 55% overall correct classification): 450 of the 500 those who
actually graduated graduates (true positive) and 100 of the 500 students who
actually dropped out (true negative). But what about those who were
misclassified, including the 50 graduates who were misclassified as drop-outs
(false negative) and the 400 students who dropped out but were classified as
likely to graduate (false positive)?
Although the overall accuracy of the prediction is 55%, the sensitivity of the
measure (i.e., percentage of the 500 actual graduates who were predicted to
graduate (n = 450)) in the hypothetical example is 90%. Not bad for predicting
who will graduate! But what about the drop-outs? Specificity (proportion of 500
students who actually dropped out who are predicted to drop out (n = 100)) is
only = 20%. Thus, the questionnaire did an excellent job of predicting which
students will graduate, but a very poor job of predicting who will drop out.
Method
Study 1. Participants
Participants consisted of 252 Canadians with disabilities who had been enrolled
in a diploma or degree program in the spring 2010 semester and who, by the end
of 2013, had either graduated from this program (193 graduates: 126 females, 67
males) or dropped out (59 premature leavers: 38 females, 20 males, 1 did not
indicate). 175 individuals had attended a university and 77 a junior/community
college. Participants had been enrolled in 75 different Canadian postsecondary
institutions and were, on average 32 years old at follow-up. Most participants
had been pursuing a bachelors degree (n = 120). There was no significant
difference between groups on full-time (n = 204) versus part-time (n = 46) status,
or on the number of disabilities/impairments reported in 2010. Both groups
were most likely to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or a learning
disability, or a mental health related disability. The only significant difference
between graduates and premature leavers was on mental health related
disability, with a larger proportion of premature leavers reporting this, X2(1,252)
= 6.99, p = .014, =.44.
Study 1: Procedure
Study 1: Results
Comparing the 2010 scores of graduates and premature leavers. Results show that
while participants were still students, there were significant differences (p < .001)
between graduates and premature leavers on all TPB scales, with graduates
having more favorable scores; Cohens d scores range from .38 to .93.
Predicting graduation and drop-out. To evaluate the utility of the TPB model we
carried out a series of discriminant analyses to predict, based on the 3 TPB
predictors (i.e., Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control)
completed almost 4 years earlier, which individuals actually graduated or
dropped-out. Table 2 shows that, overall, 74% of the sample was correctly
classified. The canonical correlation was .54, p <.001. Correlations to the
discriminant function are .899 for Perceived Behavioral Control, .640 for
Subjective Norms, and .339 for Attitude. Sensitivity (percentage of actual
graduates who were predicted to graduate) was 77%, specificity (percentage of
actual premature leavers who were predicted to drop- out) was 63%. Results for
male and female participants were very similar. Table 3 shows how TPB scores
obtained in 2010 are related to each other.
Table 2
Actual Group
1
Predicted by 3 TPB predictors Predicted by Intention to Graduate 2
Predicted Group Graduates Premature Leavers Graduates Premature Leavers
Count Graduates 149 22 170 28
Premature Leavers 44 37 23 31
% Graduates 77% 37% 88% 47%
Premature Leavers 23% 63% 12% 53%
1
3 TPB predictors: 74% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 77%, Specificity = 63%
2
Intention to Graduate as the predictor: 80% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 88%, Specificity = 53%
Intention and actual graduation and dropout. We also examined how closely
intention to graduate was related to actual graduation and drop-out. Results in
Table 2 show, similar to the analysis on the three TPB scales, that 80% of
participants were correctly classified. However, while graduates are very well
classified, premature leavers are not (sensitivity = 88%, specificity =53%). Again,
males and females had similar results.
Study 1: Discussion
Results show that intention to graduate and actual graduation and drop-out
were closely related (Hypothesis 1). In addition, although the TPB questionnaire
correctly classified 74% of the sample (Hypothesis 2), sensitivity (predicting
graduates) was 77%, while specificity (predicting premature leavers) was only
63%.
Study 2: Results
Comparing TPB scores of those with strong and weak intention to graduate. Results
show significant (p < .001) moderate to strong differences (Cohens d ranges
from .52 to .78) between the two groups on all TPB predictor scales, with those
with strong intention to graduate having higher scores on all three predictor
scales: Perceived Behavioral Control, Subjective Norms, and Attitude.
Perceived
Behavioral Subjective
Intention Attitude
Control Norms
To examine how well the three TPB variables predicted binary Intention to
graduate, we performed a multiple discriminant analysis. The predicted variable
was Intention to graduate divided into strong and weak Intention based on the
mean Intention score (M = 5.673). Table 5 shows that, overall, 73% of the sample
was correctly classified. The canonical correlation was .451, p < .001. Correlations
to the discriminant function are .752 for Perceived Behavioral Control, .550 for
Subjective Norms, and .642 for Attitude. Results for males and females were,
again, very similar. Sensitivity was 77% and Specificity was 63%.
Table 5. Study 2: Discriminating Those with Strong and Weak Intention to Graduate
Using the Total TPB score. The Fichten et al. (2014) study on students with
disabilities used ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic) curves1 to establish a
cutoff score based on the sum of the 3 TPB scales (Total TPB) to use in predicting
graduation and drop-out. It was suggested that a score of 15.15 could be used as
a tentative cutoff where sensitivity and specificity are roughly equivalent and
1
The ROC curve is a plot of the true positive rate against the false positive rate for the different
possible cutpoints of a diagnostic test. It shows the tradeoff between sensitivity and
specificity. Tape, T.G. (undated). Plotting and interpreting an ROC curve. In Interpreting
Diagnostic Tests. Retrieved from http://gim.unmc.edu/dxtests/roc2.htm
will identify 2/3 of both those who are likely to graduate and those who are
likely to drop out. To evaluate the utility of this cutoff in determining which
individuals could be targeted for remediation and which could not, here we
conducted a multiple discriminant analysis using the binary score as the
predictor variable. The predicted variable was again Intention to graduate
divided into strong and weak intention based on the mean intention to graduate
score (M = 5.673). This resulted in specificity of 89% but a very poor sensitivity
(46%).
To examine whether the present samples median total TPB would result in
better specificity, we used the Study 2 median score of 16.21 and again predicted
binary Intention to graduate. Table 5 shows that, overall, only 65% of the sample
was correctly classified. The canonical correlation was .325, p < .001. However,
sensitivity was 60% and specificity was 76% Thus, raising the Total TPB cutoff
score resulted in better specificity but poorer sensitivity.
Study 2: Discussion
Results show that when we divided participants on the mean Intention to
graduate score, 73% of the sample was correctly classified. Sensitivity was 77%
and Specificity was 63%, values virtually identical to those of Study 1. Again, the
three TPB predictors were better able to predict those who strongly intended to
graduate (sensitivity) from those whose intention to graduate was weaker
(specificity). Attempts to improve specificity by increasing the value of the cutoff
were successful, but resulted in poorer sensitivity.
General Discussion
Our goal was to examine the usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
scales in predicting graduation and drop-out. It should be noted that all scales of
the TPB model fit on a single page, so it is easy and fast to administer (see
Fichten et al, 2016). Some data already exist concerning its utility when
evaluating intention to graduate and actual graduation and drop-out when
measures were administered concurrently (i.e., not longitudinally) in samples of
individuals with various disabilities (Fichten et al., 2014) as well as nondisabled
college students (Fichten, et al., 2016).
We also predicted and confirmed (Study 1 Hypothesis 2) that the three TPB
scales will be successful in predicting graduation and drop-out 3 to 4 years later
as we found that 74% of participants were correctly classified 4 years later. This
finding is consistent with the Fichten et al. (2014) results, which also examined
graduation and drop-out, but in a cross-sectional manner. Results of that study,
however, were not conclusive because the three TPB scales were completed
retrospectively. The present longitudinal study responded to this concern by
showing that TPB scores obtained three to four years earlier were successful in
predicting actual outcome. Similarly, we found that the three TPB scales were
successful in predicting intention to graduate among Study 2 students currently
enrolled, as the three TPB components predicted 44% of the variability in
intention to graduate in a multiple regression analysis, with all three TPB
predictors contributing to the prediction.
The findings suggest that correlates of the three TPB components are likely to be
of interest if an institution wishes to improve graduation rates. For example,
information campaigns geared toward the entire student body about the value
of the schools diplomas/degrees in obtaining a job, getting a higher salary, job
satisfaction, and acceptance to graduate school can be used to increase the
favorability of attitudes toward graduation. Enhancing perceived behavioral
control, which combines self-efficacy and control expectations, can also be
useful. There is an extensive literature on ways to improve academic self-efficacy
(e.g., Schunk & Ertmer, 1999; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013) and to strengthen
control expectations (e.g., Stupnisky, Renaud, Daniels, Haynes, & Perry, 2008).
For example, perceived behavioral control can be manipulated by helping
students attribute success on projects, assignments and exams to effort and
ability, rather than to external factors such as chance or luck, by providing
positive feedback when students are doing well academically, and by helping
students learn that grades can be improved through effort. Letting students
know that their peers and others whom they value (e.g., famous politicians,
writers, scientists, musicians, sports figures, actors) also believe that graduation
is important could increase Subjective Norms (i.e., values of those important to
the students).
It appears that the TPB provides a good basis for predicting both intention to
graduate and actual graduation several years later. As noted earlier, however,
such a one dimensional prediction is inadequate when the goal is to find out
aspects related to graduation (sensitivity) and drop-out (specificity) separately.
Indeed, the sensitivity and specificity of the results based on the three TPB scales
in our investigation show a less successful outcome. As noted earlier, we were
unable to make predictions about sensitivity and specificity, and it is here that
the findings make interpretation difficult.
The results of both studies show that sensitivity (i.e., predicting who will
graduate) was generally quite impressive, with a score of 77% in both Studies 1
and 2. However, predicting who will drop out (i.e., specificity) was weaker (i.e.,
63%) in both studies.
In summary, the model was reasonably good at predicting who will graduate,
but not who will drop out. Such results are similar to findings by Jorgensen et al.
(2008) using a very different array of predictors. Moreover, the results highlight
the importance of noting that graduation and drop-out, when it comes to
predicting these, are not polar opposites. For example, providing financial aid
may help prevent drop-out of those in financial need, but is not likely to increase
the likelihood of graduation for the entire college population (cf. Dwyer,
Hodson, & McCloud, 2013; Gentry, 2014).
Improving specificity and identifying individual students who are likely to drop
out. Using a cutoff on the Total TPB score (i.e., the sum of the three TPB
components: Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control) was
quite successful in improving the prediction of drop-out and in identifying
individual students who are likely to drop-out or to graduate.
This approach was also used in the Fichten et al. (2014) study, where a cutoff of
15.15 was suggested for further investigation. When we used this cutoff, we once
more obtained good sensitivity (89%) but poor specificity (46%). To try to
increase the specificity of the score in Study 2 we used the current samples
median of 16.21. This resulted in much improved specificity (75%) at the cost of
relatively poor sensitivity (60%).
See-saw. Thus, the lower the cutoff, the higher the sensitivity, while the higher
the cutoff, the better the specificity. What cutoff to use depends on the goal of
testing.
The one-page measure comprising the three Theory of Planned Behavior scales
is available in Fichten et al. (2016). It can be added to college and university
institutional research measures for further investigation. It is free, takes less than
5 minutes to complete, and appears to have good potential for predicting
intention to graduate as well as actual graduation. Although the three
components do not perform especially well in predicting drop-out, using the
Total TPB scale and adjusting the cutoff can result in acceptable specificity and,
thereby, predict which students are likely to drop out.
Three types of scores are typically used when predicting graduation: predicting
the percentage of the variability in scores, such as the R2 used in our
investigation; predicting an overall single score reflecting graduation/dropout
in discriminant analysis classification tables that are based on the percentage of
original cases correctly classified; and the use of individual students scores to
identify who is likely to drop-out and who to graduate.
The type of analysis that should be used depends on the purpose of testing. If it
is to study characteristics that predict graduation, then a single score that reflects
the variability that is explained by the three predictors, such as R2, or the overall
single score from a multiple discriminant analysis classification table, will do
quite well.
Different cut-off scores: implications of the see-saw. If the goal is to obtain an idea
about the success of the schools recruitment policies or to predict retention into
the next semester, then increasing sensitivity is likely to be most important. Our
results suggest that using the Total TPB score with a relatively low cutoff will
increase sensitivity.
Schools can consider using different cutoff scores depending on their needs and
resources. For example, if the goal is to identify as many of the students who are
likely to drop out as possible in order to target them for interventions such as
remedial efforts, financial aid possibilities, how to study and exam anxiety
workshops, etc., and the school has adequate resources so that false negatives
(falsely identifying students who are actually likely to graduate as potential
drop-outs) do not matter, then setting the cutoff on the Total TPB well above the
median is likely to yield the desired results. This can allow faculty and those
responsible for student services and student success to better support these
students with early interventions. If, on the other hand, resources are scarce, and
the school does not wish to spend limited resources on remediating those who
are likely to graduate anyway, then setting a lower cutoff can be the solution.
The present investigation has several limitations which can affect the
generalizability of the results. First, we must note that both Studies 1 and 2 are
correlational, and, thus causality cannot be inferred. In addition, in spite of the
relatively lengthy follow-up period, Study 1 participants constitute an atypical
group (i.e., individuals with disabilities). In Study 2 we used a random sample of
over 1000 students. However, they were enrolled in only two junior/community
colleges, and since they had not yet graduated, only intention to graduate could
be studied. Moreover, in Study 2 the TPB scales and intention to graduate were
administered concurrently, mainly in the beginning of the semester.
more optimistic about graduation at the beginning of the semester than at other
times (A. Havel, personal communication, August, 2014), so the timing of
administration could be varied and its impact investigated. Since students are
most likely to drop out early in their academic career (Jorgensen, Ferraro,
Fichten, & Havel, 2009) it is worthwhile to examine TPB scores during the first
or second semester of studies. Persistence from one semester to the next, rather
than graduation, can be used as the outcome variable. The generalizability of the
model to students with different backgrounds, both ethnic and socioeconomic,
as well as different individual differences, including disability, gender, and age
needs further evaluation.
Future research should examine different ways of extending the model (cf.
Stone, Jawahar, & Kisamore, 2010) to improve the sensitivity and specificity of
predicting graduation and drop-out. One possibility includes examination of
reasons for drop-out (Jorgensen, Ferraro, Fichten, & Havel, 2009) and exploring
how these are related to the three TPB predictors.
We also suggest that future research examine the impact of different cutoff
scores, with the possibility of ranking students on intention to graduate and
evaluating whether this ranking works to predict actual behavior. If so, then it
can be possible to determine the nature of effective interventions to increase
intention to graduate among these students by the school, government, families,
and the students themselves.
References
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Dwyer, R. E., Hodson, R., & McCloud, L. (2013). Gender, debt, and dropping out
Abstract. The current study attempts to identify the reasons that special
education administrators are able to operate to optimum effectiveness
and barriers that prevent this in the current educational climate.
Quantitative data was collected through surveys from special education
administrators in the state of Texas. Descriptive statistics and the
Friedman Test were used to analyze the data. The top three reasons
special education administrators were able to operate to optimum
effectiveness are sufficient knowledge concerning special education,
support from central administration, and professional background and
education while the barriers were insufficient number of staff, lack of
time, and insufficient financial resources.
Introduction
Special education administrators have a diverse and complex role in
overseeing the individualized educational programs for students with
disabilities. Decisions made by special education administrators impact every
aspect of the special education program within a school district (Gore, 1995) and
every decision made by special education administrators is subject to challenge
unlike other administrative decisions (Tate, 2010). Increasing demands on
special education administrators to meet the complex needs of students with
disabilities, extensive budget cuts, accountability requirements of No Child Left
Behind (NCLB), severe shortages of qualified staff, and possible litigation
regarding the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA)
calls for effective practices in the administration of special education programs
(Tate, 2010). Gore (1995) described effective special education leadership as a
balancing act, advocating for the best possible services, empowering staff,
acknowledging the needs of parents, and collaborating with other
administrators (p. 3). Various factors have been identified through past
research that can influence special education administrators ability to operate to
optimum effectiveness.
Methodology
In order to examine the perceptions of special education administrators
ability to operate to optimum effectiveness, the 2013-2014 Texas Council of
Administrators of Special Education (TCASE) Directory was used to determine
the population sample. The TCASE Directory is a comprehensive list of special
education administrators in the state of Texas currently serving in school
districts and Regional Education Service Center (ESC) Directors who provide
support to special education administrators and oversee staff development
within their regions. Since Regional ESC Directors are not directly responsible
to an educational cooperative or school district, they were not included in the
population sample for this study.
The TCASE Directory was used to compile a list of e-mail addresses for
special education administrators in the state of Texas. Special education
administrators were initially contacted in the form of an e-mail that contained
the following information: (a) explanation and purpose of the study, (b)
participants in the study, (c) description of procedures, (d) instrumentation
utilized, (e) potential risks, (f) participation and benefits (g) link to survey
through PsychData, (h) contact information, (i) and an opportunity to contact the
researcher if there were any questions. E-mails were sent using the blind cc to
protect confidentiality and grouped by region. Two follow-up e-mails were sent
The Friedman Test provides information regarding the difference in the ranks of
three or more independent groups. Post-hoc testing for Friedman two-way
analysis of variance on rank means was utilized to provide additional
information (Marascuilo & McSweeney, 1977).
Results
Special education administrators were asked to identify the top three
reasons they could operate to optimum effectiveness and the reasons they could
not operate to optimum effectiveness. Multiple-choice answers were provided
with an opportunity to express an additional reason that was not listed. Table 1
includes the reasons special education administrators felt they could operate to
optimum effectiveness by mean rank order. The top three reasons noted by
special education administrators to operate to optimum effectiveness were: (a)
sufficient knowledge concerning special education, state and federal laws,
budget, etc.; (b) support from central administration; and (c) professional
background and education prepared them for the job. The three reasons with
the lowest mean were: (a) opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative
studies at the local level, (b) adequate facilities and sufficient equipment, and (c)
adequate research data upon which to base decision.
Each reason for why special education administrators were able to work
to optimum effectiveness in Table 1 was numbered to assist in comparisons
between rank means. Numbers in Group I and Group J of Table 2 represent the
reasons listed in Table 1. Each pair of reasons from Group I and Group J was
contrasted with a confidence interval. An interval that included zero was
considered non-significant. Table 2 shows the results of post-hoc testing for
Friedman two-way analysis of variance on rank means. Only the pair of reasons
that were considered statistically significant at the .05 significance level is listed
in Table 2. When two reasons differ with p < .05, one reason ranked higher than
the other reason. Mean ranks that are in bold represent the reason that is ranked
higher than the other. The higher the mean rank the more important the reason
in allowing the special education administrators to operate to optimum
effectiveness. The primary reason special education administrators were able to
operate to optimum effectiveness was due to sufficient knowledge concerning
special education, state and federal laws, budget, etc. There was a significant
difference between this reason and nine other reasons which shows the
importance of special education administrators having a strong knowledge base
concerning special education and related topics. The second highest reason was
support from central administration which was significantly different from the
six lowest reasons identified.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to identify the reasons that special
education administrators are able to operate to optimum effectiveness and the
barriers that prevent this in the current educational climate. Two of the primary
reasons noted by special education administrators for being able to operate to
optimum effectiveness was sufficient knowledge concerning special education,
state and federal laws, budget, etc. and having the necessary professional
background and education that prepared them for the job. Since the field of
special education leadership is multifaceted and complex, a strong knowledge
base of the numerous areas such as local and federal policies, finance, program
development, personnel, and interpersonal skills is needed. The special
education administrators in the current study appear to have a sufficient
knowledge base and educational background to meet the demands of the job.
The results of this study were different from the study conducted by Kohl and
Marro (1971) where special education administrators reported the need for
additional knowledge as one of the primary areas of concerns. Due to the ever
changing educational climate, there is a need for ongoing professional
development to maintain a sufficient knowledge base concerning special
education and ongoing support from central administration. Rayner, Gunter &
Powers (2002) reported individuals working in special education perceived a
high need for continuing education specifically in leadership and management.
While Pardy and Bryan (2015) indicated that the lack of functional knowledge
and expertise could lead to failure in the position.
The secondary reason special education administrators noted for why they
were able to operate to optimum effectiveness was support from central
administration. Special education administrators in the current study appear to
have greater support from central administration than reported by Kohl and
Marro (1971). When special education administrators were asked by Kohl and
Marro (1971) to identify roadblocks that kept them from using their time
effectively, the responses focused on resources such as lack of administrative
assistance, finances, clerical help, program facilities, and office space or facilities
with the primary reason being central office demands. Central administration
demands were listed in the current study as one of the reasons special
education administrators were not able to operate to optimum effectiveness
though it was not a primary reason of concern. Central administration can
provide support to special education administrators by recognizing the
importance of having sufficient staff, allowing special education administrators
the time needed to oversee special programs and staff, and providing sufficient
financial resources.
Kohl and Marro (1971) sought special education administrators opinions
regarding ways to increase their ability to operate effectively by asking what
one thing would you want to have to increase your effectiveness as a special
education administrator? Special education administrators identified nine areas
of need or concern in the Kohl and Marro (1971) study. The top three areas of
concern noted by Kohl and Marro (1971) were the top three reasons identified in
the current study for why special education administrators were not able to
operate to optimum effectiveness: (a) insufficient number of staff, (b) lack of
time, and (c) insufficient financial resources. Insufficient staff, limited financial
resources, and lack of time appear to be ongoing reasons for why special
education administrators are unable to operate to optimum effectiveness. This
will require special education administrators to find creative solutions for
meeting the unique needs of individuals with disabilities utilizing the staff and
financial resources available to them.
The reasons identified in the current study that had the least impact on
special education administrators operating to optimum effectiveness were
research data upon which to base decisions and opportunities to do field
research utilizing innovative studies at the local level. The overall pattern
suggests that the use and purpose of research have little impact on special
education administrators whether good or bad which suggests the importance of
research for the advancement of educational practices for students with
disabilities has not been realized by special education administrators.
References
Arick, J. R., & Krug, D. A. (1993). Special education administrators in the United States:
Perceptions on policy and personnel issues. Journal of Special Education, 27(3), 348-
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Boscardin, M. L. (2004). Transforming administration to support science in the
schoolhouse for students with disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(3), 262-
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requirements for administrators of special education. Journal of Special Education
Leadership, 23(2), 61-75. Retrieved from
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Collins, J. (2007). Superintendent's commentary: Seeking: Special education director.
Journal of Special Education Leadership, 20(1), 46-47. Retrieved from
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Crockett, J. B. (2002). Special education's role in preparing responsive leaders for
inclusive schools. Remedial & Special Education, 23(3), 157.
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DiPaola, Michael Tschannen-Moran, Megan Walther-Thomas, Chriss. (2004). School
principals and special education: Creating the context for academic success. Focus
on Exceptional Children, 37(1), 1-10. Retrieved from
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DiPaola, M. F., Walther-Thomas, C., National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special
Education & Florida University, Gainesville Center on Personnel Studies in Special
Education. (2003). Principals and special education: The critical role of school leaders.
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Ebmeier, H., Beutel, J. L., & Dugan, E. (2010). An employment interview instrument for
special education teachers. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 23(2), 84-99.
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education. (Grant no. OEG-0-70-2467(607), US Office of Education). University Park,
PA: The Pennsylvania State University.
Lashley, C., & Boscardin, M. L. (2003). Special education administration at a crossroads:
Availability, licensure, and preparation of special education administrators. (Document
No IB-8). Retrieved from
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Marascuilo, L.A., & McSweeney, M. (1977). Nonparametric and distribution-free methods for
the social sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Palladino, J. M. (2008). Preparing school principals for special education administration:
A new model of leadership decision-making. John Sheppard Journal of Practical
Leadership, 158-166. Retrieved from http://aa.utpb.edu/media/leadership-journal-
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special education. Journal in In-Service Education, 28(1), pp. 79-94.
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of Humanities and Social Science, 1(15), 120-139.
Tate, A. (2010). Case in point: The changing face of special education administration.
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requirements for school administrators. Exceptional Children, 58(5), 399-406.
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direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ444440&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Introduction
Light (sociologist) used the term social capital at the 1970s and Laurie
(economist) also used it to describe the problem of urban economy. In the 1980s,
this term was used in a wider sense by Coleman the sociologist, and political
scientist Putnam was the second person that raised an ethnic passionate debate
about the role of social capital and civil society in Italy and the United States.
Their research led to the formal formation of social capital and its application in
many interdisciplinary sciences (Tahghighi, 2005).
Social Capital as a form of capital has a large impact on the success of the
society. Many functions have been attributed to social capital by experts. Social
capital employs the similarities of people from different directions, creating a
spirit of mutual trust and functions at the service of economic interests; it creates
the space which reduces the cost of human resources, and increases interaction
between them (Woolcock, 2008)
Fukuyama (2006) defines social capital as a set of norms in social systems that
promote cooperation among members of the community and reduces the
exchange and communication costs.
Experts believe that increased social capital include faith, trust, hope for the
future, relying on the community and its solidarity, social justice, prosperity,
tolerance, patience, forgiveness and unity are the main strategies to achieve
sustainable development in a society. The benefits resulting from membership in
a group creates solidarity that makes it possible to obtain benefits. Hence, social
capital is a means of access to economic and cultural resources through social
communication (Saifollahi, 2005).
In a society with high social capital, the union and solidarity among members of
society and their group spirit makes them to flow their economic capital for
themselves and their society so that everyone can use its benefits (Kavianpour,
2007).
The social capital enhances the quality of life and promotes the positive social
values in order to have a good life ( Hamdan et al,2014).
According to the above, it can be said that the concept of social capital means
that the participation in community and group can have positive interests and
functions for the individual. There are many organizations that the government
helps them to develop values that support civic engagement. The educational
system is one of these organizations. In recent years, education is considered as
one of the most powerful producers of social capital.
University as one of the main sources for the formation of social groups can be
of consideration. The Scientific, cultural and religious, and professional
organizations as well as other groups can find an opportunity to emerge in
university where some networks may be formed, which can be bases for the
establishment of key and influential institutions (Dingaa,2014).
each other the university should have the ability to develop social capital
(Zakersalehi, 2008).
Theoretical Background
According to Putnam (2005) social capital refers to those features of social life,
networks, norms and trust that enable participants to pursue their common
objectives in a more effective way. In his idea, social capital is the means to
achieve social and political development in diverse political systems and the
trust between people, governors, and political elite results in political
development.
The set of norms which exist in social systems promote the level of cooperation
among society members and also reduces the level of exchange and
communication costs. In this definition, concepts such as civil society and social
institutions are associated closely with the concept of social capital (Schiff, 2004).
Eisenstadt believes that the most important issue in shaping a community with
good social capital is attention to the trust, cohesion, solidarity and social
participation and without social cohesion and participation under the shade of
confidence establishing the new order is impossible (Chalabi, 2007).
Teaching is an activity, but not every type of activity, but something which is
done consciously and on the basis of a specific purpose that makes changes.
Teaching is not easy. Teachers deals with different variables in teaching and
through manipulation of different variables and results, tries to create a situation
in which learning takes place. (Shabani, 2006)
The authority teachers have to make changes in teaching conditions and make
the factors useful for teaching a lesson are teaching models that include problem
solution patterns, pre-organizers, individual tutoring, social patterns and so on.
These patterns act as plans (Joyce, 2008).
Previous researches in Iran indicate that higher education despite its great
quantitative development in the last decades, has not been successful in self-
actualization and development of social capital. This is also true about teaching
practices that are considered an important part of the curriculum.
What kind of teaching plan enhance social capital can be developed among
students of Medical Sciences?
Methodology
The present study is qualitative and based on Grounded Theory approach which
is an exploratory research method that allows researchers to develop the theory
of him/her. The material used in this study was the collected comments from
people during interviews. In addition, these data were highly fragmented and
contained many concepts and categories. For this reason, analysis of data
required a plan which is comprehensive as well as highly resilient and
encompassing. As a result, grounded or fundamental method was used.
The population consisted of teachers with at least 10 years experience in the field
of curriculum planning, teaching and writing textbooks in the field of medical
sciences at the university and higher education institutions across the country in
2014. In qualitative method the number of interviews should be 10 at most, but
in this study science the interviewees were at different disciplines from different
universities, all data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 14
cases and after assuring saturation in the material obtained, the interview
process was stopped since no new information was obtained. In the interview,
eight instructors of public universities of medical sciences and six from Islamic
Azad universities across the country participated from various medical fields.
Purposive sampling method was used for the type of favorable cases; which
means that for selecting the samples the number of academic articles and
publications were examined and it was tried to select people who are dominant
on the subject and have the experience of developing curricula.
After carrying out preliminary coordination with individuals and setting a date,
meetings were held at the researchers office or at workplace of respondent. Ten
minutes before the start of the meeting a complete description about the purpose
of the study and drawing conclusions of it was explained. For having full
information, by the permission of the interviewee, all sessions were recorded
and transcribed. First, two general question of how do you see social capital
components of trust or partnership among students? and "how universities can
expand social capital among students?" then researcher entered the subject of
discussion and using responses given by the interviewee the next questions were
asked. During the meetings it was tried to prevent diversion of the subject
without sensitivity and to direct the interview just in the framework of the preset
direction. Interviews were held on an individual basis and each interview was
between one to two hours.
To analyze the data, open, axial and selective data coding were used.
In the open coding using comparison technique and asking the data related to
the phenomenon under study, data were named and categorized with scrutiny.
After removing unrelated speeches to the subject, data were classified into tens
of paragraphs and similar paragraphs were put next to each other and concepts
were drawn out.
In axial coding, the analyzed data using open coding joined each other by new
methods. At this stage the link was made among a category and its
subcategories. This was done by implementing a paradigmatic plan of
"obstacles, strategies, and results" and putting together the similar concepts.
In selective coding the core category was selected and its relation with other
categories was found. The relations were validated by finding confirming
instances. After determining the main category, the sub-categories were related
to the main categories according to the paradigmatic plan. Then, the final
research plan was developed in which the core relationship with other concepts
was shown.
To determine the accuracy of the information obtained, four factors were used:
credibility, transferability, dependability and verifiability (Burns, 2007).
Validation was done by sharing the findings with participants to review them.
For the transferability, it was tried to consider the diversity in sampling and
different fields are used. Also, in connection with the verifiability process, it was
attempted to make teachers agree on the perceptions. And finally, in reliability,
interviews were continued until data saturation. Also for the reliability of the
study, Kirk and Miller note taking methods were used.
The aim of the research, study procedures, risks and benefits of the research, the
voluntary nature of participating in the study, were told to the participants. The
right to quit research at any time was considered for the participants. After
providing the necessary information they were assured that the information
obtained will be kept confidential and results will be published without naming
them. During the interview process, a short break was given for the interviewee
fatigue and they were not forced to continue the interview.
Findings
In open coding 98 concept codes were obtained from all the comments of
respondents. In the axial coding, second level concepts were obtained. In this
stage the number of concepts had a sharp decline. In the end, the main category
was identified in selective coding, that is teaching plans.
1. Obstacles
The number of first-level concepts about the obstacles contained 40 items that at
the secondary level reduced to 5 codes including "Ease of classical and
traditional teaching practices, poor participation of students in the class, too
much emphasis on introduced resources, teachers lack of skill in using
technology, and students focus on content expressed by the teacher. In the
following, each of the sub-themes with a sample of interviewees statements is
presented.
Leaving the old standard format of instruction is usually faced with resistance
from students. We must change this mentality and a new spirit is blown in the
university system. (Interviewee No. 12)
There is a belief among students that teachers focus on the topics set for each
session and their repetition is the easiest and best practice for teaching. This
view must be changed. (Interviewee No. 8)
2. Solutions
Some teachers exclude training and evaluation based on limited old school
resources that have been introduced. However, if the teacher selects updated
sources for teaching and asks the students to be prepared for them at the end of
course, s/he will need more participation of the students (Interviewee No. 6)
The students tend toward traditional teaching methods while group method of
teaching and students' participation in seminar or teachers emphasis on
scientific practices involving the realities directly affect social capital.
(Interviewee No. 5)
The teaching method should be new and does not repeat the old practices. It is
also important to note that teaching method should be selected along with the
latest science of the world (interviewee No. 2)
Book is very expensive in Iran and the students are not supported to buy books.
Therefore, one cannot expect multiple sources to be presented by teacher in such
circumstances. Instructors should move towards introducing new electronic
sources which are cost-effective and the intended diversity can be achieved.
(Interviewee No. 8)
3. Results
The number of concepts which were obtained at the first level coding was 18
that were reduced to 5 items including strengthening team spirit, shaping public
space, strengthening the spirit of questioning and criticism, promoting
accountability in the students, and activating the students in the teaching
process.
If the teacher works in a manner in which individual action is not acceptable and
people have to do group work, teamwork is promoted. (Interviewee No. 11)
The class atmosphere on time teaching should be established in such a way that
students are not afraid of criticism and ask their questions. (Interviewee No. 2)
When a student takes responsibility in the class during a course and cooperates
with his classmates in his course projects, he will tend to maintain group
activities. (Interviewee No. 4)
Finally the plan of study which is the combination and integration of the main
category, its obstacles, strategies, and consequences was formulated as Figure1:
Social capital
Discussion
Teaching method is of the things that directly affect social capital. Changes in
teaching methods can have a substantial impact on social capital of students. Of
all the elements of the curriculum teaching methods has the highest
communication with the students and is close to the concept of social capital
more than any other component.
Teaching plans should be more oriented towards learning and active teaching.
Active learning, is a learning that occurs with minimal interference of external
factors. In this method of learning, the instructor is at the same level of other
factors such as the learning environment and educational resources and only
acts as a facilitator of learning. This method is considered effective on social
capital when the student is involved actively in the process of learning and
learning occurs under his/ her control. Solati et al conducted a study on the
medical sciences students and found that the more students engage in the
teaching process, it provides more utility for the students (Solati et al., 2010)
The findings suggest that current teaching plans not only does not encourage
people to attend and participate actively in class, but also damage the
relationship between society and universities and change the mutual trust
between the university and society.
Predicted changes for curriculum give this opportunity to the planners to use
other leverages to affect the socialization process of the student and accelerate it.
University can be a good platform for many activities that potentially increase
social capital. Thus, curriculum planners should not look at it apart from the
curriculum. It is better that teaching practices that promote social capital in the
form of a clear curriculum be included in syllabus to avoid personal taste in the
teaching classes.
unrelated, attempt to provide students with learning activities that involve them
in real problem solving situations. Merghati Khoei et al.(2013) in a study at
Tehran University of Medical Sciences concluded that educational programs
should be revised to use modern methods which enhance learning and student
satisfaction .
Conclusion
hence, instructors and curriculum planners should consider the components of
social capital in the curriculum of medical sciences. The proposed plan can be
used as a map for designing teaching method based on social development for
the medical sciences universities. Teachers can carry out similar studies in other
sections for various disciplines to provide the possibility to complete this plan.
Research limitations
Addressing teaching methods on a large scale exceeded the concepts and
categories of this study. This was particularly problematic in the coding of
concepts.
Requests for interviews were very time consuming and a lot of requests were left
unanswered because of instructors occupation.
The number of concepts discussed in the interview was too much and sorting
them was time consuming. Due to the involvement of interviewees in the
process of teaching at the university, refining the answers to remove the biased
items required scrutiny and attention.
References
Burns, N. & Grove, K. C.(2007), Understanding Nursing Research. 4th edition,
Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders. 124-130
Dingaa, E. (2014). Social capital and social justice. Procedia Economics and Finance, 8,
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Fukuyama F.(2006), the end of order, Translated: Tavassoli, G. H. Iranian society press
{in Persian}
Hamdan, H.; Yusof, F.; Azziyati Marzukhi, M. (2014). Social Capital and Quality of Life
in Urban Neighborhoods High Density Housing. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 153, 169-179.
Kavianpour J.(2007), urban management and social capitals, Kayhan Journal,18777, 7. {in
Persian}
Marjaee S.(2004), H. Social capital among students, the Institute of Research and
Planning {in Persian}
Putnam R.(2005), Democracy and Civic traditions. Translated: M. T., Delforooz, Tehran:
Salam Journal Press {in Persian}
Saifollahi S.(2005), Sociology in social problems in Iran. Collection of articles and ideas
Tehran: Jamee Pajoohan e- Sina press {in Persian}
Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2013). Description and Recognition the
Concept of Social Capital in Higher Education System.International
Education Studies, 6(9), 40.
Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2013). The Relationship Between the
Curriculum of Higher Education and Social Capital. Journal of Education and
Training, 1(1), 39-47.
Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2014). Designing Teaching Methods in
Curriculum of Irans Higher Education based on Development of Social
Capital. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research, 3(1).
Zaker Salehi G. R.(2008), The Paradox of Social Capital of Iranian Educated People:
Survey and Study on the Relationship Between Higher Education and Social
Capital in Iran. Journal of Engineering Education, Agah press; 40(1), 25-51{in
Persian}
Introduction
Disability in a laymans perspective is the lack of ability to function thereby
affecting performance of roles. The World Health Organization defines it using
the bio-psycho-social model which looks at it in general perspectives on
elements of bodily impairments, personal activity and participation in society
that interplay on the negative impact of the persons health condition and the
environmental and personal factors of his/her life (WHO, 2011). Considering a
global and macro perspective, over a billion or less than sixteen percent of the
globe have disability and the rates are increasing due to chronic health illnesses
as one of the factors. In the Philippines alone, the National Statistics Office has
reported that for every one thousand Filipinos, sixteen will have disability. The
entire household in the Philippines will have about 1.6 per cent with disability
given the 2010 population and housing census. Among all the regions in the
country, Region IV-A has the highest where the research locale Cavite is
situated. And as of the estimated population of persons with disabilities, the
greatest number fall in the age group of 5-19 years old and 45 to 64 years old.
Children aged 10 to 14 years old comprised the largest age group among those
in the younger range.
Concurrently, oral health is also one of the most neglected aspect of life among
children especially those with disabilities. Laguilless (2008) in her paper noted
that tooth decay is even more predominant than other disease likes asthma and
other infections. Pediatricians in the United States even noted that it is a silent
epidemic and the needs related to such cases are unmet (Barnett, 2002). Poor oral
health contributes to other illnesses like pneumonia hence there is a need to
address it in advance by preventing potential problems via early parental
involvement (Norwood & Slayton, 2008). In considering such, early exposure to
proper oral health care and treatment would be beneficial in preventing
unwanted pain and suffering and eventually improving the lives of children
with disabilities. In addition, neglected oral health care can be costly and may
only complicate standard treatment procedure (Newacheck et al. 2000 as cited in
Laguilles, 2008).
The challenges of persons with disabilities face including those that children
with chronic health and dental issues experience, are also faced with lack of
access to services including health and education thereby leading to unmet
needs (Baker & Donelly, 1992; Kuper et al., 2014; WHO, 2011). Children with
disabilities experience these impact brought about by their situation placing
them as part of the marginalized sector of the community tied with
discrimination, negative attitudes of people, lack of policies and legislations to
protect them which runs into a cycle that yields to deprived rights to health care,
education, quality of life and even survival in worst case scenarios (UNICEF,
2013).
Sobe and Kurtin (2007) emphasized how much the educational system plays a
major role in the lives of children through relevant educational programs which
encompass special services and programs for children with health challenges so
they can be served appropriately in the educational system. In the Philippines,
the National Statistics Office report in 2010 stated that about 97% of the children
with special needs are not reached by the public education system. The
implications of this situation is explicated by Posarac (2012) which explained
that poverty increases the risk of disability through related poor health
conditions and its related determinants which may lead to the onset of chronic
malnutrition, lack or inadequate public health intervention, poor living
conditions and unsafe work environments. He further noted that this can be
aggravated by lack of services that should have been available. More than this,
chronic health problems in children will have its effects in schooling and
relationships Collaboration is needed to promote services and limit the
restrictions for these children (Licuan, 2009)
This study recognizes the importance of looking into the profile and related
factors concerning children with chronic health and dental issues and analyzing
its implications in health and education services as springboard for the
development of a community-based intervention framework. This yields to the
creation and implementation of educational modules that can be used and
applied in the grassroots or primary level of the countrys health care and
educational delivery systems primarily at the barangay level and preparatory
basic education and special education levels, respectively. This developmental
study attempted to cross the limitations posted upon by the barriers to services
that children with disabilities especially those with chronic health conditions in a
developing country, especially those with chronic health and dental issues, faces
hence help achieve optimal outcomes for their lives.
questions that determined the childrens profile (e.g. health condition, family
situation and economic status) and services (health and education) access status in
the research locale which serves as micro-representation of a developing
country- the Philippines. Moreover, it aimed to analyze the implications of the
profile and access status as bases for developing the desired framework.
Method of Procedure
The study is basically a mixed quantitative-qualitative in design. Profile and
access to services survey questionnaires and interview checklist were used tools
were used to gather data. It was validated by experts in the field of rehabilitation
medicine, dentistry, special education and allied health consultants who are
clinical practitioners in the field of occupational therapy and speech and
language pathology. Descriptive statistics specifically frequency distribution,
percentage, and mean as well as thematic analysis were used to interpret the
findings of the study. The subjects of the study were children with neuromotor
disabilities with developed or likelihood of developing chronic health and
dental issues. Purposive sampling was used gathering 112 children, less than 18
years from the top three cities of Cavite province given the highest population
namely Dasmarinas, Imus and Bacoor. Conceptual mapping of information
gathered was used to scaffold and develop the framework proposal as outcome
of the study. Given the profile of the subjects, 65/112 or 58% were diagnosed of
cerebral palsy of varying kinds ranging from mild to severe presentation of
health challenges; 15/112 or 13% with genetically-related syndromes or
condition and 32/112 or 29% belong to varying undiagnosed conditions
presenting with motor; cognitive and sensory problems. Mean age of the
subjects was 10 years with the youngest age presented as 5 years old and oldest
at 18 years. The inclusion criteria for age was limited between the age 4 to 21
years covering pediatric age span whereby schooling can be started ideally at the
day care or preparatory school at 4 years and transition schooling ending at the
age of majority which is 21 years.
Collection of Data
Population screening and selection of qualified respondents were done given the
data retrieved from the offices of the local government units of the
representative cities of the research locale in-charge of persons with disability
affairs. Consent of the qualified respondents was taken. After which, data to
answer the objectives of the study were gathered by letting the respondents
answer the research instruments which dealt on determining the profile (e.g.
health condition, family situation and economic status) and services (health and
education) access status. Respondents were guided in understanding the
questions if they are not able to read. Interview method was utilized to gather
other significant information that may come out related to the study outside
what is incorporated in the survey tool. Implications of the profile and access
status as bases for developing the desired framework were also explored during
the interview process. To facilitate a more cooperative nature in the interview
process, the 112 respondents and their families or caregivers were grouped by
location and were also subjected to focus group discussions scheduled in series
of meetings spread in a three-month period.
Treatment of Data
The profile (e.g. health condition, family situation and economic status) and services
(health and education) access status were treated using basic statistical methods
involving frequency distribution, percentage and mean. Data gathered during
the interview process to gather implications were processed using thematic
analysis of the information used in qualitative research design whereby patterns
of the information gathered were determined through data familiarization,
codes and themes. (Braun and Clarke, 2006).
Findings
The variable measured concerning the family situation yielded to 100% response
as compromised where 96% (108/112) responded highly compromised while the
remaining 4% moderately compromised. Majority justified their compromised
situation answer by the complexity of their life in terms of addressing the needs
of the childs health, education and finances together with other family issues
particularly the need for food, stable work and other family members daily
demands. The variable on economic status showed that 34/112 or 30% of the
respondents family belong to middle class, 45/112 or 40% within poverty line,
33/112 or 20% below poverty line.
The relationship of poverty and disability has been strongly established. The
former can cause the latter and the latter can be complicated by the former
(WHO, 2012). Children belonging to poor families are more likely to experience
the negative impact of their disability compared to families who belong to upper
societal class (World Bank, 2009; Walker, S. et al., 2007) given the risks which
Grantham-McGregor S et al. (2007) and Walker SP et al. (2011) identified.
Access to Services
The variables measured related to the status of access to services showed that
among the 112 respondents 66 or 50% have accessed and 66 or 50% have not
accessed health services. Top three reasons for non-access to health are attributed
to fear of expenses given financial limitations, transportation and lack of
knowledge on available medical experts who can render services that are
preferred by respondents to be free of charge. This can be related to the factor
that greatly influenced health access of which majority is achieved through
medical mission consultations and nearby city health hospital services giving
free consultations. Among those who have accessed health, 45/66 or 68% have
accessed it inconsistently and 21/66 or 32% consistently. Reasons for
inconsistency in health access showed barriers related to finances, transportation
and accessibility of nearby health facility as detriments.
Educational services variable on the other hand, showed that 60/112 or 54%
respondents have accessed education and 40/112 or 36% have not accessed it.
Respondents are able to access education through the free public school regular
and special education system. The top three primary reasons for non-access on
the other hand were due to the perception that education is not anymore
relevant for the condition of the child, expenses related to education, and
availability of family member or caregiver to attend to the daily demands of
bringing the child back and forth to school. Among those who have accessed
education, 35/60 or 59% have accessed it inconsistently and 25/60 or 41%
consistently. Inconsistency in access showed barriers related to finances,
availability of person to bring the child back and forth to school and lastly at
equal presentation are factors related to transportation and accessibility of
nearby school or educational facility as detriments.
Health and education services are crucial to better the lives of special children in
the community. Such children are prone to deprivation of basic treatment even
vaccinations (United Nations Childrens Fund, Innocenti Research Centre, 2007)
which is detrimental to their situation. Suitable health care and nutrition enables
them to live longer and helps them improve their developmental capacity (Kerac
et al. 2012).
As children with chronic health and dental issues grow older, education
introduced at an early age becomes fundamental in the success of their learning
and development (Education for all global monitoring report, 2007). The
problem, however, is that they are introduced late, sometimes denied of access
to schooling or does not stay long in the system when introduced (WHO, 2012;
Filmer, 2008). UNESCO (2009) noted that children who are not in schools are
most likely the once with disabilities. Special children in schools however are
often segregated and are receiving poor-quality learning opportunities (WHO,
2012).
done and if the finances are scarce which is still strongly subjected to the more
important priorities of food, shelter and work stability.
Successful life outcomes can happen if the parents and families of these children
experience economic security and services access (United Nations, 2010). Social
protection programs to overcome barriers will be crucial which requires
coordination between different servicing sectors (UNICEF, 2012 & Mont, 2006).
Early intervention action is a vital element embedded in the regular delivery
system (WHO, 2012).
Bonding of family members and children with chronic health and dental issues
are vital for the protection, development and welfare of these children. Bonding
starts with acceptance of own family members which later transcends to the
community level. It is important that services are made available to help parent
and family members gain proper and accurate knowledge and skills
(Simeonsson , 2000) to support and advocate the need of their child with
disability. Service providers must work closely with the families of these
children in coming up with culturally appropriate and effective programs
(Gabarino & Ganzel, 2000; Garcia & Magnuson , 2000; Lynch, & Hanson, 2004).
The most dominant call to spend for the services needed to help support
children with chronic health and dental issues alarm parents and family
members. Expenses will demand regular source of income and it will be
favorable if it is readily accessible. Financial stability and long-term career goals
are noted to be attained by family members who are working. All these factors
stress the importance striving for job security (Heibutzki, R., n.d.).
Given the profile, dynamics and situation of the family engaged with the child
with chronic health and dental issues, the framework to be used as a basis for
the development of the educational modules in 2017 will follow set guidelines
on its planning, writing, validation, publication and distribution phase.
The framework development process shall proceed with the planning phase
considering the following general considerations as guidelines: (a) advocates of
the De La Salle Health Sciences Institute College of Rehabilitation Sciences
(DLSHSI-CRS) for the services and education of children with disabilities will
spearhead the leadership of the planning group and shall involve the different
stakeholders for the program which include, but are not limited to, the parents,
teachers and local government representatives involved in the administration of
health and education services to the community, barangay health workers and
most especially the children with health and dental issues themselves who can
represent the group as direct recipients of care and education; (b) the utilization
of the collaborative leadership models as presented by Ryan Estis and associates
(n.d.) illustrated in Figure 2 and the collaborative model developed by the
Center for Creative Leadership (2016) as presented in Figure 3 to guide the
people involved in the program planning and development; (c) regular and
scheduled brainstorming sessions of the detailed platform of the program and
contents of the educational learning modules with primary goal to set the
schedule of tasks and outcomes desired given a timeframe set from planning to
publication and distribution phase;(d) selection of qualified educational module
developers which will serve as core group belonging in the fields of health,
dentistry and special education, (e) accurate documentation of inputs from the
members of the planning team which are validated in succeeding meetings and
converted into workable outputs given the outcomes of each session, and (f)
identification of potential sources of funding from the private and public sectors
to sponsor the project and all its requirements until it reaches the publication
and distribution levels.
The writing phase of the educational modules will be guided by the following
approaches: (a) selection of the members of the writing team spearheaded by
the experts identified by the core planning team to work on the contents of the
modules, (b) presentation of gratis-initiated writing offer to the identified
writing team members subject to the availability of funds for the project, (c)
official agreement among members of the planning and writing team on the
schedule of tasks and deadline of outputs given the assignments per group, (d)
use of the facilities and resources of the DLSHSI-CRS to facilitate the meeting
The validation phase of the educational modules will cover the following
guidelines: (a.) identification of experts outside the membership of the writing
team who will validate the contents of the modules, (b.) the expert validators
will be determined by both the members of the planning and writing team, (c.)
expert validators will comply with standard schedule of review and deadlines
set by the planning team, (e.) extent of module validation will be dependent on
the decision of the experts identified as validators which can cover pilot testing,
content, face and construct validation, and (f.) depending on the availability of
funding, expert validators are subjected to gratis-initiated service.
The publication phase of the educational modules will cover the following
guidelines: (a.) DLSHSI-CRS will need to set an agreement with the local
government units on the details and technicalities related to the publication and
ownership of the educational modules, (b.) both groups may consider external
agencies that can provide funding for the publication expense subject to set
guidelines declared by the sponsoring agency, and (c.) all final arrangements
pertinent to ownership and publication shall be duly stipulated in a
memorandum of agreement signed by all parties concerned in the planning,
writing and publication phases.
The distribution phase of the educational modules will cover the following
guidelines: (a.) DLSHSI-CRS and the local government units involved, where the
educational modules will be used, will set the detailed guidelines to promote
massive use and distribution of the educational modules, and (b.) the
Department of Education in the Philippines will be tapped and communicated
with concerning the use and integration of the educational modules in the basic
and special education programs of the public schools for use of teachers situated
in the locale where the modules will be distributed.
stability of the members of the family that serves as primary predictor for the
financial resources needed not just for the childs needs but primarily for the
basic needs of the family like food and shelter which remains to be dominantly
prioritized.
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The Author
Dr. Ma. Cecilia D. Licuan is currently the Director for Alumni
Services and Continuing Professional Education and Clinical
Preceptor for Physical Therapy Program at De La Salle Health
Sciences Institute (DLSHSI) where she is affiliated as a full-time
full professor since 1998. She also serves as one of the accreditors
of the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges
and Universities (PAASCU). She graduated with the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Physical Therapy in the same university in
1997, proceeded with the program Masters in Education major in
Educational Management at De La Salle University-Dasmarinas as a Highest Distinction
Awardee in 2007 and finished her Doctorate Degree in Philosophy major in Special
Education at the University of the Philippines Diliman in 2007 graduating as Academic
Excellence Awardee with her dissertation research nominated as Best Research Paper
during SY 2006-2007. Other than her full-time professor status in DLSHSI, Dr. Licuan is
also currently affiliated in other prestigious universities in the Philippines since 2006 up
to present as a graduate school part-time professorial lecturer given her expertise in the
fields of educational leadership and management as well as special education. She has
served as a part-time graduate school faculty in University of the Philippines Diliman
and St. Paul University-Manila and is currently still serving as part-time professorial
lecturer in De La Salle University Manila, De La Salle University Dasmarinas and
University of Perpetual Help System DALTA. Dr. Licuan is passionate in developing
health services and educational programs especially for children with disabilities. She is
a strong community service advocate in the Philippines and has written several
researches and scholarly works. This research paper which was presented in the
International Conference on Education and Business in January 2016 at Disney Board
Walk Conference Center in Florida, USA was awarded as Best Paper Presentation in the
cluster by Clute Institute as organizers of the event.
Introduction
As is known, there are many factors affecting good teaching, as
versatile they are the characteristic aspects of the teaching profession.
Among them, "the subject knowledge and the pedagogical-
methodological knowledge represent two fundamental pillars [...] as the
research in the field shows", but "the current cultural scene needs to
consider a further equally essential component: the technological
knowledge " (Messina, L., & De Rossi, M., 2015, p. 86).
Technological knowledge does not refer so much to the acquisition
of technical skills necessary to use traditional and digital devices, as to the
possibilities of use of such technologies in teaching. More precisely, it
refers to how to translate the potentialities therein in solving specific
pedagogical and teaching problems situated in given contexts and how to
develop situated knowledge of what technologies are able to do for those
who use them.
Starting from these considerations, I intend to propose some
models on the educational uses of technology, in which technological
knowledge is connected with pedagogical, didactic and subject
knowledge and and that that can form the basis for an equally integrated
instructional design.
Table 5: Learning types and types of activities that can be performed with traditional and
digital technologies.
Conclusion
A similar lack of paradigm in teaching, as that found by Lee
Schulman in the 80s, is perceived nowadays. Scholars who take a closer
inspection can see how, today, technologies for communication and
education themselves remember their own role in learning: that of new
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David Onen
Makerere University
Kampala, Uganda
Introduction
World over, the call for effective teaching and learning at all levels of education
is on the increase. Practically, the concern about ineffective teaching is not only
being raised by parents, but virtually all stakeholders in education including
school administrators, civil society as well as scholars. In higher education in
particular, the apprehension about using poor methods of teaching has equally
been raised by students. Yet, effective teaching requires making choices from a
repertoire of pedagogical strategies that do not only enhance learning, but also
promote the development of additional competences such as communication,
Historically, while several scholars seem to agree that the use of debate as a
pedagogical strategy occurred many years ago, there appears to be controversy
over who developed it and when it was first used. According to Vo and Morris
(2006), the use of debate might have been pioneered by Sophists and Aristotle.
But Darby (2007) and Hall (2011) believe that it is Protagoras of Abdera who
initiated using debate as a pedagogical technique around the 5th century.
Nonetheless, there is consensus that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy
emanated from ancient Greece well before it spread to other parts of the world.
However, as a pedagogical method, debate flourished during the 19th and early
20th century, before it somehow lost popularity and its use in schools actually
diminished (Zare & Othman, 2013). But the curiosity to use debate as a
pedagogy across the world again started in the 1980s. According to Darby
(2007), this renewed interest was premised on the philosophy that debate helps
to promote critical thinking, logic, and oral communication skills. This belief still
persists amongst educators up to the present day. As a result, the author
hypothesised that the use of debate to teach graduate students in education
courses is a worthy pedagogical tool to consider by those who teach (or lecture)
such students; thus, the genesis of this study.
Over the years, a number of scholars have investigated the role debate plays in
teaching, and how it can be successfully used to teach different disciplines in
different contexts. According to Shen (2015), debate has been successfully used
as a pedagogical strategy to teach several disciplines. For instance, while Fallahi
and Haney (2011), revealed that debate has been successfully used in teaching
psychology, Healey (2012) and Combs and Bourne (1994) respectively reported
the successful use of debate to teach geography, and marketing. In addition,
debate has also been found to be effectively used in teaching sociology (Green &
Klug, 1990), and more recently, in on-line teaching (Park, Kier & Jugdey, 2011).
However, many of these studies were conducted in the context of developed
nations. Moreover, most of these studies focused on investigating the use of
debate in teaching undergraduate students. This study, however, was focused
on examining the benefits of using debate in teaching graduate students
pursuing education-related programmes. Besides, the context of this study is
that of a developing nation; therefore, the researcher expected that the study
findings would fill this knowledge gap.
According to Vargo (2012), the results of several previous studies have revealed
that using debate to teach allows students to take responsibility for their own
learning since it grants the students the opportunity to prepare and present their
work to other fellow students. As such, its use as a pedagogical tool is in line
with the pedagogic theory which states that individuals learn well when they
study together and interact. But Zare and Othman (2013) add that using debate
to teach helps the students in many ways - including in how the students can
make use of library resources, think, analyse issues, and be able to present their
arguments in a logical manner. These imply that the use of debate as a
pedagogical strategy can help in developing other additional skills like research,
critical thinking and communication skills (Brown, 2015). This study was thus
intended to verify these claims in the context of graduate education.
In this study, three key concepts were focused on, namely: debate, pedagogy
and multi-skilling. Debate, according to Darby (2007, p.1), is an old teaching-
learning strategy that presupposes an established position, either pro or con, on
an issue, assertion, proposition, or solution to a problem. But Hall (2011, p.1)
defines debate as an education strategy that fosters clinical reasoning and
thinking skills as well as heightens awareness of attitudes, values and beliefs.
However, as a pedagogical method, debate enables students to express their
opinions over an issue from two different perspectives. This is done in order to
contradict one anothers argument (Chang & Cho, 2010). In this study, the
researcher focused on investigating formal debate organised for the purpose of
teaching a topic in a course in a classroom setting. The second major concept of
interest in this study was pedagogy. According to the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary (2016), the word pedagogy is used to refer to the method and practice
of teaching. It may also be looked at as the art or profession of teaching. In this
study, pedagogy was used to refer to the use of debate as a teaching method.
Finally, the study also focused on the concept of multi-skilling. The term multi-
skilling has different meanings depending on the context in which it is used.
According to Macquarie Dictionary (2016), multi-skilling refers to the situation
where individual workers are made to possess several skills that make them
versatile in a work situation. In that regard, a multi-skilled worker is one who
possesses or acquires a wide range of skills and knowledge that he/she can
apply to accomplish tasks well beyond the original training. In the context of this
study however, the term multi-skilling was used to refer to a range of skills that
a student was expected to acquire when taught using debate including class
participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills.
of student unrest. One source of student discontent has been over the manner in
which they are allegedly taught. Some groups of graduate students of the
College who had participated on different international exchange programmes
in which they reportedly were taught using diverse teaching methods including
debate, wondered why at CEES they were hardly taught using such techniques.
Yet, they claimed that debating would make their lessons interesting and could
improve on their presentation, public speaking and critical thinking skills. This
kind of complaint was amongst the factors that prompted the researcher to
conduct this study in order to verify what the rest of the other students and
academic staff think about such claims; hence, the genesis of this paper.
Research questions. The study sought for answers to the following research
questions: (1) how often are you taught your courses through debate as a
pedagogical strategy? (2) What is your perception about the benefits of using
debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your: (a) class
participation, (b) oral communication, (c) research, and (d) critical thinking
skills?
Literature Review
Theoretical Review. Theoretically, this study was underpinned by the social
theory of learning. The theory is attributed to the work of scholars such as Albert
Bandura, and the Russian teacher and psychologist, Lev Vygotsky (Bandura,
1977; Vygotsky, 1962). According to the theory, people often learn in a social
context (learn from each other); therefore, educators (or teachers) should learn to
construct a social environment where active learning can occur (Bandura, 1977).
In that regard, the main role of the teacher is to create an active community of
learners by enhancing social interactions and engagements. In addition, the
theory stipulates that culture is an important factor for knowledge creation
because it is through the cultural lens that individuals learn through their
interaction with one another (Vygotsky, 1962). In this study, the social theory of
learning was preferred because the researcher looked at using debate to teach as
an opportune moment for the teacher to create a social environment within
which individuals learn from each other through imitations, interactions and
engagements. It was therefore hypothesised by the researcher that through using
debate, a teacher would create an active learning environment and community
which should enhance not only the understanding of the concepts and issues
being taught and learnt, but also facilitate the development of additional
competences in the learners such as participation, oral communication, research
and, critical thinking skills, among others.
Regarding the roles that debate plays when used as a pedagogical strategy,
several studies have already revealed significant correlations between the use of
debate and the benefits that accrue from it. Fallahi and Haney (2011) for
instance revealed that the use of debate has been found successful in involving
in undergraduate students in the teaching-learning process. Berdine (1984)
supports that view but adds that the use of debate facilitates verbal participation
and better involves students in class. This is because, according to Snider and
Schnurer (2002), the use of debate discourages passive learning, and makes the
students play an active role in understanding what is being taught. In fact, the
benefits of using debate as a pedagogical strategy according to Green and Klug
(1990), is not only enjoyed by the debaters, but even members of audience due to
the post-debate discussions that often ensue. However, the majority of these
studies were focused on undergraduate classroom settings. This particular study
instead looked at the use of debate in the context of teaching graduate students.
According to Shen (2015), debate has also been found to improve learning
outcomes (p.1). For instance, one short-term benefit of debate has been found to
enhance knowledge acquisition because as Kennedy (2009) puts it, it enables
students to master what they have already been taught. However in the long-
run, debate helps students to gain better comprehension, application, and
critical evaluation skills when a controversial topic is presented for
discussion (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008, p.607). These same authors also add
that debate helps to improve students listening and public speaking skills, while
Combs and Bourne (1994) contend that it opens up opportunities to develop oral
communication skills; and Vo and Morris (2006) say it enhances creativity. All
these, and more, were some of the benefits of debate that this study intended to
re-affirm in the context of graduate education
.
Methodology
In this study, the researcher used the descriptive cross-sectional sample survey
research design, where both quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection and analysis were used. The descriptive design was preferred because
the study was aimed at investigating how the use of debate enhances the
learning outcomes of graduate students at CEES. The study specifically used the
cross-sectional survey design. This was intended to allow the researcher to
collect data from a cross-section of the study population at one point in time in
order to avoid wasting time returning to the field to collect additional data that
would make the process rather time consuming and costly if the design was
longitudinal in nature. In addition, using the design would help to generalise the
findings obtained from the sampled population to the targeted population of
graduate students pursuing masters and doctoral programmes in education as
well as the academic staff of CEES. Data were collected from 55 students and
four members of academic staff (two female and two male staff) drawn from the
College through survey and interview methods. The survey tool was adapted
from previous studies (Darby, 2007), and data analysis was conducted using
content analysis and descriptive statistical techniques.
Results
This study looked at how often the graduate students at CEES were
taught their courses using debate and whether the students perceived the
use of debate as a pedagogical strategy to enhance their class participation,
oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills. In this section, the
results of the study are presented in accordance with the research
questions that guided the investigation. But first, a description of the
characteristics of the student respondents in terms of their gender, study
programme and year of study is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of respondents by their background characteristics
The results in Table 1 indicate that of the 55 graduate students who participated
in the study, 60 percent (33) were males. The remaining 40 percent (22) were
females. This finding was in agreement with the enrolment records in the
Department of the Academic Registrar which showed that there were more male
students enrolled on the masters and PhD programmes at CEES than their
female counter-parts (Department of the Academic Registrar, Makerere
University, 2016). In terms of programme of study, masters students dominated
in the study (65.5% or 36). There were only 19 (34.5%) PhD students who
participated in the study. This was also in consonant with the enrolment data in
the Department of the Academic Registrar which revealed that there were more
masters students enrolled in the College than their PhD counter-parts. Finally, in
terms of year of study, the majority of the respondents were second year
students (25 or 45.5%). These were followed by students of first (21 or 38.2%),
third (5 or 9.1%) and more than 3 years (4 or 7.3%). The dominance of the second
and first year students respectively in the study was the result of their presence
on campus during the time of data collection. The third years and those on their
study programmes beyond three years were students who were engaged in
producing their dissertations and they were rarely on campus during such
times. Overall, the data for this study were collected from students pursuing
masters and taught-PhD programmes. Therefore, they were in position to
provide valid information regarding whether their teachers (or lecturers) use
debate to teach the different courses, and whether they perceived the use of
debate to enhance their class participation, oral communication, research, and
critical thinking skills.
During interviews, one senior lecturer acknowledged that he hardly uses debate
as a method of teaching. According to him, debating is time consuming, and
most times, it is difficult to ensure proper class control during debate. He also
reiterated that with debate, it needs a lot of prior planning on the part of both
the teacher and the students. He claimed that he has no such time to think of
and to plan for debating in his classes. Another lecturer, who said that she uses
debate to teach her students once in a while, said she does so because many of
these students are lazy. When you give them work to research on, they hardly
do a good job. According to her, this discourages me from frequently
employing debate to teach my classes. Another lecturer who teaches research
methodology also acknowledged limited use of debate to teach his course unit.
He attributed this to lack of sufficient time to enable me complete the course
The results in Table 3 indicate that on the item debate increases my class
participation, the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=45.5% and
completely true=25.5%) agreed that use of debate enhances their participation in
class with a mean response rate of 3.90, and a standard deviation of 0.84. But on
the issue of whether debate increases my interaction with course mates, the
majority were also in agreement with 43.6 percent rating themselves as mostly
true, and 25.5 percent as completely true with a mean response rate of 3.91, and
The results in Table 4 indicate that on the item debate helps to develop my
public speaking skills, the majority of the student respondents (Mostly
true=41.8% and Completely true=40.0%) agreed that debate develops their
public speaking skills with a mean response rate of 4.20, and a standard
deviation of 0.78. On the issue of whether the use of debate helps to build my
confidence to speak in public, the majority of the respondents were also in
agreement that using debate helps them build confidence in public speaking
with 47.3 percent rating their feelings as mostly true and 32.7 percent rating as
completely true with a mean response rate of 4.09, and a standard deviation of
0.80. On the issue of whether using debate enables me to communicate fluently
with others, again the majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true
(23 or 41.8%), and completely true (23 or 41.8%) that debate enhances them to
communicate fluently with other people with a mean response rate of 4.25, and a
standard deviation of 0.73. On the issue of whether the use of debate enables
me to persuade others to support my argument, the majority of the
respondents agreed that it is mostly true (20 or 36.4%), and completely true (20
or 36.4%) that debate helps them to persuade others with a mean response rate
of 4.05 and a standard deviation of 0.87. On the question of whether the use of
debate enables me to logically arrange my arguments, the majority of the
respondents agreed that it is mostly true (31 or 56.4%), and completely true (18
or 32.7%) that debate helps them to arrange their arguments with a mean
response rate of 4.22, and a standard deviation of 0.63. Overall, the majority of
respondents rated that it is mostly true (36.72%), and completely true (44.7%)
that debate enhances their oral communication skills with a mean response rate
of 4.16, and a standard deviation 0.76. This implies that appropriate use of
debate would make learners acquire better oral communication skills, other
factors notwithstanding.
During interviews with the academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of
senior lecturer pointed out that the use of debate practically engages students
in the teaching-learning process and since debating involves talking, it must
induce students to learn how to speak in public. Frequent participation in
debate therefore can enable individuals learn how to speak in public, the
interviewee added. Another lecturer who was also interviewed observed that
since debate makes students discuss issues from different perspectives, it helps
them learn how to persuade others to look at an issue from their perspectives.
This, the interviewee added, can be helpful in developing persuasion and
negotiation skills. Moreover, the interviewee also said, frequent use of debate
should help to reduce fears and anxiety that many individuals face when they
are made to speak in public especially to a large audience. In that regard, use of
debate as a pedagogical strategy makes students gain confidence in themselves
and in their ability to convince others.
The results in Table 5 indicate that on the item debate enhances my literature
search skills, the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=43.6% and
completely true=27.3%) agreed that debate enhances their literature search skills
with a mean response rate of 3.94, and a standard deviation of 0.83. But on the
issue of whether the use of debate enhances my organization skills, the
majority were also in agreement with 40.0 percent rating as mostly true and 14.5
percent rating their feelings as completely true with a mean response rate of
3.62, and a standard deviation of 0.83. On the issue of whether the use of debate
enhances my data collection skills, again the majority of the respondents rated
that it is mostly true (27 or 49.1%), and completely true (7 or 12.7%) with a mean
response rate of 3.62, and a standard deviation of 0.87. On the issue of whether
the use of debate enhances my analytical skills, the majority of the
respondents agreed that it is mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and completely true (10
or 18.2%) with a mean response rate of 3.75, and a standard deviation of 0.82. On
the question of whether the use of debate enhances my discovery skills, the
majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and
completely true (13 or 23.6%) with a mean response of 3.89, and a standard
deviation of 0.79. On the question of whether the use of debate increases my
skills for discussion, the majority of the respondents indicated that this is
mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and completely true (21 or 38.2%) that the use of
debate enhances their discussion skills with a mean response of 4.18, and a
standard deviation of 0.78. Overall, the majority of the respondents rated that it
is mostly true (43.94%), and completely true (22.43%) that the use of debate
enhances their research skills with a mean response rate of 3.83, and a standard
deviation 0.82. This implies that an appropriate use of debate should make
students acquire different research skills including the skills to review literature,
collect and analyse data and make concrete discussions.
The results in Table 6 indicate that on the item, debate develops my critical
thinking skills, the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=47.3% and
completely true=30.9%) agreed that debate develops their critical thinking skills
with a mean response rate of 4.00, and a standard deviation of 0.90. But on the
issue of whether the use of debate helps in organizing my thoughts, the
majority were also in agreement with 45.5 percent rating mostly true, and 27.3
percent rating completely true that debate helps to organize their thoughts with
a mean response rate of 3.98, and a standard deviation of 0.78. On the issue of
whether the use of debate helps me to prioritize information, again the
majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true (28 or 50.9%), and
completely true (9 or 16.4%) that debate helps them to prioritize their
information with a mean response rate of 3.78, and a standard deviation of 0.79.
On the issue of whether the use of debate helps me to form my opinions, the
majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (15 or 27.3%), and
completely true (26 or 47.3%) that debate helps them to form their opinions with
a mean response rate of 3.96, and a standard deviation of 0.84. On the question
of whether the use of debate enhances me to deconstruct the opinion of others,
the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (25 or 45.5%), and
completely true (15 or 27.3%) that using debate helps them to deconstruct others
opinions with a mean response rate of 3.87, and a standard deviation of 0.96.
Overall, the majority of respondents rated that it is mostly true (47.27%), and
completely true (25.82%) that debate enhances their critical thinking skills with a
mean response rate of 3.92, and a standard deviation 0.85. This implies that an
appropriate use of debate would make students think critically.
During interviews with the academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of
senior lecturer pointed out that the use of debate enables students to organize
their thoughts and set out what information to give out first or later. This, he
said, is helpful in strengthening their thinking abilities. Besides, the
interviewee observed that during debate, participants on either side listen
carefully to the arguments of their opponents which they often try to counter.
This shows that debate equips the participants with the ability to deconstruct
the opinions of others, the interviewee said. Such critical thinking abilities are
generally helpful to the individuals not only during debating, but even in
different life-settings.
Discussion
In this study, five key findings were made. First, that members of academic staff
(or lecturers) at CEES hardly employ debate to teach graduate students. This
finding is not strange. According to Darby (2007), the use of debate as a
pedagogical strategy started to decline across the world at the beginning of the
19th century and it was until the 1980s that the move to revive debating began,
again. Since then, the use of debate as a pedagogical tool has remained
intermittent in many classroom settings. But bearing in mind the numerous
benefits of debate, university teachers (or academic staff) need to think about the
need to effectively employ debate as a possible means of enhancing effective
learning where students would not ordinarily learn, but acquire other additional
salient skills including communication, critical thinking and research skills.
Second, the study established that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy is
perceived to generally enhance students class participation. This is in agreement
with the findings of many other scholars. For example, as Vargo (2012 points
out, debate engages the students in active learning because it provides them
with the opportunities to talk, listen, read, write and reflect as they approach
the course content (p. 3). In addition, earlier research has also shown that the
use of debate encourages class participation among those students that typically
do not talk in class (Darby, 2007). However, this can only happen if the teacher
(or academic staff) carefully assigns the roles different students play in debate.
Third, the study found out that using debate is perceived to help students
develop critical thinking skills. This is also in agreement with the findings of
many other earlier researchers. Darby (2007) for instance found out that debate
enhances active learning of students because according to him, debate
encourages talking, listening, and reflecting on what others say. According to
Omelicheva and Avdeyeva (2008), using debate to teach does not only enhance
the acquisition of basic knowledge on the subject content being discussed, but it
can enable students think harder and develop more critical thinking skills that
will not be used only for understanding the current subject matter, but for
solving other life-problems as well. This is because, debaters must critically
analyse the issues at hand if they are to ably oppose the other debating side. This
process of analysing issues helps to develop individuals oral communication
skills, and as Combs and Bourne (1994) put it, debating refines the listening
skills of the students who engage in it so that they are able to make effective
rebuttals. As a result, the use of debate enhances the development of critical
thinking skills in the participants. This, Combs and Bourne (1994) said, is true
not only for those that actively engage in debating, but even for those in the
audience. And this view is not far from that of this author.
Fourth, the study furthermore established that using debate is also perceived to
enhance students research skills. This is also in agreement with Vargos (2012)
findings where he argues that the use of debate makes participants search for
new materials (or points) from literature and other sources, and assemble them
for presentation to their opponents in a persuasive manner (Omelicheva &
Avdeyeva, 2008). As a result, debaters often acquire literature review,
organization, gathering information and discussion skills. All these skills are
very helpful to the learner when he or she later gets engaged in research work.
Finally, the study confirmed that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy is
perceived by both students and staff to enhance the development of students
oral communication skills. This is also in consonant with the findings of earlier
researchers who pointed out that debating engages students in talking,
defending and persuading others over the issues that are debated upon (Combs
& Bourne, 1994). Besides, debating helps participants deconstruct the opinions
of others as well as form their own opinions. These competences are helpful to
the debaters for gaining self-confidence and for making effective oral
communication. The findings of this study, however, are generally in consonant
with that of several other scholars; although, this study explored the use of
debate as a pedagogical strategy in the milieu of graduate education.
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Abstract. In this paper, the authors investigated how the Year Two
cohort of pre-service teachers in the primary specialization at the
University of Trinidad and Tobago linked the theory of constructivism
with practice in the implementation of their lessons during practicum. A
mixed method approach was adopted and the sample included 108
participants. Data were gathered using multiple methods such as
questionnaires, focus group interviews and reflections which facilitated
triangulation of data. Findings revealed that most participants are
familiar with the tenets of the theory of constructivism. Many pre-
service teachers have applied the principles during practicum but others
opted to engage in the traditional mode of teaching and learning.
Participants experiences are demonstrated in the following themes that
emanated: active learning, sharing ideas, student centred and
interactive learning, engaged in the learning process and learning by
doing. It can be concluded that while some pre-service teachers were
able to translate theory into practice, many of them found it challenging
to change from a traditional frame of reference.
Introduction
The literature revealed multiple definitions of constructivism with variations
based on the perspectives of various authors. This research focused on
constructivism as a theory which explains how each child constructs meaning
through the learning experiences provided by the teacher. The theory
incorporates cognitive, social and radical constructivism. The research explored
whether pre-service teachers have adopted a constructivist approach in teaching
and learning during their practicum.
to discern the extent to which the theory of constructivism was translated into
practice by pre-service teachers.
Literature Review
The Theory of Constructivism
There are multiple perspectives of constructivism such as cognitive
constructivism, social constructivism and radical constructivism. Many
definitions have been proffered including the following:
The central principles of this approach are that learners can only make sense
of new situations in terms of their existing understanding. Learning involves
an active process in which learners construct meaning by linking new ideas
with their existing knowledge. (Naylor & Keogh, 1999, p. 93)
Teachers function within frames of reference and they use these frameworks to
formulate their plans, interpret their experiences and respond to classroom
Cognitive Constructivism
Piagets (1970) cognitive constructivism proffers that learning is active cognizing
whereby each child constructs personal meaning through his/her experiences.
One of Piagets (1970) principles is that learning is an adaptive process whereby
children build on their previous experiences and this has implications for the
way in which information is presented by the teacher. Piaget (1970) postulates
learning by doing which suggests that teachers need to provide hands-on
experiences for students. The theorist believes that a learner assimilates and
accommodates new knowledge into his/her existing schema, thus information
is always reviewed and re-constructed in new ways (Selley, 1999; Tobias, &
Duffy, 2009).
For Piaget (1980), interaction means a cognitive subject that is dealing with
previously constructed perceptual and conceptual structures (von Glasersfeld,
1996, p. 5). Teachers must therefore provide meaningful activities which are
related to the real world, that is, students social, cultural and language
background to enhance cognitive development. However, while cognitive
constructivism has contributed substantially to effective teaching and learning,
a major critique levelled against the theory by observers such as Taber (2016) is
that it fails to address the issue of subjectivity.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism, advanced by the theorist Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the
collaborative nature of learning and the role of the cultural and social
environment. The theory advocates that learning takes place in a social
environment in which there is dialogue, discussions and problem solving
activities. Learning is seen as a social phenomenon and teachers employ
Radical Constructivism
Radical constructivists such as von Glasersfeld (1996) believe that each
individual makes associations and constructs unique interpretations but the
process of understanding is based on the persons subjective interpretation of
the experience, thus suggesting that even though an experience may be
identical, there is no way of knowing that the understanding or meaning
constructed is the same. Knowledge is constructed from experience, . . .
because they are individual constructs, one can never say whether or not two
people have produced the same construct (von Glasersfeld, 1996, p. 5).
Researchers such as Riegler (2015) argue that for radical constructivists, the
senses, which mediate the external, may not represent the configuration of
objects or even interactions in a unified way, which makes reality very
subjective.
Co-teaching
Co-teaching has been defined in multiple ways but for the purpose of this
research it involves team work of two persons to plan and implement lessons, as
well as assess a class of students. This type of co-teaching is also referred to as
team teaching where the members of the team co-teach alongside one another
and share responsibility for planning, teaching, and assessing the progress of all
students in the class (Cook, 2004; Titus, 2013). In order to utilize this method of
teaching while using constructivist principles, pre-service teachers
communicated, collaborated, built trust and creatively constructed lesson plans
with their peers. They became involved in cooperative learning activities
(Kagan, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Friend & Cook, 2010) to determine
teaching strategies and students activities in formulating their lesson plans. The
pre-service teachers shared responsibility, set mutual goals and ensured
combined ownership of the development and implementation of lessons.
principles in their classes and refine their technique and personal style
(Kennedy, 1999; Taber, 2016) throughout the field teaching exercise in the
classroom.
Research Questions
Instruments
This research adopted a mixed method approach (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004) including both a qualitative and quantitative methodology and design.
Mixed method research closes the gap between qualitative and quantitative
research (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). A questionnaire was used as the
instrument to collect data. The instrument was pilot tested to determine the
appropriateness of the items (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014) and some of
the questions were reworded for clarity which increased the validity of the data
collection procedure (Creswell, 2012). The items included fifteen questions
consisting of eleven yes/ no responses and four open ended questions. The
questionnaire was administered to 130 participants and 108 responses were
received. No coercion was used in the data gathering process as participants
were informed beforehand that participation was totally voluntary.
Focus groups interviews using structured questions were conducted with five
co-teaching teams to acquire one on one information about experiences. The
interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were
returned to the participants for verification of the data, thereby establishing
accuracy and authenticity (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Pre-service teachers also
Results
From the data, 96.2 % of the participants revealed that they understand the
principles of constructivism. When asked if the theory of constructivism
influenced their personal philosophy of teaching and learning 98.1% of the pre-
service teachers answered affirmatively and 1.9 responded negatively. A total of
81.48% of them stated that they applied constructivist principles in the
implementation of their lessons while 18.52% revealed that they neglected to do
so.
The majority of pre-service teachers, 90.7%, reported that they employed hands
on activities but 9.3 stated that they did not. The data showed that 89.8% of the
pre-service teachers used cooperative learning while 10.2% mentioned that they
omitted to do so, thus implying that they would have retained traditional
modes of teaching and learning. A significant number, 75.9% explained that
they utilized problem solving activities while 24.1% stated that they overlooked
the approach during practicum.
Questions %Positive %
responses Negative
responses
1. Have you been exposed to Constructivism as a 96.2 3.8
learning theory?
The team members of the focus groups explained their experiences as follows:
Team A
Learning was effective because we did not use chalk and talk teaching strategies.
We involved the students in active learning through the use of manipulatives,
guided instructions and guided questions. We also engaged them in peer activities
to promote peer tutoring and . . . peer assessment. We also activated their schema
about the concept by eliciting their previous knowledge at the beginning of the
class which is important for the students making meaning . . . with regard to the
concept and redounds to long term memory.
Team B
Learning was indeed effective because of the level of participation and enthusiasm
shown by students . . . sharing ideas. They were able to manipulate resources . . .
engage in discussion and peer learning . . . and the assessments were completed
with a high degree of accuracy by the majority of students.
Team C
Our lessons were very student centred and interactive with the additional support
of effective age appropriate resources. The lessons were student centred, eye
catching and most important informative. When higher order questions were
asked, the students responded brilliantly . . . and you realized the importance of
involving them in group activities.
Team D
Learning was effective because the students learnt from each other by exchanging
ideas on how to do the activity . . . they were engaged in the learning process . . .
We were able to assist all students by taking them from one level to the next
according to Vygotskys zone of proximal development.
Team E:
Learning was effective as the students were able to learn by doing, not by the
teacher telling them but by actively participating . . . based on student centred
and interactive learning.
Some reflections that students wrote, which are aligned with the themes that
emanated from the data, include the following:
3. Students were able to do the activities and were given the experience.
4. Students were more involved due to the new methods and the activities used.
5. The problem-based learning . . . and the constructivist strategies used were effective.
The findings revealed that all pre-service teachers are familiar with the theory
of constructivism. Secondly, a significant percentage used constructivist
learning principles and activities such as cooperative learning in their teaching
during practicum. In addition, five themes about pre-service teachers
experiences which emerged are as follows: active learning, sharing ideas,
student centred and interactive learning, engaged in the learning process, and
learning by doing. However, a number of the participants indicated that they
did not use constructivist principles of teaching and learning, for instance
problem solving, in the implementation of their lessons and did not create
activities for students to construct their own meaning. An outlier that
emanated from the study can be summarized in the following statement by
one participant: Students were able to answer questions and the learning objectives
were met . . . they understood the task because they did well in the evaluation. These
responses indicate that some pre-service teachers perceive teaching and
learning as product rather than process.
Discussion
While a majority of respondents are familiar with cognitive and social
constructivism, approximately twenty five percent are not familiar with
radical constructivism. This suggests that the concept of radical constructivism
(Reigler, 2016) has to be deconstructed during practicum so that pre-service
teachers have a holistic orientation to constructivism. Most of pre-service
teachers indicated that they used constructivist activities in the
implementation of their lessons, which means that they were able to translate
theory into practice. However, a minority continued in the traditional domain.
The implication is that some of the pre-service teachers continue to be
challenged with the translation of the theory of constructivism into classroom
practice. Others may still be steeped in the ideology of traditional teaching and
have difficulty applying constructivist principles of teaching and learning.
This may be attributed to the ways in which they were taught by their former
teachers (Kennedy, 1999; Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) or their frames of
reference.
Another explanation is that pre-service teachers modelled their cooperating
teachers who utilized traditional methods of teaching and learning. A further
suggestion is that the pre-service teachers found it easier to plan and deliver
Conclusion
For successful constructivist practices, there needs to be continuous reflective
practice and effective mentoring of pre-service teachers by practicum advisors
in collaboration with cooperating teachers. Practicum tutors need to engage
pre-service teachers in discourse to discern the difficulties of implementation,
issues of time constraints, limitations and other individualistic concerns.
Resistance to change from one frame of reference to another must be
interrogated and the necessary intervention strategies employed. One
suggested method to mitigate concerns and heighten transformation is to
engage pre-service teachers in simulated activities on a regular basis.
Continuity is required if constructivist practices are to prevail. Those who
used constructivist principles also need reinforcement to refine their teaching
skills. For the traditionalists, a consistent reflective approach is necessary if
beliefs are to be modified. Practice, observation, modelling and coaching need
to be conducted throughout the duration of the programme to facilitate
modification of pre-service teachers perceptions, to assist those who are
steeped in the transmissionist mode of teaching in the transition process, and
to ensure the continuation of constructivist principles for teaching and
learning.
Recommendations
The findings of this study imply that other pertinent aspects of classroom
implementation of pre-service teachers need to be investigated in order to gain
a deeper understanding of the issue of translating the principles of the theory
of constructivism into practice. To this end, it may be necessary to examine pre
service teachers early experiences in teaching and learning. This investigation
may clarify reasons for the continuation of the retention of traditional methods
of teaching and learning by pre-service teachers whilst on teaching practice.
During field teaching, pre-service teachers do spend a considerable amount of
time being supervised or mentored by cooperating teachers, thus it may be
Acknowledgement
We wish to acknowledge the contributions of all the pre-service teachers who
participated voluntarily in this research.
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psychologically conducive for learning. The way primary pupils perceive their
teachers in terms of effectiveness tends to influence their affective disposition in
the class room. Such perception can make the pupil cool and withdrawn or
lively and active in the class. Pupils that perceive their teacher as ineffective
tend to feel that there is not much they can learn from the teacher, and this
can ultimately affect their performance in the class. Learning under a teacher
one perceives to be effective prompts attention, participation, and good feelings
in the classroom. Hence a pupils perception of the effectiveness of the teacher in
front of him/her in a classroom situation tends to be governed by, to an extent,
the quality the affective and cognitive environment he/she has created in the
classroom.
Teacher effectiveness becomes a significant factor to which pupil easily
attribute their performance (Ee & Cheng, 2013; Hughes, 2012;Metto & Makewa,
2014). For example, according to Akiri and Ughurugbo ( 2009) "Poor academic
performance of students in Nigeria has been linked to poor teachers
performance in terms of accomplishing the teaching task, negative attitude to
work and poor teaching habits which have been attributed to poor
motivation (p.109).
In this study, teacher effectiveness as an important factor in classroom
climate was defined in terms of learners perception of their teacher's classroom
teaching behavior, teaching strategy; assessment behavior; provision of
feedback; effective use of visual media; and effectiveness in teaching English.
Theoretical Foundation
To Medley and Shannon (1994) teacher effectiveness exists in three
dimensions: (1) the
degree to which a teacher achieves desired effects on students; ( 2) the extent to
which a teacher has the requisite knowledge and skills; and (3) how a teacher
behaves in the process of teaching. While the first one incorporates mainly
affective behavior; the second one is mainly cognitive; and the third one
mainly psychomotor, with some component of both cognitive and affective
behavior. As key operators in a service industry good social foundation and
interpersonal skills are necessary skills that must be possessed by all teachers for
them to be effective in the classroom. Exhibition of these skills creates a
conducive classroom environment which enhances learning. For example, it is
difficult for a child to learn from a teacher he/she deems unfriendly. Teacher
training programmers tend to overlook this essential behavior of the teacher.
The nature of the classroom atmosphere determines the quality of the
relations, strategies and processes that goes on in the classroom of the classroom
and personal interaction is valued more by primary school students than
qualities related to teaching and learning (Jeffery, 2001, p. 2). Teachers
emotions therefore are considered to be important factors in teacher training,
development and practice because they affect teachers commitment, interest
and personal welfare (Jeffery, 2001). Personal interaction is an aspect of what
might be termed effective personality, which is a large component of classroom
climate.
Possession of necessary knowledge and skills is fundamental to
effectiveness in teaching
and a teacher is effective to the extent that he/ she exhibits these skills. An
effective teacher is one that is versed in the content to be taught and competent
in the skills to be imparted. Even if the teacher possesses very good
interpersonal skills and is very good in his/her subject matter but lacks the skills
on how to deliver the materials he she cannot be said to be effective (Nikolova,
Todorova, & Valcheva, 2006).
The extent to which a teacher possesses and exhibits these skills attracts
or repels pupils attention, participation and involvement in the classroom, and
tends to develop in them some favorable or unfavorable dispositions in primary
school classrooms. Such affective disposition may include perception of the
classroom as being conductive or nonconductive to learning; or the disposition
might engender difficulty in learning the subject or preference or lack preference
for group work. The deposition might also make learners to develop favorable
or unfavorable attitude towards the subject matter (Cole, 2008).
Research Hypothesis
The main hypothesis of the study is that pupil perception of teacher
effectiveness has a significant influence on their affective dispositions in primary
classrooms. This will be tested at
.05 alpha level.
Literature review
Akiri and Ugborugbos (2009) study with a population of Nigerian
teachers found that teachers who were rated as ineffective actually produced
students of lower academic ability. However, the difference found in the mean
performance of the students was statistically not significant. This agrees with an
earlier study by Adu and Olatundun (2007) which found that effective teacher
produced high performing students. Lamb, Schmitt and Cornotto (2010),
expressed the same sentiments when they observed that students ratings of
classroom processes correlate positively with teachers level of effectiveness.
Literature sources show that the learner is the main customer in the
educational system. The learning and teaching process cannot take place without
learners going to school and attending classes. For example, it was noted in
the day to day school activities. The United Nations (1989) recognized the need
for soliciting and implementing the learners views by publishing the
Convention on the Rights of Children (Resolution 44/25) that was ratified by the
General .Assembly of 20th November 1989. Article 12 of the Convention on the
Rights of Children (CRC) states that:
States Parties should assure the child who is capable of forming his or
her own views the right to express those view freely in all matters
affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in
accordance with the age and maturity of the child.
Therefore, there is evidence in the literature indicating that learners are
the main recipients of educational service provided within a country. Secondly
evidence seems to point to a situation where the learners views and ideals are
not adequately incorporated into mainstream decision making machinery. The
current study attempts to solicit learners views and perceptions regarding
teacher effectiveness and investigates how these perceptions influences their
attitudes towards school work.
Table 1
Sampling Guide
Urban school Remote school Total
Population (n) 15 39 54
Sample (n) 6 13 19
Sampling Ratio (%) 40 33 35
towards class (8 items). On the part of the teachers; learners perception of:
classroom teaching behavior (5 items), classroom assessment behavior (2 items),
teaching strategy (3 items), provision of feedback (3 items), effective use of
visual media (2 items), and effectiveness of teaching English language (7 items).
The researchers secured the permission to carry out the study under the
auspices of Examination, Research and Testing Division (ERTD) of the Ministry
of Education. The permission of the head-teachers and the teachers were secured
through a letter written in advance before the researchers visit. On each
appointed day, the researchers visited the schools and administered the
questionnaire to all Standard 7 pupils in each of the 19 schools in the study.
Table 2
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