Steel Manufacture, Structure, Heat Treatment Manufacture of Steel ‘All ferrous metals are made from pig iron. This is produced in a blast furnace, typically 30m high by 9m diameter, by heating a mixture of iron ore, coke, limestone and other materials designed to separate iron from the earthy material as heating proceeds. A blast of hot air injected in the base of the furnace reacts with the coke to melt the iron, Some of the carbon in the coke combines with oxygen in the iron and is given off as gas and some of it combines with the molten pig iron, which is thereby deoxidised and acquires a high carbon, some to 3 to 4%, (See Figure 1). In making steel the carbon, silicon, phosphorus and other elements in pig iron are reduced in quantity by oxidisation. The main processes are: 1, Converter Processes In 1856 Henry Bessemer devised a converter which provided the first method of making steel ‘on a large scale and steel then became more economical and more reliable for structural members than wrought iron. Converters (not to be confused with fumaces) oxidise the high carbon, manganese silicon and phosphorus content of molten pig iron by blowing air, or more recently oxygen, into the melt. In about 20 minutes phosphorus, the last undesirable element, reaches an acceptable level, A controlled amount of carbon is added back to the melt and residual oxides and gases are removed by the addition of ferro-manganese. 2. _B: Oxygen Process process is the more common now. Impurities are removed from the hot metal by directing a jet of pure oxygen on to the surface of the hot metal and quicklime and dolomite are added. The carbon combines with this to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and the other impurities form waste products which float as slag. The purified metal is analysed and after the slag is removed additions are made to make steel of the required specification - (See Figure 2). 3. Open Hearth Furnace . The open hearth process is responsible for a very small part of steel output. Gas and preheated air, now usually together with oxygen and oil, are used to heat a charge of pig iron and sometimes iron ore and lime with up to 50% of steel scrap. Some carbon and most of the silicon are oxidised by the flame, and the remaining impurities are removed by the addition of iron ore, mill scale (the oxidised skin of a steel ingot) and lime. (See Figure 3). 4, Electric Furnaces Electric are and high frequency induction furnaces are used to produce alloy steels from molten steel and selected scrap. Shorter refining periods are possible by injecting oxygen. ‘The high temperatures attainable allow both the melting of alloy additions and the removal of impurities. (See Figure 4).a earn Seantneg eect Fig. 1: Blast furnace for the manufacturing of steelFUME COLLECTING ‘000 TaP WATER COLE. ‘Oxy6ew LANES REFRACTORY LING (METAL STEEL SMELL Fig. 2: Basic oxygen furnace aA ‘OoR TAP METAL Fig. 3: Open hearth furnace Ponen Gere CARBON ELECT ROCES Swive. Rook— ReFeicrory Linu took TAP mem Fig. 4: Electric are furnaceStructure of Steel The prop: of steel depend on the content of carbon in the iron and also on the cooling conditions through which the material passed. ‘The figure below is the equilibrium diagram for iron-carbon up to about 2% carbon content which is the range for plain carbon steels. In the region 2.5 to 4.5% carbon lie the cast irons. 1 (Auttanitel ooze O-8aKC 1 4 ' 1 1 1 ooborn™™ % Careon——— Fig. 5: The relevant portion of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram for slowly cooled (normalised) steels Iron exists in two crystalline forms, the high temperature variety being austenite which can dissolve about 2% carbon. Ferrite is the low-temperature form which can only dissolve 0.2% carbon at 723°C. Carbon therefore appears in steel in a form known as iron carhide or cementite. This is very hard and contributes to the strength as ferrite is too ductile for structural use. The triple point lies at 723°C and 0.83% carbon where the austenite breaks down to pearlite, which consists of ferrite and cementite. Below 0.83% carbon the ferrite and pearlite produce steels suitable for structural use, Above this point. the steel can be used for structural purposes, but is used primarily for tool steel. springs and rails where the ability to keep an edge and resist wear is important.‘The sub-division of plain carbon steels are: Low eels (up to 0. Soft and suitable for wire and thin sheet for tin plate. b)_Mild steels (0.15 to 0,25% carbon) Strong, ductile and suitable for rollin into sections, strip and sheet but not usually for casting. They are easily worked and welded. ‘The group includes normal and high streagth low alloy weldable structural steels. ©) Medium cat 0.20 to 0.50! are suitable for forging and for general engineermg purposes. )_High carbon steels (0.50 to 1.50% carbon) Tensile strength increases to about ‘900N/mm? as the carbon content increases to about 1% and this strength can be further increased by heat treatment. Hardness increases up to about 1.5% carbon content, but ductility decreases and high carbon steels are too brittle for structural work. They are also difficult to weld. High carbon steels can be hardened for use as files and cutting tools and they can be treated to the springy condition without loss of hardness. Like high carbon iron, high carbon steels are suitable for casting, e.g. heavy machine. 200 020 0.2 0.26, 0.6 Corben Fig. 6: Strengths and carbon contents of normalized steels specified in BS 4360High ota ure nigh sirengin steel 85 4360 grade 55 steel BS . "BS 4360 grode 50 steel 78S 4360 grade 43 steel SL igh tensile bross eer ‘orance STRESS, N/mm* STRAIN, PER CENT Fig. 7: Stress-strain curves for ferrous and non-ferrous metals WROUGHT IRON 0-027 om kaw carbon 015% Wain OS OEEE gy woweator TA Median varven en igh carder 05-69% cist oF CT fw set tant guerre Met T | vo! rewsu seien—\— Hat o oF To 7 “iT 40 carbene sng secon se ond tty, === et ae rl cs es Sergent Fig. 8: Influence of carbon on properties of the main ferrous metalsfoce Tamale sera sone Zoe Viele point} —a lergaon ‘ Fig, 9: Force-elongation curve for low-carbon steel rr Fig. 10: Typical stress-strain curve Proof | sirass| STRESS STRAIN Specitieg stain Bie ee ‘of original gauge length Fig. 11: Proof stressHeat Treatment of Stee The mechanical properties of steel can be modified by subjecting them to one or more temperature cycles which alter the grain structure. As the carbon content of steels increases, they become more amenable to heat treatment and a wider range of properties can be obtained, Common forms of heat treatment are: This entails heating the steel to between 760° and 815°C and maintaining it at this temperature for several hours, depending on the thickness. It is then allowed to cool slowly in the furnace. A more refined ferrite/pearlite structure appears. producing a softer more ductile metal which can be drawn into wires and machined more easily. Ni ‘The steel is heated to the same temperature as for annealing when it is then removed from the oven and allowed to cool in air at normal room temperature. It is a milder form of annealing and the resulting product is not quite so hard or ductile as fully annealed steel. The process removes internal stresses set up by welding or forging. Structural steels which are hot rolled ‘are not heat treated as such, but if the temperature of the steel is about T, when the rolling process is completed. the cooling in air produces a steel very similar to one which has been hheat treated. 9) Hardening From the above, it is apparent that hardness depends, to a certain extent, on the rate of cooling (the quicker this is, the harder the steel). Steel is hardened by first heating it to just above 720°C and cooling it rapidly by plunging it quickly into water, brine or oil (quenching process), Increased hardness is thus accompanied by brittleness and loss of ductility of the metal in which quenching stresses are also present. The rapid cooling prevents the formation of pearlte, but the austenite is still unstable and forms a very brittle compound known as martensite. d) Tempering This consists of reheating the hardened steel (before it has finally cooled) to temperatures in the region 150° to 482°C (depending on its composition) and allowing it to cool once more. ‘This has the effect of allowing some of the carbon to re-form as cementite, causing only a slight loss in hardness and greatly increasing toughness.CARBON STEEL AS MANUFACTURED Heat to ‘red-heor” ature varies with carbon content) Retain at'red-heot” temperature (‘soaking’) Quench in water, brine or oil HAROENED NORMALIZED FULLY ANNEALED Slightly harder Condition [ ward and aad Stronger then Sott tully annealed steel Reheat at tower temperature Processes relieve Stresses caused by cold working Cool in air TEMPERED Tough ond elastic. Condition Some toss of hardness and strength Process relieves Stresses induced oy quenching Fig. 12: Steels-heat treatment