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CIRIAJ
CIRIA is the Construction Industry Research and
Information Association. It is a non-profit-
distributing, private sector organisation carn-ing out
research and providing information for its members.
who include all tYpes of organisations concerned with
construction, including clients, professional practices.
contractors, suppliers, educational and research establishments.
professional institutions, trade associations and central and local
government.
'ft,
Report 144 1997
This report explainsthe basic principles and methods of the several techniques of
pile integrity testing, in particular the low-strain acoustic methods of echo and
frequency-response testing and cross-hole sonic logging. These methodsand their
use are set out in the context of the contractual situations in which they are used
as a means of confirming that piles have been satisfactorily constructed and
installed. Recommendations are made: forthe integration of control testing by
these methods into the contractual framework of responsibilities and programmes:
forthe reporting of the test results and their interpretation; and for the application
of test methods to different types of pile and circumstances. There is an overview
of possible pile defects and of the many options for testing piles, whether by
direct means such as load tests, or indirectly by different types of investigation.
Turner. M J
integrity testing in piling practice
Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CIRIA Report 144, 1997
C CIRJA 1997
ISBN: 0860174735
ISSN: 0305 408X
Published hs' CIRIA. All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any other means, including photocopying and recording. without
the written permission of the copyright holder, application for which should be addressed to the
publisher. Such written permission must also be obtained before any part ofthis publication is
stored in a retrieval system of any nature.
Kevwords
Piling, pile testing, integrity testing, pile defects, control testing, low-strain tests, dynamic
load tests, acoustic tests, piling specification.
Reader Interest Classification
This report was issued as Core Programme Funders Report 28, in February 1995,
to Core Programmesponsors/project funders. Since its initial issue it has been
subject to minor correction.
2 ClRIAReportl44
Foreword
Following CIRIA's usual practice, the research was guided by a Steering Group
which comprised.
CIRIAReportl44
Acknowledgements
CIRIA and the author are grateful for the help given to this project by the
funders. the members ofthe Steering Group and by the many individuals who
were consulted. Particularthanks are due to Mr T W 1-lulme ofthe Mass Rapid
Transit Corporation (MRTC) of Singapore. Mr N J Shirlaw and
Dr S K Buttling, both formerly with MRTC in Singapore. Mr C Baker of STS
Consultants. Dr A Caiserman and Professor K Preiss of Ben Gurion University.
Mr J Chick of Westpile Ltd, Mr Kightle of Testal Ltd. Mr P Middendorp and
Mr F Reiding of TNO-IBBC, Dr F Rausche of Pile Dynamics Inc and
Mr J Seaman of Ove Amp & Partners.
The death occurred in late 1992 of M Jean Paxiuet ofthe Centre Experimental de
Recherches et d'Eudes du Btiment et des Travaux Publics (CEBTP). M Paquct
was one of the leading European researchers and contributors to the techniques
of non-destructive testing ofpiles, with work spanning back to pioneering
papers in the 1960s when the techniques were in their infancy. He and his team
gave great help to the author. It is hoped that this report takes the understanding
and usefulness of the techniques another step forward.
4 CIRIAReportl44
CIRIA also gratefully acknowledges the sources ofthe following illustrations
used in this report.
CIRIAReportl44 5
Reader's Guide
This reportis for use by a range of readers of differing responsibilities and interests in
the satisfactory installation of piles and piled foundations. Frequently the engineers
dealing with the commissioning. or results of nondestructivepile testing have only a
passing knowledge of current piling and testing techniques. All too often, specifiers
and users of nondestructivetesting do not appreciate the careful planning that is
needed. Confusion arises when the contract requirements and responsibilities for
undertaking non-destructive testing are not clear.
The report therefore sets out to provide information at all levels, from a generalised
overview of the subject to detailed descriptions of the theon and practice of the
various techniques that can be employed.
Section 1 introduces the subject and provides classifications for both the tpes of
testing. and the problems that arise in pile construction. It is background reading for
all users.
.Sections 2 and 3 provide guidance on what tests and investigation methods are
available and which are appropriate for investigating particular types of defect.
Sections 4 to providemoredetailedtreatmentsof particulartesting methods currently
in general usc in the UK. Section 5 covers the tests methods usually termed integrity
testing and most widely used.
.S'ec!ion.c , and
9 10 consider the integration of non-destructive testing into the
contractual process and provide guidance on when the tests should be undertaken, who
should undertake them and how the testing contract should be set up. These three
sections describe the essentials of good practice.
The following is a guide to where in the report the busy reader will find the
information that is needed:
To understandwhy testingmay be Read Section 1 and Appendices A
required mid what tests are available, and B.
To find out which tests are appropriate. Read Sections 1. 2 and 3 and Appendices
A and B.
To find out more about the theon of For direct testing methods, read Sections
testing. 2 and 7: for indirect methods read
Sections 3. 4 andlor6,
To find out more about the practical For direct testing methods, read Sections
details. 2 and 7: for indirect methods read
Sections 3 and 5
To arrangea contract for non-destructive Read Sections MY and 10.
testing.
To understand who is responsible for Read Sections M.9 and 10.
what under the contract.
To understand the interpretation by the Read Section 9.
testing specialist.
6 CIRlAReportl44
Contents
Figures
Tables
Notation
Glossary
2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
.
Abbreviations
NON-DESTRUCTIVEPILE TESTING
Why non-destructive testing is undertaken
The selection of appropriate techniques
Classification of testing techniques
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.6. 1
1.6.2
Direct examination techniques (see also Figure 1.2)
Indirect examination techniques (see also Figure 1.3)
Problems in pile construction
Pile features resultingfrom construction problems
The detection of different pile features
Direct techniques
Indirect techniques
Selection of suitable test methods
Synopsis of Section 1
References cited in Section 1
2.5
2.6
Construction records
Static load testing
Dynamic load testing (see also Section 7)
Direct methods within the pile
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
Drillingwithinthepile
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) inspection
Calliper logging
Inclinometer techniques
Water or air testing
Otherdirect methods
Excavation
Extractionofapile
Sounding or probing - outside the pile
Sounding or probing - within the pile
Drilling or boring - outside the pile
2.5.6 Integral compression testing
Synopsis of Section 2
11
15
16
19
25
27
28
28
30
32
34
34
35
40
40
43
45
47
53
54
54
58
65
71
71
74
76
77
78
79
79
82
82
83
84
85
86
4
INDIRECT TESTING METhODS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Low-strain integrity testing
SoRic logging
3.2.1
3.2.2
Cross-hole sonic logging
Single-hole sonic logging
High-strain integrity testing
Other methods
3.4.1
3.4.3
129
130
137
143
143
148
153
153
161)
168
4.4.4 Pile head dynamic stiffness 169
4.5 The linkbetweentime- and frequency-based measurements 170
4.6 Synopsis of Section 4 172
References cited in Section 4 173
8 CIRIAReportl44
6 CROSS-HOLE SONIC LOGGING .208
6. 1 Theoretical background 208
6.2 Basis of the method 209
6.3 Test procedures 210
6.3.1 Preparation 210
6.3.2 Testing 210
6.3.3 Test sequence 211
6.3.4 Positioning ofprobes 211
6.3.5 Layoutand design of tubes 212
6.4 Data capture and processing 215
6.5 Properties of the pile that can be deduced from the test results 216
6.5.1 Inhomogeneities in the pile section 216
6.5.2 The horizontal extent of anomalies 220
6.5.3 Anomalies near the base ofthe pile 220
6.5.4 Characteristics of the pile toe 223
6.6 Limitations or restraints upon interpretation of the tests 223
6.6.1 Interpretation techniques 223
6.6.2 Sensitivity of the test 224
6.6.3 The detection of an anomaly 227
6.6.4 Age of concrete under test 228
6.7 Synopsis of Section 6 229
References cited in Section 6 229
References 316
10 CIRIAReportl44
Figures
Figure 1.1 Classification of pile examination methods 31
Figure 1.2 Direct examination techniques 33
Figure 1.3 Indirect examination techniques (a) internal 36
Figure 1.4 Proposed nomenclature for pile features or defects 39
Figure 1.5 Typicalexternal causes resulting in type B fractures 41
Figure 1.6 Typical type 'C' features within a pile 41
Figure 3.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole sonic logging system 102
Figure 4.8 Impact of elastically connected spheres with end restraint 136
Figure 4.15 Wave propagation through a prismaticrod loaded at one end 145
Figure 4.17 Typical simplified free end responses for time-based tests 151
Figure 4.18 Typical simplified fixed-end response for time-based tests 152
12 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 4.23 Typical idealisedgraphof maximum pile-head velocity, against
frequency 157
Figure 4.24 Typicalidealised frequency-response curve 157
Figure 4.25 Illustrative Fourier analysis of a square wave pulse 160
Figure 4.26 Idealised frequency-response curve, free-end condition 161
Figure 5.3 Sonic echo test: pile-head response versus depth 179
Figure 5.4 Sonic echo test: time-dependent amplification 180
ClRIAReportl44 13
Figure 6.3 Typical tube layouts for sonic logging 212
Figure 6.5 Use of inclined test line for horizontal feature 213
Figure 7.5 Force (from strain) and force (from velocity x EAIc)
measurements at pile head 242
Figure 7.8 Effect of soil resistance on force and velocity x EA/c graph 244
Figure 7.9 Effects of intermediate change of section on force and velocity
EAt/c graph 245
Tables
Table 1.1 Suitabilityof the various techniques to detect pile
construction features 42
Table 1.2 The applicability of visual examination 47
Table 1.3 The applicability of load testing 48
Table 1.4 The applicability of external techniques 49
Table 1.5 The applicability of internal techniques 50
Table 1.6 The applicability of remote techniques and investigative
drilling, boring and probing 52
Table 2.1 Recommended records to be kept duringpilling 56
Table 5.1 Limiting values of aspect ratios encountered in practice 200
Table 9.1 Proposed classification of low-strain integrity test signals 285
Table B.1 Suggested classification of construction features and
defectsin piles 333
ClRIAReportl44 15
Notation
16 CIRIAReportl44
N mechanical admittance (s/kg or rn/sN)
P maximum value of Vmax/Fmax from frequency-response curve
q elastic or recoverable movement of pile (quake)
Q minimum value of Vma(/FmaXfrom frequency-response curve
r radius of pile (m)
0 earthing resistance (ohm)
R Total resistance of a pile to penetration under a dynamic load (N)
electrical resistance of concrete
RD dynamic resistance of a pile (N)
RD(max) maximum ultimate dynamic resistance of a pile
Rmax maximum ultimate resistance of a pile to penetration under a
dynamic load
R ultimate static resistance of a pile (N)
electrical resistance of soil
Rs(max) maximum ultimate static resistance of a pile
R(t) total resistance of a pile at time,!
ultimate static resistance of soil beneath the pile toe under a
dynamic load (Smith, 1960)
s permanent set of the pile (mm)
electrode spacing (m)
S slope of signal skipping profile (sonic logging)
5' flexibility of pile head (miN)
/ time (s)
ii axial displacement ofa pile segment or a point on the pile shaft
Vd particle velocity at a point associated with a downward-travelling
force wave (mis)
vh particle velocity at the pile head (mis)
particle velocity at the pile toe (mis)
particle velocity at a point associated with an upward-travelling
force wave (mis)
V voltage drop (my)
v vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
max maximum vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
maximum vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
Vpen velocity of penetration of the pile with respect to the soil (SIMBAT
forrnul a)
vertical velocity of the pile at the point of measurement at time. i
weight of drop hammer (Hiley formula)
z pile impedance (kg/s or sNim)
CIRIARepartl44 17
Z0 characteristic impedance (kg/s or sN/rn)
Z cumulative penetration of pile (SIMBAT formula)
a acceleration of mass m, (ni/si
ft velocity of propagation oftransverse waves in soil
St frequency intenal between successive resonances (Hz)
strain
cumulative penetration from start oftest
efficiency factor of piling hammer (HiIe formula)
v Poisso&s ratio
Pt total settlement of pile-head
Pr residual settlement ofpile-head
p density of pile material (MN/m3)
bulk density ofsoil
density of pile material
U angular velocity (@ = 2 fl (rad/s)
18 CIRIAReportl44
Glossary
CiRlAReport 144 19
Decibel (dB) scale A means of presentingengineering measurements in
terms ofa logarithmic scale defined by the relationship:
dB = 10 log10 (X/X0)
where X0 is a reference value and X is the measured
value.
The attenuation of a signal or the signal-to-noise ratio of
a system is often described in decibels (dB).
Defect A feature in a pile that is not in accordance with its
specified construction. A major defectwithin a pile
might affect the ability ofthe pile to cam its design
working load in either the short or long term. On the
other hand many cast-in-place piles. for example. could
contain minor defects that would not affect their ability
to perform their design task.
Designer The person responsible under the contract for the design
of the works. The designermay be employed b' the
client, the main contractor, a specialist subcontractor or
by a consultant. The designerma also delegate
responsibility for specific aspects of the design of the
piled foundations to the pile designer. In such a case.
the pile designerwould often be employed by a
specialist sub-contractor or a consultant.
Dynamic load Load testing ofa pile by applying an impulsive force to
testing the pile head, e.g. by the impact of a pile driving
hammer.
Dynamic stiffness See pile-head dynamic st/f/hess.
Echo test A low-strain integrity test in which the pile head
response is plotted as a function of time and the results
are analysed in the time domain. Such tests are also
often termed sonic echo tests. Pulse echo tests are a
specific form of echo test where the signal response
curve forms a characteristic. sinusoidally decaying.
wave-form.
Fast Fourier The mathematical computational technique used to
transform evaluate a Fourier Series. A Fourier series can be used
to represent any periodic motion, such as the response
of a pile head to an external excitation. Such an
excitation might be provided by a hammer blow, for
example.
Frequency The plottingand analysis of a particular paranieter as a
domain function of frequency.
20 CIRIAReportl44
Frequency- A low-strain integrity test in which the pile head
response test response is plotted as a function of frequency and the
results are analysed in the frequency domain. Such tests
are also often termed shock tests or transient dynamic
response tests. Frequency-response tests are most
usually undertaken with the additional measurement of
the pile head input force imparted by the hammer blow.
This information is used to express the pile head
response in terms of pile head mobility.
High-pass filter A filter that allows the passage ofonly high frequency
waves, i.e. it filters out low frequency waves.
High-strain The use of a dynamic load testing technique to
integrity tests investigate the internal structure of a pile. Because the
test involves dropping a heavy weight on to the pile
head, the shock or stress-wave imparted into the pile
causes both appreciable acceleration and strain within
the pile.
Impedance The ratio ofthe input force at a point to the resulting
induced particle velocity. Impedance is a measure of the
dynamic characteristics of a mechanical system
(impedance is the inverse of mobility). The impedance
of a pile depends upon the physical properties ofthe pile
and is principally a function of the pile cross-sectional
area, the propagation velocity of the acoustic or
stress-wave throughthe pile and the density of the pile
material. Changes in the pile properties, represented by
its impedance, will affect the transmission or reflection
of such stress-waves throughthe pile and allow an
analysis and interpretation ofthe pile structure to be
made. A pile of uniform construction and of
homogeneous concrete will have a constant impedance.
Infrasonic A wave or frequency below the range of human hearing
(typically below 16 Hz).
Integrity test A test which examines the response ofa pile to an
indirect physical scanning technique. A test may
employ acoustic shock waves, electrical energy, nuclear
radiation or other input to excite the pile. The analysis
ofthe response ofthe piles may allow an interpretation
to be made ofthe 'integrity' ofconstruction ofthe pile
body, typified by the homogeneity of its internal
construction or the uniformity of its external shape. See
also low-strain and high-strain integrity tests.
Kentledge* Dead load used in a loading test.
Low-pass filter A filter that allows the passage of only low frequency
waves, i.e. it filters out high frequency waves.
ClRIAReportl44 21
Lowstrain An integrity test which examines the response of the
integrity tests pile to a small mechanical excitation of the pile head:
usually applied b means ofa light handheld hammer
or less frequently, an electro-dnaniic shaker'. The
excitation causes acoustic shock or strcss-aes to
propagate through the body of the pile. A sensor at the
pile head receives waves reflected by changes in pile or
soil properties (impedance). Changes in soil properties
along the pile will also cause reflections of the
stress-waves.
22 CIRIAReportl44
Preliminary pile A pile installed before the commencement of the main
piling works or a specific part of the Works for the
purpose of establishing the suitability of the chosen type
of pile and for confirming its design, dimensions and
bearing capacity.
Proof-load A load applied to a selected working pile to confirm that
it is suitablefor the load at the settlement specified.
Pulse echo See echo tests.
Raking pile' A pile installed at an inclination to the vertical.
Reaction system' The arrangement of kentledge. piles. anchors or rafts
that provides a resistance against which the pile is load
tested.
Response curve See signal-response curve.
Retrospective A test programme undertaken to investigate a problem
testing that has become apparent during or subsequent to
construction ofthe piled foundations, or as an aid to the
evaluation of existing foundations. Such a programme
will often include non-destructive testing.
Shock test See Frequency-response test.
Signal-response The plot obtained from (usually) a low-strain integrity
curve test, showing the pile head response as a function of
either frequency or time.
Signal-to-noise The ratio, in decibels, of the root mean square (rms)
ratio voltage ofthe desired signal to the ims voltage of the
noise that is also present. 'Signal' is the desired portion
of the measured data, 'noise' is the unwanted portion
due to both external and internal (i.e. within the
measuring and recording system) causes.
Slenderness ratio see aspect ratio.
Sonic coring See sonic logging.
Sonic echo See echo tests.
Sonic logging Sonic logging involves the transmission of a series of
sonic/ultrasonic pulses through the body of a concrete
pile by means ofa transmitter device lowered into a
preformed hole or duct in the pile. The transmitted
pulses are received by a detector device placed either in
an adjacent bore (cross-hole sonic logging) or in the
same borehole as the transmitter (single hole sonic
logging). The transmission/detection system is
withdrawn from the hole at a steady rate enabling a
profile of the transmission characteristics ofthe pile
body to be plotted with depth. The cross-hole technique
is also known as sonic coring.
CIRIAReportl44 23
Specified working The specified load on the head of the pile as shown on
load (SWL) the Engineers drawings or in the Particular
Specification or in provided schedules.
Spectrum analyser A device which analyses a periodic function into its
frequency components. based upon the principle of the
Fourier series.
Static load Load testing of a pile b the application of a static load
testing to the pile head usually equal to or greater than the
specified working load of the pile.
Stress-wave theory (Also. more stricth. one-dimensional stress-wave
theon): a description of the behaviour of propagating
stress waves in an elastic medium (such as a concrete or
steel pile). which is governed by the solution of the
wave equationS.
Tension pile A pile which is designed to resist an axial force such as
would cause it to be extracted from the ground.
Test pile* Any pile to which a test is. or is to be. applied.
Time domain The plotting and analysis of a particular parameter as a
fijnetion of time.
Transient dynamic See frequency response test.
Transmission time See transit time.
Transit time The time taken for an ultrasonic pulse in a sonic logging
test to travel from the transmitter to the detector through
the intervening material.
Ultimate bearing The load at which the resistance of the soil becomes
capacity* hilly mobilised.
Ultrasonic A wave or frequency above the range of human hearing.
(Typically above 20 kHz.)
Working pite One of the piles forming the foundation of a structure.
CAPWAPC
DYNPAC Proprietary numerical simulation programs
PiD for dynamic pile testing
SIMBAT
SVIDYN
TNOWAVE
CIRIAReportl44 25
Page blank
in original
Non-destructive pile testing
The greatest growth in the use of non-destructive pile testing has been ofthose
techniques which most easily suit the evaluation of large numbers ofpiles
within a contract programme: especially those tests often known as 'integrity
tests'. This is probably linked in part to the expansion of continuous flight auger
piling, which has revolutionised the speed of installation of small-diameter
bored cast-in-place piles. In addition, there has been a continued growth in the
use of single large-diameter bored piles to support single large column loads.
The term integrity test is used in this report as a generic term for all tests which
examine the pile by measuring its response to indirect physical scanning
techniques such as those using acoustic or mechanical vibration waves.
electrical impulses, nuclear radiation, etc. Low-strain integritytests are a form
of integrity test that examine the response of the pile to high-acceleration
low-strain impacts from a light hand-held hammer. These are the commonest
form of integrity tests used in the UK and Europe. Such tests are most
commonly used as a screening process and as an additional tool in the task of
distinguishing apparently acceptable, as opposedto questionable, piles. This
report, therefore, deals in some detail with the development and applicationof
these techniques, because they are increasingly encountered by engineers who
have only a passing knowledge of current piling and testing techniques.
The Reader Guide facing the contentspage shows how the report is laid out.
The report has been designed to provide readers with ready access to particular
areas of interest as indicated. Answers to typical questions that the report
addresses are also provided.
The designer ofthe piles will have selected the foundation system from a range
of possibilities to suit the ground conditions and the structural and
environmental loads. In selecting the system, the designershould considerthe
means by which the design intentions and assumptionsare checked against the
construction on site.
All tests. whether they be direct or indirect, are subject to sonic degree of
interpretation. Thus while many ofthe direct techniques described in this report
may indicate the ability of an individual pile to carry its load in the short term.
they will not necessarily relate to its long-term performance. Furthermore many
of the indirect examination techniques. which have the potential to identify
28 CIRIAReportl44
structuralk' significant features, necessarily involve judgement and
interpretation.
Each purpose requires a different approach, which will also depend upon the
circumstances confronting the designerof the piled foundation. In the first case,
a relatively inexpensive and cost-effective approach may be wanted. e.g. as a
screening system for checking the adequacy of construction. In the second case,
however, it may be necessary to investigate something that could be ofcrucial
importance to the performance ofthe completed structure. If so, testing costs
might be of secondary importance compared with solving the problem at hand.
CIRIAReportl44 29
also attempt to relate these to the way they may be either suited or not suited to
detection by current investigative methods.
30 CIRIAReportl44
installation
r During
Visual examination
Afterinstallation
Direct
examination Load testing
techniques
Alongsidethe pile
Drilling,boring _______________
or probing
Into the pile
(Utilisingdrillholes Including:
Internal or pre-formedducts Sonic logging &
within the pile) nucleartechniques
Indirect . Including:
examination External top or 'Integrity'tests &
techniques 0(yom
expos P:Ke
e, resistivitytechniques
Indirect techniques are usually less costly than direct ones because they
generally do not involve disruptive or time-consuming on-site operations, such
as excavation around a pile or pile group. Hence, indirecttechniques are often
used for the purposes of routine control testing, including quality control or
checking. Within this group are those commonly described by the term
Integrity tests', i.e. low-strain integritytests and sonic logging.
Apart from load testing, direct techniques are usually only used ifsome other
information gives reason for concern with regard to a particularpile, pile group
or piled foundation system. Direct load tests are not normally used merelyto
check the structural integrity of a pile shaft.
ClRlAReportl44 31
It should be noted, however, that in some circumstances a form of load testing
known as dynamic load testing may be carried out on sufficiently many of the
piles of a particular site that it could perhaps be considered as an effective
'random' fault detector.
I. Visual examination
These techniques allow direct visual examination of the pile and pile
construction processes and may be summarised as follows.
Static load testing applies a direct load to the pile by jacking against an external
resistance, such as kentledge blocks or reaction piles. The method thus
simulates the performance of a pile in its working condition or at some
specified overload.
Dynamic load testing examines the performance of a pile under the action of a
dynamic force, such as the impact from a pile driving hammer. The magnitude
of such a dynamic force is typically ofthe same order as that applied during a
static load test, but applied over a very short time period. The pile behaviour is
thus affected by both the static and dynamic characteristics of the soil/pile
system.
Alongside the pile: drilling, boring or probing outside the pile can reveal
external features of the pile shaft such as protuberances or under-reams.
Into the pile: drilling within the pile allows samples of the pile material to be
obtained and examined and also provides access for other investigative
techniques. such as CCIV inspection, borehole calipers or inclinometers and
water or air testing
Contempor-
aneous
records
AcidiUoi,aI techniques
Indirect Indirect
Internal internal
tests tests
'21.
All the above direct techniques are described in Section 2. In addition, the
dynamic load test techniques are explained in greaterdetail in Section 7. in
association with the use of the test in 'high-strainintegrity testing' (see below).
Alternatively, the pile behaviour can be examined under the much larger applied
force used in dynamic load testing. Because the magnitude of the applied force
can be sufficient to cause a permanent displacement of the pile. such techniques
are known as high-strain integrity tests. As a fl.irther alternative, the pile
response can be examined under the action of an external electrical field.
Techniques such as resistance-to-earth and resistivity use such methods.
Remote techniques. The only remote technique identified in this report is called
Parallel Seismic Testing. This is an adaptation of sonic logging techniques. It
involves the sinking of a borehole alongside the pile and the installation ofa
sonic probe in order to examine the travel of shock waves or vibrations between
the pile and the probe.
Problemsthat may arise in the construction of various types of pile. have been
described by Thorbum and Thorburn (1977). Mealy and Weitman (19)40). and
Fleming et a!. (l9S5). For reference, the possible problems that ere identified
are sumniarised in Appendix A.
34 CIRIAReportl44
Despitethis apparently formidable list ofthings that can go wrong. these authors
also emphasise that the incidence of pile problems is relatively low. In the case of
bored piles, for instance, a survey quoted by Fleming ci 0/. suggested that about
0.5% of the piles tested were found to have defects that had been formed during
the actual pile construction process. The occurrence of piles exhibiting some form
of defect after trimming was much higher, around 1.5 to 2%. This higher figure
was attributed to piles damaged by construction activities after construction ofthe
piles. The survey was carried out on results obtained from low-strain integrity
tests on some 5,000 piles in 198! and 4,550 in 1982.
Ellway (1987) suggested, from the results of low-strain integrity tests on some
4,400 small-diameter bored piles in 1985, that just over 4% ofthe piles showed
signs of 'potentially significant structural faults'. About one third ofthese were
attributed to post-construction damage from mechanical plant or inappropriate
methods in breaking down the pile heads. A thrther third was due to weak
contaminated concrete within the top 2 metres of the pile. The remaining third
(1.4% ofthe sample) suggested evidence of soil contamination or section losses
below a depth of 2 metres.
It is not reported from either ofthe surveys how many of the piles were finally
rejected and replaced by new piles or had extensive remedial or repair work
carriedout.
The problems referred to the previous section may result in features being
produced in a pile that can be classified into the following general types:
Type A. Changes to the intended shape of the pile body itself
Type B. Total rupture of the pile in the form of a transverse crack or break
across the body of the pile.
Type C. Changes in the internal properties ofthe pile.
Type D. Features that affect the interaction of the pile with its environment
and, consequently, its ability to transferthe design load into the
surrounding soil or rock.
INTERNAL
Calliper
logging
C-)
xl I
(TI 1Gamma' HGammal
Neutron
0 ray
raJ
Figure 1.3 Indirect examination techniques (a) internal 3&
REMOTE
(measuring or testing system not attached
to or in contact with pile body)
33
As an aid to description, a proposed nomenclaturefor these features or defects
v ithin piles is illustrated in Figure 1.4
Type A features are usually associated with some aspect of the pile-forming
process. either in the pile construction or post-construction phase. Features that
affect the shape of the pile body may generally be identified as those termed
necks, waists, bulbs. expansions. steps or bites in Figure .4.
1
Type D features include poor toe conditions and softened or degraded bore sides
due to relaxation or water ingress. Type D features are typically associated with
deficiencies in the pile construction process at the boring or drilling stage. prior
to concreting. or with pile heave in the case ofdriven piles. and may be directly
reflected in the load carrying capacity of the pile.
38 CIRIAReportl44
C,
;ti
Ct,
-o
0 0
-.
Neck
H Waist
Crack Pipe
Narrow longitudinal
loss of section, Small reduction Very narrow transverse
Sharp Gentle loss of internal defect
localised in axial extent in section, discontinuity
section, localised
in axial extent affecting part of
periphery of pile,
and localised
in axial extent
Bulb Expansion
Sharp increase in section,
localised in axial extent
Gentle increase in
section, localised Anchorage
0
in axial extent Bulb, anchorage or rock socket etc,
which holdsthe pile shaft fixed
C.)
Figure 1.4 Proposed nomenclature for pile features or defects
Co
1.6 THE DETECTION OF DIFFERENT PILE FEATURES
2. Load testing
Static load testing (Type Dtatures and, possibly, Types A and ). Static load
testing applies a load to the pile which is equal to or higher than its required
working load. Thus. by implication, Type D features are being examined.
Certain Type A or Type C defects may be identified by the technique, but if
they do not materially affect the ability of the pile to carry load in the
short-term. then it is quite likely that they will not be discernible from the
results of the test. Type B defects, which are of small axial extent. (such as a
crack) are also unlikely to be identifiable from the test.
Leached and SR
honeycombed Ground
concrete water
4flow
ClRlAReportl44 41
Table 1.1 Suitability of the various techniques to detect pile construction features
Technique Type (It Test method Type of feature suited to detection by test
t
investiga ion
not suitable
lor cracks
Dynamic load Vt (ditto) Vt
testing
Vt Vt
Integral
compressiontest
Investigative Outside the pile Vt
hole transmission
techniques
In-hole inspection Possibly / Vt Not usually
Calliper logging Possibly Possibly
Inclinometer Possibly Vt
technique
Water or air Possibly Possibly Possibly
testing
Indirect External Loss-strain Vt Vt Possibly
integrity
tests
1-lorizontal
Possibly Vt
vibration
tests
I-Ugh-strain Possibly.but Vt Vt (as dynamic
integrity not cracks load
tests
Electrical test Possibly For exposed
methods reinforcements
(Jltrasonicpulse Vt Possibly
velocity
Indirect Remote Parallel seismic Possibly /
Crack-like Type B features can often be closed by the test method, because of
the high dynamic force input into the test. The dynamic load testing technique
has thus been used to advantage as a fonn of 'high strain' integrity testing to
investigate deeper parts ofthe pile, since the test energy can be transmitted past
features that would wholly reflect other conventional integrity test techniques.
(See Section 1.6.2.)
Within the pile (Type A. B and C features, po.csibly Type D features). It may be
possible to investigate Type A, B or Type C features which intersect a borehole
or duct within the pile, and some Type D features associated with the pile toe.
Sonic logging: cross-hole techniques. The test signals are affected by changes in
pile property within a pile section (Type C features). By implication, however, a
Type A featurethat intersected one or more ofthe test ducts would be identified
because ofits similarity of response to a Type C feature. In principle Type C
features do not need to intersect the test ducts to be detected by the method. Type
B features, being of small axial extent, may be less easy to discern because the
test method samples at relatively large axial intervals. The test technique can be
modified, however, to investigate Type B features if they are suspected.
Water or air testing. Leakage positions within boreholes or ducts within a pile
may be indicative of Type A. B. or C features, without it being possible to
differentiate between these responses.
These are generally only suitable forexamining major Type A or Type B problems
when there is no possibility of gaining direct access to the pile head or body.
1. Pre-planning requirements
Some test methods, particularly, for instance, the internal indirect tests, require
decisions to be taken before the construction of the pile has been completed. In
these cases it may be necessary to pre-select piles to allow the placing of access
ducts for the post-construction test work.
3. Pile type
Some tests are suited to only one type of pile. Others are more usually
undertaken on a specific type of pile. Cross-hole sonic logging for instance is
almost exclusively carried out on large-diameter bored cast-in-place piles.
The terms used in Tables 1.2 to 1.6 for frequency of usage range from en rare
to very common. The idea of 'frequency of use' is based upon numbers of sites
rather than numbers of piles. Thus a technique such as static load testing. which
is used on perhaps a maximum of 1 to 2% of piles on a particular contract, but
often not at all on many sites, has still been classified as common'. since on
average, static load testing is carried out on mans hundreds of UK sites in a
year. The judgement is essentially subjective, however. arid intended to give a
feel for the frequency ofoccurrence of the technique over the whole range of
pile types and sites.
6. Availability
8. Comments
Other relevant points are noted in the comment sections ofTables 1.2 to 1.6. These
might highlight, for instance, that of two superficially similar techniques. one
might be very rarely used in practice whilse the other might be in common use.
Propertymeasured Recordof pile construction Directvisual and physical Direct visual and
operations examination ofthepile or physical examination of
foundation system the pile
Approximate relative Low Low to very high depending on Typically high to very
cost application high
Relative frequency of
use:
control testing 4 0I 0
retrospective Not applicable 4-5 0-I
investigation
Availability On-site records of piling Typically will use site Typically will usesite
contractor and supervising resources, but specialist or specialist resources
engineer techniquesmay be needed for
shafts and headings
Key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale 0-5. 0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: Scale Low-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% of pile cost. High: 50-
100% of pile cost.
ClRlAReportl44 47
structural performance. e.g. sonic logging, high- and low-strain integrity testing.
resistivity, or nuclear scanning.
Preplairning required Pre-selection of pile maybe Not strictly necessary hut Test tendons have to he cast
necessar\ in restricted sites access to pile for heavy plant into preselected pile(s)
may have to he provided
When test can he After construction (typically After construction (typically When concrete of pile shaft
carried out 7 days mm.) 7 days mm.) has gained required
strength
Type of pile suited to All types Common on driven piles. Bored castinplace
test method Can he used on bored piles
key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale (15. 0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: Scale Low-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% of pile cost. Fligh: 50-
100% of pile cost
The specifier ofthe testing of piled foundations (usually the designer) should be
clcar as to what is intended and how a proposed test will help to achieve that
aim.
The method of testing and evaluation should be chosen with reference to pile
type, layout, construction programme. subsoil conditions and the level of site
control, both during and after pile installation, in order to suit the testing
programme to the detection ofthe type(s) of defect which could be present.
48 CIRlAReport 144
C) Table 1.4 The applicability of external techniques
Test method Low-strainIntegrity tests Horizontal vibration High-strain integrity tests Electrical (resistance to earth) Ultrasonic pulse
CD velocity
'0
0 Key to symbols:
Property measured Characteristicsof the behaviour of Lateral stiffness of the pile Characteristicsof the behaviour of Comparative resistance of pile Transmission time of
-s Relative frequency
a acoustic shock-wavesor stress- head or upper pile shaft stress-waves travellingthrough the concrete and surrounding soil ultra-sonic pulse of use:Scale0-5.
a 0:
waves travellingthrough the pile pile from a heavy impact very rare.
through pile material
1: rare.
2: occasional.
Pre-planningrequired None None Not strictly necessary, but access for None None 3: sometimes.
Type ofpile suited to test All types All types All types Mainly cast-in-place piles Any pile
method
Note: relative cost
Approximaterelative cost Low Low-medium Medium to high Low Low excludes
mohilisation costs
Relative frequency of use:
control testing 5 1-2 1-2 0-1 0
retrospective investigation 3-5 1-2 1-2 0 1-2
Availability Readily available from specialist Available from some Readily available from piling In principle, equipment is Readily available
testing houses specialist testing houses contractor and specialist test house available from specialist from specialist testing
organisations houses
Test affected by pile length Yes, signals increasingly Not applicable No. not within normal pile depth Yes No. not in method of
attenuated with depth use
Comments Very common technique. Pile Not a commonly used Increasing in use Technique is rarely used in Occasionally used in
response is investigated in terms of technique practice. Expertise and conjunction with
time and/or frequency experience have not progressed visual examination of
since early 1980s. Method can excavated pile
sense exposed reinforcement in
a. suitable circumstances
CD
144
C0 Cl
iII
04 0 V -toU to -E z V > U 25 Report
3 d to 0- -to
2: -C - .. 0z C o 4 Oh) C V
hO I-. C U
CIRIA
U to
F4 5-U -
0 .0 >-. 2 it-
S0 0 VS 2 S -9US .9 0 toU 0- >t H 0C-'4 0 z :1U C- d 0C -44 2:9 S0 S -to V 0 S0 "0 V S V t V
to S
2g S 5 2
- U c c I-0 V
= 0 2- -to
t
1) U
2 0 , .!. > r .1 U a- 0. So >aC > C,0 0 UUto 9. C II to to3II0 VUto C :2- 00 ' >-t ,
5
Uto 9._ z a V
t 0-900 E 0 0 to40 a)
0 0. 0 UC- H
-
-?-
-t
.0 U
-
UI-
U
to
>
_E
t
L
.0
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0 0 1)
,,
c tf5 a
V 0
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I-. v
"0
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.0 .
U
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1)0 -
Sa S
0
a- I) ,, >oS 0VE
0. to 5
.g
a
1- 0 >'
V 0. toC
5
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-.c
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>-
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5
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V Vfl Cto4
to0 "0
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a 0.0 0 0 u V 0. ' c o-'5 a 4 to 21)t -, - I. 0. U U 2C
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-
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-'.9 "0 0 -U= 2 V-co.9 ta -cci s "0 U
U -C 3 4 - e < 5 00
S Sa t cC
E-, 0 0
0 1.? ;0u - 0 2 9_ -h O C0 -to
V 0 toV S t U S
t E- V 0
.
a-
-z -to
V a- to a- a- V to S.- V V V -C Ua- tLU I-VC. UV0. H to5- to C a- to1) C , V V 4,'V V 0 -C C
cn 0 C -C 0! Ca- '1) C 4- 0 4-. -o U a a (V a)-CI I4 4, -a(5I-
50
Table 1.5 The applicability of internal techniques
Test method Cross-hole sonic Single-hole sonic Can.nxa-ray/neutron Gamma-ray CCIV Inspection Borehole inclinometer
-s Caliper logging Water or air testing
logging logging backseatter transmission
Availability Available from Not generally available Not readily available Not readily available 'Dry-hole system Not available as a In principle, readily Quite feasible from site
specialist testing houses as standard civil from test houses, but's from test houses, hut is readily available, standard technique in available from investigation specialists
engineering technique, available from well- available fromwell- Water-pressure - civil engineering geotechnical
hut is a standard logging companies and logging companies and resistant systems less instrument suppliers
method of specialist researchorganisations research organisations common
well-logging
companies
Especially large single the most suitable of the through pile material companies. Rarely used walls
piles supporting high nuclear techniques in practice.
column loads. Not
investigation because
of necessity to install
access ducts
Key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale 0-5.0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: ScaleLow-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% ofpile cost. High: 50-100% ofpile cost.
(31
a
t_ I
Table 1.6 The applicability of remote techniques and investigative drilling, boring and probing
Test method ParalleJ seismic tests Drilling or probing itlongside Sounding or probing into the Key to symbols:
Drilling within the pile Relativefrequency of use.
the pile pile Scale 0-5.
0: very rare.
I: rare.
Transmissiontime of 2: occasional.
Propertymeasured The extent and depth of external The continuity or straightnessof Continuity or condition of 3: sometimes.
acoustic shock waves or features of the pile, such as a duct east into the pile pile shall. Boundary 4: common.
stress waves through the pile under-reams or pile overbreak between pile toe and 5: very common.
and intervening soil to a bearing stratum. Samples
detector of pile shall materials
Pre-planning required Sinking of measurement None Duct has to he precast into pile Access to pile for drilling Approximate relative cost:
Scale Low-very high. l.ow:
bore alongside pile plant required 10% of pile cost. Medium.
10-50% of pile cost. High:
50-I 000/0 of pile cost. Ven
high: 100% of pile cost.
When test can he carried out After construction A tier construction After construction After construction
Note: relative cost excludes
Type of pile suited to test method Any pile Cast-in-place piles Precast concrete segmental Large-diameter cast-in- mohilisation costs
usually place piles, typically
Approximate relative cost Medium to very high Low to high (drilling) Low Medium to very high
Low to medium (sounding)
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
cast-in-situ piles
Proc. ml. Conf on Foundations and Tunnels
London, March 1987, 228-34
LEVY, J. F. (1975)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-situ concrete piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3
WELTMAN. A. J. (1977)
Integrity Testing ofPiles: A Review
DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG4
WELTMAN, A. J. (1980)
Pile load testing procedures
DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG7
CiRlAReport 144 53
2 Construction records and direct
testing methods
Some of the more common methods are covered in depth in readily available
standard texts or British Standards. in such cases. the description has been
limited to an outline of the overall aspects of the technique. The interested
reader is then directed to the standard works for greater detail. In addition some
methods are rarely used in current practice and only a brief description of these
techniques has been given.
In particular. Tomlinson points out that driving records, final sets and toe levels
of driven piles are essential. The advantage of recording the fill driving log for
all piles is that, in the event of subsequent problems. the records of each pile
can be examined to identifr those that may require deeper analysis or
investigation. In the case of cast-in-place piles. the volume of concrete used
within the pile or over sections of the pile may be an important item of
information, if correctly recorded.
For bored piles in general. the record of the soil strata and ground conditions in
the pile bores, together with such indirect checks as speed of penetration of the
boring tools, are an essential cross-check against the site investigation data upon
which the piles have been designed.
The institution of Civil Engineers (1988) Specification fhr piling suggests the
range and scope of installation records that should be kept by a piling contractor
during pile construction. These recording requirements are summarised on
Table 2.1.
54 CIRIAReportl44
Continuous flight auger piling systems often now incoiporate monitoring
systems that record pile construction data automatically, particularly in respect
of the concrete injection process Figure 2.1 illustrates such a typical installation
record.
CiRlAReport 144 55
Table 2.1 Recommended records to be kept during piling (from Institution of Civil Engineers, 1988a)
L-
r
M
C I
7
I
7
.C 0
C.' L
Data L.
O.e C. C C 0
Contract
t CE t.'
s.
*
C.'
co.c
*
C
za
'.
*
4.'
ta
L
*
.
C
SbL
*
Pile reference number (location) * * * * *
Piletvpe * * * * *
Nominal cross-sectionaldimensions or diameter * * * * *
Nominal diameter of underreamlbase * * * *
* *
Length of preformed pile
Standing groundwater level from direct observations or
given site investigationdata * * *
Date and time of driving, redriving or boring * * * * *
Date of concreting * * *
Ground level at pile position at commencementof
installation of pile (commencingsurface) * * * * *
* * * *
Working level on which piling base machine stands
* * * * *
Depth from ground level at pile position to pile toe
Toelevel * * * * *
Pile head level as constructed * * * * *
Pile cut-otTlevel * * * * *
Length of temporary casing
* * *
Length of permanent casing
* * * * *
weight. drop and mechanicalcondition of
Type,
hammer and equivalent information for other
equipment
* * *
Number and type ofpackings used and type and
conditionof dolly used during driving ofthe pile * * *
Set of pile or pile tube in millimetres per 10 blows or
number of blows per 25 mm of penetration * * *
If required, the sets taken at intervals during the last
3 m ofdriving * * *
Ifrequired, temporary compressionofground and pile
from time of a marked increase in driving resistance
until pile reached its final level * * *
Ifrequired, driving resistance taken at regular intervals
over the last 3 m of driving * * *
Soil samples taken and in situ tests carried out during
pile formationor adjacent to pile position * * * * *
Length and details of reinforcement
* * *
Concrete mix * * *
Volume of concrete supplied to pile where this can be
measured in practice * * *
All informationregarding obstructionsdelays and other
interruptions to the sequence ofwork * * * * *
56 CIRtAReportl44
Torque Penetration rate (rn/mm) lime (mm)
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 3 6 9
0 0 00
5 5 5
E E
0 0 0
C C C 10
10 10
15 15 15
0
0246 0
0123 0
0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 3
5 5 5 5
E E E
a.
0 0
C
10
C
10 10 10
15 15 15 15
Figure 2.1 Typical pile construction records for continuous flight augered piles with
monitoring system
TOMLENSON.M. J. (1987)
Pile design and construction practice
Third Edition
Viewpoint Publications Ltd
I. Definition
Static load testing is the direct application of a load to a pile or. more rarely, a
pile group. while the deflection ofthe pile head under the imposed load is
measured.
The test toad is usually taken to at least the specified working load and often to
one and a halftimes or even twice the working load. These are termed
proof-loading tests. Trial piles may be loaded to failure (defined by a suitable
criterion). The load may often be applied in a cyclic manner to investigate the
loading and unloading characteristics of the pile.
A Maintained Load (ML) test is a test in which the load is increased in stages to
the required maximum load, while the load-settlement curve is recorded at each
stage of loading and unloading. At each increment or decrement the load is held
constant for a sufficient length of time for the rate of pile head movement to
reduce to a specified level. The test may also be taken to failure by increasing
the load in stages.
- 100
0
50
Load (kN)
0 500 1000 1500
0
60 80
-
4-
C
15
E
Figure 2.2 Typical load - settlement curves for maintainedload test. Note: residual
and total settlements shown at each load cycle, where Pt denotes total
settlement and Pr denotes residual settlement
A second common form of test is the Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) test.
In this case the pile head is forced to settle at a constant predetermined rate, and
the load required to achieve each unit increment of settlement or for each unit
increment oftime is recorded.
2. Principle oflest
The principle ofthe test is to observe the performance of the pile or pile group
at fill scale. i.e. the response of the pile/soil system under load is monitored by
measuring the settlement (usually at the pile head) at different loadings or for a
period of time at constantload.
For bearing piles, vertical compressive loads are used, but occasionally pull-out
tests are carried out on tension piles and lateral load tests on piles that have to
resist horizontal forces.
The ML test is the most commonly used form of such testing in the UK.
A typical load-settlement graph for an ML test is shown on Figure 2.2.
To cain out the test the pile head must be loaded, usually by a hydraulic jack
bearing against some form of reaction device. The required reaction force can be
provided by:
kentledge. such as concrete or cast-iron blocks
tension piles. typically installed by the piling rig which installed the test or
working piles
ground anchorages. typically foryen' high loads or where the provision of
tension piles is not feasible (for piles bearing on rock, for instance).
4. Interpretation
The reasons for a particular pile diverging from the expected range of load-
settlement characteristics might be because ofa shaft construction defect.
inadequate shaft friction or end bearing, or a numberof other factors.
With experience, the load-settlement curve from a static load test can be used to
interpret the mode of failure of a pile. A defective pile shaft may also be indicated
by the shape ofthe settlement curve, as described in Tomlinson (1987).
The methods, interpretation and use of static load testing techniques are covered
in the key references given at the end of this section.
(a)
beams
Tension
connectors Loading
beams
Support
gflhlage
Tension piles/
anchorages
(b)
Figure 2.3 Typical testing rigs for a compressive pile test (a) using kentledge;
(b) using tension piles or ground anchorages
SZaa
atFZ;:
-r
.
S. Application
Its main usage is to determine or confirm the adequacy of the design and construction
methods ofa pile system for the particular ground conditions of the site.
crassaranofl, V-s
6. Limitations
The general limitations on the use of static load testing are those ofcost, time
and space.
The unit cost of load testing is high in relation to the cost of a single pile so that
the routine testing of a high percentage ofpiles on a normal contract is rarely
justifiable.
Also, the heavier the load on a pile, the more difficult it becomes to providethe
reaction load. Large amounts of kentledge or a large numberof reaction piles or
ground anchorages may be required. The physical constraints of the site itself
may make it practically impossible to provide the reaction forces safely.
ClRlAReportl44 63
Furthermore the amount oftime needed for the installation, curing and static
load-testing of large numbers ofpiles would not normalls' be allowable on most
tightl programmed construction works. Static load testing is therefore not
generally suitable as a routine test ofintegrity or workmanship.
In addition, the static load test gives very little additional information on the pile
itself such as its shape. or whether it is of full cross-sectional area, or even whether
it is installed to the designed length. Static load tests prove only that the pile-soil
system has a factorof safety equated to the maximum load achieved over the period
ofthe test. It has been pointed out that the design shaft stresses are relatively low for
the maioritv ofconcrete piles. Thus, a pile with even a severe loss of section may be
capable of withstanding the imposed test loads without distress.
It is usual for provision to be made within the piling contract for undertaking
static load tests. The selection ofthe numberand location oftests is usually the
responsibility ofthe designer.
8. Frequency ofuse
Static load tests are commonly used for preliminary and proof testing of
individual piles. Further details oftheir usage and interpretation may be
obtained from the key references below.
Key references
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1986)
British Standard Code ofPracticetor Foundations
BS 8004
TOMLINSON. M. J. (1987)
Pile de.vign and construction practice
Third Edition
Viewpoint Publications Ltd
64 CIRIAReportl44
WELTMAN. A. J. (1980)
Pile load testing procedures
DoE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG7
1. Definition
Dynamic load testing is the method of predicting the load carrying capacityand
load-deformation characteristics of a pile by measuring its response to the
impact of a heavy weight, such as a pile-driving hammer, striking the head of
the pile.
2. Principle oftest
The performance ofthe pile under static loading conditions can be predicted
from a consideration ofthe dynamic behaviourofthe pile-soil system under the
action ofthe external driving force. Correlations have been established by
empirical methods, linked with computer-based numerical techniques and
stress-wave theory. These allow estimation of the expected performance of the
pile under working conditions. Dynamic load tests are very often, though not
always, correlated with conventional static load tests at the site or with static
tests carried out in similarground conditions.
3. Description oftechnique
The pile head is formed or cut square to the axis ofthe pile. The pile head is
struck by a falling weight such as a piling hammer or a purpose-made test
weight. Sensors are attached to the pile shaft close to the pile head (usually
within 2-3 pile diameters) to measure and record the force acting on the pile
head and the resulting velocity induced into the pile.
Force is measured by a pair ofstrain gauges firmly fixed to the pile and
mounted diametrically opposite one another, with the intention of compensating
or highlighting bending or eccentric forces on the pile head. The impact causes
a stress-wave to propagate along the length of the pile. As the stress-wave
passes the pile shaft deforms. Measuring the degree ofdeformation and
knowing the pile properties at that point allows the magnitude of the force to be
determined. Similarly, reflections ofthe stress-wave from the toe ofthe pile or
other intermediate areas will also be detected and measured as they pass the
measurementzone.
The pile-head velocity resulting from the incident blow and any resulting
reflections are usually measured by means of a pair ofaccelerometers, which are
again mounted diametrically across the pile. The pile-head velocity is calculated
by integrating the measured acceleration to obtain the resultant velocity.
CiRlAReport 144 65
The data obtained from these pile-head sensors are recorded and processed for
use in the subsequent analyses.
The instrumentation of a pile head prior to test is illustrated on Figure 2.6. and a
view ofatypical test in progress is shown on Figure 2.7.
4. Interpretation
The impact force on the pile head will manifest itself as a stress-wave
propagating through the both' ofthe pile towards the toe. with a known
propagation velocity. c. At the toe of the pile, part of the energy will be
transferred into the bearing stratum and part will be reflected back up the pile as
a reflected upward-travelling stress-wave. Thus after a given time. t. the
stress-wave will return to the pile head and be monitored by the pile-head strain
gauge sensors. The wave will in turn be reflected from the pile head and return
towards the pile toe as a downward travelling stress-wave, and so on. The time
taken for the incident stress-wave to travel from the pile head down the hill
length. L. ofthe pile and return as a reflected stress-wave from the pile toe is
given by the relationship
Thus the strain (i.e. force) sensors near the pile head are monitoring the
response of the pile not only to the original impact blow, but also to the
resulting resistance ofthe soil within which the pile is embedded and upon
which it is founded.
The pile forces calculated by this deformation response ofthe pile section are
analogous to a calculation offorce on the basis ofHooke's Law. The pile shaft
will compress under the action of a compressive stress-wave and it will
correspondingly elongate if the stress-wave is tensile. A graph of pile-head
force against time would take the form shown in Figure 2,K(a).
In the same way. the incident impact force will induce a resultant particle
velocity into the pile head. This will be expressed as a velocity wave which will
also travel throughthe pile and be reflected froni the pile toe or from other
intemiediate reflecting layers. Thus the acceleration (i.e. velocity) sensors near
E.A
C
CIRIAReportl44 67
(negative) may be associated with either a reflected compression or tension
wave.
When these two relationships of force (from strain) and force (from velocity)
are plotted to the same scale, as shown on Figure 2.9. the two graphs arc found
to diverge.
The difference between the two calculation methods is caused by the soil
reaction. Dynamic analysis techniques aim at constructing a soil model with
values for the soil reaction that will satisfy the two sets of equations determined
by the force (from strain) and force (from velocity) relationships.
5. Applicability
The method was developed on driven piles and has found wide usage on driven
pre-cast concrete and steel piles. It has also been widely used in the off-shore
piling industry. where unit pile loads are so high and working conditions so
onerous that it would be virtually impossible to do static load tests.
68 CiRIAReportl44
The technique has also increasingly been used on cast-in-place piles. Some
methods were specifically developed on cast-in-place piles and most systems
now seem to have wide experience on such piles.
z
C
2
U-
0
0 10 20
lime (ms)
-
8 I
I
/ '
p1 Time (ms)
10 20
Jo
S
Force
0 10 20
lime (ms)
Figure 2.9 Typical force from strain and from velocity measurements at pile head
6 Limitations
ClRlAReportl44 69
Its major advantage is as a comparator test, because of the relative ease and
economy of testing a large number of piles on a given site. In addition the
results give more information on the distribution of soil resistance along the pile
than can normally be obtained froni a conventional static load test.
For cast-in-place piles. the pile head may have to be extended prior to test
unless special provisions are made during casting the pile.
8. Frequencyof use
Dynamic load testing is quite common with driven precast or steel piles. It is
used less frequently with cast-in-place piles. although this use is increasing.
Key references
DAVIS. R.A.. MURE. J.N. and KIGHTLEY. ML. (1987)
The dynamic analysis of piled foundations using the CAPWAPC method
GroundEngineering, November. pp 16-22
HANNIGAN. P.J.(1986)
Dynamicpile testing and analysis
11th Annual Fundamentals of Deep Foundation Design
St. Louis. Missouri. November 10-14
70 CIRIAReportl44
2.4 DIRECT METHODS WITHIN THE PILE
Drilling within the pile is the formation of an access to the pile body by rotan'
or rotary percussive drilling similar to those used to penetrate rock. It is an
essential precursor to the other techniques in Section 2.4.
2. Principle
The technique involves drilling a hole to some depth within the pile, usually to
examine or identify a feature anticipated from other construction information or
investigations. On occasions the drill hole may be required to penetrate the full
length ofthe pile and into the underlying strata beneath the toe.
Rotary open-hole drilling with a ulill-face drill bit removes all the material from
the borehole as cuttings, which are flushed to the surface for inspection and
record. The flushing fluid is usually either water or air. Occasionally drilling
mud or foam might be used. Torque and power requirements from the drill rig
generally necessitate a larger machine than thin-wallcore drilling. Hole
diameters are usually between 75 and 100 mm.
Rotary core drilling employs a rig similar to those for open-hole techniques
with the addition of an annular diamond or tungsten bit on the end of a hollow,
cylindrical core-barrel. The annular bit cuts away the outer edge ofthe borehole
and a cylindrical core of rock or concrete therefore enters the core barrel, which
is typically either 1.5 or 3 m long. A complete core sample can be extruded at
the ground surface for examination, record and storage. The core-barrel can be
drilled repeatedly deeper by the use ofextension drilling rods. By this means
CLRIAReportl44 71
the entire length of a pile can be sampled and, if necessary, the interface
between the pile toe and the bearing stratum, and the bearing stratum itself
Rotary core samples usually have a diameter of 50 to 75 mm, Flushing
techniques are similar to rotary open hole methods.
For both rotary open-hole drilling and rotary percussive drilling, a tpical
investigative approach is outlined by Homerand Sherrell (1977). The logging
niethod mainly depends upon monitoring the rate ofpenetration of the drill bit
and sampling the cuttings arising from the borehole at regular intervals.
Samples are also usually taken whenever a change in the physical appearance of
the flushings is noted or there is significant change in penetration rate.
4. interpretation
Non-cored holes usually have the purpose of providing access for other
measuring and examination techniques, or to determine the depth to a known
interface, such as the toe of the pile.
Cored holes are for sampling the pile concrete in order to examine it for perhaps
poor or defective concrete, voids and inclusions or major crack-like features and
the like. 'When cracks are being investigated, it is often difficult to decide
whether the break at the end ofthe core sample is a pre-existing fracture or if it
was caused by the drilling and sample extraction.
5. Applicability
These are essentially rock-drilling methods, but the bearing material below the
pile may be much weaker than the pile concrete. If investigation of the junction
between the pile toe and the underlying bearing stratum is important. any loss
of sample from interface can render interpretation difficult.
Pile and hole verticality and drilling tolerances have also to be considered,
particularly when pile length-to-diameter ratios are in excess of 15:1, because of
the increasing likelihood of relative deviation of the pile and the drill hole.
Interference with the pile reinforcing cage can cause drilling difficulties.
Cored holes are several times more expensive per metre than uncored holes, and
slower to drill.
The method, when used, would in most cases be during the course ofa contract
to investigate a specific problem.
Large rotary drill rigs are normally lorry-mounted and therefore require good,
firm access to the pile head and a stable working platfonn. Some smaller rotary
core drilling rigs are trailer mounted and therefore require less access planning.
Medium-sized 'production' type rotary and rotary-percussive drilling rigs are
often track-mounted. Again they need a stable working platform forcareful
alignment.
Adequate water supplies are required when water-flush drilling, with provision
forthe control and disposal of the flush returns. Air-flushing techniques and
some rotary-percussive rigs may present a dust or noise problem in city-centre
or urban locations as on crowded sites.
8. Frequency ofuse
Drilling within the pile is one ofthe most frequent ways of attempting to
investigate an internal feature of a pile, the presence of which has been
suggested by other data. It would be an unusual method for detecting random
faults.
Water within the bore can be a majorproblem to visibility. This mas' enter from
a defect within the pile or from the base of the pile ifthe borehole has been
drilled through into water-bearing strata. The drill hole may be formed using
water as a drilling fluid: if possible this should be removed, e.g. by bailing or
by blowing out with compressed air. If removal of watcr is not possible,
underwater cameras capable of resisting the water pressures will be necessary.
74 CIRIAReportl44
The vater ma also have to be clarified of suspended solids using flocculating
agents prior to the test, but this is often found to be difficult and
time-consuming in practice. Ifconsidered necessary. clarifiving of the water is
normally done at least twenty four hours before a camera is used.
The analysis and understanding of the size and the significance of features
identified and transmitted to the surface monitors can often be more difficult
than might at first be appreciated: the scale of the features is often difficult to
calculate or comprehend properly.
Key references
SOLERA, S. A. (1986)
Site investigation for areas affected by limestone workings
In: Site Investigation Practice: Assessing BS 5930
A torpedo-shaped probe with three or four sprung arms is lowered to the bottom
of the borehole. The probe is then slowly withdrawn up the bore while the
sprung arms or runners ofthe instrument bear against the wall of the bore and
thus follow variations in the cross-sectional area of the borehole. The position
of the arms is electronically measured and fed to a surface read-out unit to
produce a continuous log of borehole diameter with depth. A typical caliper
probe is shown on Figure 2. 11.
Examination of the complete profile log can indicate the position of softer or
weaker spots within the pile. The method is therefore an indirect indicator ofthe
condition ofthe borehole walls and thus. by implication, the local quality of the
pile concrete.
In principle, the system can be used in any drill hole within a pile. typically
within a diameter range of 75 to 200 mm. depending upon instrument
availability.
The technique is not uncommon in deep well-logging work. However, its use is
relatively unusual in standard UK site investigation practice. and would not
76 CIRIAReportl44
necessarily be easily mobilised to suit a one-off requirement. As the equipment
may not be readily available, therefore, the location of a suitable system and
specialist contractor may need advance search and planning. If used, the
technique would most commonly be employed in conjunction with other
in-hole techniques.
The use of caliper logging in boreholes within piles has not been documented.
CiRlAReport 144 77
Key references
FELLENIUS. B. H. (1972)
Bending of piles determined by inclinometer measurements
Canadian Geotechnical Journal. \To1. 9. 25-32
HARRIS. J. S. (1987)
Ground anchorages: drillhole accuracy determining device - the Fotobor
Proc. Insin. Civ. Engrs.
Part I. Vol 82. June. pp 635-8
STUTILE. C. (1989)
A new blasthole survey method - the MDL Boretrak System.
Ouarrt Management. September. pp. 43-7
It is unusual for air-pressure testing to be used, other than to check for leakage
within the pile. The use of compressed air for testing purposes is thus normally
limited to checking forthe transmission ofair and interconnection between
adjacentboreholes in a pile or between a borehole and the outside surface of a
pile.
Water-testing techniques usually consist of filling the hole with water and
observing and measuring the behaviour ofthe water level. Alternatively, the top
of the bore can be sealed with a purpose-made packer and water pumped in
under pressure to observe the rate of acceptance ofthe borehole. Down-the-hole
single or double packers to isolate individual sections ofthe bore for testing are
also available but rarely used for pile testing.
The results of water tests may give comparative indications of the permeability
of the drill hole walls and, by implication, of the condition ofthe pile concrete.
These tests are only likely to be used when determining remedial measures to a
pile. or to assess the necessity of such measures. The technique is most
commonly used as part of additional testing work on drilled holes within large
diameter cast-in-place bored piles.
Care must be taken not to over-pressurise the hole during the test. Careful
nionitonng of the test values is therefore necessary as the test proceeds. In its
78 CIRIAReportl44
simplest form, the test is an indirect, qualitative indicator of the condition of the
borehole walls.
There would also be a need to check that the borehole remained within the pile
concrete over its length. The borehole should therefore in preference be cored. If
necessary an inclinometer check could also be carriedout.
Key reference
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1981)
Codeofpractice for site investigations
BS 5930
2.5.1 Excavation
There are three general ways ofexcavating to expose a pile for examination and
testing.
1. Partial excavation of the soil around a single pile or a group of piles.
2. Shafts - where a particular defect is suspected at depth and man-access is
necessary.
3. Headings - essentially horizontal investigative openings, perhaps
necessary late in the construction stage or afterwards.
It must be borne in mind that excavation around the shaft or close to the toe
may significantly affect the load carrying capability ofthe pile. This alone, may
limit the usefulness of excavation as a technique.
CIRIAReportl44 79
externally visible or detectable defects, which might have been previously
highlighted bs some other part ofthe testing or quality checking regime.
After excavation, the piles are usually cleaned off and inspected b' engineering
staff. A high-pressure water hose can be used to reveal cracks. In addition, other
standard tests can be employed, such as ultrasonic pulse velocity (see Section 3.4.2)
to examine the continuity of the pile.
The proximity of other piles can also cause difficulty in undertaking the work.
Care must be taken not to cause damage to the piles by the excavation method
or untoward ground movement. Freshly cast piles are particularly vulnerable.
-'
typical shaft excavation is illustrated in Figure 2.12.
f_AX ]
'I
Lt6
When the shaft reaches or exposes the area of concern. the pile is usually
cleaned off and inspected by engineering or supervison staff. Additional tests
80 CIRlAReportl44
can be employed at this time, such as ultrasonic pulse velocity to examine the
continuity ofthe pile, or samples ofthe pile may be taken by coring or chipping
for further examination and testing.
Typically only one side of a pile shaft can be inspected. e.g. when using a
machine-bored drilled shaft. In this case, if the position of a defect is precisely
known, a horizontal heading. as outlined below, may be driven from the
investigatory shaft to surround the pile.
Temporary support to the foundation or pile cap may be necessaiy ifthe heading
removes or appreciably reduces its ability to support the foundation loadings.
Key references
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1978)
Codeofpractice for safety precautions in the construction of
large diameter boreholesfor piling and otherpurposes
BS 5573
CIRIAReportl44 81
2.5.2 Extraction of a pile
On occasionit is feasible to extract a sample pile to confirm its integrity of
construction. Such measures are usually undertaken only if it is required to
confirm the general adequacy or suitability of the pile construction method in
the prevailing ground conditions. Thorburn and Thorburn (1977) quote an
example of a pile extracted to demonstrate the soundness of construction of
small-diameter bored piles through soft estuarine alluvium.
The method is essentially a low-cost way to examine the extent and depth of
protuberances or features beyond the nominal pile diameter. The resistance to
penetration of the probe indicates when a hard, impenetrable obstruction has
been met. Correlation of this level with other site records can assist in
understanding the true shape of the pile.
Tpicallv a steel mandrel or probe is driven or pushed into the soil alongside
the pile under investigation.
Measurements are made of the distance of the probe from the pile and the depth
below ground level that refusal was reached or the presumed protuberance was
encountered. It is not normal to take samples. In general. any means ofprobing
below ground level can be used for such work. e.g. a dynamic probing or a
static cone penetration test rig might be used, but uncased holes formed by a
rotary percussive drill rig have also been used.
Interpretation depends upon the feature being investigated and the ground conditions.
certain ground conditions. In addition the method has been reported as being
used with under-reamed bored piles. It could also be used to locate the depth of
crushing. breakage or change of direction of precast piles.
Pushed or hammered probes and even boreholes deviate from the vertical so
these techniques are usually only appropriate for relatively shallow (say U to 5
in or so)investigations. If deeper features are to be located with any accuracy it
will be necessary to include techniques for the directional control or monitoring
of the sounding. Usually this would not belustified.
If a long straight probe rod, of a diameter only slightly less than that of a
preformed hole throughthe centre of the pile, is lowered down the hole, it will
jam where the pile is sharply bent at a joint or is broken.
In an example case, the rod had a diameter 6 mm less than the bore of the duct
and was 1.8 in long.
The method is usually restricted to precast concrete piles, but has also been
used, for instance, on prefabricated driven steel piles, or for cast-in-place bored
piles where deep underground movements were expected or suspected.
When used with a precast segmental piling system, it is not unknown for soft
silty soils to 'pump' into the ducts because of minute flexing of the joint
system, causing a blockage ofthe ducts. Sealing systems are designed to seal
the joint areas, but occasional failures do occur.
The system is not an everyday technique, but might be used in a particular case
where very long precast or prefabricated piles are being driven through soft
clays into a hard bearing layer. If 'bent' piles are considered to be of major
consequence to the project, it is important that the implications and
requirements are discussed and understood between the designerof the structure
and the piling contractor. See the key references for discussion ofthis.
Arrangements for setting the access ducts into the piles have to be designed and
ordered prior to fabrication.
CIRIAReportl44 83
The method is not common in standard UK practice. but mas be adopted for
specific contracts.
Key references
BJERRUM. L. (1957) Norwegian experiences with steel piles to rock
Gotechnique. No. 7. pp.73-96
BROMS. B. B. (1981)
Precast pilingpractice
Thomas Telford Ltd., London
Drilling or boring outside the pile involves the sinking of, usually, a small-
diameter borehole alongside the pile shaft for the purpose of examining some
feature external to the pile.
The diameter of such bores typically ranges between 50 and 200 mm.
If suitable, the piling rig itselfcan be utilised, otherwise a site investigation or
well-boring rig may be brought in forthe work.
The primary aim is the measurement ofthe depth and, perhaps, thickness ofthe
protuberance. If found, and if thought worthwhile to do so, a core sample could
be taken. It should be borne in mind, however, that, because of the sloping
nature of many such features, it is often not possible for the drill to obtain a
purchase to cut a good sample.
84 CIRIAReportl44
Some types of drilling or boring may be difficult to use in heavily obstructed
ground. However, many rotary or rotary-percussive drilling techniques are
specifically designed to overcome obstructed ground conditions.
Access to the pile location is required. The rig types vary from portable rigs to
lorry- or track-mounted rigs, depending upon hole size andjob application.
In practice the external features ofa pile are rarely a matter of dispute.
Investigations ofthis type are very rare.
The tendons are debonded throughthe body ofthe pile and anchored into the
concrete at the toe. A stressing jack attached to the tendons and acting on a
distribution plate at the head of the pile can thereforebe used to induce a high
compressive force into the pile shaft, in a similarmanner to a post-tensioned
beam, to confirm the adequacy ofthe concrete column.
The theoretical extension ofthe tendon within sound concrete can be readily
calculated.
If the pile is excessively weakened or faulty near the top, this will be indicated
by excessive downward movement ofthe pile head. If the fault lies closer to the
base ofthe pile then this will be indicated by a greaterelongationofthe
stressing tendons than the theoretical value.
The method is only designed to determine the structural integrity ofthe pile
column itself, and gives no indication ofthe load-deformation characteristics of
the pile or the ability ofthe pile/soil system to support the design load.
So far as is known, the method has not been employed since being reported by
Moon (1972). At that time the method was the subject of patent applications.
Since then it is understood that the applications have lapsed.
Key references
MOON, M. R. (1972)
A test method forthe structural integrity ofbored piles
Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, May, pp. 476-480
WELTMAN, A. J. (1977)
Integritytesting ofpiles a review
DoE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG4
CIRIAReportl44 85
2.6 SYNOPSIS OF SECTION 2
86 CIRlAReportl44
3 Indirect testing methods
Many of the indirectmethods described in this section were first developed and
investigated some 15-20 years ago. At that time concern about the integrity of
large-diameter bored concrete piles, in particular, spurred the investigation of
various ways to achieve a definitive 'integrity test'. Several of these niethods
have not really survived their first stage ofresearch, developments having been
channelled in other directions which promised better returns. For those methods
which have not been exploited in the UK since their early research days,
descriptions here are limited to an outline ofthe method. Techniques in this
category are nuclear-radiation and electrical methods, although nuclear radiation
techniques have remained in use in other parts of the world, notably North
America and the Middle East.
The main indirect investigation and testing techniques are described first and
the less frequent methods are grouped at the end of the Section.
(The theory and practice of low-strain integrity testing are described in greater
detail in Sections 4 and 5 respectively.)
1. Definition
Low-strain tests have been identified by names such as echo tests, sonic tests,
shock tests, transient-dynamic tests, and various other derivatives. All these
tests examine and analyse the response ofthe element under test to an external
low-level mechanical excitation by which is meant that the element under test
moves in a linear and elastic fashion.
2. Principle
The mechanical impulse generated by the hammer blow has been described as
either a shock wave, a stress-wave or an acoustic wave. It will rapidly spread
CIRIAReportl44 87
throughout the pile from the point of impact and propagate down the pile as a
plane wave. The wave generated is of a finite time duration and contains energy
over a wide range of frequencies according to the type of hammer employed and
the hardness of the concrete struck. It will travel down the pile. effectively as a
packet ofenergv. and, ifthe pile is homogeneous. will travel at a generally
constant velocity.
By monitoring the response of the pile head to both the initial blow and any
returning reflections. inferences and conclusions can be drawn about some of
the properties ofthe buried pile. based upon an understanding ofthe physical
principles involved.
The analysis of the response of the pile under test enables the depth to a
particular reflecting surface to be calculated. A large discrepancy between the
known length ofthe pile and the apparent depth of the reflecting surface would
be an indication of a significant feature within the pile.
Reflections of the stress-wave within the pile are caused by changes in the
physical properties ofthe pile or the surrounding soil that affect its acoustic
behaviour. The changes within the pile itselfare defined by a parameter termed
the impedance. z, of the pile at any given depth. where:
z = p.c.A
88 CIRIAReportl44
Features that represent changes in the impedance of the pile/soil system, and
which can therefore cause reflections of the stress-wave can be identified as:
the pile toe
inclusions within the pile
cracks or pile joints
dimensional changes in the pile
variations in concrete quality
reinforcement overlapping (in the case ofunusually heavily reinforced
piles).
variations in soil stifihess.
//
Sensor
?ct
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.1 Principle of time-based low strain integrity test (a) initial impact on pile;
(b) partial reflection and partial transmission at change of section;
(c) arrival of reflectionfrom change of section at sensor;
(d) arrival of reflection from pile toe at sensor
Thus, it is not only variations in the properties ofthe pile which act as reflecting
surfaces. The surrounding soil can also affect the acoustic response ofthe
pile/soil system. A marked variation in stifThess between two adjacent soil
layers can also act as a reflector ofwave energy, and this is often observed.
In one variation ofthe test, which employs frequency analysis techniques. the
hammer itself is instrumented with a small dynamic load cell to measure the
force of the hammer blow. In this case. the signals from both the dynamic load
cell and the sensor are transmitted via a cable to the signal conditioning. display
and recording unit.
The resulting processed signal from the test is usualls' displayed on-site on an
oscilloscope or a VDU screen and either stored for further analysis or printed
out on site as a hard copy for subsequent analysis and reporting. This signal
display is termed the signal response curve. Examples of typical response
curves are illustrated and described below.
4. Interpretation
All low-strain integrity tests basically analyse the response of the pile to the
low strain' impact, based upon the physics of wave propagation in rods or bars.
A pile, which is usually relatively long compared with its diameter or breadth,
equates to such a rod-like body. The measured data can be processed and
examined in two ways to allow interpretation ofthe pile response: in terms
either oftime or frequency.
In the first method,the pile behaviour is analysed in terms of the time delay
between the initial impact and the receipt of reflections, or echoes' from a
change in impedance such as the pile toe or a change in pile section. Such
analysis techniques are, therefore, often termed 'echo techniques, and, since
they operate in terms of time, are said to be time-domain or time-based
Echo methodsthus plot the response of the pile-head sensor in terms of time.
Since, in a reasonably homogeneous pile, the propagation velocity. c. ofthe
wave throughthe pile will be sensibly constant, the time delay can be equated
to the distance travelled by the wave and hence to the depth to a particular point
of reflection.
Knowing the velocity of propagation of the wave through the pile body and
knowing the time lapse between the blow on the pile head and the arrival of the
reflected signal. it is a simple matter to calculate the distance the wave has
travelled. It will be twice the length of the pile, L. and hence:
L = c.t/2
where:
c is the velocity (mis) of propagation ofthe wave through the pile
is the total time(s) taken for the wave to travel through the pile and
return to the pile head.
With the second method, the behaviour ofthe pile is examined in terms of its
response to the wide range of component frequencies that are contained within
the impact pulse and the returning reflected waves. At certain frequencies the
pile will resonate, the resonant frequencies depending primarily upon the
effective vibrating length ofthe pile. Such tests, which analyse the pile-head
response data in terms offrequency. are hence termed frequency- domain or
frequenci. -based methods. In a similar manner to sonic echo tests, this type of
test has in the past been given a wide variety of names, including transient-
dynamic. frequency response and shock testing. In the following text, the term
frecjuencvresponse is used forthis type oftest.
92 CIRIAReportl44
The length. L, ofthe pile is given by the standard equation:
2Sf
where c is the wave propagation velocity as before and [is the frequency
interval between successive resonances.
Equations 3.2 and 3.3 are consistent in that the relationship between frequency
and time is:
1= I
Lsf
The simple relationships defined by Equations 3.2 and 3.3, and their
inter-relationship as defined by Equation 3.4, form the basis of low-strain pile
integritytesting.
Externai excitation
force (hammer
Sensor
\
or 'shaker')
//
Sensor
//
1/
Sensor
\x .C7/
[V
/,X .'
,.
.'t.
j i
Fundamental
a,
(0
C
0
a. -I
-t -
(0
2
a,
'C
0
-_(\I1\
0
T\l _
Time
(a)
C C
2L 2L
'I,
U)
C
0
a
U)
2
-D
0
0
-C
ci
0-
Frequency
5. Applicability
Low-strain integrity tests can be used on all pile types arid for piles formed in
all types ofground. provided that access to the pile head can be obtained.
94 CIRIAReportl44
6. Limitations
The wave is attenuated both by its passage throughthe body of the pile and also
by the interaction between the pile and the surrounding soil. These attenuation
effects act upon both the incident and reflected waves as they travel up and
down the pile. As a consequence, in the case of a very long pile or a very stiff
soil or a combination of both, the relative amplitude ofthe reflected signal at
the top of the pile, with respect to the input signal, may be so small that it is not
practically detectable.
The attenuationofthe signal caused by the interaction betweenthe pile and soil
within which it is embedded is commonly termed damping. In general,the
stiffer the soil layer the greaterthe damping effect on the travelling wave and
the smaller will be the reflected signal. In addition, the boundary between soil
layers ofmarkedly different stiffliess will cause reflections of some or all of the
incident stress-wave, and may produce a similar effect at the pile-head sensor as
that caused by section changes within the pile.
The signal response will also become increasingly complex and difficult to
interpret ifthere is more than one impedance change within the pile.
Figure 3.6 shows the types offeature within a pile or pile/soil system that
low-strain integrity testing techniques should be capable of detecting in
favourable circumstances. Other features which the method would not be
expected to detect are shown for comparison in Figure 3.7. It should be noted
that the test is not diagnostic in that it is not capable ofdifferentiating what is
the cause of the impedance change. The determination ofthe cause ofthe
change is part of the deductive interpretation process.
I I
1
S
. Contractplanning requirements
Standing water should be removed and the pile tops brushed or blown off with
compressed air to remove loose fragments.
ClRlAReportl44 97
A typical surface preparationdetail is illustrated on Figure 38.
7-
Pile head blown clean
7/
Pile reinforcement
bent clearas ////
allowable Mm. 600 mm
clearanceto
swing hammer
Sensor
Blinding >75 mm
thick cut back
25
Standing water
removed
I
I 100 mm
Low-strain integrity tests are rapid; in good conditions and if all the piles are
prepared. a single team can typically test 25 to 40 or more piles per day. It is often
advantageous, therefore, to have personnel on call to cut down or clean offany
piles which show near-surface anomalies (perhaps caused b' head preparation).
rather than to arrange forthe testing teams to make a subsequent visit.
Low-strain integrity tests are very commonly used forboth control testing and
retrospective investigation purposes.
Key References
The following references give general guidance on aspects of low-strain
integrity testing. More detailed reference lists are appended to the detailed
descriptions given in Sections 4 and 5.
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-situpiles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7. October, 8-13
HOWELL. M. I. (1987)
Acoustic testing of foundation piles
Civil Engineering. September, 1987, pp 30-5
TURNER. M. J. (1989)
The use of integrity testing in evaluating foundation piles
Proc. SecondInternational Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
Vol. 1. pp 307-16
1. Definition
2. Principle
An ultrasonic pulse is transmitted through the walls of a hole or duct in the pile
and radially into the surrounding concrete. Part ofthe signal is detected by the
receiver in a second duct as in Figure 3.9. The time of the arrival of the
wavetrain from the pulse is a measure ofthe transmission velocity throughthe
intervening concrete or the length ofthe acoustic path between the two holes.
Zones of differing physical properties within the pile, such as very low strength
concrete, voids, inclusions or other discontinuities. give a lower velocity or
longer travel path and/or attenuate the signal.
It is normal to have a minimum of three ducts. Four ducts might be used for pile
diameters of 750 mm diameter and above. The transit time between each pair of
ducts is checked in turn. Thus, three ducts will yield three sets oftraces. four
ducts will yield six sets.
The holes are filled with water or some other fluid to provide an acoustic
coupling between the instrument and the walls ofthe duct.
100 CIRIAReportl44
The time taken forthe ultrasonic pulse to travel from the transmitterthroughthe
intervening material to the receiver is termedits transit time. The signals
arriving at the receiver probe and the transit time ofthe wavetrain are recorded
either electronically or are photographed on a semi-continuous sheet of
light-sensitive paper for later examination, analysis and record.
Concrete pile
Fluid-filled ducts
Receiver
probe
Transmitter probe
Capsto ducts
Figure 3.9 Principle of cross-hole sonic logging
The probe units are first lowered to the bottomofadjacentducts within the pile,
and are then lifted simultaneously and smoothly up the bores, as illustrated on
Figure 3.10. Measurements are taken every 10 to 50 mm, and a continuous
profile of the arrival times ofthe wavetrain can therefore be built up, as shown
in Figure 3.11. The probes are usually operated at the same horizontal level, but
tests can be run with one probe higher than the other to produce an inclined
travel path to investigate sub-horizontal surfaces or the extent of a feature, as
discussed in Section 6.3.4. Examples oftypical displayed signals from currently
available systems are illustrated that section.
4. Interpretation
For equally spaced probes, a longertransit time within an area ofthe pile
implies an inhomogeneity in the path ofthe propagating pulse of energy,
causingeither a reduced propagation velocity or a longer travel path. The
amplitude ofthe signal may also be affected.
5. Applicability
The technique is most commonly carried out using preformed ducts within
cast-in-place piles. The minimum pile diameter is typically 600 mm, although
some users recommend 750 mm as a minimum diameter. As the ducts have to
be pre-placed with reasonable accuracy, they are usually attachedto the
reinforcement cage which is placed prior to concreting.
Defect
I
IJ
0
C
Defect
K
0
Figure 3.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole sonic logging system
They are not, therefore. commonly, if at all, used with piles such as continuous
flight auger (CFA) piles, in which the reinforcement is not only placed after pile
concreting but also does not necessarily extend for the hIlt length ofthe pile.
There seems, however, no reason within the limits ofpile reinforcement length.
why CFA piles of larger diameters could not be tested by this method.
102 ClRlAReportl44
6. Limitations
Steel or plastic tubes can be used to form the ducts. Steel tubes are preferred to
plastic ones, because it is more difficult to obtain a good bond between the
plastic and the concrete ofthe pile. Lack of bond between the cast-in duct and
the pile concrete may show up as an anomaly in the signal trace. The use of
metal tubes can limit the capabilities ofthe test slightly as outlined in
Section 6.3.5.
The test identifies the shortestacoustic path between the emitter and the
receiver. It is possible that a feature in the centre ofthe pile could be missed in a
three4ube system, unless two ofthe tubes were placed diametricallyopposite
one another. Similarly, a problem ofvoided or contaminated concrete could be
present outside the reinforcing cage of the pile, and the system would not 'see'
such perimeter problems. Figures 3.12(a) and (b) illustrate these points.
Although the sounding tubes are commonly placed to the pile toe at the
construction phase, the system cannot give any information on the toe/soil
interface. To allow this interface to be examined, it is usually recommended that
at least one ofthe ducts should be drilled out into the underlying stratum.
Pre-selection ofthe pile is necessary as the ducts have to be cast into the pile at
the construction phase.
Forming the ducts by drilling after construction of the pile, while it might
appear attractive (in that it does not need pre-selection of the pile), is not
usually a practicable option. The technique relies upon knowing that the spacing
between transmitter and receiver is sensibly constant. With cast-in ducts this
can be relatively readily achieved, but drillholes are likely to deviate
considerably from the vertical and from each other over the required hole depth.
I Contractplanning requirements
At the design stage. pre-selection of the pile is necessary in order to arrange to
cast in the access tubes. Alternatively, the decision may be made to cast access
tubes into all the contract piles.
Defect
Access duct
Figure 3.12 Examples of possible defects off the shortest direct path between
cross-hole probes (a) defect in centre; (b) defect on perimeter
8. Frequencyofuse
The test has become quite common for long, large-diameter bored piles.
particularly those formed under bentonite.
Key references
DAVIS. A. G. and ROBERTSON S. A. (1975)
Economic pile testing
Ground Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 3.
LEVY. J. F. (1970)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-situ concrete piles
Ground Engineering. Vol. 3, No. 3.
104 ClRIAReportl44
single vertical probe placed within the hole. The time taken for the pulse to
reach the receiver, after travelling throughthe material forming the side ofthe
hole, can be used to examine the relative properties of the pile materials.
2. Principle
The hole must be filled with a liquid, usually eitherwater or drilling mud, to
provide an acoustic coupling between the instrument and the walls of the hole.
The transmitter and receiver are separated by an acoustically isolating device, to
avoid direct transmission of the signal between the two units. The shortest
acoustic path between the two units is thus throughthe fluid to the nearest point
in the wall and thence through the pile material to the nearest point to the
receiver, returning through the fluid to the receiver.
The probe unit is slowly lowered or raised within the hole and measurements
taken every 50 to 100 mm. The travel time of the wavetrain between the
transmitter/receiver unit at the measuring level is recorded either electronically
or on a continuous sheet of photo-sensitive paper. A continuous profile of the
arrival times ofthe wavetrain can therefore be built up, as shown in Figure 3.15.
Kennet (1971) reported that two or three traverses can be made within each hole
under test, with a varying separation between transmitterand receiver. Typical
spacings reported were 300, 600 and 1000 mm. Most current commercial
logging tools, however, do not feature the ability to vary probe separation.
Transmitter
Acoustic
Pile concrete
n
/ /
Receiver
Fluid-filled duct
or drillhole
4. Interpretation
A longer transit time over a portion ofthe pile implies an inhomogeneity in the
path of the propagating pulse of energy, causingeither a reduced propagation
velocity or a longer travel path.
5. Applicability
The extent of penetration of the pulse into the wall ofthe hole depends upon
many factors associated with the equipment and the method of investigation.
Published data suggest this distance varies from only a few millimetres to
perhaps 100 mm from the wall. No better guidance can be given at this stage.
The test can, in principle, be carried out in any suitable borehole drilled into the
hardened pile or in a duct incorporated into the pile during its construction.
6. Limitations
The method would normallybe used to log a drill hole within the pile. If a
cast-in duct is used, lack of bond between the cast-in duct and the pile concrete
may show up as an anomalyin the signal trace. Plastic tubes are considered
necessary for forming access ducts, because steel is too good an acoustic
106 ClRlAReportl44
conductor, and would provide a preferential acoustic path for the pulse. It can
be difficult, however, under site conditions to obtain a good bond between the
plastic tube and the concrete.
The test would usually be carried out in a drill hole as part of a wider
investigation programme. It is most unusual for single-hole testing to be used as
part ofa pre-planned contract test programme. In such cases, cross-hole
methods are invariably preferred in UK practice.
8. Frequency ofuse
Key references
BAKER. C. N. Jr. and 1(1-IAN. F. (1971)
Caisson construction problems and correction in Chicago.
Proc. ASCE, .J SoilMech. ant/Found. Div. 97 (SM2). Paper 7934
February. pp 417-40
KENNET. P. (1971)
Geoph'sica1 borehole logs as an aid to ground engineering
Ground Engineering, Vol. 4. No. 5
Because 'high-strain' test methods are primarily concerned with the interaction
between the pile and the soil, in orderto estimate its load-carrying capacity, the
test results are analysed in terms ofthe pile-soil behaviour in the time domain.
Both low-strain and high-strain integrity test methods are based upon the
principle ofthe transmission of waves through the pile-soil system. Low-strain
integrity testing and dynamic load testing are therefore conceptually similar.
The development of low-strain integrity testing has concentrated primarily upon
the pile shape or form, whereas high-strain dynamic load testing has been
predominantly concerned with the pile-soil interaction. Both techniques,
however, have overlapping areas of interest and interpretation.
The use ofdynamic load testing techniques for high-strain integrity testing is
discussed further in Section 7.
1. Definition
2. Principle
The pile is shaken horizontally over a range of frequencies, while, at the same
time, the pile- head displacement and stifThess are measured.
CIRIAReportl44 109
4. Interprciation
The applied force. F. at a particular frequency from the shaker can be calculated
from an equation ofthe form
F = k1 f2
where k1 is a constant relating to the shaker.
The mechanical admittance (or mobility.Al.) of the pile head is defined bs the
relation:
Al = v/F
Fk-,w
where co = 2iff
and k2 is a factor depending upon the sensor.
a,
-t
0
x x
C
5- Cl)
2'
2'
.0
0
*C
LI
0 0
0 5 10 15
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3.16 Typical results of horizontal vibration test (after Robertson, 1979)
Good correlation has been reported (Robertson. 1979) between the horizontal
flexibility obtained from the horizontal vibration test and the results of small
horizontal static load tests.
5. Applicability
The test can be undertaken on any pile type provided access can be obtained.
6. Limitations
The test is not widely used in the UK. Its use tends to be restricted to
site-specific applications which might include correlation with the fill-scale
static tests.
7. Contractplanning requirement
Key reference
ROBERTSON, S. A. (1979)
Horizontal pile testing
Civil Engineering, January
The velocity of ultrasonic pulses througha solid depends upon the density and
elastic properties ofthe material. Variations in the quality or homogeneity of
the pile material, e.g. voids, honeycombing, low strength. etc., alter the elastic
properties ofthe pile material and change the ultrasonic pulse velocity through
the material.
The testing equipment generates an ultrasonic pulse and measures the transit
time between a transmitter and a receiver which are placed against the exposed
pile shaft, as illustrated in Figure 3.17. The measurementofpulse velocity may
be used to determine the homogeneity ofthe pile concrete or to detect the
presence of voids or cracks, etc. over the test length. The technique may thus be
CIRIAReportl44 111
used to examine the shafts of concrete piles which have been exposed as part of
other investigative works
Key reference
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1986a)
Recommendations for measurement of velocity of ultrasonic pulses in concrete
BS 1881:Part 203: 1986
Transmitter Receiver
Transmitter
Tx
ier
TrafterC
112 ClRIAReportl44
3.4.3 Parallel seismic testing
1. Definition
Parallel seismic testing is the method of estimating the acoustic length of a pile
by measuring the transit time of a stress-wave travelling down the pile and
through the intervening ground to a sensor lowered down a vertical tube
alongside the pile.
2. Principle
The length of time taken for a stress-wave to travel down a pile is directly
related to the length of the pile. By measuring the transit time of the stress-wave
to various levels, it is possible to calculate the depth of continuous concrete. By
implication, once the probe has passed beyond the base of the toe of the pile, or
that part of it which is continuous and unbroken from the surface, then an
increasing proportion ofthe travel path will be through the intervening soil and
the transit time will increase correspondingly.
A small diameter hole is formed adjacentto the pile under test, with a depth
greaterthan the expected toe level. The hole is often formed by driving a
closed-end casing using an impact mole, or it can be bored by conventional
drilling. The tubing is then filled with water to providean acoustic coupler, and
a piezo-electric probe is lowered to the bottom. The pile (or the structure closest
to it) is struck with a hammer, as illustrated on Figure 3.1 S and the probe is
raised in 500 mm steps between blows.
The shock-wave or stress-wave imparted into the structure by the hammer blow
travels down the pile shaft and through a minimum thickness of soil, where it is
first detected by the probe. The transit time at the particular level is measured
and recorded. A profile ofthe signals is thus built up at 500-mm intervals, as
shown on Figure 3.19.
4. Interpretation
A change in the rate of the increase oftransit time with depth could indicate the
pile toe or a discontinuity in the shaft.
5. Applicability
CIRIAReportl44 113
Oscilloscope
Hammer
with trigger
N Structure
/, Ground beam
Piezo-electric
receiver
Pile
4r
Tube filled ir
with water k
Qi.i4
Toe of pde
'--I
6. Limitations
The access duct must be sensibly parallel to the pile. The test would normally
be undertaken on piles less than 10 m long and in fairly uniform ground
conditions
Contractplanning requirements
4
E
5
a.
C
C
6
Change in rateof time
increases indicates
7 defectat 6.06.5 m
Figure 3.19 Typical parallel seismic result (after Williams and Stain, 1987)
8. Frequencyofuse
Key reference
WILLIAMS. H. and STAIN, R. T. (1987)
Pile integrity testing - horses for courses
Proc. International Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
London, March
Allthe methods considered here use the pile reinforcement as one electrode and
thus, practically, only the reinforced section ofthe pile is tested. In general,the
two critical factors are the electrical resistance of the concrete (Re) and that of
the soil (R8) immediately surrounding the pile. It is important, therefore, that the
contrast between these two values should be large. The closerthe ratio of R:R.
is to unity, the less effective is the method.
Provided that there is this detectable contrast in the electrical properties ofthe
pile compared with the surrounding soil, electrical methods can be sensitive to
exposure of the pile reinforcement. In principle, therefore, their potential for
identifying defects at the perimeter ofthe pile, leading to loss of concrete cover.
is high. They are correspondingly less able to detect internal defects or features
such as inclusions within the pile.
A benefitof electrical testing methods is that they can be used on freshly cast
piles.
ClRlAReportl44 115
The following four techniques have been generally identified:
resistance to earth
self potential
resistivity testing
induced polarisation.
The methods were reported and developed in the early 1970s and further
research work was undertaken through to the early 1980s. At that time the use
of electrical methods did not show as much promise as the acoustic integrity
tests that had been concurrently developed in other European research centres.
As far as can be determined, research and development on electrical techniques
virtually terminated at that time, and the techniques are currently rarely used.
Resistance to earth
The largest components of resistance are those of the pile concrete and the soil
around the pile. Provided that the resistances ofthese two materials are
markedly different, a change in nature or relative thickness of the concrete cover
to the pile reinforcement will be exhibited as a marked change in the measured
potential difference.
Ifthe currentpassed into the pile is land the potential drop between the pile and
the measuringelectrode a distance. de. from the pile is V. then V/I is the earthing
resistance. R. of the pile for that particular position ofthe electrode. The values
ofl and Vare recorded for a range of distances, tie. A plot of the form of Figure
3.21 is then obtained.
It has been found that the use of low-frequency alternating current is preferable
to direct current, to reduce the effects of stray earth currents and induced
polarisation phenomena.
116 CIRIAReportl44
Electrical currentbetween
pile and electrode
I I
d.
I
I
Pile-potential
electrode
/ Electrodes
L :
Pile
I
reinforcement
Figure 3.20 Principle of the earth-resistance method (after McCarter et al., 1981)
I
0
C
C
C
0-
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Electrodespacing(dJL)
Figure 3.21 Typical form of the graph of current electrode spacing versus resistance
(after McCarter et al., 1981)
ClRlAReportl44 117
30
Short
'I)
20
E Control piles
'C
0
a,
0
C
It
a)
0
a,
a: Weakconcrete
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
In practice, it was found sufficient, rather than plotting the complete electrode
spacing! resistance curve (termed the E-R curve), for the current electrode to be
placed at a distance from the pile equal to the pile depth, and the measuring electrode
placed midway between the pile and the current electrode. The series ofreadings for
a group of piles was thus reduced to a single value of earth-resistance for each pile
provided that the piles were constructed to similar lengths and dimensions.
The effect of a defect is to alter the current density on the reinforcement. This
will in turn displace the reading obtained from the electrode-spacing!resistance
graph, as illustrated on Figure 3.22. Depending upon the relative values of the
resistances ofthe media the graph could be displaced upwards or downwards.
but most defects result in a displacement downwards. The values obtained are
qualitative, in that no quantitative value can be provided for a soundly
constructed pile at a particular site prior to test.
118 ClRlAReportl44
Defective piles have to be inferred by plotting the E-R values as a statistical set
and noting deviations from the norm. Local variations in ground conditions also
affect the E-R values. In particular, the method is often affected by the positions
of local water tables.
As only the reinforced section ofthe pile contributes materially to the E-R
curve, defects below this would not be detectable.
A major limitation to the use of the method is that it has not been proved or
developed commercially, and is available only as a research tool.
Key references
McCARTER.W. J., WHIITINGTON,H. W. and FORDE M.C. (1981)
An experimental investigation ofthe earth-resistance response of a reinforced
concrete pile
Proc. Jnstn. CiviL Engs, Part 2, Vol. 70, Dec., pp 1101-29
So far as is known, the methods outlined below have not been used to detect
pile anomalies and have not been subjected in any major research development
since being identified by Weltman(1977).
Non-polarising
Pile electrode
reinforcement
ClRlAReportl44 119
RCSISIEVIrV,The test set-up is similar to the standard geophysical Wenner
configuration. with the pile acting as one ofthe outer electrodes, as shown on
Figure 3.24. A voltage is applied between the outer electrodes and the potential
drop between two intermediate electrodes is measured. Again anomalous
readings ma indicate a defect.
II
II
Pile
I.
I
reinforcement Non-polarising
electrodes
Pile Non-polarising
reinforcement electrodes
120 ClRlAReportl44
3.4.5 Nuclear-radiation methods
Backscatter techniques
Gamma-ray photons and neutrons behave like particles, colliding with atoms of
the material forming the pile and suffering both scattering and absorption in the
process.
In the case ofgamma ray techniques, the longerthe distance travelled from
emitter to receiver or the greaterthe density ofthe material, then the larger the
numberofthe source particles that are absorbed or scattered. Since the distance
between the emitter and the detector is constantfor the test, the observedcount
rate is thus dependent upon the density ofthe material through which the
radiation is passing.
Neutron techniques depend upon the fact that the neutrons emanating from the
source are rapidly slowed down by the presence ofhydrogen atoms, far more so
than forother atoms. The detection of these 'slow' neutrons is therefore
predominantly a measure ofthe presence ofhydrogen within the material
through which the neutrons are passing. Hydrogen is mainly held as water
within the molecular structure ofthe concrete ofthe pile. Differences in water
content are thus indicative of differences in pile material.
The probe containing the combined source and detector is lowered down the
access tube while readings are taken at close, regular intervals, to produce a
continuous profile ofthe relative concrete quality ofthe pile.
In that the neutron techniques respond to the water content of the surrounding
material, they are sensitive, for example, to clay inclusions, which have a
moisture content markedly different to sound concrete. A sand inclusion is
likely to have a smaller difference in moisture content and would be
correspondingly less easy to detect using neutron techniques.
ClRIAReportl44 121
Winch rope and
electrical connectors
big
r
Pile concrete Electronics
bY
Detector
Lead shield
Source
Duct or drillhole
within pile
Figure 3.26 Nuclear backscatter logging (after Preiss and Caiserman, 1975)
Gamma techniques are responsive to density changes within the pile and are
therefore sensitive to poor quality concrete or voiding.
Typical results from test piles with included faults are shown on Figure 3.28.
The method does not depend upon the concrete gaining strength before testing,
so it can be used for early examination of freshly cast piles.
The radiation typically penetrates for only a limited distance awas from the wall
of the duct in the concrete pile, and this therefore represents the effective
volume of the pile being sampled. It could extend, however, to include the
perimeter ofthe pile. which is susceptible to many of the construction problems
that lead to the formation of an unsatisfactory pile. The test can be carried out
within any suitable borehole or duct within a pile. It is not usual, however, for
single ducts to be cast into a pile. Invariably two or more ducts are preferable.
Such multiple hole systems can then allow either single-hole or cross hole
techniques to be used. Preiss and Caiserman (1975) favoured the use ofsingle-
hole backscatter testing even in multiple tube systems.
Testing is normally carried out in preplaced steel ducts or pipes attached to the
pile reinforcement cage. Baker et a/. (1991)preferredthe use ofplastic pipes to
avoid signal damping.
122 ClRlAReportl44
When using a prefabricated single duct and the single-hole method, the tube
would usually be attached to the pile cage, and it has been suggested that the
results can, therefore, be affected by the pile reinforcement and, possibly, by the
surrounding ground.
0
I-
0
E
a.
0
C
10
Key references
PREISS. K. (1971)
Checking of cast-in-place concrete piles by nuclear radiation methods
British Journal ofN.D. T.. May
pp 70-76
124 CIRIAReportl44
This technique is also known as gamma-gamma logging (e.g. Baker el al.. 1992).
Gamma-ray photons behave like particles, colliding with atoms ofthe material
forming the pile and suffering both scattering and absorption in the process.
A gamma-ray source is lowered down one access tube and a detector probe
down the adjacent one as illustrated on Figure 3.29. The gamma-ray particlesor
photons radiate into the surrounding pile material. Some ofthe atomic particles
are absorbed or scattered, while some pass throughto the detector. The source
and detector are simultaneously lowered down the access holes and continuous
measurements taken. A typical test result obtained on a pile with a built-in
defect is illustrated on Figure 3.30.
Concrete pile
Access ducts
Detector
Source holder
Detector
crystS
Gamma-ray techniques respond to density changes within the pile concrete and
therefore can indicate variations in concrete quality.
During the contract, access ducts have to be cast into the piles at the
construction stage and are typically incorporated into the pile cage. Baker ci a!.
(1991) suggest that the ducts should be plastic rather than steel to avoid
excessive signal damping.
Allowance also has to be made in the programme for the provision of a holding
period to allow evaluation ofthe test results prior to continuing with the
foundation construction sequence.
I .QPllcr
Clay
'0
Mortar
0
>
20 mm aggregate
Concrete
1.35m
Figure 3.30 Gamma-ray transmission result on test sample pile (after Preiss, 1971)
126 ClRlAReportl44
Key references
BAKER, C. N. (Jr), DRUMRIGHT, E. E.. BRIAUD.
J-L, MESAH-DWUMAH, F. and PARIKH, G. (1991)
Drilled shafis for bridgefoundations
Final Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations,
Federal Highway Administration
Grant No. DTFH61-88-Z-00040
National Technical Service. Springfield, VA 22161
October. 335 p
PREISS, K. (1971)
Checking of cast in place concrete piles by nuclear radiation methods
British Journal ofND. T., May. pp 70 -76
3. The measured data from the tests can be analysed by reference to time or to
frequency. The former are often referred to as echo tests and the latter as
frequency response tests.
4. Low-strain integritytests may be used on all pile types and for piles formed
in all types of ground, provided that access to the pile head can be obtained.
5. The value ofthe test may be reduced by attenuation ofthe wave as it travels
through the pile. In addition, boundaries between soils of markedly
different stiffness can produce effects similar to those caused by section
changes in the pile.
6. Tests are not diagnostic ofthe cause ofthe observed defects, but skilled
interpreters can often deduce likely causes.
CIRIAReportl44 127
7. Cross-hole sonic logging utilises the transmission ofa pulse of sonic, or
ultrasonic, energy from a transmitter sited in a duct within the pile to a
receiver in a separate, parallel duct. The ducts have to be quite accurately
positioned: the technique is therefore not suitable for use in drilled, post-
construction boreholes.
8. Cross-hole tests are quite common, particularly for large diameter piles
formed under bentonite, but the technique is not suitable for piles of less
than 600 mm diameter.
9. Single-hole sonic logging can be undertaken using a probe acting as sender
and receiver, but this test measures a much smaller volume of the pile and
is therefore rarely used.
10. Sonic logging can determine zones of different physical properties within
the pile such as very low strength concrete, voids, or inclusions.
11. Other indirect methods include:
horizontal vibration testing used to determine the horizontal stiffhess
of a pile. The test has been reported to correlate well with small
horizontal load tests. Not widely used.
ultrasonic pulse velocity allows evaluation ofthe qualit\' of exposed
shaft concrete. Rarely used.
parallel seismic testing developed to aid testing when the pile head is
no longer accessible. Stress waves imparted into the structure are
measured by a probe in a water-filled borehole drilled as close as
possible to the pile. The test may be usefl.il as an investigatory tool for
post-construction problems.
electrical methods a variety ofmethods which will only work in the
reinforced zone of the pile. None of the methods has been developed
cornmercially.
nuclear radiation methods backscattertechniques measure the
dispersal ofatomic particles from a radioactive source. Use in the UK
is rare, but nuclear methods have been regularly used in the Middle
East and the USA.
128 CIRtAReportl44
4 Low-strain integrity testing: theory
The science of acoustics involves the study of the generation, transmission and
reception ofenergy in the form ofvibrational waves in matter. The most
familiar acoustic phenomenon is that associated with the sensation of sound.
For the average young person a vibrational disturbance is interpreted as 'sound'
if it has a frequency in the range of about 20 to 20 000 Hz. Acoustics also
encompass ultrasonic frequencies, which are those vibrations above 20 000 Hz,
and infrasonic frequencies, which are those below 20 Hz.
In the case of low-strain integrity testing the pile head excitation is usually
provided by a blow from a light hand-held hammer, weighing some 1 to 2 kg,
or for some forms of test an electrodynamic shaker.
The mechanical impulse generates shock waves which travel along the pile at a
velocity determined by the mechanical properties ofthe pile material. In
concrete, this propagation velocity is typically about 3500 to 4000 mIs. The
wave front spreads rapidly from the point of impact and, within a distance of
about two pile diameters, effectively takes the proportions of a plane wave. This
is identical to the propagation ofwaves through long rods or bars and the
theoretical treatment and analysis of both low- and high-strain integrity tests are
based upon the concepts ofthe theory developed for such bar-waves.
For a pile embedded within a uniform homogeneous soil, the progress of the
stress-wave down the pile is affected by the following factors.
I. The properties ofthe pile material itself, which attenuate the stress-wave
in a roughly linear manner for a given pile diameter.
2. The characteristics ofthe soil within which the pile is embedded, which
attenuate the stress-wave in a manner related to the stiffiess of the soil.
CIRIAReportl44 129
3, Variations in the pile body, either in its external dimensions or in its
internal properties. Differences in the internal properties or dimensions of
a pile cause a part ofthe wave to be reflected back towards the pile head.
while the remainder of the wave continues down the pile. The onward
travelling wave is reduced in amplitude in equal proportion to the
magnitude of the reflected, upward-travelling wave, in accordance with
the principle of the conservation of momentum,
Reflections of the stress-wave within the pile are thus caused by changes in the
physical properties of the pile, which affect its acoustic or wave-transmission
properties. The changes are characterised by a parameter termed the impedance,
z. ofthe pile. The largerthe relative change in impedance at a point within the
pile. the greaterthe percentage of the incident wave that is reflected. The
process is analogous to the reflection of a light wave from a partially transparent
minor, where part of the light is reflected and the remainder is transmitted
through the minor.
As the degree of reflection ofthe stress-wave depends only upon the relative
change in impedance. either an increase or decrease of pile impedance at a point
causes a reflection of the wave. The reflected wave response differs depending
upon whether the impedance change is an increase or decrease: this is of
importance in the interpretation of low-strain integrity testing. The significance
and use of impedance in low-strain integrity testing is discussed fiuther in
Section 4.2.
When the ball at one end is held clear of its neighbours and then allowed to
swing back to strike the next ball in line, the motion is transferred from one ball
to the next until the farthest one is impelled away from the line of balls with the
same direction of motion as the first impact, and with approximately the same
velocity.
130 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 4.1 Analogy of wave propagationthrough a pile
This toy illustrates two ofthe fundamental concepts ofthe dynamics of the
impact ofelastic bodies.
For perfectly elastic bodies e = 1; and bodies for which e is zero are said to be
inelastic.
If we now consider further the motion ofa row ofperfectly elastic spheres, all
ofequal mass and of identical composition, resting upon a smooth frictionless
surface, two cases can be examined.
In the first case, as illustrated in Figure 4.2, if there is no restraint within the
system the last sphere in the line will be ejected from the row of spheres at a
velocity equal to that ofthe first sphere. From a consideration of Equations 4.1
and 4.2 above, the final velocity of spheres s1 through to s1 will be zero. Such
a case is analogous to a free-end situation within a pile, where there is no
restraint to the toe.
CIRlAReportl44 131
Sn Sn-i 53 52 Si
S_fl.
Sn S,,i 52 S2 Si
Figure 4.2 Impact of elastic spheres with no end restraint (tree end)
s
In the secondcase. illustrated in Figure 4.3, ifthe last sphere were to be
restrained against a fixed smooth plane surface, then the first sphere would s
rebound along the axis with a velocity that would be equal and opposite to its
initial velocity. Such a case would be analogous to a fixed-end condition, with
the pile toe fixed into a strong incompressible medium, such as rock.
Sr Sn-i $2 Si
Sn Sn-i 52 S1
132 CIRIAReportl44
If one imagines the line of spheres except the first being hidden from view, as in
Figure 4.4, it can be appreciated that the behaviour ofthe exposed sphere can indicate
the fonn of fixing of the remote end ofthe line of spheres. Althoughthe remote end is
not visible, its condition can be inferred from the response ofthe whole system to the
disturbing force. If one ofthe spheres were to be replaced by a sphere of much smaller
diameter, though of the same material, the situation illustrated in Figure 4.5 can be
investigated. It can be demonstrated that the smaller sphere will act as a quasi-free end
to the preceding sphere, so that only part ofthe velocity ofthe larger sphere will be
transmittedthroughthe system. The remaining portion ofthe momentum ofthe larger
sphere will, in accordance with the Principle of the Conservation of Momentum, cause
the larger sphere to continue to move in the direction of its original motion. This is
analogous to the effect of a loss of section in a pile.
V=vl
(a)
.7 / I
1% N. ''._
V = Vi
III
------1
V = Vi
(b)
Figure 4.4 Response of impact sphere (a) to free-end condition; (b) to fixed-end
condition
CIRIAReportl44 133
In a similar manner, an asymmetry in the line of spheres in the form of a sphere
of the same material but of larger diameter, would have an effect of the type
illustrated in Figure 4.6. In this case it would behave as a quasi-fixed end to the
preceding sphere. and the direction ofmotion of the smaller sphere would be
partially reversed.This is analogous to an increase in cross-section.or a bulge
within the pile
ccc I
WJW a
EICO 4
cm
The analogs' of separate spheres, however, does not represent the ability of the
particles forming the body of a 'real' pile to transfer not only compressive but
also tensile forces. Thus the pile parts do not separate under the normal impact
forces being considered here.
This situation can be modelled by imagining that the elastic spheres arejoined
by springs and so able to transmit compressiveand tensile force.
Thus, a free-end condition should result in a movement of the pile head in the
same direction as that caused by the initial impulse, when the reflected
stress-wave from the toe reaches the pile head.
It can also be inferred from Figures 4.7 and 4.8 that in a perfectly elastic system
the motion would be repeated cyclically ad infinitum.
It can further be inferred from Figures 4.5 and 4.6 that a relative toss or increase
in section will induce characteristic responses, which, if measured by a sensor
placed on the pile head and analysed, can be interpreted in terms ofthe change
of section.
Impact
a.
C
Considering Figures 4.7 and 4.8 once more, it can be seen that they are
essentially plots ofthe depth ofthe wavefront against time. Ifthe motion ofthe
pile head is monitored by a sensor which can measure either its velocity or its
displacement with time, the sensor would be expected to show a plot typified by
the traces shown in Figure 4.9. Indeed Figure 4.9 is the basis of most sonic echo
plots.
2'
8
Impulse
Arrival of toe Repeat arrival
reflection
(a)
Time
2'
8
(b)
Figure 4.9 Echo tests: theoretical response of pile head (a) tree-end condition:
(b) fixed-end condition
The above explains the basic concept ofthe pile response in terms of the time
domain. The analogy can be extended further to explain the response in terms of
the frequency domain.
Thus the response of the pile can be examined for a uniformly applied
oscillating force over a range of impulse frequencies. The measured pile-head
velocity can be expected to vary depending upon the frequency ofthe impulse
force as an alternating series ofmaxima and minima. The position ofthese
maximum and minimum values would depend upon the travel time of the
incident and reflected stress-waves transmitted through the pile. which in turn
would be directly proportional in a uniform pile to its length. In the case ofa
discontinuous pile the maximawould be proportional to the depth of an
intervening discontinuity. The response of the pile when examined in the
frequency domain would therefore be expected to take the forms illustrated in
Figure 4.10 (a) and (b).
Section 4.1 demonstrates that when the top ofa pile is acted upon by an
impulsive force, such as a hammer blow, a downwa.rd4ravelling stress-wave is
generated and propagates through the body ofthe pile towards the pile toe. As
the wave progresses, reflections ofthe initial downward-travelling wave occur
at points where the pile properties change. Depending upon the magnitude of
the relative change in pile properties, part ofthe incident wave is reflected and
part is transmitted onward. The reflected portions as upward4ravelling waves
can be detected by a suitable sensor at the pile head.
ClRIAReportl44 137
at at at
0
L0
C
0
a.
0
C
D
Ct
a'
-C
C
0
Frequency
(a)
at
At
a'
0
C
0
a.
0
a,
It
0
a,
0
Frequency
(b)
Figure 4.10 Frequency responsetest: response of pile head (a) free-end response;
(b) fixed-end response
138 ClRlAReportl44
interpretation of the test results. What has been detected is a reflection from a
back-calculated horizon, the assumption being that it is the pile toe from the
knowledge that the pile was ofa certain length and the assumption that its
properties are identical for all practical purposes over its full length.
A shorter time lapse than expected would indicate that the reflection was
arriving from a higher level within the pile (because it has had a shortertravel
time). This reflection from a higher level might or might not represent a defect
within the pile.
Effectively, then, the toe ofthe pile (or any intervening defect or feature),
changes the pile impedance and results in the reflection of a portion ofthe
downward-travelling wave to a greateror lesser extent.
z = p.c.A
c = JR
Thus, by substitution, z can also be expressed in the alternative forms given by:
E.A
C
z =A 'E.p
CIRIAReportl44 139
Equation 4.3 demonstrates that the impedance of the pile is directly proportional
to its cross-sectional area. In most practical cases. the density and wave speed
have a lesser effect on the numerical value of z. Both density and wave speed are
linked to concrete strength, which has a direct bearing upon the serviceability of
the pile, yet even a major reduction in concrete strength would not reduce either
parameter by a proportional amount, because the inter-relationship is logarithmic
rather than linear. As an example. Figure 4.11 illustrates a typical correlation
between concrete strength and the velocity of plane-wave propagation.
The magnitude of the change in impedance determines the extent to which the
shock wave is reflected. A minor change in impedance causes only a relatively
small part of the wave energy to be reflected, while the remainder is transmitted
onwards down the pile beyond the impedance change. Conversely, a major
change in impedance causes all, or nearly all, of the wave to be reflected and
none, or very little, to be transmitted to a deeper level.
4000
:1
E
C.) 3000
2
S
C)
C
0
C)
C
8
C
'p 2000
C
0
4-
C
0)
C
a
2
a
C
1000
I
0 I
0 10 20 30 40 50
28-dayUCS of concrete (N/mm2)
Figure 4.11 Typical relationship between velocity of plane wave propagation and
unconfinedcompression strength of concrete (after Ellway, 1987)
(Note: relationshipfor a particular mix will vary, depending on concrete
constituents).
140 ClRlAReportl44
Further consideration of impedance changes within a pile highlights two points
of significance to low-strain integrity testing.
= p1c1A1
z2 p2c2A2
In a normal concrete pile p and c are usually fairly constantso that the ratio
z1:z2 is very sensitive to the ratio A1:A2. Thus integritytests are very good at
detecting changes in pile area, such as necks or cracks.
= mciAi
z2=pao2A2
CIRlAReportl44 141
fixed-end condition, and a decrease in impedance equivalent to a free end. Thus
the behaviour ofthe pile head should allow an evaluation ofthe significance
and mode ofthe change in impedance at depth.
Ellwav (1987) suggested that the most sensitive integrity tests are capable of
detecting pile impedance changes of about 1:0.8 or. equivalently. 1:1.2. These
'just detectable' changes in pile properties cause only a small part ofthe
stress-wave to be reflected, thus it is possible to 'see through' the feature. As
the ratio change approaches 1:0.5 (or 1:2) most of the wave is reflected causing
a clear 'echo'. When the ratio change of pile properties exceeds 1:0.25 (or 1:4).
the incident stress-wave is almost completely reflected, so that below this point
no further information on pile integrity can be obtained.
Area of pile = A1
x x
Area of pile
y y
Area of pile = A1
As v-y comes closer to x-x, however, interference between the two effects will
increase. This is because ofthe finite time over which the wave pulse is
imparted into the pile, being typically 0.5 to 1.0 ms. With a wavespeed (c) of,
say.4000 m/s the length ofthe pulse travelling throughthe pile might therefore
be 2 to 4 m. Thus, the signal response from a neck or bulge that was markedly
shorterthan this value would suffer interference because of the two impedance
changes.
142 ClRlAReportl44
This can be particularly relevant to a feature such as a partial crack or bite
within the pile. Provided the crack or bite does not take up so much of the area
of the pile shaft that there would be total reflection, interference between the
two impedance changes might effectively renderthe feature virtually
undetectable to the test.
Thus it must be borne in mind, that a feature extending over much ofthe pile's
cross section, but of small axial extent may not be visibte to a low strain
integrity test.
The effect of changes in soil characteristics are often, for ease of understanding,
equated to changes of pile cross-section or density within the impedance
equation.
In the sonic echo test, the response length of the pile can be calculated from the
time delay, 1, between the input pulse and the arrival of reflections from within
the pile body. Ifthe propagation velocity, c. ofthe wave pulse through the
material forming the pile is known, then the length. L. to a particular reflecting
surface is given by:
a,
ci,
C
0
a.
U,
a,
I-
0
0
a,
a-
lime
In order to examine the effect of such changes in impedance upon both the
downward-travelling and the resulting upward-travelling stress-waves, it is
usual to considerthe problem in terms of the propagation of waves through a
uniform elastic medium such as a prismatic rod or bar. Such a case is illustrated
in Figure 4.15. where the rod has a cross-sectional area A. a modulus of
elasticity E. a mass density p. and is acted upon by a time-dependent force 11(t).
The behaviour of a pile, represented as a uniform prismatic rod, under the action
of such an impulsive force, can therefore be related to the fundamental
equations of motion.
144 CIRIAReportl44
Based upon Newton's Second Law of Motion, the equation ofmotion for an
infinitesimal section of the rod is given by the relationship
SF
.dx = (p.A).dxJL.!
Sx St2
From Hooke's Law the value of the force, F, is related to the incremental strain
of the segment, thus:
A,E,p
dx
F (t)
p
dx
Figure 4.15 Wave propagation through a prismatic rod loaded at one end
(after TNO-IBBC, 1987)
F= -EA ...(4.lO)
Sr
EAJI ...(411)
5x2 St2
CIRIAReportl44 145
Arflval of
Impact 2L reflection
C
Time, I'
I
L
.!!
ox2
-L..!! =o
c2 8t2
u=f(xc:)+f(x+ct) ...(4.14)
Wherefj is a function representing a wave moving down the pile shaft. andf is
a function representing a wave moving up the pile shaft.
Thus the general solution to Equation4.13 is expressed in terms of two
travelling waves, each propagating throughthe rod with a velocity, c, but in
oppositedirections.
The detailed derivation of the above equations is dealt with in standard texts,
such as Graffe (1975). The above particular derivation and the following further
analysis is based upon that published by Voitus van Hamme et ci. (1974) and
extended by van Weele (1987). The principles of wave propagation covered by
the stress-wave theory also have direct application to dynamic load testing. as
referred to in Section 7.
From Equation4.10 the force, F, acting at any point within the rod is given by:
146 ClRlAReportl44
F=EA_=-EA dfd dfU
or
F=Fd+FU ...(4.15)
Where Ed and F are two force waveswhich are propagated undisturbed with a
velocity
c = (E/p) in the positive and negative (i.e downward and upward) directions,
respectively.
In the same way, the particle velocity, v, at any point within the rod is given by:
v=_
St
=c. did
d(x ci)
+c. df
d(x + ci)
or
VVd+Vu ...(4.16)
v
Where i'd and are the particle velocities associated with the two force waves
d E
and respectively.
F
= .....! ...(4.18)
and thus
Z.V=FdFM ...(4.19)
CIRIAReportl44 147
4.3.2 Effect of impedance change
Reduction ofimpedance. i.e. free end
In the case of a free-ended pile, no force can bc transmitted across the toe
boundars'. and thus in Equation 4.15:
Ed+EU=OorFd=-FU
2Fd
...(4.20)
z
Thus, the particle velocity at a free end resulting from an initial impulse at the
head of the pile, is equal to twice the particle velocity imparted bs' that initial
impulse, while the resultant force is zero, as illustrated in Figure 4.16. It should
also be noted from this figure, that the downward4ravclling compression wave
is reflected back throughthe body of the pile from the boundary as a tension
wave (F = -Fd). and the resulting particle velocity is positive (i.e. downwards).
When the upward- travelling tension wave is reflected at the head ofthe pile,
which is also a free end it will be reflected from the boundary as a compressive
wave, and the resultant particle velocity will again be positive.
The interface between the pile toe and the underlying soil usually involves a
reduction in impedance, since it is unusual for soil to be stiffer than the pile
material. Thus the toe reflection is usually a free-end response. Similarly a
reduction of section represented b' a neck or a discontinuity such as a crack
also displays a free-end response. Typical free-end responses are shown on
Figure 4.17.
At a fixed end, the resultant particle velocity will be zero: from Equation 4.16:
= 0, i.e.
Va + Va =-v
= (-a) =
z z z
148 CIRIAReportl44
F = 2Fd ...(4.21)
Thus at a fixed end the resultant force is twice the value of the force imparted
by the initial blow and the resultant particle velocity is zero.
It can be seen from Figure 4.18 that the stress-wave is reflected back from such
a boundary as a compressive stress-wave (F = Fd), and the resultant particle
velocity is negative (v = - i'd), or upwards, in sense. Thus when the reflected,
upward-travelling, stress-wave reaches the head ofthe pile the resultantparticle
velocity at the pile head is also negative (i.e. upwards from the pile and in the
opposite direction to the velocity imparted by the original impulse).
At the pile head, as it is a free end, the resultant force is zero and the particle
velocity at the pile head is twice that originally imparted by the initial impulse,
as shown in Figure 4.18(a).
The impedance change associated with a particular feature within the pile might only
be sufficient to cause partial reflection of the downward-travelling stress-wave. The
remainder of the signal would be transmitted onward down the pile. An example of
such a partial feature would be a neck or bulge in the pile section.
It can be shown by further analysis (e.g. Voitus van Hamme eta!., 1974), that
stress-waves arriving at a plane of discontinuity will be partly reflected and partly
transmitted across the discontinuity according to the following relationships:
CIRlAReportl44 149
z z 2z2
.F1, +
=
+ z1) .F2
Flu + ...(4.22)
z1 (z2
z
2
z 2z
= 1
+ ...(4.23)
.F1,
z2 (z2 +z1)
Where Fid. F1. 2d, F2, z1 and z2 are as shown in Figure 4.19.
Van Koten and Wood (1987) also developed a solution for the effect of a
gradual change in diameter with depth, as opposed to a sharp change in
diameter.
Detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this report. but the interested reader
is referred to the standard works listed in the Bibliography. Suffice it to say that
the Stress Wave Theoiy provides a powerhil method for analysing the signal
response of a pile to impulsive forces and explaining the behaviourof the signal
in terms of changes of the impedance ofthe pile and pile/soil system.
The practical significance of a partial reflection within the pile is that the pile-
head response is a function of the effect of more than one impedance change
upon the transmitted or reflected waves. The response might show for instance
the effect of a partial loss of section at some intermediate depth together with
the effect of the toe ofthe pile. With increasing numbers of partial reflections,
such as an irregular pile section or many soil layer changes. the signal response
becomes extremely complex. Figure 4.20 illustrates typical combined
responses.
Skin friction along the pile dissipates the energy of the initial impulse and. thus,
progressively reduces the amplitude ofthe stress-wave, as illustrated in
Figure 4.22. In order to counter this effect, a time-dependent amplification is often
applied to the signal to accentuate and differentiate the remote-end response from
the surrounding signal. Amplification can either be linear with time or exponential.
150 CIRIAReportl44
2L
C
Time,
L S
0
(a)
2L
Time, t
d
L
(b)
2d
C
F. lime, t
dl
L S
0-
(c)
Figure 4.17 Typical simplified free end responses for time-based tests
(a) toe of pile (note: repeated reflection at time intervals of 2L/c)
(b) intermediate decrease in cross-section (partial reflection at change
of section, reduced toe reflection)
(c) broken pile/completeloss of section/crack (free end reflection from
break, r&peated at time intervalsof 2d/c)
ClRlAReportl44 151
2L
c
Time,t
8
V
0
L 0
0
/
(a) Fixed toe
2L
d
L
Ifthe cumulative skin friction is too high, (e.g. either a very long pile in a weak
soil or a long pile in a stiffsoil), the returning signal can be attenuated to such
an extent that it cannot be distinguished from the background noise.
2'
8
z1
0
C F1d F10
0
0.
F2d
z2
It should be noted that the two effects described above, (i.e. changes in soil
stiffness and corresponding changes in pile diameter because of construction
features) can and do occur simultaneously and interact with one another.
ClRlAReportl44 153
lime, t
r
L
(b)
154 ClRlAReportl44
lime, t
1'
8
C
V
0w
C
L=oo 0
Figure 4.21 Signal response for an infinite pile (no toe reflection)
Reduced signal
/\
lime, t
2'
V
0
8
S
>
S
A
S
0
ClRlAReportl44 155
S'ieadi-state techniques
In principle, for each step, the wave from an incident pulse travels throughthe
pile and is partly or wholly reflected at impedance changes within the pile. If
any of these returning reflections are in phase with the incident frequency,
resonance males the pile-head response maximum. Conversely, if the returning
reflections are out of phase. the pile-head response is reduced. A graph of
maximum pile-head velocity against frequency of excitation would thercfore
show a series of resonating peaks with intervening troughs. as indicated in
Figure 423. and which depend only upon the pile properties.
From standard wave theory, relating to vibrations in long slender rods, the
resonating length. L. ofthe pile is given by
_L ...(4.24)
2.41
Thus in a perfect straight-sided pile in free air with no toe restraint, the
expression L = c/24fgives the length ofthe pile.
vmax I
M(j) = ...(4.25)
Emax V')
156 CIRIAReportl44
At- Af=
2L
F 1
8
S
S
S
a.
E
E
Frequency, f
Thus Figure 4.23 could be redrawn with the Mobility, M. replacing Vmax on the
abscissa,as illustrated in Figure 4.24.
2L 2L
F 1
'
' .%
II
.1'
Frequency, /
When using hammer-based techniques. the signal obtained from the test has to
be broken down into its component frequencies to allow analysis of the signal
response in the same was' as the steadv-state' method. The signals are recorded
in terms of time and have to be transformed to terms of frequency.
The impulse from the test hammer and the returning reflected responses from
within the pile can be regarded as a wave train, passing a given point in a finite
time. The wave-train is a combination ofa large numberof separate oscillations.
In practical terms, the wave-train has a finite length. i.e. it has a beginning and an
end, and cannot therefore be a pure vibration of a single frequency. Other
vibrations must be superimposed to cause it to begin at a certain time and end at a
certain time. The wavetrain thus consists of a wave group with components of
different superimposed frequencies, amplitudes and phases.
When exaniined in terms of frequency. the impulse from the hammer blow and
the resulting reflections can be understood to be composed of a series of
sinusoidal waves all moving in the same direction but of vaning amplitude and
frequency. Thus they are sometimes in phase and sometimes out of phase. with
the result that the net amplitude of the wave group will van in a predictable and
calculable manner, to produce the characteristic shape of the response seen at
the pile head. The complex wave-train, therefore, can be broken down into its
component series of interacting individual sinusoidal waves of given
frequencies and amplitudes.
Many other complex practical problems concerned with such periodic firnctions
are similarly solved by this simplifling technique of breaking down the
function into its component parts. The device used to undertake the analysis of
such outwardly complex wave motion is referred to as a harmonic analyser, or.
more commonly, a spectrum analyser. A spectrum analyseris an instrument
capableof determining and measuring the relative amplitudes of the sinusoidal
components of a periodically recurrent function. The first recorded harmonic
analyser was mechanical, and was invented and used by Lord Kelvin in the late
19th Century for the harmonic analysis of tidal observations, and embodied
eleven sets of mechanical integrators. The technique is used for the analysis of
all types of periodic motion, including sound-wave propagation and machine
motions and vibrations. Modemanalysers are usually electronic or
electro-mechanical. but the fundamental theoretical basis remains the same.
fit) = a0 +
a1cos[2m.fit)] + b1sin[2itflt)1
+ a2cos[21t2J(f)] + ...(4.26)
b2sin[2it2fifj]
+ a3cos[2m.3j(t)] +
This relationship implies that the terms of the series will involve higher and
higher frequencies.
= ...(4.27)
fK(x,y).F(x).dx
The Fourier transform, in which the kernel is (2it).exp(-ixy) and the limits are
+ and - infinity, is used to evaluate a Fourier series. The value of integral
transforms is in the simplification they bring in dealing with complexand
intractable differential equations subject to particular boundary conditions.
Once the force and velocity signals have been converted from functions of time
into functions of frequency, the analysis program can produce the typical
frequency-response plot of pile-head mobility (pile-head velocity divided by
force) against frequency.
CIRIAReportl44 159
t
4-.
a.
E
(a)
V
a
E
Time,
(b)
Figure 4.25 Illustrative Fourier analysis of a squarewave pulse showing (a) the first
three sinusoidal components; (b) the sum of the first three components
and their approximationtowards the square wave pulse
In the case of a perfectly elastic. frictionless body, with no toe restraint, the
initial behaviour at very low frequencies will be rigid body motion. Thereafter.
from Equation 4.24. resonance will occur at frequency intervals of c/2L. as
illustrated on Figure 426.
160 CIRIAReportl44
wave and both have particle velocities acting in the same sense. Thus the pile-
head velocity sensor measures a maximum response, or resonance.
C Al C A'
Af
2L aI_2L 2L
.0
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
When the remote end ofthe pile is fixed or held in contact with an infinitely
rigid anchorage, the lowest frequency of resonance occurs at a value of '/24f i.e.
cI4L, as illustrated in Figure 4.27. Thus the effect of a fixed end is to cause a
phase shift of the pile resonances.
In a similar mannerto the free-end response discussed above, this can again be
understood from the stress-wave theory outlined in Section 4.3.2. which
demonstrates that a fixed end will reflect a downward4ravelling incident
compressive wave from the pile head excitation as an upward-travelling
compressive stress-wave having a negative particle velocity (i.e. upwards).
fr
Thus at the critical frequencies given by whole numbermultiples of c/2L the
particle velocities associated with the incident and reflective waves are opposite
in sense and their net effect is a minimum. The location of maximum effect is
thus at the intermediate frequencies given byf= c/4L, = 3c/4L. = Sc/4L . .. etc.
CIRlAReportl44 161
f c C
2 =4L A' =
a =
a
z
E
.0
0
f
Frequency, (Hz)
Intermediateresponse
When the remote end ofa pile is in contact with an elastic base of intermediate
or normal compressibility, which could be likened to a soft spring, it will
exhibit a response that will be intermediate between a free (or infinitely
compressible) base and a fixed (or rigid) base, as illustrated in Figure 4.28.
As with the analysis in the time domain, a feature that causes only a partial
reflection ofthe stress-wave will give rise to a characteristic resonance
associated with that vibrating length, and a further resonance associated with the
wave travelling to, and being reflected from, a deeper level.
Ellwav (1987) pointed out that the reflection coefficient across the change of
impedance also depends upon the frequency of the vibration wave. In general,
the value ofthis coefficient increases with frequency, such that the higher the
frequency, the greaterthe proportion of vibration energy that is reflected from
the interface. The effect ofthis is shown on Figure 4.29. which illustrates that at
low frequencies ofvibration the full length ofthe pile can be discerned. At the
higher frequencies. the intermediate impedance change becomes increasingly
visible on the signal response curve.
162 ClRIAReportl44
c c
A
2L
1-
I F'
2'
.0
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
I I
L 11.0
2' I I I I I
At approx 140 Hz for pile toe
0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency, f(Hz)
With an infinitely tong pile, however, there would be no toe echo, no stress-wave
interference and consequently no resonances within the pile. Thus the frequency-
response curve of a very long pile will tend towards that illustrated in Figure 4.30,
where vmax/Fmax vill assume a constant value. This constant value is termed the
characteristic mobility, M0. ofthe pile (equivalent to the characteristic mechanical
ClRlAReportl44 163
admittance of Davis and Dunn. 1974). and depends only upon the internal
properties of the pile, i.e. independent of its length. It can be shown that the value
ofM0 is given by
...(4.28)
p.c.A
Mobility, lvi, is the inverse of impedance, z (see Equation 4.3). Other workers
use this inverse value, termed as mechanical impedance (Paquet. 1968) or
characteristic impedance (ElIway, 1987); the two parameters are
interchangeable.
.0
0
/ Characteristic mobility
Frequency, I
Figure 4.30 Idealised frequency-responsecurve for an infinEtely tong pile
Themovement ofan installed pile and its ability to propagate the stress-wave
are damped by the surrounding soil. The signal-response curve then has a form
as in Figure 4.31. The attenuation or damping ofthe signal, because of energy
dissipation within the system, can be the result of either a stiffer soil on a
shorterpile or a weak soil on a longer pile. For a pile of given length. the
frequency-response curve will be attenuated by increasingly stiffer soil in a
similar mannerto that illustrated in Figure 4.32, such that the difference in
amplitude between maxima and minima is reduced, gradually approaching the
value of the characteristic mobility, M0, for the pile.
164 CIRIAReportl44
.0
0 P
Frequency, f
Briard (1970) derived a parameter, the soil damping factor, a, which gives a
measure ofthe soil-damping on a cylindrical pile:
1 Ip'.13'l ...(4.29)
r p.c j
Paquet and Briard (1976) further developed this expression to the form:
The pile damping factor, aL, thus depends upon the aspect ratio (Lir) ofthe
pile, and (p'JY)/(p.c) which will vary with the varying properties ofthe
surrounding soil.
.0
0
Frequency, f
.0
0
Frequency, I
.0
0
Frequency, f
Davis and Dunn (1974) pointed out that the ratio of the maxima and minima of
Vmax/Fmax from the signal-response curve also provides a measure ofthe damping
effect ofthe soil. They derived the following relationships from this curve:
166 ClRlAReportl44
P = Mcoth(aL) ...(4.3l)
Q = Mtanh(cL) ...(4.32)
M= P.Q ...(4.33)
Again, this relationship indicates that the signal response curve will approach
the Characteristic Mobility as the maxima and minima of Vmax/Fmaxare
attenuated by damping effects on the pile.
The use of a dynamic load cell to measure the input force, however, allows
additional information to be obtained on the pile characteristics, besides its
resonant frequencies and the relative displacement ofthe resonantpeaks (which
indicates a fixed- or free-end response). Two additional parameters that can be
determined are characteristic mobility, A'!, and pile head dynamic stifThess, F',
as described by Davis and Dunn (1974).
CRlAReport144 167
, '
\ Blow I/ /
/ / / S.
II /
S.
1
I S. / S.
/ S.
/
/ S
/
/ S.
S.
1' I/
/
8
w
>
'0
(U
a)
a,
0 2
Frequency, f
Figure 4.33 Variation of pile-head velocity with magnitude of input force and
frequency (after Paquet, 1992)
.0
0
Frequency, f
168 ClRlAReportl44
A high characteristic mobility, compared with the theoretical value, would
therefore be an indicator of low or reduced pile parameters. This could be
caused by low-density concrete (with consequential lower stress-wave
propagation velocity), a low stress-wave velocity or a cross-sectional area less
than the constructed nominal value.
It has been pointed out by Davis and Dunn (1974) that the initial portion ofthe
response curve below the first resonance, illustrated on Figure 4.34, approximates
to a straight line. They suggested that over this low-frequency part of the response
curve inertia effects are insignificant, and the pile-soil system behaves as a spring.
The inverse ofthe slope of this low-frequency portion of the curve is therefore a
measure of the stiffuiess, E', ofthis spring system, and is given by
= 2 Jm
...(434)
[Vm/Fma.ij
where.fm and (Vmax/Fmax) are the co-ordinates ofthe point in on Figure 4.34, at
the end of the straight-line portion ofthe frequency, response curve.
E' may thus be regarded as a measure of the apparent stiffliess ofthe pile close
to the pile head, it being most influenced by pile and soil properties close to the
head. As pointed out by Eliway (1987), the sensitivity ofE' to pile and soil
properties diminishes exponentially with depth.
F' is termedthe dynamic stifibess of the pile head and is a function of the
stiffliess ofthe pile material and the soil surrounding the pile. Pile-head
dynamic stifihess is therefore specific to a particular pile or class of piles of
given cross-sectional area, length and unit weight installed within a given soil
profile. This parameter is normally measured in units of MN/mm. A typical
relationship of P to pile length is illustrated in Figure 4.35.
It has been suggested by Davis and Dunn and other workers in this field that
pile-head dynamic stiffness correlates approximately with the slope of the initial
elastic portion of the load - settlement curve obtained from a normal full-scale
static load test on a pile, at the stage where load and settlement are roughly
linear, and 100% recovery is obtained. Although this particular point has not
been universally accepted, it has been demonstrated that it is worth
investigating any pile with a markedly lower dynamic stiffliess within a group
of similarly formed piles in similarground conditions. Other researchers
emphasisethat the pile-head response at the veiy low strain and energy levels of
low-strain integrity testing has not been reliably shown to have any meaningful
correlation with the load-carrying capacity ofthe pile.
CIRIARepcrtl44 169
1.6
a,
a,
12-
0-
a,
0 5 10 15 20
Pile length (m)
Figure 4.35 Typical relationship between pile-head dynamic stiffness and pile length
(after ElIway, 1986)
From Equation 4.8 the depth ofa particular reflecting surface. Lref, is given by:
= ...(4.35)
Lrej .2
170 ClRlAReportl44
* S
0- (p
so
00 0 0
4
-S 0
0-
3*
$00
00
00 0 0
4 ar.4 -o S I I. C a
1. 4
I1
0C' 7
Similarly, from Equation 4.24, the length. Lres. of a resonating length of pile. is
related to the frequency interval between successive resonances as follows:
C
L res = ...(4.36)
2.Af
Since the resonating length L1, and the depth to a reflecting surface L1 are the
same:
L ref _C.t_L - C
resygj
i.e. = ._L. ...(4.37)
Sf
The simple relationships of Equations 4.35 and 4.36 and their inter-relationship
as defined by Equation 4.37 fonu the entire basis of low-strain pile integrity
testing.
172 CIRIAReportl44
6. A decrease in impedance (free-end type of response) is indicative ofone or
more of the following:
reduction in pile cross-section, e.g. necking
reduction in internal pile properties, e.g. cracks, low concrete strength
interface between the pile toe and the underlying soil, where the
underlying soil is weaker than the pile
change from stronger to weaker underlying soil layer.
7. The characteristic mobility of a pile is independent of its length and is the
velocity produced per unit of input force. It is thus the inverse of the pile
impedance.
8. For a pile of given length, the frequency-response curve will be attenuated
by increasingly stiffsoil, such that the value of the characteristic mobility
is approached.
9. The dynamic stiffness of the pile head is a fUnction of the stifThess ofthe
pile material and the soil surrounding the pile.
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 4
BRACEWELL, R. N. (1986)
The Fourier Transform and its applications
Second Edition, Revised
McGraw-Hill
BRIARD, M. (1970)
Controle des pieux par le methode des vibrations
Annales de 1 'Institut Techniquedu Batimentet des Travaux Publics
23rd Year No. 270, June, pp 105-7
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
cast-in-situpiles
Proc. International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels
London, March 1987, pp 228-34
also printed as:
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-situ piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7, October, 8-13
CIRIAReportl44 173
ELLWAY. K. (1993)
Letter to GroundEngineering, Vol. 26, No.5, April. p8
EW[NS. D. J. (1984)
Modal testing: theoryand practice
Research Studies Press
GRAFFE. K. F. (1975)
Wave motion in elastic solids
Clarendon Press, Oxford
PAQUET. J. (1968)
Etude vibratoire des pieux en beton, reponse harmonique et impulsionelle
application au controle
Annales de / institut Technique du BatEment et des Travaux Pub/icy. 21st year.
No. 245, May
RANDALL. R. B. (1987)
Frequencyanalysis
Third edition
Bruel and Kjaer
STAIN. R. 1. (1993a)
Letter to GroundEngineering. Vol. 26, No. 1. January/February. p 7
STAIN. R. T. (1993b)
Letter to GroundEngineering, Vol. 26, No. 3. April. p 15
174 CIRlAReportl44
VAN KOTEN, H. and WOOD, W. R. (1987)
Determination ofthe shape of cast-in-situ foundation piles using the sonic echo
technique.
Proceedings' ofan International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels,
London. March 1987, pp 205-10
WHEELER, P. (1992)
Stresswave competition/Making Waves.
Ground Engineering,Vol. 25, No. 9, November, pp 25-28
CIRlAReportl44 175
5 Low-strain integrity testing: practice
Echo techniques rel upon analysing the response ofthe pile to a small
impulsive force, such as that provided by a blow from a small hand-held
hammer. The method measures echo-type responses from the toe of the pile and
intervening points within the pile.
Echo-type integrity testing was developed in Holland bs' the Dutch research
organisation TNO Institute for Building Materials and Structures (TNO-IBBC)
in the late I 960s and early I 970s. as described by van Koten and Middendorp
(1980). This technique was designated sonic echo testing by INO. The method
was also investigated by the French research organisation CEBTP during the
course of its research into the integrity testing of piles. piers and barrettes. Since
that time the technique has been refined and extended b' TNO and other
research workers in both North America and Europe. as outlined for instance by
van Koten and Wood (1987). van Weele eta!., (1987). Starke and Janes (1988)
and Rausche eta!,. (1988).
In the UK an off-shoot ofthe echo test is usually termed the Pulse Echo test (as
referred to in Eliway. 1987(a and b). and further described by Howell. 1987).
This differs from conventional' echo testing in the signal response obtained
from the test. In what follows the term echo testing is taken to encompass both
sonic and pulse echo techniques. Most of the discussion applies to both
techniques. but the text is generally written and illustrated with reference to the
conventional echo techniques. This is because virtually all the published
theoretical and research work has been centred aroundthis method. Where
specific differences within the pulse echo method apply. these are highlighted
within the text. Particular features characteristic of this test method are also
outlined in Section 5.1.4.
176 CIRIAReportl44
The hammer blow induces a compressive stress-wave (or 'shock wave') into the
pile which travels down the pile shaft and is reflected back towards the pile
head, either wholly or in part, by a change ofimpedance within the pile. Such
changes are caused, for instance, by the pile toe or some other intervening
discontinuity or feature within the pile shaft. Because the stress-wave is
transmitted through the body of the pile at a velocity, c, (where c is the velocity
of plane-wave propagation through the pile material), the time lapse, 1, between
the first hammer impulse and the arrival of the returning reflected wave from
the remote end of the pile is a measure ofthe distance travelled by the
stresswave, such that:
L=f2
It follows, therefore, that ifthe value of c is known, or can be estimated within
reasonable limits, the time delay between the initial impulse and the receipt of a
reflection will give a measure ofthe length of the pile or the depth to the reflecting
surface. Ifthe pile length is known, the comparison between calculated length from
the test and known length enables a cross-check that the depth to the reflecting
surface is correct. If a discrepancy is evident between these two values then an
investigation into the causes of this difference may highlight a feature affecting the
adequacy or otherwise of the pile.
Testing
The sensor is held against or fixed to the pile head while the pile is struck with
the hammer, preferably at or near the pile centre. The sensor is usually an
accelerometer or a velocity measuring device, such as a geophone. The weight
of hammer and type ofhammer material may have to be adjusted by
experimentation to suit the pile size and material. Normally a plastic-ended
hammer weighing less than a kilogram is used for echo testing.
CIRIAReportl44 177
Signal conditioning Information processing
Including: including:
Filter (High or low pass) Display
Integration of signal, if necessary Store
Amplification Amplify
Analogueto digitalconversion Printout
t
Time base selection I
Pre-amplification
Sensor
//7ff/ff/fi'',
Figure 5.1 Elements of a typical sonic echo test layout (after Schaap
and de Vos, 1984, and Reiding et al., 1984)
Heavier hammers, perhaps even with steel ends, may be found to be more
suitable for larger piles (greaterthan one metre in diameter). For the smaller
diameter piles in particular, a metal hammer often producestoo high a
frequency range of impulse forthe sonic echo method. Conversely, pulse echo
testing more usually employs a steel hammer or striker. The arrangements for a
typical echo test are shown in Figure 5.1. Typical views oftesting in progress
are shown in Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
The reaction ofthe pile head to the imposed blow and the resulting incident and
reflected stress-waves are generally examined in terms of the induced pile-head
velocity or displacement. It may be necessary to process the signal from the
pile-head sensorto obtain these parameters. The processing often involves the
integration ofthe original signal with respect to time in order to obtain either
pile-head velocity or displacement.
The signal is then plotted to show the pile-head response against elapsed time,
giving a graph of the form shown in Figure 5.2. This plot is usually displayed
on a VDU. As a refinement to this, because elapsed time is proportional to the
distance the stress-wave has travelled through the pile body (from Equation 5.2
178 ClRlAReportl44
above), the time axis can be represented as the depth of the pile, as shown on
Figure 5.3, by using an estimated or measured value for c, the velocity of
I
Time (ms)
3
Initial hammer Reflection from
blow impedancechange
80
>
0
C
0
0.
4 8 12
Depth (m)
propagation ofthe stress-wave through the pile. Thus, the plot enables the
testing engineer to evaluate the occurrence of reflections ofthe stress-wave
directly with depth below test level. This plot of pile-head response against time
or depth is usually termedthe signal-response curve.
Because the attenuation ofthe return signal increases with the distance oftravel
(i.e. time), it is quite common to amplifjthe signal on an increasing scale with
time in order to emphasise weak reflections from the region ofthe toe or the
lower regions ofthe pile, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Several hammer blows are usually recorded on each pile to confirm that a
consistent repeatable response is being obtained. Some systems allow several
signals to be superimposed and averaged to reduce the effects of extraneous
random signals from other site activities or internal system 'noise'. As the
effects ofbackground or extraneous electronic noise on the data are reduced, so
ClRlAReportl44 179
therepeatable, constantparts of the signal. which are related to features of the
pile, soil or test system, are enhanced. I-Eggs and Robertson (1979), for
instance, point out that background noise can reduced by this method by a
factor of 'in, where n is the numberof superimposed signals from tests on the
pile.
8
C
a, Toe reflection
0
4 8 12
Depth (m)
2'
8
V
C
C
4 8 12
Depth (m)
The depth to a reflecting layer (impedance change) within the pile, be it the toe
of the pile or an intermediate feature, can be readily calculated from the arrival
time ofthe reflected wave on the signal-response curve, using the relation in
Equation 5.2.
Deductions about the nature of the reflecting feature can be made by comparing
it with a free-end or fixed-end condition, as described in Section 4. As this
180 CIRIAReportl44
reflecting surface may or may not be the toe ofthe pile, the term acoustic length
is used. The acoustic length of the pile may be deduced to be the pile length
only if other data, such as pile records, are availableto support such a
deduction.
The calculation ofthe acoustic length ofthe pile, or the depth to other
intermediate features on the signal response curve, is directly dependent upon
the value of c used in Equation 5.2. The value of c in sound concrete is typically
quoted as varying between 3700 and 4300 mIs. Often a value of 4000 mIs is
used for analysis, as it is most unusual to measure it for a specific pile or site.
Variations of the actual propagation velocity from that used in calculation lead
to the suggestion by most practitioners that the calculated pile length or the
depth to a particular feature from the signal-response curve could generally be
expected to be within 10% ofthe actual value.
Ifa featureaffects only part ofthe pile shaft, a portion ofthe signal is reflected
and the rest transmitted past the feature. Because of the type and number of
variables in the signal, evaluation ofthe significance of a partial discontinuity in
terms of its physical size in proportion to the complete pile is a matter of
interpretation relying on the skill and experience ofthe interpreter. Computer-
simulation techniques and comparative catalogues (e.g. Rausche et al., 1988)
can assist interpretation.
Peakparticle velocity
Some systems record the peak particle velocity, Vmax, of the pile-head sensor
under the impulsive force ofthe hammer blow. Since v = F/z (Equation4.17),
within a range of blows by the same tester, the value of vmax could be
considered proportional to the impedance of the pile shalt immediately beneath
the pile head. Thus relatively high values forVm imply a lower impedance for
the pile, either because of poorerconcrete (lower density, or lower strength
giving a lower wave propagation velocity) or a smaller cross-sectional area. In
practice, echo-testing researchers attach little importance to this.
Soil stiffness
Soil layer changes affect the impedance ofthe pile and may manifest
themselves as apparent increases or decreases in section. Figure 5.5 illustrates
echo signal-response curves obtained from straight precast concrete piles which
were 450 mm square and 22 m long. The signal response curves were typical
for all the piles tested at the site. Variations can be seen that appear as increases
and relative decreases in impedance between 9 m and 20 m. The soil profile at
the site obtained from cone penetration testing is displayed below the signal-
response curves, and illustrates that the characteristic 'signature' ofthe piles
reflects the soil conditions within which the pile is embedded.
CIRlAReport144 181
5.1.4 The pulse echo test
General characteristics
In the pulse echo test method, the blow to the head of the pile produces a
characteristic two-fold reaction in the sensor held against the pile head. The
sensor is typically a velocity-measuring device, generally a standard geophone.
mounted with a metal to concrete connection. A steel hammer is normally used.
Pile toe
8 0
C
> I I
V V0 3 6 9 12 151 18 21 24 27
C
C Depth (m)
C
+
0 [ Sonic echo response curve
I 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Depth (m)
Cone penetrometer test result
Figure 5.5 Sonic echo test: effect of soil layer changes on signal-responsecurve
(after Middendorpet al., 1991)
182 CIRlAReportl44
curveas in
Figure 58. Perturbations
irregularities withinthe from returningechos
envelopeas shown in are manifested as
Figure 5,9.
Asaflurtheraid to
be plotted, which interpretation, the medianofthe
may highlight original
indicativeofpile irregularities withinthe wavefonn can also
irregularities, ofthe toe echo.
or decayingsinewave.
The original
sinusoidal wave
measuredby the form, which
instrument,thereforecontains represents the pile-head
wave information velocityas
typical ofall time-based upwardanddownward
phase informationon the echotest travelling
withinthe pile characteristics ofthe techniques.Thus itcontains
this information(i.e. whetherit has the pile toe or intermediate
can be masked characteristics features
ofa free end or fixed
should in by the ring down of end), but
ofobtainingprinciplebe possibleto the
the tog ofthe removethe ring downmeasuringtransducer,it
information,sothat no standardvelocityamplitude effects, but thetechnique
from an conclusionson the nature curve,destroysthe
of
interpretation thisaspectofthe of the pileresponseare phase
signalalone. possible
\Jv Time, t
ClRiAReportl44
183
+
Arrival of echo
Ct
0 LJ
0
E
cc V Time, t
'I
S.-
Ct
0
a
E
0)
0
-J
Time, t
Arrival of echo
0
V
a.
E
0,
0
-J
Time, t
Figure 5.9 Pertubation in log amplitude plot from returning echo (after ElIway, 1987a)
CIRIAReportl44 185
developmentofthetestwas also
increasinglypowerful vet aidedby the
concurrent
use. The
techniquewas physicallysmallermicrocomputers. developmentof
France in the
1970s. as developedforintegritytesting
made
rugged forsite
where itwas called described purposesby
the shock orbyHiggs andRobcrtson(1979) CEBIP in
introduced into the transient-dynamic method.
and Stain
UK in the late The (1982).
also
developedin the UK in the 1970s by CEBTP. A similarly methodwas
frequency response or earlyto mid 1980s based system
IPFR.method. and termed the was
Impulsepile
a
0.
E
30
Depth (m)
(Assumedwave
propagalionvelocity:4000
mIs)
(a)Eflectofbreak in
pile nearsurface
Cu
0a
Depth (m)
(Assumedwave
propagationvelocity: 4000
mIs)
(b) Responsecurve
aftercutting pile
Figure &10 Pulse down
echo test:
(after Kemp, 1988)typical effect ofnear-surface
discontinuity
Ellwav (!987aand
thegeneric name b) refers to both
of steady-state andtransient
under the same frequency-response testing, techniques
genera! heading.The
term therebygroupingboth under
frequency methods
responsehas been
adopted
186
CIRtAReport 144
in this text for all types of frequency-based low-strain integrity testing, because
of the essential similarity of their analysis. regardless of the source ofthe
external excitation force.
By this means the response ofthe pile can be examined for a uniformlyapplied
oscillating force over a range of impulse frequencies. As described in Section 4.1,
at certain frequencies the pile head will demonstrate a maximum, resonant,
response, while at intermediate frequencies the response will be a minimum. The
position ofthese maximum and minimum values depends upon the travel time of
the incident and reflected stress-waves transmitted through the pile, which in turn
is directly proportional in a uniform pile to the length of the pile or to the depth of
an intervening discontinuity.
C.
2.
where c = the velocity of propagation of the stress-wave along the pile
Al = the frequency interval between successive resonances.
The electrodynamic vibrator or shaker is placed in the centre ofthe pile, aligned
with its axis and precisely levelled. The contact between the instrument and the
pile surface or steel plate is usually smeared with a silicone grease to make
good sonic contact and ensure good transmission ofthe vibration energy.
The pile-head sensor is placed on one of the peripheral plates, again often with a
greased contact. The other peripheral plate is for a second run of the test to
detect changes in response across the pile diameter.
2. Site testing
The arrangement of the test equipment is shown in Figure 5.11 and a view of a
typical test on Figure 5.12.
As can be seen in Figure 5.11, the constant force is achieved by a feedback loop
from an accelerometer mounted on the vibrating mass of the shaker. From
Davis and Dunn (1974), the vertical force, F. imparted into the pile by the
vibrator is given by:
F = m.a
188 CIRIAReport144
Signal proportional to v XY plotter
Signal proportional
to f
Signal proportional
to
Sinenn
1'
&gn&
Accelerometer, generator
Vibrator
I
Velocity Signal
transducer frequency, f
4.
'I
"max = m Umax
1
=
Thus the output ofthe accelerometer is continuously fed back through the
feedback loop to a regulator which monitors and adjusts the amplitude of
vibration, a, of the shaker so that ama,, and Fmax are kept constant over the flill
frequency range of the instrument.
ClRlAReportl44 189
Figure 5.12 Typical test set-up using electrodynamicshaker
The test commences with the vibrator operating at its lowest selling of approximately
20 Hz which is then steadily increased to 1000 Hz. Throughout the test, readings of
f
pile-head velocity. v, applied force, F. and frequency, are recorded for each
frequency change. such that a graph of normalised pile head response per unit of
applied force can be plotted against the frequency of vibration.
For any particular frequency the applied force. F. at the pile head and the
resulting pile-head velocity. v, are usually digitised and stored for subsequent
analysis. For each measurement frequency, the pile head mobility, given by the
ratio v/F. can be subsequentls plotted, to provide a signal-response curve of the
form illustrated in Figure 5.13.
The test is carried out by applying an impulsive force to the head ofthe pile.
usually by striking it with a light hand-held hammer, in an identical manner to
the echo testing methods.
190 ClRlAReportl44
C C
2L 2L
I 1 1
'S
'S
S. S
0
-C
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 5.14 Typical transient frequency response test in progress, illustrating integral
hammer/loadcell and geophone
The load cell therefore measures the dynamic force imparted to the pile by the
impulsive (ortransient) blow from the hammer. The response of the pile to the
hammer blow is measured by a velocitytransducer (or geophone) held on the
upper surface of the pile, in a similar manner to the time-based echo techniques.
Test procedures
2. Site testing
The signal from the dynamic load cell at the pile head and the corresponding
pile-head velocity signal are collected and displayed on an oscilloscope or a
VDU as functions oftime. Ifthe signals are acceptable they are (typically)
immediately passed through an analogue-to-digital converter and stored in the
memory of an on-board microcomputer.
When acceptable signals have been obtained and stored, the signal analysis is
carried out and the measured force and velocity signals mathematically
transformed from time-domain to frequency-domain measurements. The
processed data are then plotted as a graph ofpile-head mobility (v/fl against
frequency. The resultant plot is termed the frequency response or signal-
response curve for the pile, and is of the same form as illustrated on Figure 5.13
for the steady-state method.
It is usual that several hammer blows are recorded to confirm the repeatability
of the signal response of the pile. Signal averaging like that described in
Section 5.1.2 can also be applied to reduce 'noise' effects.
192 CIRIAReportl44
H
Test
instnjmented
ClRIAReportl44 193
the feature to the toe of the pile and is reflected towards the pile head in turn.
The two wave fronts would thus tend to interfere and overprint one another as
indicated on Figure 5.16 (and Figure 428).
0
0 1000 2000
Frequency, f(Hz)
From Section 4.4.2, the nature ofthe impedance change, whether it be the toe of
the pile or an intermediate feature or defect, can be deduced from the position of
the resonating peaks relative to the origin. If the first discernible peak is at a
distance of 4for a multiple of 4ffrom the origin then this will indicate a free-
end type oftermination, typical of a crack or loss of section, for example. On
the other hand, ifthe resonant peaks are displaced to 4/12, this would indicate a
fixed-end or anchorage form oftermination, such as a shaft enlargement,
attachment to an obstruction outside the pile or a pile socket into very stiffor
strong material.
The pile head dynamic stiffness, E', is given by the inverse of the slope of the
initial portion ofthe signal-response curve (as described in Section 4.4.4). K is
a measure of the apparent stifthess ofthe upper part of the pile, and is most
strongly affected by the pile and soil properties close to the pile head.
194 ClRlAReportl44
similar tests by other testing organisations. However, for tests executed by the
same firm within a short period of time and with all other factors constant,
observed differences in K of more than 10 or 15%, were found to be indicative
of significant pile features.
Characteristic mobility
M= 1
p.c.A
The value ofM0 depends only upon the properties of the upper, near-surface,
section ofthe pile shaft. The avenge mobilityM0derived from the signal-
response curve can therefore be compared with the theoretical value. A mjor
discrepancy between the two or in comparison with the average results ofother
piles at the site could indicate a near-surface anomalywithin the pile.
Two featuresassociatedwith the signal processing of the system can affect the
subsequent signal analysis. First, the quality ofthe data can be affected by
inherent errors associated with the integration process used to transfomi the
measured pile-head signal into velocity or displacement. Problems can be
caused by gross or 'runaway' accumulating zero errors during this process (see
Reiding, Middendorp and van Brederode, 1984). Secondly, the quality ofthe
data is directlyproportional to the quality or power ofresolutionof the
recording and analysis equipment. The associated electronics systems for
information handling and decoding of the signals are thus all-important to the
relative sensitivity or accuracy ofthe particular testing device.
In either case, the initial signal from the pile-head sensorhas an analogue form.
With an analogue data-processing system, in orderto obtain the pile-head
velocity from an accelerometer signal, for example, the signal is passedthrough
an electronically integrating circuitto produce a fUrther analogue signal ofpile-
CIRIAReportl44 195
head velocity. Alternatively, with the digital system, the analogue acceleration
signal is digitised by means of an analogue-to-digital converter immediately it
is received from the accelerometer and is recorded in this form on a
microcomputer. Each digitised segment of signal can then be integrated
individually by an on-board computer program to produce the signal of pile-
head velocity in digital form.
Dynamic range
The dynamic range of a signal is the ratio between its smallest and largest
components. As a rule, the largest component ofthe signal will be the peak
value of the initial impulse from the test hammer. By comparison, the peak
value ofthe toe response, being the reflection ofthe stress-wave from the toe of
the pile. may often be only a very small fractionof the hammer impulse because
of attenuation ofthe signal by pile and soil effects. The greaterthe ability of the
system to differentiate a very small signal compared with the initial signal, the
196 ClRIAReportl44
higher its dynamic range. Most current systems have a dynamic range in excess
of 1: 4000.
0 0
IiIISi4
a)
I I. 'overshoof
0
I j I
5
I j I [
10
I
o \'I
5 10
(a) Initial triangular input pulse (1) (b) Response of Integrator and filter (2)
0
C
tt
a I.
I I
0 5 10 0 5 10
Time, t(ms) Time, t (ms)
Resolution
Analogue signals have to be digitisedat some stage for analysis by the current
range ofdesk-top computers, i.e. the signal must pass throughan
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter. This piece ofprocessing equipmentshould
have a high enough sampling frequency and a sensitive enough scale to ensure
that all the information from the pile-head signal is faithfully represented. This
latter feature is referred to as the resolution ofthe system.
However, with respect to the power of resolution ofa system, three interacting
factors should be borne in mind:
1. The pile and the soil both attenuate the signal exponentially.
2. The equipment has a certain resolution.
3. The equipment has a certain noise level.
The attenuationdepends upon the pile diameter and soil stiffhess. For a given
diameter, therefore, beyond a certain depth, the returning signal from the pile
toe will be too small with respect to the resolution of the AID converter, or it
will be below the noise level of the equipment. This will limit the penetration
depth ofthe particular system. Ifthe resolution is increased, and the noise level
is lowered accordingly, the toe reflection of longer piles can be detected. Thus,
the higher the resolution and the higher the signal-to-noise ratio the better. A
high resolution, however, is ofno assistance ifthe toe reflection signal is
smallerthan the noise level. In that case the toe signal will essentially be
invisible.
198 CIRIAReportl44
Attenuation ofsignal due to pile and soil effects
For given ground conditions and pile diameter, the signal is further reduced as
the piles penetrate more deeply into the ground. In general, the stifferthe soil
layerthe greaterthe damping effect and the smaller the amplitude ofthe
reflected signal returning to the pile head from a particular depth. Thus in
general, the degree ofattenuation increases with aspect ratio.
USJPILt
I
Resoludon $ bits
Reectilon9 bits
ResolutIon 10 bits
rho
- flflfltt
[rti&i. 400
.14114
P
S
to. tO.a t 17.1 fltt
Resolution 12 bits
Davis and Dunn (1974) suggested that an aspect ratio ofgreater than 20:1
would cause problems in interpretation because ofdissipation of the signal
response, except in the case of a pile in a veiy weak soil but bearing on strong
stratum. Subsequent writers suggest, as a general guide, that a test is likely to be
less effective (or ineffective) at pile aspect ratios ofbetween 20:1 and 30:1 for
piles embedded in dense gravels or stiffchalk or very stiffto hard glacial tills,
and between 30:1 to 40:1 in stiffto very stiffclays such as London Clay
(e.g. ElIway, 1987(a and b); Fleming et al., 1985). McCavittet cii. (1989) noted
ClRlAReportl44 199
that pile toe levels could be discerned using advanced signal-analysis techniques
with aspect ratios ofup to 33:1 in very stiffto hard glacial tills overlying
bedrock at the Blvth test site (see Lilies' eta!., 1987. for a description of this
site). In loose alluvial silty sands, valid results have been reported on piles with
aspect ratios of 40: Ito 60:1 and even higher. In dense to very dense sands,
however, effective penetration of the technique has been limited to aspect ratios
of less than 20:1. As a guide. Table 5.1 summarises published data on limiting
aspect ratios that have been encountered in practice.
Attenuation ofthe pile signal by soil damping is probably the most severe
limitation to the usefulness ofthe method.
At any change of impedance within the pile/soil system, part of the wave is
reflected back towards the pile head and part transmitted onwardstowards the
pile toe. In accordance with the principle ofthe conservation of energy, the sum
of the amplitude of these reflected and transmitted waves equals the amplitude
of the original wave when it reached the impedance change. Depending on the
relative size ofthe impedance change, only a small part of the wave may be
transmitted across the impedance boundary towards the pile toe. Consequently
the information returning from levels below a significant impedance change
may be too small to be detectable by the pile-head sensor.
In the extreme, ifa horizontal crack in the concrete is encountered by the wave.
only a small fraction ofthe wave will be transmitted across the crack and often
none ofthe reflections from below the crack can be detected. That portion ofthe
wave transmittedbeyond the feature and reaching, say, the toe ofthe pile to be
200 ClRlAReportl44
reflected as an upward travelling wave, would once again have to traverse the
major feature on its upward path. Only a small portion of that signal would be
transmitted beyond the feature. Practically, therefore, no thither information can
be obtained below a reflecting surface caused by a major change in the
impedance ofthe pile. This characteristic, whereby a deeperdefect or feature is
obscured b the reflection from a higher feature, is known as 'masking'.
When the ratio of the impedance change exceeds 1:0.25 (or, correspondingly,
1:4 fora relative increase in pile properties) the incident wave is almost
completely reflected. These values could represent a reduction ofpile diameter
of 50% (or an increase of 100%), or a reduction in concrete strength to very low
values.
The length of an impedance change will also have a relative effect upon the
nature ofthe signal response curve. Van Weele (1993) has suggested that,
because the length ofthe wave pulse in the pile caused by the hammer blow is
perhaps 3 to 4 m, defects or features with an axial length of less than 0.8 to
1.0 m cannot be uniquely determined. Because ofthis characteristic, a feature of
small axial extent may not be detectable or may be only barely detectable by the
test, (See section 4.2 also).
Ifany ofthe properties that affect the impedance at any point along the pile valy
gradually with depth, these may go undetected if the magnitude of any
reflection is so small as to be outside the sensitivity range ofthe equipment.
The waves imparted to the pile head generate plane waves that travel the length
of the pile. These are generally bound by the interface between the concrete and
the medium outside. The waves therefore follow the boundaries of the pile and
CIRIARepartl44 201
thus no information about the inclination of the pile can be retrieved with this
test, nor can bent piles be detected.
If there is no significant change of impedance at the toe, i.e. the pile toe is
embedded in material ofalmost identical properties to those in the pile, a
discernible acoustic boundary will not be defined as no reflections of the wave
will be produced.
Although the density of the pile material has a significant effect on the acoustic
impedance at any point down the pile, a change in concrete density,
representing a quality change, would not necessarily produce sufficient change
of acoustic impedance to distinguish the reflections from such a feature reliably.
As noted in Section 4.2, a large difference in concrete strength or density is
needed for there to be a distinct change in wave-propagation velocity and result
in an identifiable impedance change.
The test does not provideinformation about the static bearing capacity of the
pile. Interpretation offrequency-response testing with force measurement can,
however, indicate piles with lower pile-head stiffliesses or characteristic
mobilities. Both parameters have been used to indicate piles that could have a
smaller load-carrying capacity, because their upper shaft characteristics were not
as good as other similar piles at a particular site. The test is not capable of
determining the load-canying capacity ofa pile in absoluteterms.
Variations in the relative stiffliess of the soil through which the pile passes can
cause secondary reflections from the soil layer interfaces which will affect the
signal response curve, masking the pile signal.
lntegrit\ tests cannot determine the axial extent ofanomalies where there is
complete reflection of the incident stress-wave. A 'hairline' crack extending
across the full area ofthe pile would therefore produce a result similar to that of
a completevoid.
2.41
where c is as above. andfis the frequency interval between successive
resonancies
3. In good commercial testing practice, pile lengths or depths to a particular
feature calculated from the signal-response curve are generally within 10%
ofthe actual value.
4. Correct preparation of the pile head is important to allow a clear hammer
blow impulse to be imparted into the pile and to aid the detection of the
returning signals.
5. In suitable conditions, interpretation ofthe pile head response can give
information on the acoustic length, peak particle velocity, soil layer
changes, pile head stiffliess and mobility.
6. Data quality and processing is important to the usefulness and interpretation
of the test.
7. The signal acquisition and processing equipment should have a wide
dynamic range and high resolution. Analogue signal-processing techniques
can introduce errors into the derived signal, which are avoided by the use of
digital methods.
X. The major factors that may limit the useftulness of low-strain methods, or
their ability to penetrate the hill length of a pile include:
. attenuation ofthe signal because of pile and soil effects
204 CIRIAReportl44
reflection ofall, or part ofthe signal at intermediate depths within the
pile
the relative magnitude and characteristics of an impedance change, or
changes
variations in ground conditions.
9. Properties ofa pile which cannot be determined satisfactorily from low-
strain integrity methods include:
pile alignmentor straightness
concrete quality (unless large differences in strength or density occur)
detection of pile toe levels ifthere is no significant change of
impedance at the toe
the axial extent ofanomalies where there is complete reflection ofthe
incident stress-wave
static bearing capacity.
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 5
BRIARD, M. (1970)
Controle des pieux par Ic methode des vibrations
Anna/es de / Institut Techniquec/u BatEinent et des Travaux Publics
23rd Year, No. 270, June, pp 105-7
ELLWAY, K. (1987a)
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-site piles
Proc. International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels
London, March 1987, 228-234
Also in:
ELLWAY, K. (l987b)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-site piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7, October, 8-13
EWIINS. D. J. (1984)
Modal testing: theory andpractice
Research Studies Press
CIRIAReportl44 205
FLEMING. W. G. K.. WELTMAN, A. J., RANDOLPH, M. F.
and ELSON, W. K. (1985)
Piling Engineering
Surrey University Press/Blackie and Son Ltd
HOWELL, M. I. (1987)
Acoustic testing of foundation piles
Civil Engineering. September, 1987, 30-5
PAQUET, J. (1992)
Pile integritytesting - the CEBTP reflectogram
Conference on PilingEurope
Institution ofCivil Engineers, London, 7-9 April, 1992, 177-88
PAQUET, J. (1968)
Etude vibratoire des pieux en beton, reponse harmonique et impulsionelle
application au controle
Annales de I 'Institut Technique du Batiment et des Travaux Publics, 21st year,
No. 245, May
STAIN, R. T. (1982)
Integrity testing
CivilEngineering,April/May
206 CIRIAReportl44
STARKE, W. F. and JANES, M. C. (1988)
Accuracy and reliability of low strain integrity testing
Third International Conference on Application ofStress- Wave Theory to piles,
Ottawa, pp. 19-32.
TESTCONSULT (1988)
Technical data sheet
CIRIAReportl44 207
6 Cross-hole sonic logging
It is believed it was first introduced into the UK in 1969. when the Greater
London Council (GLC) arranged for a series of tests to be carried out on
specially constructed piles to examine the possibilities of the method. This work
was reported by Levy (1970) and Bobrowski, ci cii. (1970). These trials were
undertaken because of concern within the GLC's statutory building control
departments regarding the quality of construction of large-diameter bored piles.
Single piles, capable of carrying loads in the region of 1000 tonnes. were
becoming more common at that time, but there was no accepted method of
investigating their integrity.
where / is the transit time ofthe waves traversing the path length. L.
Transposing Equation 6.1, the transit time. I, of such waves is given by:
L
C
E(1-v)
N p0 + v)(1
2v)
208 CIRIAReportl44
Hence substituting into Equation 6.2, the transit time, I, can be expressed as
follows:
= 1Jp(1 + v)(1
- 2v)
J E(1-v)
Thus, if the distance oftravel ofthe wave is a constant, the transit time, 1, is a
function of the properties of the medium defined by E. p and v.
Sonic logging utilises the relationships of Equations 6.2 and 6.4 to investigate
the internal properties of a pile, usually concrete, by measuring the transit time
of a sonic/ultrasonic pulse travelling between two known points.
The transmission of the pulse from transmitter to receiver involves the passage
of the wavetrain across successive boundaries: ceramic (ofthe transmitter) -
water - plastic or steel (duct wall) - concrete - plastic or steel (duct wall) -
water - ceramic (of receiver). All these materials have differentmechanical
impedance values which cause reflections and resonances within the signal.
The method tests the continuity ofthe concrete between the ducts by measuring
its effect upon the propagation of the sonic wave between the emitter and the
receiver. Sound concrete shows good transmission characteristics, but the
presence of soil or other foreign material, or washout of cement paste within the
concrete, may affect the transmission ofthe signal. Such weak materials in the
path of the wave affect the propagation velocity and the amplitude and shape of
the received signals.
The ducts are usually placed a known distance apart, so that L in Equations 6.2
and 6.4 is sensibly constant. In fact, however, the first arrival ofthe wave train,
or ultrasonic pulse, at the receiver is that part of the signal that has travelled the
shortest acoustic path between the instruments. Thus in practice the effective
travel length, L, in Equations 6.2 and 6.4 can also vary, since the signal can
travel arounda limited obstruction by adopting a slightly longertravel path
CIRiAReportl44 209
through the water filled duct or along the sides of the tube. This may be likened
to hearing a sound from behind an intervening building. The first arrival ofthat
sound may travel around the outside ofthe building, but that does not prevent
the listener from hearing it. It may be slightly attenuated b) having to travel
around the obstruction, and in addition may be slightly delayed in its arrival.
6.3.1 Preparation
When it is knot in advance that sonic logging will be needed, the access tubes
are usually incorporated into the pile as it is constructed, Sonic logging has also
been carried out using ducts cast into the pile for other purposes, such as pile
base grout injection (e.g. as described by Sherwood and Mitchell, 1989). In
exceptional cases, the testing can be carried out in holes drilled or cored into the
pile after construction.
The access ducts are filled with water prior to test, in order to provide an
acoustic coupling between the probes and the pile concrete.
6.3.2 Testing
The test equipment comprises an impulse generator, two piezo-electric probes, a
winch (for controlled lowering and raising ofthe probes) and the data
acquisition and display system, which amplifies, displays and stores the
received signal. The winch is linked via a depth-related voltage control to the
data acquisition system so that the depth ofthe probes can be recorded. A view
of acquisition, display and printoutequipment is shown on Figure 6.1.
The probes are first lowered to the bottom of adjacent access tubes and then
slowly raised in unison at a rate of about 100 to 200 mm/s, while the transmitter
probe emits a sonic pulse at the rate often pulses per second. Thus the
measurements are taken at approximately evezy 10 to 20 mm of pile depth.
Additionally, the winch can be used to control the rate ofemission of the
pulses, so that if the probes are raised more slowly the emission rate of the
emitter will decrease. This ensures that the vertical intervals between each test
are kept constant. As the probes are lifted, therefore, a vertical picture or 'sonic
profile' ofthe zone of concrete between the pair of probes can be built up, as
described in Section 6.5 below.
The typical test layout is illustrated in Figure 6.2. A view ofa typical test in
progress is given in Figure 3.2,
210 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 6.1 Cross-hole sonic logging: typical data aquisition display and printing
equipment
Each pair oftubes is sounded in turn, and the results for each soundingare
recorded, analysed and reported. Thus a three-tube system will have three
soundings and a four-tube system six, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.
The use of fan-shaped arrays (Tijou, 1984), where the emitter is held at one
position, and the receiver moved as shown in Figure 6.6, can also aid the
investigation into an anomaly.
Tijou has also suggested that the transmitterand receiver could be mounted one
below the other as in the single hole test to gain further informationin some
cases.
CIRIAReportl44 211
go-
Voltage proportional
to the depth of the test
Winch
sensor
Concrete pile
Transmitter Receiver
(a) (b)
Figure 6.3 Typical tube layouts for sonic togging (a) with 3 tubes (3 paths); (b) with 4
tubes (6 paths)
212 ClRlAReportl44
Transmitter Receiver
The direct path requirement means that usually at least three tubes are used
within a pile to ensure substantial coverage of its cross-section. Typically, for
piles of 600 to 750 mm dia. three tubes are used, and above 150mm dia., four.
It is not usual for piles ofless than 600 mm dia. to be tested by sonic logging
techniques, mainly because ofthe cost of installing the access ducts and testing
compared with the unit cost ofthe pile.
The tubes are usually attached to the reinforcing cage of the pile, so that they
are at a sensibly constantspacing. Ifthey extend below the depth of the pile
reinforcement, the tubes should be held by hoop-shaped spacers to ensure
separation.
Transmitter
Receiver
Thin
sub-horizontal
feature
ClRlAReportl44 213
Receiver
Transmitter
(stationary)
Figure 6.6 Use of fan-shaped test lines for investigatingextent/shape of feature (after
Tijou 1984, CEBIP 1969)
Steel pipe is the usual form ofaccess tube, although plastic (PVC) has been used
on occasion. The disadvantage ofplastic is that the external surface of the tube is
often difficult to wet, with the possibility ofpoor bonding to the surrounding
concrete (whichcan therefore give the appearance of an anomaly). In addition
there is a greaterrisk ofdamage to the tubes during installation, with the
consequential loss ofmeasurement below a damaged portion. CEBTP suggested,
however, that an advantage of plastic tubes is that the propagation velocity ofthe
sonic pulse in PVC is intermediate between its velocity through the water filling
the tubes and the concrete ofthe pile. In addition, the tubes are acoustically fairly
well damped so as not to present resonant interference to the signal.
In the case of steel tubes, the advantages and disadvantages are reversed. Steel
tubes are robust and normallyhave a good bond to the pile concrete, except
where there is contamination. Because the signal has a high propagation
velocity through steel, the tube can provide a preferential path aroundan
obstruction, without any important lengthening ofthe transit time ofthe signal,
as illustrated in Figure 6.7. In addition, steel has a very high mechanical
impedance, so that the tube introduces a discontinuity into the transmission,
resulting in a resonance effect that can obscure the signal response. Nonetheless,
in practice, the construction advantages of steel tubes, because oftheir
robustness and their ease of fixing, are generally considered to outweigh any
disadvantages in their signal response characteristics.
The probes usually have an outside diameter of between 10 and 25 mm, and it
is normal to use tubes with an internal diameter of 25 to 50mm. A typical set of
probes is illustrated on Figure 6.S,
214 CIRIAReportl44
Cs
TransmltteL Receiver
III1
C,
_ -_-
Figure 6.7 Possible diversion of signal path by metal tubes
Sonic pulses are emitted at the rate ofaround 80 per linear metre. They pass
through the concrete and are detected by the receiver. The propagation velocity
of the pulse through sound concrete is typically about 4,000 rn/s. With
separation ofthe access tubes of400 to 1000mm within a pile, the transit time
of the pulse is thus around 100 to 250 ss. A typical pulse is illustrated on
Figure 6.10(a).
For ease of display, the received wave train is converted to a variable density log,
which means that the negative part ofthe waveform is shown dark and the
positive portion is shown light. As the probes are raised a variable density log of
the wavetrainarriving at the receiver is drawn for each pulse. Thus the data from
the chosen, vertical intervals (ofbetween 10 and 20 mm) are compiled into the
plot, known as the sonic profile. The build-up of a typical sonicprofile is
illustrated on Figure 6.10 (b) to (d). A typical field result is illustrated in
Figure 6.11. The horizontal axis ofthe profile represents the transit time of the
pulse, usuallyto a scale ofbetween50 and 100 microseconds per centimetre
(5 to 10 ts/mm). The vertical axis represents the depth ofthe probes within the
pile, typicallyto a scale of around 1:200 (5 mm/rn). This often may be amplified
to 1:50 (20 mm/m) to examine suspected anomalous zones in greaterdetail.
Ifthe pulse should encounter a zone of weaker material, not only is the arrival
time ofthe wavetrain delayed, but the signal may also be attenuated, changing
the shape ofthe wavefonn. This attenuation often assists interpretation. The
variable density log is a convenient and powerful way to inspect variations in
ClRIAReportl44 215
the apparent response of the pile with depth. As originally conceived,it shows
results only in terms of arrival time. As a refinement, the degree of attenuation
of the signal is represented on some versions ofthe variable density log by
relative shadings of grey and black.
216 ClRlAReportl44
attenuation ofthe sonic pulse. External variations in the shape of the pile,
whether losses or increases in section, would not generally be detectable by the
method, unless the section loss was of sufficient magnitude that it impinges into
the transmission path between two measurement tubes.
A
0- -o
x
II 'I
Transmission paths X
-
A c
Xis typically
lessthan2m
-I
x
Stain and Williams (1991) describe the results ofa series of laboratory tests to
determine the effects ofvarious defects or inhomogeneities within a concrete
section. The tests were carried out on small test panels constructed to model
various pile construction defects and anomalies. The results from these panels
were related to tests on control panels formed from homogeneous concrete with
unconfined compression strength (UCS) of 33 N/mm2 at 28 days.
CIRIAReportl44 217
(a) Single ultrasonicpulse.
The point of transmission
and receptionare clearly
visible.
Transmitted Received
j
(b) Signal modulated so
that only the positive
portion is displayed.
Transmitted Received
Transittime
a
0
C
218 ClRlAReportl44
Signal Sl9nal
transmitted received
Top of tubes
Top of concrete
0 400
Time (pa)
ClRlAReportl44 219
6. Bentonite-fllled voids rapidly attenuated the signal such that no signal was
visible through a 122 mm thickness of bentonite. Smearing of the surface
ofthe access duct, however, even with up to 5 mm of bentonite on each
tube, did not materially affect the results.
7. Concrete contaminated with 30% bentonite attenuated the high-frequency
components of the signal and caused a significant increase in transit time.
8. Debonding of metal tithes caused no significant change in the signal.
9. The results using thin-walled plastic ducts were essentially the same as
those obtained from mild steel. This latter conclusion differed from the
findings of Baker et al. (1991) who found significant debonding in plastic
tubes.
Thou (1984) pointed out that signal attenuation is typically associated with
unbound or open aggregate, e.g. in segregated concrete. His experience was that
weak concrete or plain mortar increases transit time of the signal, but with little
attenuation. This echoed by the conclusions reached by Stain and Williams.
The horizontal extent of an anomaly that has been detected on a standard sonic
profiling log can be further investigated by staggering the probes as illustrated
on Figures 6.5, 6.6, and 6.12.
Staggered probes cannot be used to investigate the pile shaft near the pile base,
because the probes cannot be advanced below the toe of the pile. In such a case,
Stain and Williams (1991) suggest that analysis ofthe characteristics of the
sonic profile, as revealed by the effect known as 'signal skipping', can be
helpful, where the signal diverts around a feature by utilising a preferential path.
Their study described in Section 6.5.1 above was on samples where the signal
was essentially forced to travel along a single path between transmitterand
receiver. In a pile, the signal with the lowest transit time might have taken one
of several possible paths to avoid a defect of limited extent. In particular. the
steel ducts provide a preferential high-velocity path, as suggested in Figure 6.7.
If the material filling the defect has a characteristic transmission velocity (such
as a water-filled void), there will be signal skipping, as the probes are raised,
until the point where the direct transit time through water is equal to the
skipping time. From then on the direct path throughthe weaker medium is the
shortestacoustic path, and transit times will remain constant. This phenomenon
is illustrated in Figure 6.13.
Horizontal profilesto
Signal determinevertical
attenuating extent of anomaly
material
Receiver
Maximumpossible
horizontalextent
of anomaly Concrete
pile
Probe posffions
Signal travelling
along duct
Figure 6.13 Signal skipping - expected preferred paths around anomalies (after Stain
and Williams, 1991)
ClRlAReportl44 221
Stain and Williams suggest that, where a defect intersects both access tubes, the
slope of the signal-skipping profile, S, is equal to halfthe propagation velocity,
c1. of signals travelling vertically in the tubes. Thus:
S = O.5c
Where a defect intersects only one of the tubes, they suggest that the transit
time, t, is given by:
+
c. N
Transmissiontime through
sound concrete
Time (ps)
200 x
Anomalyaround both
tubes below X-X
400
Anomalyaround one
tube only below XX
600
Figure 6.14 Signal skipping: theoretical sonic profiles, based upon Figure 613
(after Stain and Williams, 1991)
0 400
Time (ps)
Because the method may perhaps appear deceptively simple in its approach and
interpretation, possibly not as much theoretical research work has been done on it
compared with other acoustic techniques, such as the low-strain hammer-based
systems. Another reason may be that it is still not very widely used, though its
use is growingfor large-diameter bored piles, diaphragm walls and barrettes. The
investigations by Stain and Williams (1991), referred to in Section 6.5.1, were
designed to extend knowledge ofthe capability of the test and interpretation of its
results.
ClRlAReportl44 223
6.6.2 Sensitivity of the test
The most significaiit test observation is the transit time of the signal between
emitter and receiver. It is important, therefore, to expect a degree of variation of
this parameter from extraneous causes not necessarily indicative of a defect or
anomaly in the pile. Furthermore, some potentially detrimental features might
not alter transit time enough for identification. Weak concrete, for instance,
could be impossible or difficult to detect by sonic logging methods, if the
increase in transit time ofthe signal through such material is less than the
possible errors either in measuring transit time or in the true separation of the
probes or both.
England (1991) points out that variations in transit time can be caused not only
b' changes in the physical properties of the materials being traversed by the
acoustic wave, but also by factors within the measuring system itself These
could include:
free movement of the probes within the access ducts
mismatched probe positions, especially at the toe of the pile
measurement resolution
incorrect (orvariations in) positioning ofthe access duct
air gaps or different material around the access ducts
aggregate variation (in the case of base grouting).
Based upon a consideration of the above factors, England suggested that only
variations of transit time more than 15 to 20% ofthe norm for the site should be
regarded as warranting further investigation. He estimated possible variations
from the above factors as follows.
The internal diameter ofthe access ducts used in practice is typically between
35 and 50 mm. By comparison the external diameter ofthe transmitter/receiver
probes range between 10 and 25 mm. Probes are not usually centred in the duct.
so the gap between probe and duct wall can van, as illustrated in Figure 6.16.
This applies to both transmitterand receiver.
Ena typical case, the gap between a probe and the inside wall of the duct could
vary between 0 and 7.5 mm. Ifthe tube is water filled, with a wave-propagation
velocity within water of 1500 mIs the potential variation in transit time could be
10 .ts. If the separation of the ducts is, say, 700 mm. assuming a 4000 mIs
velocity of propagation in concrete, the transit time would be 175 i' Thus the
position of the probes could affect the transit time by 6%.
Transmitter/
ID of duct
England noted that although this effect might not be immediately apparent
during the normal travel of the probes, it could be quite pronounced if the
probes are resting on the bottom ofthe duct, as they could lean in any direction,
but shift position as they are lifted clear ofthe base.
If the ends ofthe ducts are not at the same level, errors can arise in measuring
the transit time at the pile toe ifone probe is lifted off the base ofthe duct
before another (Figure 6.17). To avoid this, the depth of each test duct should
be measured.
Concrete pile
Transmitter
Receiver
Figure 6.17 Mismatched probe positions, e.g. at base of pile (after England, 1991)
ClRlAReportl44 225
Resolution oftime-of-arrival
A predetermined signal threshold has be set for the receiver, such that the
incident signal would have to exceed this level to be recognised. The frequency
of the signal emitted is typically between 40 and 100 kHz giving a wavelength
of 10 to 25 jn.
The amplitude of the received signal will van' with its degree of attenuation.
affecting not only the time of its first arrival for a given threshold, but also the
time to reach the threshold (see Figure 6.18). England suggested that such
variations can lead to differences of the order of 4 to 6 jis.
Normal' signal
+
Attenuated signal
Threshold value
U,
V
a.
E
(5
15
C
0)
to
1 1
Time of first
arrival
Figure 6.18 Possible variation in time of arrival of a specified threshold value, because
of signal attenuation (after England, 1991)
It has been suggested that shrinkage of concrete away from the access duct
could create an air gap. An air gap would increase the transit time ofthe signal.
equivalent to 3 ts per millimetre of gap.
If different aggregates are used within the pile concrete (e.g. in the case of a
base-grouted pile using a grouted aggregate base), the concrete density could
vary between2.0 and 2.4 Mg/rn3. England suggested that such a variation could
cause a 10% variation ofmeasured velocity and, hence, transit time.
Vr
kt
.Q4k14
U:
Work by CEBTP (1969) and all subsequent researchers (e.g. Baker eta!., 1991)
shows that the detection of a defect is clearer when it surrounds at least one of
the tubes. Defects lying offthe path betweentubes are not shown so clearly.
Area! extent
ClRIAReportl44 227
Axial extent
Stain and Williams (1991) emphasise that the interpretation of sonic profiles
near the base of a pile shaft remains difficult, primarily because staggered
testing to assess the extent ofanomalies is restricted. The use of signal-skipping
analyses described in Section 6.5.3 can help this.
Pile toe
The question ofthe detection of anomalies associated with the pile toe is a
vexatious one. It is generally agreed that the method cannot give information on
the contact between the pile toe and the underlying bearing stratum unless
measures are taken to extend one or more ofthe access ducts below the toe of
the pile.
1. Cross-hole sonic logging requires at least two and preferably three or four
access tubes to be installed in a pile, i.e. it is used for large diameter piles.
Two probes are lowered into the access tubes, one an acoustic transmitter,
the other a receiver.
2. Cross-hole sonic logging can provide information about pile material
properties along the sonic paths ofthe waves betweenthe two probes.
3. As the probes are usually positioned at the same horizontal level, the
method is most suitable for detecting anomalies, or features, which have a
pronounced vertical extent, but is less suitable forthin horizontal features.
Horizontal features may be assessed using staggered probes. Other probe
configurations, such as fan-shaped arrays, can also be useflul for
investigating anomalies.
4. Steel access tubes are most often used, although PVC is also used. The
choice ofthe tube material will have an effect on the signal response
characteristics.
5. Although the test is superficially straightforward, both theoretical
knowledge and practical experience ofthe test and its capabilities are
important to allow a reasoned interpretation of a sonic profile log.
6. Factors that can affectthe sensitivity and interpretation ofthe test include:
increasing concrete strength (age of pile)
possible air gaps around access ducts
variation in concrete aggregate composition
access duct bases protruding beyond the pile toe
lateral movementof probes within access tubes
mismatched probe positions.
7. The detection ofa defect or anomaly is clearer when it surrounds at least
one ofthe tubes. Defects lying off the path between the tubes are not
shown so clearly.
8. The axial extent of an anomaly is also important to its detection. Features
of small axial extent, such as cracks, are more difficult to detect.
9. The interpretation offeatures at or near the pile toe requires careful
measurement and an understanding of the piling process.
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 6
CIRIAReportl44 229
BOBROWSKI. J.. BARDHAN-ROY. B. K.. MAGIERA. R. H.
and LOWE. R. H. (1970)
The structural integrity of large diameter bored piles
In: Proc. Conf. Instn. Civ. Engrs.. The Behaviour ofPiles
London 15-17 September, pp 179-184
CEBTP (1969)
Inegritv testing qtpiles by sonic coring
Internal Test Report Ref 1
Centre Experimental de Recherches et dEtudes du Batinient et des Travaux
Publics
12 Rue de Briancon 75. Paris. l5eme
ENGLAND. M (1991)
Cementation Piling and Foundations
(Private Communication)
LEVY. J. F. (1970)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-site concrete piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3. 17-19
The techniques of dynamic load testing grew out ofthe long-recognised need of
piling engineers for a reliable method of predicting the load-carrying capacity of
driven piles. Not so long ago, most piles were driven into place by some form
of falling weight or hammer. It was thought evident that the static load-carrying
capacity had to be related in some way to the energy expended on the pile in
driving it into place. In attempts to predictthe bearing capacityof a driven pile,
a wide variety of pile-driving formulae were developed by piling practitioners
over the years, based upon pile-driving characteristics. Of these, the best known
are probably that developed by Hiley (1925) in Europe and the Engineering-
News Record formula used in North America.
These driving formulae attempted to link the energy imparted to the pile by the
pile driving hammer to the resultant downward displacement of the pile, which
was perceived to consist of both elastic and permanent components.
R = ______
(s + q!2)
Figure 7.1 illustrates the interaction of these parameters and the subdivision of
the pile head displacement into elastic and permanent components. Various
values or modifiers were often then applied to particular parts of the basic
formula to arrive at proprietary contractor-specific or even site-specific driving
formulae. However, the mechanical model represented by these driving
formulae were found to be too simplistic to describe the real conditions of
impact pile-driving.
CIRIAReportl44 231
Pile driving
('Capblock'or 'Dolly')
Helmet
Cushion ('Head packing')
----(s q)
Pile
(a)
Pile head
displacement
S
(b)
Figure 7.1 Basic concept of pile driving (a) pile driving parameters; (b) schematic
variation of pile resistance and displacement
It had long been realised that the action of pile driving involved the transfer of
energy within the pile by means of longitudinal wave motion, in a similar
mannerto wave transmission in long elastic bars. Timoshenko and Goodier
(1951) pointed out that, as long ago as 1S67, St Venant had analysed the
mathematics of one-dimensional wave propagation in an elastic rod and derived
the governing differential equation, together with its solution.
232 CIRlAReportl44
This equation is known as the wave equation (see Section 4.3.1) and is normally
expressed in the following form:
I 6u
= .
5x2 c2
Where: ieis the axial displacement of a point along the pile shaft
x is the distance along the x-axis
(is time
c is the wave propagation velocity, or wave speed.
u = Lix
ci) + fx + ci)
where: .fd is a function representing a wave moving down the pile shaft,
and is a function representing a wave moving up the pile shaft.
Wave action during the driving of piles had also been studied by Isaacs (1931)
and Fox (in (Ilanville el at, 1938). Partial solutions to the resulting equations
had been obtained, but progress to a usable solution of pile-driving problems
was limited because ofthe complex iterative hand calculations.
By the late l950s and early l960s these related problem areas were being
addressed by researchers in Europe and North America, and at other centres
throughout the world. With the concurrent development ofthe electronic
computerdiscrete solutions ofthe wave equation became practical.
The work of Smith (1960) was pivotal to the mathematical modelling ofthe pile
driving process. He again highlighted the fact that pile-driving involved the
transmission of longitudinal stress-waves through the pile and that this problem
could be solved mathematically by the use of wave theoiy and the wave
equation. The mathematical methods developed by Smith, using the technique
of numerical integration and computer-based processing allowed discrete
solutions ofpile-driving problems to be obtained forthe first time. As pointed
out by Goble ee' at (1980),the work by Smith was one of the very first
applications ofthe digital computer to solve problems in mechanics. This work
gave impetus to the development of the current generation of numerical
solutions to the dynamic behaviour of piles, known generally as dynamic
analysis, stress-wave analysis or dynamic load testing.
En the 1960s and 1970s, Rausch and Goble, working at Case Western Reserve
University, extended the work of Smith. Amongst other aims, the researchers at
Case Western investigated a numberoftechniques to, amongstother aims, improve
prediction ofstatic bearing capacity from the dynamicbehaviourof a driven pile.
The technique developed became known as the Case Method (based on a similar
approach to Smith) and CAPWAP (for Case Pile Wave Analysis Program) an
iterative computer program which matched the output signal against that predicted
CIRIAReportl44 233
by a mathematical model. Research and development on these and similar
techniques has continued throughout the world since that time. spurred particularly
by off-shore piling for the oil industry in the North Sea and else here.
These numerical analysis techniques have also found use in the examination of
the internal properties and integrity of individual piles: a technique commonly
known as high-strain integrity testing (e.g. Rausche ci a!.. I 988) as outlined
further below.
Smith (1960) represented the driving hammer and the pile. together with the
other components involved, such as the helmet and the cushioning material as a
series of weights and springs, as shown in Figure 7.2. Ifthe pile is uniform in
cross-section, the weights and springs representing it are identical. In the case of
a pile of non-uniform cross-section, such as a tapered pile, the weights and
springs can be adjusted to represent the distribution of weight and stiffness
along the pile length.
The soil resistance was divided into point resistance at the toe of the pile, equal
to its end bearing resistance, and the shaft resistance along the sides. The side
resistance was assumed to act on each ofthe elements ofweight representing
the pile model. By this means the distribution of soil resistance along the pile
shaft could be modelled by vaning the magnitude of this parameter on each pile
element.
The sequential response of these units, or elements, under the action ofthe
falling hammer, could then be studied througha succession of small time
intervals which modelled the progress ofthe stress-wave along the pile. The
actions of each weight and spring and their interactions with the soil resistance
were calculated separately for each time interval. By this means the pile stresses
'I Stroke
Ram
Iwil
Helmet ____
Ki
Cushion ___ C
1w21
K2c
Kp
IWsI
KtR3
1w41
I Ws
HI
Ki_fm
IwaI
ktRs
H'I
K9
Iw'oI
f i
1
In terms ofthe soil resistance at the toe of the pile, a model ofthe form illustrated
in Figure 7.1(b) was used by Smith (see Figure 7.3). In this model the ground at
the pile toe compresses elastically for a certain distance, q, tenned the 'quake' of
the pile, and then fails plastically with a constant or ultimate resistance R. The
permanent set ofthe pile, s, is given by the distance OC or AB.
It was realised, however, that this stress-strain relationship also depends upon
the rate ofstrain. In general the ground offers a higher resistance to a rapid
motion than a slow one. To take account ofthis phenomenon, Smith introduced
the conceptofviscous damping into his pile-driving model. Smith suggested
that the calculated velocity, v1, induced at the pile toe would be acted on by a
U)
a,
I-
4-
C') a
Figure 7.3 Stress-strain diagram for soil at the pile toe (after Smith, 1960)
Smith's model forthe resistance ofthe toe of the pile therefore attempted to
take account ofthe following:
1. The elastic compression ofthe soil beneath the toe ofthe pile fr quake, q).
2. The ultimate static resistance, R, of the soil beneath the toe.
3. Viscous damping because ofthe dynamic behaviour ofthe soil, based on a
constant J.
The soil resistance along the shaft ofthe pile was modelled in a similar manner
to that for toe resistance, with the shaft damping factor assigned the designation
ofJ'.
In addition to the dynamic behaviour ofthe soil, consideration was also given to
the physical characteristics ofthe driving hammer, the cushioning system, and
the pile itself, to construct a mathematical model ofthe pile/soil/hammer
system.
General
The research work in the USA at Case Western Reserve University in the 1960s
and 1970s has probably been the most influential to date, with regard to the
application of stress-wave measurements and the analysis ofthe dynamics of
the behaviour of driven piles.
236 CIRlAReportl44
carrying capacity of bearing piles from their driving characteristics. This
programme, which extended over a period of some twelve years, involved the
development of the techniques and equipmentnecessaryto measure the pile
behaviourunderthe dynamic loads induced by piling hammers. At the same
time, the programme also pursued the development ofthe theoreticaland
interpretative analyses ofthe resulting detailed field measurements.
The work at Case has been extensively described in many research papers and
reports, it was summarised in the final report on the project by
a
Goble aL (1975). Apart from the extensive research and development work
on pile and hammer instrumentation techniques, the projectproduced two
separate complementary analytical techniques for calculating the load-carrying
capacityof driven piles. Both techniques were based upon predictionsand
analyses of pile behaviourusing the wave equation method, as developed by
Smith, and sprang from the realisation that it was possible to determine the
magnitude and distribution ofthe resistance along the pile using only the
measurements offorce and acceleration at the pile head.
The first techniquehas become known as the Case Method and was based upon
the use of damping coefficients, in a similar approach to that of Smith, to
produce a closed-form solution to the wave equation. The techniqueis, strictly,
applicable to end-bearing piles.
The Case researchers proposed that the pile-soil model could be expressed by
assuming that the sum of all the individual soil resistances, R, has two
components. The first, static resistance is the sum of individual static soil
resistances R. The second component, RD. is from dynamicresistance, or
CIRIAReportl44 237
damping. forces. These damping forces RD were considered as being related to
the relative pile velocity under the impact ofthe piling hammer.
Thus the total driving resistance R can be divided into two distinct portions:
R = +
RD ...(7A)
Thus if the value for RD can be obtained, a value for the static resistance R can
be derived, by deducting RD from the measured total driving resistance.
From their site measurements, the Case researchers suggested that, for
end-bearing driven piles, most ofthe damping resistance could be assumed to
be concentrated near the pile toe. The toe velocity of the pile will normalls'
reach a relative maximum, Vt(max), when the incident stress-wave from the pile-
head impulse first reaches the toe ofthe pile (i.e. at a time. I = tmax + Lic, where
Imax is the time of impact).
=
Rmax) b.Vl(max)
Goble eta!. (1975) based upon the work of Meirovitch. demonstrated that:
b =
where the relationship EA/c is the pile impedance (as in Section 4.2) and J is a
dimensionless constanttermedthe Case damping constant.
The Case researchers demonstrated that the maximum toe velocity. Vt(max). can
be directly related to the maximum pile-head velocity. Vh(ma). and thus that the
maximum damping force RD(max) could in turn be related to the maximum pile-
head velocity.
=
RS(m)
+
RD
which, by rearrangement, becomes:
= I2.EA
RS(max) Rmax Rmax
L
where Vh(max) is the measured pile-head velocity at time I = 'max, the time of impact.
As Rs(max) can be determined from a static load test, and Rmax and Vh(max) derived
from the pile-head instrumentation, the value of.J0 can be back-calculated to
establish its value for a particular pile and particular soil conditions. Conversely,
in the case ofknown soil conditions, an assigned range ofvalues off0 can be used
to calculate a value forthe static load-carrying capacity of the pile.
The Case researchers established values for f0, the Case damping constant, by
back-analysis of field correlation studies of dynamic and static tests.
The Case method was not really intended as a predictive method. Rather it was
suggested that a correlation be made between static and dynamic tests on the
same pile or series of piles, yielding a site-specific value off0. This value ofthe
damping constantcould then be used on other dynamically tested piles driven to
the same soil stratum at the site, to control and check the pile driving. The
CAPWAP method, the numerical analysis program, was developed by the Case
researchers to be a predictive tool. CAPWAP and similar programs are
described in Section 7.1.5 below.
CIRIAReportl44 239
7.1.4 Numerical simulation techniques
CAPWAP-tvpe analj'ses
The measured velocity response at the pile head, under the impact of the test
weight. is obtained from accelerometers mounted on the pile shaft near the pile
head and used to provide the necessary input data. From these data, and using
an assumed set of soil resistance forces, the resulting force at the pile head can
be computed using a suitable pile/soil resistance model. The resulting computed
force based upon assigned soil resistances can then be compared with the
measured pile-head force obtained from a complementary set of strain gauges
mounted close to the accelerometers.
Typical force/time and velocity/time records measured at the pile head for a
single hammer blow upon a driven pile are illustrated in Figure 7.4
It can be shown (e.g. Goble ci a!.. 1970) that there is proportiona1it between
force and velocity at the pile head during and after impact so long as no return
waves have arrived back at the pile head. Thus, for a pile with a uniform
cross-section the measured force, F. and particle velocity. v. are related by:
F = _____ ...(7.IO)
z
C
e
0
0 10 20
Time (ms)
/
8 I
C
>
-
//
/
I
I
C
-C j
C
a. I
o I I
n -.
_%
10 20
Time (ms)
The conversion ofthe velocity measurements into a measured force allows the
pile-head force derived from both strain and motion measurements to be plotted
on the same axes, as shown in Figure 7.5. This format is the standard method of
displaying the pile-head force and velocity measurements.
Figures 7.4 and 7.5 illustrate the fundamental principle of the use of wave
mechanics in the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of foundation piles. This is
that the stress (and, consequently, force) and velocity at a point within a
rod-like body such as a pile, are proportional, as long as the stress waves at that
point are travelling in the same direction. This is because stress is a tensor
quantity while velocity is a vector. Thus stress values at a point are additive
whatever their relative magnitudes, while the interaction of particle velocities
depends not only upon their relative magnitude, but also their relative directions
of motion. (Figure 7.6, from Seaman (1989), illustrates this in the simple case
of two stress-waves travelling in opposite directions within a rod-like body. The
ClRIAReportl44 241
figure demonstrates that once the two waves have passed one another, they
continue unchanged in their original directions.)
0
0
10 20
Time (ps)
Figure 7.5 Force (from strain) and force (from velocity x EAIc) measurements at pile
head
Thus, the proportionality between the force and velocity curves is destroyed as
soon as waves travelling in the opposite direction are superimposed on the
original waveform. The cause of this loss of proportionality would howeverbe
calculable using the laws of wave mechanics.
242 CIRlAReportl44
a C
.4
p
x
Vu
____
(a)
X
a.
I I
I.
a2
all
x
(b) _____________ x
V1-"2
a2:. ai[
(c) _________________________________________
F
In the case of an irregular pile, where there is a marked change of section, a part
of the stress-wave would be reflected back to the surface and the remainder would
be transmittedthrough the change of section towards the toe of the pile.
Figure 7.9 illustrates the effect ofthe arrival at the pile head ofupward-travelling
waves from a mechanical joint within the pile (equivalent to a loss of section).
ClRIAReportl44 243
C
C
1
L x
Measu 0 20
level
Time (ms)
Stiff soil
Figure 7.8 Effect of soil resistanceon force and velocity x ENc graph
(after Davis et al., 1987)
Measurement Tkne(ms)
level
With such techniques the analysis is carried out on a single selected blow on the
pile head. Further analysis can, of course, be undertaken on other blows, to
examinetime or set-up effects,but each analysis is a separate iterative process.
The original analysis programs (e.g. Goble, eta!., 1980), used a lumped mass-
and-spring system similarto the Smith model. This approach, however, was
found to produce small inaccuracies for long piles. The advance ofthe method
into off-shore pile testing, which involved long piles, prompted the
development of a pile model composed of continuous segments, as shown in
Figure 7.10 (as described in Davis et cii., 1987, for example), and known as
CAPWAPC. Each segmentofthe continuous model has associated static and
dynamic soil resistances which are represented by an elasto-plastic spring
(representing static resistance) and a viscous dashpot (representing the dynamic
resistance component). The time increments used for calculation purposes are
between 0.2 and 0.3 milliseconds and the segment lengths are selected so that
the stress wave will travel from one end ofa segment to the other during one
time interval. Thus the typical chosen segmentlength would be approximately
between 0.8 and 1.2 metres.
Accelerometer and
strain gauge
Segment (a)
Segment (ii)
Typical soil
resistance
Segment (I)
Segment (i + 1)
12
4
e
0
U-
1
0
0 20 40
Time (ms)
12
2
0 4
1
00 20 40
lime (ms)
KEY
1: Measured force curve
2: Low damping
3: High static resistance
4: High skin friction, low end bearing
5: Final solution
Unlike driven piles, bored piles usually have to be built up above ground level
for a length oftwo to three diameters prior to test to allow the attachment of
strain gauges and accelerometers. The drop weight of between 0.25 and 8 t is
placed within a guide tube which is aligned axially at the head ofthe pile, as
outlined by Stain and Davis (1989); see Figure 7.12.
ClRlAReportl44 247
accurate measure of pile displacement than pile-head accelerometers, which
require a double integration process to obtain displacement data.
The test is undertaken b' striking the pile with a series of blows (typically ten
or more). During this series the hammer height is progressively increased and
alternately decreased, as illustrated on Figure 7.13. This is unlike the
CAPWAP-type analyses, *hich are carried out on the measurements from a
single blow.
The set of the pile is measured for each blow and the displacement curve from
the electronic theodolite is used to correct the pile velocity calculated from the
accelerometer signal. The advantage of using both accelerometers and a
theodolite is that the pile velocity can be obtained either by integrating the
accelerometer signal or differentiating the displacement signal. In practice. the
248 CIRIAReportl44
theodolite signal is used as a control to remove the integration constantfrom the
accelerometer signal.
12
Figure 7.13 Typical manner of variation of hammer drop height for Simbat test
(after Stain and Davis, 1989)
The total reaction (RD) foreach blow is determined in the same way as in a
typical CAPWAP-type analysis.
At this point the interpretation of the test departs from CAPWAP-type methods,
which state that the dynamic/static correlation is related to the pile-head velocity.
Paquct (1988) suggests that it is more relevant to use the pile-penetration velocity
with respect to the soil rather than the simple pile-head velocity.
=
R4t,vpen) ...(7.I 1)
The interpretation ofthe test is based upon the principle that the ratio between
the dynamic and static resistances of the pile depends upon the rate of strain. In
general, the greaterthe drop height and the heavierthe blow, the higher the rate
ofstrain, between the pile and the soil, and the larger the dynamic/static
resistance ratio. The SIMBAT test, therefore, uses a range of strain-rates, which
allow the static soil resistance to be calculated.
ClRlAReportl44 249
Load (kN)
Uncorrected (i.e. K = 0)
The test allows the application of forces of high magnitude (over 5 MN) to be
applied to the pile head, with a pulse duration of up to 80 milliseconds,
approximately an order of magnitude longer than achieved using a drop hammer.
Its inventors suggest that the slow rate of loading means that the pile shaft
behaviour is not dominated by stress wave action as in other dynamic
load-testing. Rather, the rate of loading allows the pile shaft and the soil to act as
a single unit, in a similar manner to a static load test. The test is thus described
as quasi-static. The principle of the test, which is still at a relatively earls'
development stage, is illustrated on Figure 7.15. The acceleration of the reaction
mass is measured together with pile-head deflection (using a laser theodolite).
Venting/silencing system
Reaction mass
Fuel chamber
vessel
Steel base
CAPWAP-type tests analyse the data from a single blow (although several
blows may be taken on the pile and each analyses separately). On the other
hand, SIMBAT-type techniques use the data obtained from a series of blows.
A possible problem ofrepeated blows is that the soil resistance may change; in
sensitive soils it can decrease; in granularsoils it could increase. It may be
significant that CAPWAP-type methods were developed from driven piling
techniques, on preformed piles ofknown cross-section and properties. The
problems of soil set-up (also known as soil freeze) and soil relaxation are
well-known phenomena in driven piling, as is soil densification caused by
displacement. The SIMBAT techniques, on the other hand, were developed to
predict the behaviour ofbored cast-in-place piles from dynamic measurements.
Such piles are generally in intimate contact with the surrounding soils and their
installation involves the removal and replacement of soil. The pile design often,
therefore, reflects a reduction of soil parameters compared with driven piles.
ClRlAReportl44 251
It is perhaps to be expected that the two techniques, though using the same
input data, would have differing results, depending upon the pile type being
tested and the soil within which it is embedded.
The SIMBAT method was found to give good correlation between predicted
and actual load! settlements for a series of Class A prediction tests carried out
on four cast-in-place piles installed and tested under the control ofthe Belgian
Group ofthe ISSMFE at Brussels in 1987. The results ofthe FHWA tests have
been reported by Baker eta!. (1991) and showed a wider variation of results for
all the dynamicanalysis techniques tested. This is flirther discussed in
Section 7.5.2 below.
It is beyond the scope ofthis report to do more than touch upon this matter. For
more information, the interested reader should refer to some of the published
works cited in the text.
Thus, before any upward travelling waves arrive at the pile head, the force, F, at
the pile head will be given by the relationship:
(see R.ausche and Goble, 1979; Goble Rausche and Likins, 1980).
Thence:
Ifthe impedance ofthe pile changes from z1 to z2 at some point along the shaft
of the pile, an impact stress-wave having a force F and travelling down the pile
will be partly reflected as an upward4ravelling wave of force, F, and partly
transmitted as a downward-travelling wave of force, Ed. such that both
F
continuity and equilibrium are satisfied. The expressions for and Ed can be
derived as outlined in Rausche eta!., (1988) and Rausche and Goble (1979), to
yield the following relationships:
252 CIRIAReportl44
(z2 z)
FU =F..
I (714)
+
(z2 z1)
and
2z,
Fd = F. (7.15)
Based upon this analysis, Rausche and Goble (1979) proposed a damage
classification factorB, where
z
B=J. ...(7i6)
Thus, for piles constructed ofuniform material, so that both E and c are
constantvalues, B can be expressed as:
A
Bz_i
A2
The test is undertakenby striking the head ofthe pile with a large weight, such
as the ram ofa piling hammer. The method was developed for driven piles, and
The response of the pile to this large impulsive force, which is ofa similar
magnitude to that required to drive the pile into place, is measured by sensors
attached to the pile shaft near the pile head. These allow calculation of the force.
F, and the particle velocity, v, imparted into the pile by the hammer blow, and
the corresponding reaction ofthe pile-soil system to this input force. The force
is obtained from strain transducers attached to the pile, which allow calculation
of the resultant stress within the pile by the strain induced into the pile section.
This in turn enables the calculation of the force across the whole pile section.
The velocity response is normally measured using accelerometers and the
resultant particle velocity is thence obtained by integrating the measured pile
accelerations with respect to time.
The pile shaft typically has to be exposed fora length of up to three times the
diameter, or, in the case ofa square or rectangular section pile, three times the
length of the longest side, to attach measuring instruments away from the
hammer impact. These are two pairs of strain transducers and accelerometers.
One of each pair is mounted on opposite sides to average the possible effects of
eccentric loading from the hammer blow.
The instruments are attached as illustrated on Figures 7.16 (and Figure 2.7). En
the case of concrete piles the instruments are attached by drilling small holes at
the correct centres into the pile and bolting them tightly against the pile surface
using expansion-type anchor fixings. In the case of steel piles, the sensors can
be attached by bolting through the steel walls ofthe pile, or by welding
mounting blocks to the pile (e.g. as described by Poskitt and Kip-Wong. 1991).
Figure 7.16 shows instruments mounted on a tubular steel pile and where the
strain transducer and accelerometer are in separate housings. Other systems
provide the two instruments within a single unit. The pile head instrumentation
can be made fully waterproof to allow the tests to be undertaken under water. In
addition, or as an alternative, the pile-head displacement can also be measured
on some systems by the use of an electronic theodolite. as has been noted by
Stain and Davis (1989).
7.3.2 Testing
A layout diagram for a typical dynamic pile test is given in Figure 7.17. A view
of a typical test set-up can be seen in Figure 2.8. A closer view oftypical
on-site signal conditioning and analysis equipmentis shown in Figure 7.18.
ClRIAReportl44 255
Postanalysis:
e.g.:
Signal matching
Soil/pile modelling
Soil resistance
Hammer modelling
Printed
Display output
Connection box
Accelerometer
Strain signals
Some test methods, such as the Simbat technique, alternate higher and lower
blows, all the while gradually increasing the overall drop height (Stain and
Davis, 1989).
The test can be undertaken during or at the conclusion of pile installation, in the
case ofa steel or precast concrete driven pile, or after a period oftime has been
allowed to elapse. The latter tests are often called restrike tests. It is most
important to understand that any load test, whether static or dynamic, only
determines the performance of the pile at the time oftesting and therefore the
designeror contractor should specify the time oftesting so that it is realistically
representative of the long4erm state ofthe pile. This factor is often overlooked
in dynamictesting since, unlike static load testing, preparation for the load test
is minimal and tests can be made either during or at the conclusion of
installation or at restrike.
, ru-'
- S.
1
When a restrike test is proposed, it also has to be borne in mind by the designer
that because of soil set-up effects, the hammer may be too small to mobilisethe
ultimate capacity ofthe pile. In addition, in such circumstances, if it is desired
to obtain a measure ofthe ultimate capacity ofthe piles, full consideration
should be given to the desirability oftesting working piles to failure.
For all hammertypes, Kightley and Mure (1987) suggest that the best results
are obtained when the pile head is in good condition, the hammer is in proper
alignmentwith the pile and the blow is distributed evenly over the pile head.
The hammer should also be well-supported, as. for instance, when it is mounted
on a pile-driving rig.
The strain and acceleration data from the hammer blow are fed by cable into the
signal conditioning and analysis unit. The strain data are converted to force by
reference to the pile area and modulusofelasticity, and the resultant velocity is
calculated from the acceleration signals by integration. The velocity response is
then multiplied by the value ofEA/c (Equation 7.12) to give a force output. The
force (from strain) versus time and force (from velocity) versus time plots are
normally displayed on an oscilloscope or VDU in the form shown in Figure 7.5.
258 CIRIAReportl44
A reduction in the cross-sectional area ofthe pile, or a reduction of other pile
properties, will tend to cause a tensile reflected wave, which will manifest itself
as a convergence ofthe force-from-velocity and force-from-strain curves
described in Section 7.1.4. Thus, a convergence ofthe two values at any point
along the pile other than at the pile toe would be typical of a free-end response
and an indication of a reduction in pile properties - typically a loss of
cross-sectional area or pile damage.
Baker et cii. (1991), summarising comparisons of dynamic and static load tests
on bored cast-in-place research piles in Texas and California, found significant
differences betweenpredicted and actual performance under static load. On the
California site, where advance knowledge of the static load test capacity was
available to the test houses, the static capacitypredicted by three dynamic load
test systems was within 20% ofthe measured static capacity under the Davisson
failure criterion. The limiting value given by this criterion is defined as the load
corresponding to the movement which exceeds the elastic compression of the
pile by a value of4 mm plus a factor equal to the diameter ofthe pile divided
by 120 (Fellenius, 1980).
At the Texas site, where no advance knowledge of static load test performance
was available, a majority of the test predictions were more than 20% to as much
as 50% (and occasionally more) offthe static capacity as defined by Davisson.
Baker ci cii. pointed out, however, that, in the case ofdriven piles, predictability
within 20% is common. They suggested that the variability ofthe bored-pile
predictions could be from there being less information about the shape of the
constructed shaft. This information is essential forthe modelling/simulation
process.
CIRIAReportl44 259
Force
Force from velocity (v x EA/c)
z
3 Blow no.1
w Beta: 100
2
0
U-
0
0 Time (ms)
z Blow no.2
0 3 Beta: 69
H
0
U-
0
lime (ms)
0 '
Developmentof damage
"I
z
Blow no.3
0 3 Beta: 26
20
U-
0
0 2Uc Time (ms)
2 Blow no.4
0 3 Beta: 16
B
0
LI.
0
0 // ' Time (ms)
I
Figure 7.19 Progressive pile-head damage during pile driving (after Hannigan, 1986)
The limitations briefly listed below mainly reflect upon the ability of dynamic
load testing techniques to determine the static load carrying characteristics of a
pile. As such, therefore, they are not necessarily related to the questionof pile
integrity, but of the performance of the pile as a workingunit. Dynamic load
test techniques can often be used to evaluate the effect of impedance changes
within the pile on its static load performance.
1. Most research into dynamicpile test techniques has been based upon the
testing of straight shafted driven piles. Care is needed when testing piles
with unknown or varyingcross-sections, typical ofmany cast-in-place
piles. Under such circumstances, it may be necessary to carry out
site-specific static load testing for correlation purposes.
2. The soil resistance obtained from any analysis is that mobilisedat the time
of the test. Iftime-dependent effects are considered to be ofimportance,
this must be taken account ofby the designerwhen choosing how long
after installation the test is to be carried out.
3. Caution must be exercised in extrapolating the results when the test has
not filly mobilised the bearing capacityofthe pile (as is also the case with
a static load test).
4. Caution must be exercised when testing piles in unfamiliarsoils or
conditions for which a databank of knowledge is non-existent or small.
5. The correlation ofthe dynamic pile test results with static load testing may
be complicated by the possible variations in the choice ofthe failure point
within a particular static test.
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 7
FELLENIUS, B. H. (1980)
The analysis of results from routine pile load tests
Ground Engineering, Vol. 6. September, 19-31
GLANVILLE, W.H, GRIME, G., FOX, E.N and DAVIES, W.W. (1938)
An investigation ofthe stress in reinforced concretepiles during driving
Building ResearchBoard,TechnicalPaper No. 20, D.S.I.R.
HILEY, A. (1925)
A rational pile-driving formula and its application in piling practice explained
Engineering,Vol. 119, 657-721
CIRIARepcrtl44 263
KIGHTLEY. ML. and MURE. iN. (1987)
Some practical experiences of the dynamic load testing of driven precast
concrete piles
Proc. International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels
London. March 1987
PAQUET. J. (1988)
Checking bearing capacity by dynamic loading: a choice of methodology
Proc. ThirdInternational Conjrence on Application ofStress-Wave Theory to
piles
Ottawa. pp. 383-98
SEAMAN. J. W. (1989)
The use ofthe dynamic pile testing method in determining the static load
dejiection behaviourofdrivenpiles
Unpublished MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey
September
These arrangements still apply on many occasions, but in recent years there has
been an increase in Management Contracts, Design and Build and other forms
of Contract. However, the basic contractual relationships still hold good.
The advisers' work usually includes the investigation for and requirements of
the foundations to support the structure. When piled foundations are needed, the
piling work is usually identified as a specific item within the contract drafted by
the advisers. Often, but not invariably, the construction of piled foundations.
sometimes their design too, is carried out by a specialist piling contractor, as a
nominated or direct sub-contractor to the main works contractor appointed by
the Employer.
266 CIRIAReportl44
result of circumstances revealed during the contract (retrospective
investigation). The use of non-destructive testing techniques, particularly for
control testing, all too often causes difficulties. This is because what is involved
in its proper employment and interpretation are not fully understood by all the
parties within the contract chain. Yet each is concerned with particular aspects
that are crucial to its successful use.
This section suggests how the use ofnon-destructive (i.e. integrity) testing of
piles can be more effectively managed within the contract.
These are commonly carried out under a (IC/WORKS/i form of contract. The
Employer and his advisers and designers are designated as the Authority. The
general supervisory duties undertaken by the Engineerin other forms of contract
are delegated to the Superintending Officer. Such contract forms quite often
place responsibility for the safe design ofthe piles upon an independent
engineer appointed for the design of the project. or upon the Contractor, and
thence to the Piling Sub-Contractor.
The Institution of Civil Engineers (198S. l98Sa) makes clear, however, that
irrespective of the form of the contract, the design responsibilities of the parties
should be clearly stated and understood. While in some cases, the Piling
Sub-Contractor is responsible for the design of the pile as an element to support
the structural loads defined in the contract documents, it is the Designerwho
has overall responsibility for the design of the foundation system and the
structure that depends upon it. In this context, the term 'Designer' is taken to
mean the person or body ultimately responsible for the design of the structure
on behalf ofthe Employer. The Designer could therefore be the Engineer,
Architect or some other nominated member ofthe Emploer's advisory team,
depending upon, and as defined in, the contract. As the ICE documents also
point out, proper consideration of the effects ofthe interaction between the
structure and the supporting ground is more difficult if the Designerdoes not
have overall design responsibility.
If the Designerdecides to delegate some or all of the responsibility for design ofthe
piles to the Contractor, who would usually pass this on to the Piling Sub-Contractor,
it is necessary for a means ofstating and measuring compliance with the Designer's
requirements to be given to the Contractor, i.e. a perfonnance specification must be
provided. A typical performance specification for foundation piling might consist of
a layout drawing showing the positions of individual piles and their required working
loads. The limitations on settlement at the pile head at working load and at the
specified proof load should also be defined, because only the Designerofthe whole
structure is in a position to determine its acceptable total and differential settlement.
The specification should cover any other aspects ofpile construction considered to be
important by the Designer; these could include requirements for any works testing.
such as static load tests, either specified by the Designeror to be submitted by the
delegated pile designer.
The design of the individual piles to support the specified loadings might then
be the responsibility of the Contractor or the Piling Sub-Contractor. It should be
borne in mind, however, that ultimate design responsibility will very often still
rest with the Designer.
268 CIRlAReportl44
Theprocedures for specifying and using non-destructive testing techniques,
whether for routine purposes or in a problem-solving role, also have to fit
within these contractual frameworks.
Client
Conditions of MS
appolniment!
Drawings and
Sub-contract
of sale
Supplier Sub-contmctr
The NEDO reports point out that, in practice, most clients expect the architect
or professional designer ofthe projectthat they have appointedto take
responsibility for bringing the different parts ofthe design into order and
combiningthem as a whole. NEDO suggests that this expectation was reflected
in the 1979 RIBA Conditions of Engagement, which stated that 'the architect
will advise on the need for independent consultants, and will be responsible for
the direction and integration of their work, but not forthe detailed design,
NEDO points out that the replacement of 'will be responsible' b viI1 have the
authority', changes a professional duty to a less onerous requirement. Thus, should
the Architect elect not to exercise the right to direct and integrate, no other
professional within the design team is under an obligation to undertake this duty.
The changes highlighted above are, to an extent, a function ofthe trends that
have gathered force over the last decade. Increasingly, professionals from
different autonomous organisations are involved in the design process these
include consultants, specialist sub-contractors and suppliers. NEDO (1988)
reported that this has often resulted in ambiguity regarding leadership of the
project. the distribution of duties, and responsibility ofthe various parties under
contract and law. On many major. and even relatively minor, projects this
situation has led clients to seek alternative ways of procuring works of building
and civil engineering construction.
Ashford (1989) also points out that the trend towards alternative forms of
building or civil engineering contracts is in part a result of the growing
proportion of work let to sub-contractors, as the building and civil engineering
industry becomes more specialised. Sub-contractors also often have a design
input into the works.
270 CIRIAReportl44
Management
Drawings and
specifications
Contract
Drawings and
specifications
Concept
Design
vpica1 arrangements
These flow charts illustrate the necessary lines of control and communication
within the contract framework. External lines of communication needed with
other parties outside the contract are also highlighted, such as the insurers ofthe
completed structure or statutory. regulatory or checking bodies. Similar
diagrams can be envisaged for other forms of contract organisation.
L0.
____ tt I
4cLor +4 I
I I
Work I I
lCfldout
-
Pie
preparation
(a) (b)
--- Coinmw,ication
Control
(C)
CIRlAReport144 273
It is essential then that the organisation charged with administering control
testing (especially when using low-strain integrity tests) understands its
responsibilities and the requirements forthe work. These include ensuring that
the testing is properly and hilly programmed, that there is proper liaison with
the testing specialist and that any services of preparation and attendance are
arranged. The test results should be communicated to the necessary parties
through agreed channels, speedily and to an agreed programme. all of which
should be set out in the contractual arrangements.
There are two aspects to the question ofthe degree of independence of the
testing specialist from the piling sub-contractor. The first is whetherthe
specialist should be emplo\'ed as a sub-contractor by the piling contractor. The
second is whether the piling contractor should undertake the testing using
in-house specialists.
It is suggested that the Designer should take these decisions, being the person or
organisation with overall responsibility for the safe design and construction of
the structure. including the piled foundations. It is forthe Designer (with advice
from the actual designer ofthe piles) to decide and instruct (1) how and by
whom the integrity testing work should be controlled and managed, and (2) the
testing specialist. The questionof use of a testing specialist that is a part of the
piling contractor's own organisation need not cause difficulties, provided that
the same consideration is given to the manner ofthe control of the work by the
design organisation.
274 CIRIAReportl44
implications, e.g. it has to be planned and the results evaluated within the main
works programme. On the benefitside, no other methods currently available are
capable of providing, relatively inexpensively, a profile ofthe condition ofthe
pile population at a site at a particular time after the installation process. In
certain situations, the testing can provide a clear, unequivocal record ofthe
soundness of the piles on the basis of their acoustic response. In addition,
deviations from the average forthe site pile population can form part of the
evidence to justify further investigation to confirm a pile's structural adequacy
or otherwise. Analysis ofthe response ofa particular pile in terms of the
variation of its internal and external properties and the effect ofthe surrounding
soil is improving notjust in technique refinements but as a result ofgreater
experience. Reasoned evaluation ofthe state ofthe pile is increasingly possible
from the interpretation of test results with other information.
Even where the tests might be inconclusive (in the sense of providing less
information about a pile) this is not to deny their usefulness in the majority of
cases as a first line of defence. In effect a screening, the testing compares the
comparative responses of a large numberof piles to tests which are sensitive to
their structural integrity.
Traditionally in the UK, the acceptability ofpiled foundations has been based
upon full-scale load tests of a small percentage ofthe piles, togetherwith tests
on samples of the pile materials and visual inspection ofthe as-trimmed piles
before their incorporation into the foundation works. This has been
supplemented by on-site inspection ofthe works in progress by engineering
staff employed both by the design team and the contractor, together with
contemporaiy records ofthe installation ofthe piles to an agreed method.
Thus unless the soil conditions or foundation scheme are complex, it is unusual
for more than a few piles to be tested by direct loading. In many cases.
particularly on smaller projects, it is not uncommon for no load testing to be
undertaken. This approach is often justified by adopting a more conservative
design factor of safety forthe ultimate bearing capacity, coupled with previous
experience or knowledge ofthe site and/or the surrounding area.
The experience ofpiling contractors makes it clear that few construction project
teams understand or have contingency plans to cope with the implications of
suspect piles found as a consequence ofmore extensive post-installation
inspection. It is strongly recommended that a programme allowance should be
considered within the contract to allow the inspection, investigation,
consideration and repair/renewal or acceptance of a pile as a part ofits
construction and acceptance cycle. The major problem faced by both contractors
and designers and, ultimately, clients, is the high consequential costs of opening
up the works, inspecting and testing, reaching a decision and implementing that
decision, in the face ofmounting disruption to the contract.
One suggestion that has been put forward is that an agreed no-cost period could
be allowed in the piling contract after the discovery of a suspect or faulty pile,
in order to allow the timely rectification of any defects.
When the use of indirect test methods is proposed. not only should the method
be properly specified, but the principles ofthe test and its interpretation must
also be understood by the Designer, as the specifier of the works. This is not to
expect the Designer be able to make a detailed interpretation ofthe test results:
rather it is to be able to recognise what information can and cannot be
reasonably derived from the testing. Thus, the principle behind the test and the
logic of the processing and interpretation of the test results should be
appreciated. This could be achieved by retaining the necessary expertise as an
independent adviser to the Designeror, by speciing within the contract a
particular testing specialist or range of testing specialists that may be used for
the work. Thus the Designer may make expertise available through nomination.
in the same was' that the pile design expertise is made available.
All indirecttests require a degree of interpretation. Some call for a great deal of
judgementor subjective interpretation. The tests should not be regarded as
providing a Certificate of Quality for a particular pile or piles. They are part of
an engineering tool-box, not an end productin their own right.
278 CIRIAReportl44
A difficulty of early testing is that several other construction processes may
have to be carried out on and around the piles before they are finally
incorporated into the foundation. The piles usually have to be trimmed to their
cut-off level and excavations formed for pile caps or ground beams.
Fleming et cxi. (1985) noted that a large proportion of the damage to piles is
caused during this post-installation phase. Thus early testing of piles may miss
later damage to the piles from external forces. Trimming the piles to facilitate
early testing may mean doing it twice: once for testing and later to reduce the
pile to its design cut-off level. The Designer will consider the piles to be critical
(as far as the client's interests are concerned) from the time it is about to be
incorporated into the structure, i.e. whether or not it providesan acceptable
foundation. Integrity testing at that time as part of the verification process ofthe
piles would automatically be on the last stage critical path. Any delay at that
stage, because ofuntoward results, can have an immediate effect on the
progress of the main works. Testing at the last stage may be somewhat
self-defeating in its use ofthe technique, in that one great advantage of integrity
testing systems is their ability to screen and so to identifky potential problems as
soon as practicable.
One solution could be to test the piles at more than one stage during the
contruction process. An initial test (or series of tests on selected piles) could be
undertaken immediately after installation or curing of a pile, with a repeat test
immediately prior to incorporation into the pile cap or ground beam.
Thus, for pile integrity testing, another scenario could develop from the current
moves to quality assurance procedures. Routine testing could be included as
part of the piling contractor's quality management process covering pile
installation (i.e. to the extent to which the piling contractor provides satisfactory
CIRIAReportl44 279
piles in the ground). What then happens to the piles, prior to their being
incorporated into the foundation, would be the responsibility of others. such as
the ground works contractor or the main contractor. These organisations in turn
might incorporate into their procedures some form of routine testing covering
this aspect of the work.
280 CIRIAReportl44
REFERENCES CITED IN SECTION 8
ASHFORD, J. L. (1989)
Themanagement ofquality in construction
E. & F. N. Spon Ltd
London
NEDO (1983)
Faster buildingfor industry
Report prepared by the Steering Group and Research Team, Building EDC
(Economic Development Committee) of the NEDC
NEDO (National Economic Development Office)
Millbank, London
NEDO (1988)
Faster building for commerce
Report prepared by the Commercial Building Steering Group ofthe
Construction Industry Sector Group ofthe NEDC
NEDO (National Economic Development Office)
Millbank, London
November
144 pages
TURNER, M. J. (1989)
The use of integrity testing in evaluating foundation piles
Proc. International Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
London, 19-21 September
Engineering Technics Press
With regard to routine testing, on the other hand, at the present state ofthe art,
the detailed analysis of complex signals will not necessarily lead to certain
identification ofthe true nature of a feature or features. In these situations,
low-strain integrity testing on its own could not serve as the basis for a sound
engineering decision on the acceptability or otherwise ofthe pile.
This is not to detract from the use of integrity testing in such situations, but.
practically, it is often necessary to give less and less weight to the testing as it
requires more and more subjective interpretation. It has to be accepted,
therefore, that for some situations the methodswill give no clear answer. The
more readily that users can differentiate between signal responses that are
straightforward to interpret and those that are complex. the more useful and
trustworthy will they find integrity testing to be.
282 CIRIAReportl44
9.1 PROPOSED CLASSIFICATIONOF SIGNAL RESPONSES
It is suggested that the signal response of a pile can be classified into one ofthree
categories, depending upon the nature of the signal response curve from the test.
Type 0 signal
A Type 0 signal is one in which the damping effect of the surrounding soil
attenuates the return signal from the toe or remote end of the pile to such a low
level that the toe cannot be discerned from the internal noise within the signal
with the available resolving power ofthe system.
Thus, the signal response would suggest that there is no significant impedance
change within the pile capable of detection within the effective depth of
penetration of the particular system. The reason forthis would be readily
understandable to the non-specialist engineer, provided the basic principle of
the test is understood.
Figure 9.1 illustrates typical examples ofType 0 signals for time-based and
frequency-based systems.
20
a Dopth(m)
(a)
6-
I I I
0 I I I
0 1000 2000
Frequency(Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.1 Examplesof Type 0 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
ClRlAReportl44 283
Type 1 signal
A Type I signal contains one clear, major response, indicating that the pile is
responding as a single, simple acoustic unit. A Type 1 signal thus represents a
pile containing a single impedance change, either the pile toe or some intervening
major feature. No other significant extraneous response (attributable to another
intervening feature) would be visible on the recorded trace. In this respect,
significant' would mean some defined critical level: perhaps an intermediate
response with a magnitude greaterthan, say. 50% ofthe remote-end response, or
some other acceptable criterion. Type 1 signal responses should be very similarto
the theoretical simple signal expected from the test, and easily recognisable.
Type 2 signal
A Type 2 signal is one containing more than one major response, such that the
interaction of overlapping responses from different levels within the pile make
interpretation ofthe resulting response curve a complex matter.
0 10 20 30
I Depth (m)
(a)
0
0 1000 2000
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.2 Examp'es of Type 1 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
284 ClRlAReportl44
At one extreme, Type 2 signals might display a clear major response indicative
of the length ofthe pile responding as a single acoustic unit, but with
intermediate responses to local changes in pile impedance within that acoustic
unit, as in Figure 9.3. At the other extreme, Type 2 signals might contain no
clear major response to indicate ifpart ofthe pile is responding as a single
acoustic unit, as in Figure 9.4.
ClRlAReportl44 285
Classification in these terms ofthe signal responses obtained on an individual
site will help to assess how much weight should be given to the test results of
the specific test method at that site. As described in Section 5. the quality ofthe
test results depends upon the following:
1. The characteristics of the test system. particularl its dynamic range. its
resolution and its signal-to-noise ratio.
2. The characteristics of the pile, especially its aspect ratio the quality of the
pile material and the shape of the pile also affect the signal.
3. The nature ofthe surrounding soil within which the pile is embedded.
Thus the stifferthe soil, the greaterthe attenuation of the signal.
A boundary between soils ofdifferent relative stifThesses acts as a
reflecting layer or impedance change within the pile-soil system.
80
V 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Depth (m)
0 +
0
(a)
.0
0
00 1000 2000
Frequency, ((Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.3 Examples of Type 2 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
286 ClRlAReportl44
Recorded pile length :15.0 m
10 - Assumed wavespeed : 4,000 rn/s
Time-dependent amplification: x 500 (exponential)
2
I_
8
A
0 10 20
Depth (m)
(a)
I
1000 2000
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.4 Examples of complex or indeterminateType 2 signals (a) sonic echo test
(b) frequency response test
ClRlAReportl44 287
As an example. the response ofthe pile toe in a Type 1 signal might be
detectable because of a change in impedance between the pile material and the
underlying soil or rock. The feature on the signal response curve, however, is a
marked change in impedance. which can be assumed to be the pile toe if its
depth matches the record of the constructed length of the pile.
In order to evaluate the test results properly, the interpreter requires additional
information, which includes:
pile construction logs, including depth, diameter, date constructed, depth
and type of pile reinforcement, and details ofany construction problems or
features
details of ground conditions at and across the site
pile concreting records and test results
other site information relating to the piles and the operations associated
with them.
The purpose of a test is to help evaluate the pile, not the testing system or the
specialist, so as much information as possible should be given to the specialist.
The implication of the three signal response classes is that the more complex
the signal and the less clear the response from the remoteend ofthe pile, the
greaterwill be the interpretative effort required to arrive at a solution. As a first
step. the acoustic behaviour of the pile/soil system has to be analysed. Its
meaning in terms of the actual pile/soil system has to be adduced and explained
clearly to be of use to an engineer faced with making an evaluation of the piled
foundation in a short space of time.
Tipe 0 signals
With thesesignals. no acoustic length can be determined for the pile because no
variations of impedance are present. The pile appears to be of uniform
impedance over the full depth of penetration of the test.
It should be noted that although valid conclusions can be drawn from Type 0
results, on the basis that no significant change of impedance occurs forthe
depth of penetration of the test, the lack of a definitive remote-end response
leaves the true depth of penetration forthat particular pile and conditions as an
open question.
The fact that no intermediate response has been received would indicate that the
pile is intact and uniform to the depth that the equipmentwould be able to
detect a return signal ifone were to be present. It would be permissible, indeed
advisable, forthe integrity test specialistto state this typical depth of
penetration, in the prevailing ground conditions, provided that the specialistcan
substantiate it by data from similarpiles constructed in a similar manner in
similar ground conditions with that particular equipment.
3 3 1
Known
II Pile Othersite II characteristics
Site Experience
TypeO I construction construction I geotechnical of testing
signal of the piling data
records data specialist
system
Ilnterpretation
I,
I What is expected
penetration of signal?
Consider:
Other pile features
Acceptable signal Pile material shortfall
(decreasing p, c)
Equipment malfunction
Comparison with other
Butconsider... - signals on site
I
Type 1 signals
The signal indicates that the pile is of single acoustic length (one variation of
impedance is present) and ofuniform impedance to the depth ofthe impedance
change The depth to the location of impedance change can be calculated.
Identification ofthe sense ofthe impedance change (increase or decrease) will
indicate the probable physical significance.
The interpretation by the specialist ofthe reason forthis signal should thus be
seen to be reasonable and in accordance with the known data. It would allow
recommendations to be made on the advisability or otherwise of furtherwork.
290 CtRlAReportl44
INPUT DATA
,1 Depth to
Interpretation
I 'I,
I
Consider: Consider Check:
Major DECREASE Major INCREASE Pile constructed
ofsection, e.g. pile of section, e.g. longerthan recorded.
break, crack, neck, under-ream,bulb, Correct wave speed in
step, inclusion, pile anchorage, step. calculation.
joint. Major soil change. Pile concrete strength.
Major soil change. Age of pile at test.
Major reduction in
material properties.
Pile constructed
shorter then Decrease/increaseIn
recorded pIleimpedence?
I
I Comparisonwith othersignals at the site?
Jr
Report
(Repo)
Fjgure 9.7 Second stage: typical interpretation process for Type 1 signal
Type 2 signals
This signal type means that the pile displays multiple acoustic reflections of
varying significance indicating more than one variation of pile impedance, with
or without a malor remote-end response.
292 CIRIAReportl44
extraneous feature, but would be interpretable as the effective length of the pile,
as far as the test method could determine.
Simulations
Knowledge-based syctems
CIRIAReportl44 293
cross-section ofthe pile. By correcting the response curve to allow for the
characteristics of the surrounding soil, the remaining impedance profile, free of
soil influence and with due correction for attenuation, is claimed to be an
indication ofthe pile profile.
It is usual that the report on the testing submitted by the testing specialist
contains factual data, the identification of points of note on the signal responses
obtained from the tests, and an interpretation ofthe significance ofthese
features in relation to the pile.
Factual data
I. Identificationof site and location, dates and times of testing.
2. Identification of the piles tested and their type. Pile reference numbers
should be related to specifically identified contract drawings (including
the date and revision numberofdrawings).
3. Description of the pile preparation, test method and equipmentused.
4. Calibration data and certificates.
5. Test results.
(a) Signal responsc curves for each pile.
(b) Parameters derived from the test data, e.g. pile-head dynamic
stifThess. characteristic mobility.
6. Notes of any on-site features, e.g. damaged pile heads.
The analysis and classification ofeach pile's signal response and the
identification and appraisal ofeach impedance change should include the
following records (probably in tabularform):
I. Pile reference number.
2. Pile size. e.g. diameter.
3. Installed length in the ground and stick-up.
4. Classification of signal-response curve (CIRIA Classification or similar).
5. Identification of acoustic length. if possible.
6. Identification of (other) impedance changes within the pile.
7. Note of whether each impedance change is an increase or decrease.
8. Estimation of the relative magnitude of each impedance change.
9. Derived parameters. e.g. pile-head dynamic stifihess. characteristic
mobility.
Statements giving the interpretation ofthe signal responses should note the
specific information, additional to the test data, used to reach that interpretation,
such as:
1. Details of piles and their installation: type, length range, diameter,
reinforcement, temporary casing, concrete mix and strengths.
2. Ground and groundwater conditions of the site including variations.
3. Details of other site operations associated with the piles (e.g. excavations,
piles broken down from original cut-offlevels).
The interpretation statement should address the following points, for each pile.
1. Whetheran acoustic length was determined.
2. If not, the reasons why not.
3. If so, the acoustic significance ofthe acoustic length, and whether it
represents an increase or decrease in impedance.
4. The interpretation ofthe acoustic length.
5. The identification and significance of other intermediate features within
the signal.
6. An estimation ofthe magnitude of the impedance features identified.
7. Comparison ofthe signal ofa particular pile with other piles of similar
length and diameter across the site.
A valuable attribute of low-strain integrity tests is that their results can often be
used comparatively. Even though the results might not distinguish an unsound
from a sound pile, they can show areas ofhigher risk or uncertaintyin a pile
population. In these situations, the testing should be regarded as an additional
investigation tool, not as the final arbiter ofgood or bad piles. Testing can be
very effectively used to give a picture ofthe characteristics ofthe piles across
the site so that decisions on further testing or investigation are clearly focused.
In more favourable circumstances the methodsgive a good indication ofthe
soundness of construction ofthe pile population and would identify an isolated
problem pile.
As an example, the tests on the site might show a great majority of Type 0 (or
Type 2) signals. Certain piles, however, might have clear Type 1 responses,
with the acoustic length being far less than the nominal installed length. The
CIRIAReportl44 295
deviation of these individual piles from the site norm could indicate a problem
that had to be addressed.
The signal-response curves, together with any parameters calculated from the
data, such as pile-head dynamic stifThess. are the primary informationon the
performance of a particular pile test. It is this information that has to be
communicated to an engineering team who may not be at all familiar with the
test technique, so it should be clear, complete and, so far as possible, self-
explanatory.
Many current test reports seem designed to obscure the information rather than
to present it clearly. In many cases this is a function ofthe computer software
used to process and print out the test data. In common with many such
programs, while perfectly adequate to provide the graphical data, the collection
and presentation ofthe ancillary information often leaves much to be desired
from the point of view of the end user.
(a) Signal-responsecurves
Frequency-based plots:
Pile-head dynamic stiffliess
Pile-head characteristic impedance or characteristic mobility.
CIRIAReportl44 297
5. Test reports should be comprehensive,with coverage of
factual data (site. location, date, pile type. etc.)
analysis of signal responses (impedance changes. etc.)
interpretation of signal responses (estimation of magnitude of features
identified, etc.)
the use made in the interpretation ofthe records of pile installation and
ground conditions provided by others
conclusions drawn about pile conditions, on an individual or
comparative basis
recommendations (where called for in the contract).
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 9
PAQUET. J. (1992)
Pile integrity testing - the CEBTP reflectogram
In: Piling Europe
Proc. Conf Institution of Civil Engineers, London. 7-9 April
pp 177-88
298 CIRIAReportl44
10 The specification and use of
non-destructive testing
In either case, it is most important for all available information relevant to the
construction of the piles to be collated, i.e. piling records, concreting or
pumping records and ground investigation information as in Table 2.1 and
Section 2.1.1.
CIRIAReportl44 299
In current UK practice the most commonly used methods for control testing are.
either
direct tests. involving the application of load (by either static or dvnaniic
loading), or
indirect tests, involving either low-strain integrity tests at the pile-head or
internal cross-hole sonic logging.
ClRlAReportl44 301
investigative work may best 'kld information on the performance of the pile is
given in Section 1.
It may thereafter be necessary to check that other piles do not have a similar or
related problem. Section 1 also provides guidance as to what examination or
test method will be best suited to undertake this check.
The manner in which a strategy can be developed for the retrospective investigation
of post-construction foundation problems is illustrated in Figure 10.2.
It is the responsibility of the Designer or Pile Designer to specifi the test technique
or combination of techniques. With particular reference to control testing by
indirect non-destructive methods, the following questions have to be answered:
1. What test or investigation method is to be employed?
2. What pre4est preparation requirements are necessary, either ofpile-head
preparation or incorporation of access tubes into the pile during
construction?
3. What does the envisaged programme involve in terms of
numberof piles to be tested in one visit?
the stage at which the pile will be tested: as soon after construction as
possible? or immediately prior to incorporation within the foundation
work? or at some intermediate stage?
the period to be allowed after completion of testing on a particular
pile before foundation construction work on that pile can continue?
4. What measures will be taken if it is found that pile-head preparation is
inadequate or access tubes are blocked?
5. What measures will be adopted should tests indicate anomalous
responses?
6. In the case of a suspect pile, what is the allowable time from the testing of
the pile to submission ofthe analysis and interpretation: and what period
can be allowed for consideration ofthe test result by the Designer (or Pile
Designer) and making a decisionon acceptance, rejection or further
investigation.
In respect of the testing work itself, there are additional questions for the
Designer. such as
I. What has to be measured and what data have to be provided in terms of
factual information by the testing contractor, in terms of:
graphical data?
numerical data?
302 CIRIAReportl44
2. What has to be included in the interpretative report ofthe testing specialist
by way of:
analysis and explanation ofthe measurements?
interpretation of the test results as an engineering appraisal ofthe
tested pile in the light of information such as construction records
and ground conditions?
I Are anomalous responses to be reported:
immediately to alert the Designer to the situation?
after flail technical analysis and interpretation?
4. What are the time limits for:
reporting analysis of the test data to the Designerso that there will
be sufficient information to allow the construction to proceed?
submission of the final test report?
The most common control testing techniques are static load testing, dynamic
load testing, low-strain integritytests and cross-hole sonic logging.
Specifications for static load testing are adequately covered in the references
cited in Section 2.2.1. The specification of dynamic load testing is indicated in
Sections 2.2.2 and 7, but its use for control testing technique is still developing.
Low-strain integrity tests and cross-hole sonic logging are the most commonly
used and least understood control testing techniques. Guidance on these two
methods is therefore given in the following two sections.
ClRIAReportl44 303
Step I: Discovery:
(a) internal
(b) external
(c) remote.
(b) pile section substandard parallel to pile axis, i.e. logitudinal defects
(c) pile section damaged after construction ofpile
(d) pile toe poorly founded
(e) pile not vertical or not in correct position
foundation construction problems
1. Methodoftesting
The type oftest should be specified. It is recommended that the general name,
low-strain integrity test, should be used. Such a descriptionincludesthe time-
and frequency-based methods outlined in Section 3.7.
CIRlAReportl44 305
Alternatively, depending upon the experience or requirements ofthe Designer,
either a time-based or a frequency-based method can be specified, or one which
combines these. Such a choice has the effect of limiting the numberof test
houses able to undertake the work. (The specification of frequency-based and
combined systems implicitly includes the measurement of input force from an
instrumented hammer. This additional instrument allows an estimation of pile-
head dynamic stifihess and mobility.)
The standards of preparation and access (such as are outlined in Section 3.7)
and other services should be specified.
3. Programmingthefield-work
(a) Number of visits. If the plan forthe control testing includes provision of
hold points or programme float between testing and acceptance, there could be
implications forthe maximum numberofpiles to be tested at any one time.
This consideration includes not only the delay time betweenpile construction
and the release ofthe pile forthe succeeding groundworks, but also the time
required for the Designer to review the results ofthe testing.
(b) Stage oftesting. The specification should identifv at what stage a pile
should be tested. Typically this might be either when the pile has been reduced
to its cut-off level, or at no specific time, other than prior to the construction of
the succeeding works and in the case of cast-in-place piles a minimum delay
after casting (usually seven days).
4. Testing Equipment
(a) Factual data obtained from the test. A signal-response curve (as described in
Sections 3.7, 4.4, 5.1 and 5.2) should be provided for each pile tested. Both
horizontal and vertical axes should be scaled and labelled in engineering units.
(c) Reporting the results. The specification should make provision for test
results to be communicated to the Designer or Pile Designerprior to the formal
submission ofthe report, in orderto expedite action in cases, for example,
where there might be a need for further investigation or remedial work to piles.
(d) Programme for reporting the results. The specifier should identify the
following key points on timing and reporting:
to whom the results should be communicated (usually the Designeror Pile
Designer)
whether an immediate site print-out is required ofall results
how soon after testing a batch ofpiles that the factual data should be
submitted
how soon after testing a batch ofpiles the factual and interpretative reports
should be submitted.
CIRIAReportl44 307
how and to whom to report anomalous results, significantly differentfrom
the norm for the site or from what would be expected. (It is not unusual to
specify that suspect piles should be broughtto the attention ofthe
Designer, or other specified party. within 24 hours of testing)
a maximum time period should be specified between the receipt by the
Designeror Pile Designer ofthe factual or interpretative report and receipt
of a decision by the (main) Contractor on acceptance, rejection or further
investigative work on a particular pile.
I. Methodofilesting
2. Pre-test requirements
The inside diameter, wall thickness and material forming the access ducts
should be specified together with the numberof ducts required. It is usual that
the tubes should be flush internally and watertight. Bearing in mind the points
made in Section 6.6, it is advisable that the specification should require each
duct to be plumbed and the base level recorded prior to test.
4. Testing equipment
(a) Factual data obtained from the test. A sonic profile as described and
illustrated in Section 3 1.2 and Section 6 should be plotted for each traverse
between ducts within a pile. The numbering of the tubes should be identified.
The scales ofthe horizontal and vertical axes should be identified and consistent
for all the piles at a site, with provision for an expanded scale ifnecessary.
(c) Reporting the results. As with low-strain integrity testing, it is usual that the
testing specialistprovides an interpretative report on the results ofthe test. The
full report should cover factual data, analysis and interpretation ofthe data,
conclusionsand recommendations.
Several papers have been published on the statistical approaches that may be
adopted in selecting the numberofpiles that should be tested on a particular site
in order to achieve pre-determined acceptable confidence limits (e.g. Preiss and
Shapiro, 1979 and 1981). Such methods require an estimateofwhethera
percentage of defective piles can be tolerated within the foundation (in the case
of a piled raft foundation, for example). Figure 10.3 from Williamsand Stain
(1987) shows the approach that could be taken. A difficulty is that defects or
problems with piles are not always randomly distributed, but can be persistent if
associated with more difficult ground conditions in a part ofthe site or the poor
workmanship of a particular rig operator or some other factor.
It is for this reason that most authorities tend to the view with low-strain
integrity testing that either all the piles should be tested or none at all. This
decision should take accountofall the circumstances at the site, e.g. the
availability ofother construction records or data, the consistency or variability
ofthe ground conditions across the site, and the type of pile and piling systems.
As a general recommendation, therefore, in situations where low-strain integrity
testing is considered to be worth doing, all the piles on the site or in a particular
area of concern should be tested.
If the picture emerging from the test results is sufficiently consistent, the
Designer may considerreducing the numberoftests. Conversely, if no
meaningful information is being obtained from the tests, the Designercan
choose to dispense with the testing.
CIRIAReportl44 309
Can a percentage of defective
piles be tolerated?
Will the design factor of
safety be maintained?
I
Ivesi
E1
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 10
CIRiAReportl44 311
TURNER. NI. J. (1989)
The use of integrity testing in evaluating foundation piles
Proc. Second International Conjrence on Foundations and Tunnels
London. 19-2 1 September
Engineering Technics Press
Vol. 1. pp 307-16
312 CIRIAReportl44
11 Conclusions
Ofthe large numberof non-destructive test methods forpiles, the ones on which
this report concentrates are the indirect techniques of low-strain integrity testing
and sonic logging. The conclusions given below are mainly about the use of
these tests because they are not used as effectively as they should be. Often too
much is expected ofthe testing, or read into the results. Too often their use
seems to lead to costly delays and contractual disputes. It was to help overcome
these problems that this CIRIA projectwas commissioned. The conclusions
which have been reached, therefore, tiy to address how better use can be made of
integritytesting within the context of evaluating pile foundations.
I. There is a wide range oftechniques availablefor the investigation and
evaluationofa foundation pile. These can be considered as direct, where
the test exposes the pile material or its performance (e.g. a load test) and
as indirect, where the test measures properties ofthe pile from which its
likely character or performance can be inferred (e.g. acoustic tests).
2. The selection ofa suitabletest method depends not only upon whether it can
detect particular features within a pile and on matters such as availability,
cost and compatibility with the pile type, but also on the purpose ofthe
testing. There are two main purposes forthe testing: control testing and
retrospective investigation. Control testing is part of the pre-planned quality
control or monitoring. Retrospective investigation is to help find out the
condition of a pile and the reasons for it after some problem has arisen.
3. Static load tests are widely used but, because oftheir high cost, rarely for
more than 1 or 2% ofthe piles on a site. Dynamic load testing (and its
application as a high-strain integrity test), while increasingly used for
control testing, is still likely to be more associated with largerpiles and
special site circumstances, e.g. off-shore sites. It is the principal indirect
technique of low-strain integrity tests that permits a high percentage, or
all, of the piles on a site to be tested economically, for nearly all pile
types. Cross-hole sonic logging, the other main indirect test is particularly
associated with large-diameter bored piles.
4. When thoughtfully used and carefully integrated into the works programme
as control tests, low-strain integrity testing and cross-hole sonic logging
are important aids in the evaluation of foundation piles. The test results,
however, should not be taken as sole or final arbiters of pile acceptability.
5. There is much misunderstanding ofthe capabilities ofthese indirecttests,
which has led first to their being used with an unclearpurpose and,
consequently, to unnecessary contract delays and disputes. This has
resulted in distrust. While scepticism of promotional claims is valid, much
ofthe distrust is unfair. With better understanding oftheir capability,
more clearly defined responsibilities, and integration into the contractual
framework, the testing can play an important role.
ClRIAReportl44 313
6. When integritytesting is being used. several other points should be borne
in mind.
Integrity testing should be regarded as part of the quality control of pile
construction. In addition there should be attention to supervision and
construction records, the use of other direct or indirect techniques. and
appreciation of the ground conditions of the site. Indirect non-destructive
testing methods should not be the sole means of examining the
competence or suitability of a pile.
The testing methods should be properly specified. and the areas of
responsibility defined.
The reporting requirements should be clearly specified. in relation to
both the presentation offactual data and the interpretation, in the
recognition that current techniques do not necessarily identify piles
which are structurally unsound. Furthermore. they can give
anomalous results in piles which prove to be fit for their purpose.
7. Testing can affect the piling or main works programmes so it has to be
planned and integrated into the overall foundation works. In control
testing, the requirement for testing large numbers of piles, analysing and
interpreting the results, and making engineering decisions based upon
those interpretations, all require careful planning. Allowances should be
made within the programme for the evaluation and decision-making
processes. and for the possible consequences of replacing questionable or
faulty piles.
8. The testing has to be properly managed within the contract. Establishing
correct lines ofcommunication and defining responsibilities will encourage
better control of the work, fortimely, informed decisions to be made.
9. A consequence of more testing could be more anomalous results. These
will need further interpretative work. further engineering discussion and,
perhaps. further investigation. It is advisable that time is allowed for this.
Consequential delays to the works are possible whether or not a pile is
found to be defective.
10. With integrity testing, there is a need for a clearer classification and
interpretation process that allows the non-specialist engineer to appreciate
and participate in the evaluation process. It is often such an engineer who
has the responsibility of deciding the actions to be taken before accepting
foundation piles into the structure. The analysis and reporting should aim
for clarity in explanation and should make plain the degree of uncertainty
in interpretation. The signal classification proposed in this report was
developed to help improve the communication between the users of
integrity testing and the specialists.
Piled foundations are fUndamental components of a structure and their
installation is a critical part ofthe construction process. Much hinges.
therefore, on their acceptance into the works. Integrity testing, when
properly specified and managed, has an important role in the evaluation of
piled foundations. Attractive in being relatively inexpensive and rapid.
reaching to remote, inaccessible features, the techniques of integrity
314 CIRIAReportl44
testing vi11 be used more and more, not only as the techniques improve in
their capability, but also as engineers appreciate how to use them more
effectively.
CIRIAReportl44 315
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316 CIRIAReportl44
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CIRIAReportl44 317
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Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
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Proc. International Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
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also printed as:
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Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
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Ground Engineering. Vol 20, No. 7. October, 8 - 13
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Ground Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 9, November, pp 25-28
Note: the following is generally based on Thorbum and Thorbuni (1977). Heals
and Weltman (1980) and Fleming c/ a!. (1985)
328 CIRtAReportl44
3. Use ofbenionite or other drilling aids
looseningof base materials during bottom cleaning
inadequate bottom cleaning
heavily contaminated drilling fluid can have an excessive viscosity and the
piston effect on withdrawing the drilling bucket, for example, can cause
local collapse of the pile bore
contamination ofupper surface of concrete with debris and slurry.
4. Pile reinforcement
closely spaced vertical reinforcing bars can cause obstructionto the free
flow of concrete between the pile wall and the reinforcing cage, resulting in
incomplete filling ofthis annular space
the pile cage has to withstand the considerable drag and slump forces
exerted by the fluid concrete as it is being placed. Ifnot rigid enough it can
buckle and distort under these forces
lack of concrete cover to the pile reinforcing due to misalignment (or lack)
of spacers on pile cage.
5. Pile concretingprocess
poor concrete mix design or errors in mixing can lead to:
(a) too dry a mix (slump to low), giving a non-flowing and poorly self-
compacting mix
(b) too wet a mix (too much water), leading to high bleed
(c) low strength from insufficient cement content, over-watering, or
errors in the manufacture or use of blended mixes
(d) lack ofproper hydraulic continuity ofthe mix in order to resist the
ingress ofgroundwater into the body of the fluid concrete under the
action ofthe hydrostatic head
(e) segregation from falling concrete striking the reinforcement cage
when concreting using 'free-fall' methods
incorrect concreting procedures can lead:
when concreting in 'dry' conditions,
(a) to segregation at the base ofthe pile because of water percolation
during the period between completion ofboring and the placing of
the concrete into the pile
when placing concrete by tremie in 'wet' conditions,
(a) defects caused by intermixing between water in the pile and the
initial batch of concrete, if a separating device is not used
(b) contamination and segregation ifthe tremie pipe is inadvertently
brought above the rising concrete surface
undersupply of concrete to the pile. Couldery and Fleming (1987) reported
the formation of discontinuities to continuous flight auger piles, attributed
to undersupply of concrete to parts ofthe pile shafts, resulting in a loss of
CIRIAReportl44 329
section or spoil-contaminated concrete from the auger being allowed to
flow back into the pile
contamination of concrete by spoil. Debris within pile shaft concrete from
minor or partial collapse or spalling of sides of bore or from the ground
surface during concreting, because no temporary casing used or top of
temporary casing not above ground level.
6. Groundwater
failure to maintain a positive hydraulic head within the pile bore to prevent
inward flow of groundwater around the base of temporary casings during
extraction.
-. After casting
lateral movements or squeezing of the upper sections of freshly formed
piles in soft ground, because ofthe movements of heavy construction plant
such as the piling rigs.
REFERENCESCITED IN APPENDIXA
CIRIAReportl44 331
Appendix B: Suggested classification of
construction features and
defects in piles
332 CIRIAReportl44
C-)
Table B1 Suggested classification of constructionfeatures and defects in piles
(ii) S
Slumprng/waisting in water-bearing
cohcson(esssoils
(b) Concrete too low a slump or (5) Waisting/separation of concrete
concrete starting to set column as casing is withdrawn
(c) Liner tube withdrawn above upper (c) Wateror slurry entering pile possible
surface of rising concrete
Topping up pile shaft concrete after (a) Partial collapse of pile bore on top (a) (i) Debris within pile shaft (inclusions)
extraction of temporary casing of concrete surface
or (ii) Loss of pile section
(b) S
Toppingup pile after pile concrete (5) Cold joint formed at interface
has gained initial set
Bored cast-in-place Use of bentonite or other drilling muds (a) Looseningof base during bottom (a) Poortoetopile
piles cleaning
(b) Inadequate bottom cleaning (b) Contaminated concrete at toe of pile S
(c) Local collapse of pile bore due to (c) Loss of pile section .
piston effects of drilling tools
Cd) Contamination of upper surface of (d) Contaminated concrete
Ca) concrete with debrisand slurry
Ca)
Ca)
Table B.1 Suggested classification of construction features and defects in piles
Driven or bored Placing/using pile reinlbrccment cage (a) Close spacing of reinforcing bars Concrete not able to flow throogh reinforcingcage
cast-in-place towardspile wall
(h) Fragile pile cage Pile cage damaged by drag and slump forces of Ibid
concrete
(c) Lack of cover Exposed reinforcement in sides of pile
Driven or bored ('oncreting pile (a) Poor mix design or enors in (a)
cast-in-place mixing:
0) Mix too dry: low slump (i) Pile concrete not completely filling pilc: S
non-flowing or
poorly voids/honey combing
self-compacting
(ii) Mix too wet (ii) (a) High bleed S
(h) Low strength
S
> Bored east-in-place Concreting pile with no surface Debris falling into pile concrete from (i) Debris within pile shaft (inclusions)
CD protection around top of hole ground surface
'0 (no temporary top liner)
0
(ii) Debris at pile toe
-s
-A.
-A.
C-)
(d) Squeezing of freshly cast piles (d) Loss of or changes m cross section
Jointing of piles (precast or preformed) (a) Out of square joints on precast (a) Crackingor fractureof piles .
segmental piles - causing high
lateral soil forces during driving
(b) Defects duringjointingof steel (b) Crackingat welds under driving stresses
piles
Pile driving (precastor preformed) (a) High driving stresses (a) (i) Crackingof pile
(ii) Uplift due to soil heave or (ii) Piles lifted off toe seating
swelling
Tension fractures within piles .
Ca)
CA)
th
3TS
C*)
a)
(h) Groundwater movements (h) (i) Flow of groundwater past (h) (i) Wash-out of cement and fines '
freshly concreted piles
-- S
(IL) Deep pile cut-oils below (ii) Wash-out of cement and tines
the watertable
plant
-
(ii) Near-surface soil (ii) Squeezing ofpile shaft ifconcrete is
movements due to the still fluid
-
(iii) Poor methods of breaking (iii) Damages to upper section of pile
down pites
Piles constructed to -- --
(iv) (iv) Reduced load capacity of pile
wrong length
-
(v) Poor connection into sub- (v) Apparent high settlementsof uper-
structure structure
Formation --- S -- -
(d) Material-related features (d) High thermal gradients within the (d) of shrinkage cracks
pile concrete
CIRIA
Core Programme Members
June 1997