N.F. Himma etal.

: Advances in polypropylene membrane preparation and applications19

Figure 13:Comparison between the wetting behavior of hydrophobic (A) and superhydrophobic (B) PP membrane.

[230]. The retention of feed solution compounds causes
formation of an additional barrier with a consequent
increase in the mass transfer resistance resulting in reduc-
tion of permeate flux [231]. The greater resistance contrib-
uted from fouling can then be indicated by increasing of
transmembrane pressure [232].
The mechanisms of membrane fouling are described
by fouling layer formation, formation of heterogenous
structures, physico-chemical interactions and pore nar-
rowing and constriction [233]. The extent of membrane
fouling is strongly determined by the interaction between
membrane surface and solute in solution. Examining the
forces of interaction between the particles (foulants) and
the membrane surface can be used to understand fouling
formation mechanism, which is best given by the classical
Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory [234,
235]. The DLVO theory states that the net particle-surface
interaction (or particle-particle) is the sum of the van der
Waals and the electrical double layer forces. The particle
and surface will have attractive interaction if they have
different charges. Conversely, the particle and surface will
interaction (e.g. hydrophobic interaction). Then, extended
DLVO (XDLVO) theory was proposed by van Oss and states
that the total free energy of interaction is the sum of the
Lifshitz-van der Waals force, polar interactions, electrical
double layer, and Brownian movement forces [236].
Recently, Choo et al. [237] investigated the extent of
fouling in terms of the surface free energy change during
the adsorption of foulants onto membranes, which is
derived as
G f = a + b dS (2)
where a and b, which depend on the surface properties
of foulants present in aqueous solution are given by
a=2A ( dF Wd -W ) and b = 2 A ( )
Wd - dF . dS , dF , and Wd
are surface tension in surface, particle and water phases
arising from nonpolar dispersion, which are derived from
the interfacial tension (SF, FW, and WS). The relation is
depicted in Figure14.
The surface free energy is a function of dF and dS . If
F > Wd , Gf will decrease with the increase in dS ; that is,
d

repulse one another if they have the same charges. the fouling would be more favorable with larger values of
The DLVO theory does not consider short-range inter- dS , whereas if dF < Wd , fouling tends to decrease with the
action, such as Brownian movement forces and polar increase in dS .

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