Professional Documents
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Leadership in Public Organizations,-The Jamaican Case
Leadership in Public Organizations,-The Jamaican Case
Introduction
The world is inevitably trapped into an interconnected web of geopolitical, economic, social and
cultural relevance. Global populations has ballooned to over 7 billion people as at October 31,
2011 and this has been equated by unprecedented advances and catastrophes in the natural and
manmade worlds. The phenomenon, most argued to be at fault, is globalization; the irrefutable
feature and form of the global village. Friedman (1999) stated that there are four main tenets of
affect the world in significant ways; it is process inevitability which has rendered innovation and
reform the new watch words of global business and governance. In response, most countries,
especially developing countries have been integrating innovative elements of new public
experimenting with UK-style executive agencies, including Jamaica, Singapore, Ghana and
Tanzania. The most common initiative apart from privatization and retrenchmentindeed,
perhaps the most common, given the patchy implementation of these other two elementsis that
enterprises.2
The intent of new public sector reform (PSR) in Jamaica has been articulated in the GoJs
Managing for Results (MfR), Ministry Paper 56/02 entitled Government at your Service:
Public Sector Modernization Vision and Strategy 2002-2012 which envisioned 100% of public
1
McAnany, Emile G. "Globalization and the media: The debate continues." Communication Research Trends 21, no. 4 (2002)., 4
2
Polidano, Charles. The new public management in developing countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and
Management, University of Manchester, 1999., 6
3
servants operating on the principles of executive agencies by the end of financial year
the reform processes of the GoJ to create self-sufficient agencies. It is, by far, one of the most
ambitious articulations of the GoJs Public Sector Modernisation Programme (PSMP). But, what
are the primary components that will affect the programme outcomes? Is there any claim in
strengthen the presumed realization of said vision strategy? Bass (1990) asserted that leadership
is often regarded as the single most important factor in the success or failure of institutions4.
Within this context, this paper will robustly interrogate leadership in public organizations, the
impact different leadership styles has on organizational outcomes and assess the extent to which
a focus on leadership is vital to public sector entities. This is within the wider framework of
relevant theoretical understandings that the attempt will be made to clarify any misconceptions
about new public leadership and localize the discussion on the impact of different leadership
of the labour force and the creation and management of public good and services. Depending on
the governing political ideology, there is varying layers of bureaucracy, private interest and
public regulations. To this end, Macionis and Plummer defined formal organizations as large,
secondary groups that are organized to achieve their goals efficiently5. Some theorists distinguish
between organizations, the institutions and organization, the process. However, both micro and
3
Cabinet Office, Government at Your Service: Public Sector Modernisation Vision and Strategy 2002-2012, Government of
Jamaica, Kingston (2002), 30
4
Pingle, Timothy. "Leadership practices of elementary school principals." Academic Leadership: The Online Journal 4, no. 2
(2006): 4., 7.
5
Macionis, J., and Ken Plummer. "Sociology: A Global Introduction, Harlow." (2005). , 169
4
macro theorists agree that there is some merit in organizational structures, which create
surrounding cultures and involve varying number of people for profit or public trust. A
Western society which plan, organize and coordinate the activities of the working class to
achieve some results6. Functionalist theories averred that such organization naturally involves
centralization and differentiation of leadership and authority; so that those who take
responsibility for coordinating the actions of many others must have a different status from those
However, in the general organization of people, resources and processes comes the creation of
public sector organizations for planned efficiency and collective goals and, of more importance
recently, managing for results (MfR). According to Drucker (1954), managing for results is a
tool of planning and control which relies on the idea that to get results, one needs to previously
clarify the organizations business and to define the objectives it intends to achieve8. This is a
core feature of present public sector organizations, irrespective of the level of organization.
There are four categories of public organizations, namely: international (or multistate entities or
partnerships); national entities owned by an independent state; regional bodies such as the South
East Regional Health Authorities (SERHA), that is, a province, actor of entity within a national
6
Michael Haralambos et al. Sociology: Themes and perspectives. HarperCollins Publishers, 2004, 21
7
Parsons, Talcott. The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1964.,
327
8
De Arajo, et al. "Implementing performancebased management in the traditional bureaucracy of Portugal." Public
Administration 87, no. 3 (2009): 557-573., 559/ Drucker, 1954.
9
Public Sector Definition, The Institute of Internal Auditors, December, 2011 https://na.theiia.org/standards-
guidance/Public%20Documents/Public%20Sector%20Definition.pdf.
5
As stated earlier the objective of the PSMP in Jamaica is to have, at least, the majority of public
servants operating within the principles of innovative corporatisation. Campbell stated that the
exercises necessary to overhaul the public sector 10(Campbell, 2017). The GoJ has been
criticized for reports of poor service, inefficiencies, waste and gross mismanagement. The
privatisation and corporatisation of some civil service departments therefore has been hoped to
be the leader of changes in the public sector11, to advance sector outcomes through self-
financing, quality standards of output through bonuses, and maintaining quality staff by hiring
capable staff (Chand and Moene 1999). This process has been both criticized and complemented
in some circles for overall impact, that is, either above or below expectation. In almost all
Understanding leadership
Certainly, a good understanding of leadership is important to the appreciation of the impact of
PSR, and its impact on organizational performance. In their review of literature on leadership,
Stogdill (1974) and Bass (1990) concluded that there are almost as many definitions of
leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept 12(Stogdill 1974, p.
259; Bass, 1990, 11; Yukl, 2002, 21). Several studies suggest that leadership must be defined in
relations to traits, behaviours, influence, span of control, interaction patterns, role relationships,
and occupation of an administrative position, etc (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2002; Kayworth and
Leidner, 2002; Craig Higgins, 2008). Therefore, leadership has broadly been defined as the
10 Campbell Edmond. Holness To Rightsize Public Sector The Jamaica Gleaner (2017, January 6) http://jamaica-
gleaner.com/article/lead-stories/20170106/holness-rightsize-public-sector
11 Polidano, Charles. The new public management in developing countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and
creation and management of organizational culture13. It has been noted that it is an ambiguous
concept to define and measure as a scientific construct. In attempting to resolve the definition of
leadership, Yukl (2002, 21) noted that the definition must reflect the assumption that it involves
a process whereby intentional influence is exerted over other people to guide, structure, and
leadership and management are used synonymously to refer to the persons at the helm of an
organization, and particularly those with the distinguished aura of respect and authority for
argued that the goal of any public organization is to serve its citizenry to the best of their ability,
engendering trust and confidence and producing results. Therefore, all managers are accountable
to the public as to how they steward public funds and information. Henceforth, these principles
both define and are defined in the art of good public leadership. One writer concluded then that
leaders must have the ability to recognize the value of human capital and allow those talents to
be utilized for the betterment of the organization. Admittedly, leadership can become a balancing
act between becoming an active team member and taking charge of overall operations 15.
Theories of leadership
Without question, the claim can be made that leadership is critical to organizational outcomes,
even in public entities. Researchers including Yukl (2002) claimed that leadership style is the
process of communication designed by a leader to influence his or her followers to produce the
13 (Schein, 1992, 1)
14
Yukl, Gary A. Leadership in organizations,2002, 21
15 Michael DeRosia, The Five Core Values Of Public Administration?, Gov Loop (blog), March 9, 2010,
https://www.govloop.com/community/blog/the-five-core-values-of-public-administration/
7
changes needed to achieve the organizations goals. The literature further contends that among
environment that can affect outcome (Pahi and Hamid, 2015). Typically, leadership styles from
the behavioural perspective include democratic, autocratic and laissez-fair (Yukl, 2002) but new
transformational (Bass 1985; Yukl, 2002; Pahi and Hamid, 2015). Furthermore, a well-known
Situational Leadership Model was developed which demarcated four styles of leadership:
autocratic (telling), democratic (selling), encouraging and social (participating), and laissez-faire
style (delegating)16. Overall, Kayworth, and Leidner. (2002) asserted that there are
The theories of leadership are numerous, and perhaps as dynamic as the definitions of leadership.
Contemporary writers summed leadership into six categories. These include Trait Theory, Skills
Transactional Theory and Servant Leadership Theory. Another articulation expressed the
categories of leadership as being inclusive trait theory, behavioural theory, contingency theory,
power and influence theory, cognitive theory, and symbolic and cultural theory (Bensimon,
Neuman & Birnbaum, 1989). Using this grouping, behavioural theory seeks to explain leadership
in terms of what they do, while Trait Theory explains leadership from the position of what
leaders are. Yukl (1998, 2002), indicated that the most popular contingency theories include
Path-Goal Theory, Situational Leadership Theory, Multiple Linkage Model, LPC Contingency
Model, Cognitive Resource Theory, and Normative Decision Theory. Contingency theories
provided insights into effective leadership in differing situations by noting that leadership
16
Tatlah, Ijaz Ahmad, and Muhammad Zafar Iqbal. "Leadership styles and school effectiveness: empirical evidence
from secondary level." Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 69 (2012): 790-797., 792
8
effectiveness is dependent on a match between leadership style and the situation (or
contingency). According to Yukl, power and influence theory seeks to explain leadership
effectiveness based on the amount and kind of power and influence possessed by a leader and
Transformational Leadership
In this analysis, the emphasis goes beyond simple traditional perspectives to understand
leadership discourse largely displaced the dominant trait and behaviour approach17. This focus
on MfR, or results-based management -sometimes differs among private and public entities- but
is the single most critical tenet in organizational outcomes. In fact, it is important to recall that
Burns is responsible for coining the phrase transformational leadership as a modern approach
that transformational leadership can transform employees attitude towards the organization and
their collective performance.18 Clark et al. (2009) in a study in the service sector found that
towards quality outcome.19 The transformational leader is known for generating a strong sense of
commitment among their employees. This has resulted in the increase of productivity and is,
encouraging and social and thus seen as agents actively participating in and owning the
17
Lo et al. "The relationship between leadership styles and organizational commitment in Malaysia: role of leadermember
exchange." Asia Pacific business review 16, no. 1-2 (2010): 79-103, 94)
18
Pahi, M. H., K. A. Hamid, U. Ahmed, and W. A. Umrani. "The unresolved dilemma of leadership-commitment relationship: A
proposed framework." Business and Economics Journal 7, no. 1 (2015): 2-7.
19
Ibid 18
9
which the leader is participative in organizational life and adopts democratic leadership
principles.
Key theorists defined transformational leadership as more than simple charisma or ensuring
followers compliance, but rather a relationship of mutual simulation and elevation that
converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents21. Of significance is
the general notion that transformational leaders can enhance employees organizational
commitment which in turn create loyalty, maintain low levels of staff turnover. In the public
sector, this has major implications for Results Based Budgeting, priority planning and human
capital development, at the level of both the individual entity and the national level. Further, a
study by Dunn, Dastoor, & Sims in 2012 revealed that transformational leadership has
leadership is positively associated with customer service quality (CSQ). From the findings it is
clear that transformational leadership has potential ability to influence the attitudes of
subordinates; that ultimately leads them towards becoming committed to quality of service. 22
Transactional Leadership
On the other hand, transactional leadership has as its strength, the emphasis on implementing
performance. It was asserted that transactional leaders give importance to exchange relationship
between followers and leaders whereby leader are willing to satisfy the followers needs in
exchange for their performance, that is, meeting organizational goals. This form of leadership
20
Tatlah and Iqbal, 2012
21
Burns, James M. "Leadership. NY." (1978)., 4
22 Pahi and Hamid, 2015, 290
10
works best in a supportive and bureaucratic culture which inspires their followers towards
commitment to the organization23. Several researchers suggested that this type of leadership has
transactional leadership relies on human relations to lubricate human interactions 24(Emery and
Barker, 2007; Homkes, 2014). Thus, it is theorized that transactional leaders highlight work
standards, and task-oriented goals largely focus on task completion and employee compliance. 25
This type of leadership relates with employees through rewards resulting in improvements in
productivity. It supports structures and systems that maximize efficiency, and guarantee short-
piloting of governmental bodies goes beyond encouragement and transactions. In these cases
where leadership with the capacity to make lasting impact and mobilize innovative reforms is
required, the appropriate form of leadership is that which is both integrative and visionary. It is
automatic that for public mangers to be successful, they must have a vision of what they want to
achieve, and effectively convey this to the group that they lead. Cheryl Mabey in her Making of
the Citizen Leader (1992) leads the crusade for visionary leadership. The emphasis here is on the
capacity of the leader to formulate the future direction of the organization and to effectively
communicate this vision to others. This integrative approach to leadership goes beyond normal
leadership concerns to build environments which improve performance through enabling critical
tactical in their operations in order to effectively manage national resources efficiently. Studies
in OECD countries show that this sort of management represents a paradigm shift in the public
sector impacting organizational structures, operational and the overall way of thinking of
employees. Naturally, an encouraging leader with vision has the charisma to create a positive
attitude towards performance in the group that they lead. Therefore, integrative leadership
surrounds leaders who conceptualize and articulate their vision by focusing on the use of the
correct management systems and identifying all the potential leaders in the public sector to
Using the Triple bottomline (TBL) as the new baseline for organization planning and
performance, the success of any entity or the failure thereof is usually wrapped up in discussion
of leadership effectiveness. Bass (1990) asserted that leadership is often regarded as the single
most important factor in the success or failure of institutions. The globe is now focusing on the
sustainable agenda. This is underscored by the 1994 assertion by Elkington that entities should
be accountable to the three baselines of: Profit, planet and people. Consequently, the sustainable
business model is, in many respects, the new benchmark for global industries, multinational
corporations and other players in the global market place who are increasingly challenged to
26Moynihan, Donald P., and Patricia Wallace Ingraham. "Integrative leadership in the public sector: A model of performance-
information use." Administration & Society 36, no. 4 (2004): 427-453., 428
12
effective leaders demonstrate the capability to deal with paradox and contradiction by
performing multiple leadership roles simultaneously (behavioral complexity)... act in a
mentoring role and exhibit a high degree of understanding (empathy) [and] are also able
to assert their authority without being perceived as overbearing or inflexible. Finally,
effective leaders are found to be extremely effective at providing regular, detailed, and
prompt communication with their peers and in articulating role relationships
(responsibilities)27
At the core of this discussion on global competitiveness, sustainable innovation and PSR is the
role of leadership. The emphasis on NPM in OECD countries has been observed to include some
common realities, namely: a great concern for results, more flexible organization, clearly defined
detailed set of observable activities that can then be used as a basis of comparison for leadership
effectiveness. In many instances, governments are now using frameworks for performance
measurement which means that different sets of performance measures, related to the different
activities and goals, are developed and applied at each level of the organization for it to perform
performance measurement led by public mangers. However, the presence of varying layers of
bureaucratic characteristics in the public sector can sometimes reduce the efficiency of
27 Kayworth, et al. "Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams." Journal of management information systems 18, no. 3
(2002): 7-40.
28 De Arajo, et al. "Implementing performancebased management in the traditional bureaucracy of Portugal." Public
The literature confirms a growing consensus in managerial discussions that reflect the true
and effective monitoring of the process for desired outcome. Hence, Bass described idealized
influence as a style of transformational leadership where the leader behaviour results in the
subordinate identifying with the leader, their vision and involvement in the organizational
growth. Ideally, the leadership style that will be most effective should integrate certain personal
Effective leadership gives credence to total quality management (TQM). Important to the
related to its output31. It is an ongoing processing, monitoring and adopting which proper an
automated continuous response to global best practices in governance and administration. The
underlying tenets of TQM and leadership are synonymous to include quality planning, quality
control and quality improvement32. In public entities in Jamaica, this is demonstrated in the
introduction of strategic business and operational plans, results-based based and performance
Therefore, ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) engage in rigorous planning sections to
ensure that organizational objectives are defined and resources are organized in the process of
results based management. Unfortunately, this third wave of NPM remains somewhat infantile in
31 Westcott, Russell T., ed. The certified manager of quality/organizational excellence handbook. ASQ Quality Press, 2013.
32 Kaynak, Hale. "The relationship between total quality management practices and their effects on firm performance." Journal
of operations management 21, no. 4 (2003): 405-435.
14
Jamaica, therefore, the true extent of its success or failure cannot be rigorously interrogated as
yet.
As a consequence, the type and quality of leadership will invariably affect the organizational
culture that is formed and the resulting legacy. Roberto Goizueta, renowned chairman and chief
executive of Coco-Cola understood this principle and it allowed him to make his lifelong quest
of making Coco-cola the best company in the world. Upon his sudden death, the vision
continued and observers noted that perhaps no other corporate leader in modern times has so
beautifully exemplified the American dream. He believed that in America, all things are
possible... And because of his extraordinary leadership skills, he helped thousands of others
Upon his death, the extent of his influence was demonstrated in the fact that when he took over
the company in 1981, it was valued at $4 billion but he transformed it into a $150 billion
enterprise through leadership that bought the idea of TQM and effectively sold it to all the
stakeholders. Goizuetta in his expert exemplification of the Law of Legacy, trained and
strengthened individuals with talents, nurtured their creativity and engendered a climate wherein
the innovative principles of transformational leaders could produce exceptional results. The
secret to his success rested in the fact that he believed in human resources, groomed their
potentials and equipped them to manage leadership. In principle, his approach to leadership
created a legacy through the creation of a leadership culture on one hand, and the creation of a
33
Maxwell, John C. The 21 irrefutable laws of leadership: Follow them and people will follow you. Thomas Nelson Inc, 2007.,
216).
15
Conclusion
Conclusively, the evidence overwhelmingly points to the fact that leadership and management
can be used interchangeably to refer to those who manage the process of organization. There are
essentially six theories of leadership, with each questioning the robustness of the predecessor. In
the global village, the role of leadership is central to the understanding of organization and more
importantly to the organizational outcomes of public entities. With the focus on total quality, it
goes without saying therefore that public management has been transformed into a world of
public measurement. The new paradigm for the administration of public affairs, in Jamaica along
with numerous other countries, includes MDAs which now subscribe to principles of
In such instances, transformational leaders, more than transactional leaders, actively influence
organizational culture and by strengthening or changing the culture of the organization are able
to achieve better results. These leaders take responsibility for TQM and output, and are therefore
keen regulators of the influences on employees motivation and performance. At the heart of
public sector reform and modernization in this country, is considerable attention being placed on
the most crucial element, that is, the role of leadership as the rudder and the flagship that lead the
The resounding conclusion is that the style of leadership differs from one circumstance to
leadership traits, presumed to best fit the situation, varying degree of power and . It is also well
argued that the management style that brings more logical, rational yet innovative approach to
the organization is most likely to be effective. In the general public sector, this is a type of
integrative leadership that is both encouraging and transactional. The relevance and importance
16
of leadership cannot be overemphasized -in a geopolitical climate that involve scarce resources,
tightening fiscal space, international scrutiny and persistent calls for public efficiency,
transparency and accountably- in the managing of public assets. The future of competitiveness
for developing countries is no longer defined as the struggle to remain competitive in current
markets, but primarily as the struggle to be innovative leaders and the creation of new markets,
underpinned by sustainable agenda. It is at this leader that the focus on leadership is most critical
to public bodies, especially in countries like Jamaica where there is renewed focus on sustainable
economic growth and debt reduction, macro-economic stability and fiscal prudence.
17
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