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TECHNICAL MANUAL
WELDING
REPRODUCTION AUTHORIZATION/RESTRICTIONS
This manual has been prepared by or for the Government and is public prop-
erty and not subject to copyright.
Reprints or republications of this manual should include a credit substantially
as follows: Department of the Army Technical Manual TM 5-805-7, Welding:
Design, Procedures and Inspection.
TM 5-805-7
Paragraph Page
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Paragraph Page
.
Chapter 6. WELDING ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Chapter 9. SAFETY
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
}H 9-1
9-2
Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . }H 9-1
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3-1. Schematic drawing of SMAW equipment. 3-1
3-2. Schematic drawing of the SMAW process. 3-2
3-3. Travel speed limits for current levels used for l/8-inch-diameter E601O SMAW electrode. 3-3
3-4. Travel speed limits for current levels used for l/8-inch-diameter E6011 SMAW electrode. 3-4
3-5. Travel speed limits for current levels for l/8-inch-diameter E6013 SMAW electrode. 3-5
3-6. Travel speed limits for current levels used for l/8-inch-diameter E7018 SMAW electrode. 3-6
3-7. Travel speed limits for current levels used for l/8-inch-diameter E7024 SMAW electrode. 3-7
3-8. Travel speed limits for current levels used for 5/32-inch-diameter E8018 SMAW electrode. 3-8
3-9. Travel speed limits for current levels used for l/8-inch-diameter El 1018 SMAW electrode. 3-9
3-10. Three types of free-flight metal transfer in a welding arc. 3-10
3-11. The GMAW processes. 3-11
3-12. Voltage versus current for E70S-2 l/16-inch-diameter electrode and shield gas of argon with 2 percent oxygen 3-13
addition.
3-13. Voltage versus current for E70S-2 l/16-inch-diameter electrode and carbon dioxide shield gas. 3-14
3-14. Voltage versus current for E70S-3 l/16-inch-diameter electrode and shield gas of argon with 2 percent oxygen 3-15
addition.
3-15. Voltage versus current for E70S-3 l/16-inch-diameter electrode and carbon dioxide shield gas. 3-16
3-16. Voltage versus current for E70S-4 l/16-inch-diameter electrode and carbon dioxide shield gas. 3-17
ii
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3-17. Voltage versus current for E70S-6 1/16-inch-diameter electrode and carbon dioxide shield gas. 3-18
3-18. Voltage versus current for E110S 1/16-inch-diameter electrode and shield gas of argon with 2 percent oxygen 3-19
addition.
3-19. The output current wave form of the pulsed-current power supply. 3-20
3-20. Steps in short-circuiting metal transfer. 3-21
3-21. Cross sections of flux-cored wires. 3-22
3-22. The CTAW process. 3-24
3-23. The SAW process. 3-25
3-24. Automatic SAW equipment and controls for automatic welding in the flat position. 3-26
3-25. Thermit welding crucible and mold. 3-27
3-26. Steps in stud welding operation. 3-28
3-27. Stud welding equipment. 3-29
4-1. Schaefflers diagram for the microstructure of stainless steel welds. 4-3
8-1. Gages for measuring fillet weld contour. 8-3
8-2. Weld nomenclature. 8-4
8-3. Disruption of magnetic field by weld-metal defect. 8-5
8-4. Magnetic field created around a weld as current is passed between two test prods. 8-7
8-5. Major steps of fluorescent penetrant inspection. 8-8
8-6. Radiographic setup. 8-10
8-7. Details of penetrameters. 8-11
8-8. A scan presentation on cathode ray tube. 8-14
8-9. Straight beam inspection techniques used in scanning a tee weld. 8-15
8-10. Scanning procedure using angle beam and straight beam on a corner weld. 8-16
8-11. Several uses of the IIW block. 8-17
8-12. Scanning procedures for welds not ground flush. 8-18
8-13. Scanning procedures for welds ground flush. 8-18
8-14. Tensile test specimens. 8-20
8-15. Guided bend test jig. 8-21
8-16. Free bend test. 8-22
8-17. Transverse fillet-weld shear specimen. 8-23
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3-1. Established voltage limits. 3-12
3-2. Summary of welding processes and application. 3-31
4-1. Austenitic stainless steels most commonly used for cryogenic and vacuum environment equipment. 4-8
8-1. Uses of various inspection techniques. 8-2
8-2 v Characteristics of radioisotope sources. 8-9
8-3. Comparison of ultrasonics with other techniques. 8-13
8-4. Frequency-application chart. 8-14
TM 5-805-7
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose and scope (2) Structural carbon steel welded to high-
This manual contains criteria and basic data for strength, low-alloy steel.
welded construction design, construction methods, (3) High-strength, low-alloy steel welded to
and inspection procedures for Army construction. high-strength, low-alloy steel.
This manual covers only the following welding pro- (4) Carbon or high-strength, low-alloy steels for
cesses and materials commonly used for field con- all types of piping systems.
struction projects: shielded metal-arc, gas metal-arc, (5) Concrete reinforcing steel.
gas tungsten-arc, flux-cored arc, submerged arc, (6) Rails.
exothermic, and arc stud welding processes. Discus- (7) Steel castings, e i t h e r c a r b o n o r h i g h -
sions of physics, chemistry, and metallurgy are lim- strength, low-alloy.
ited to areas helpful in selecting welding processes, b. Stainless steels.
materials, and inspection procedures for the applica- (1) Cryogenic vessels and piping materials used
tions listed in paragraph 1-3. For supplemental for storage and transport of extremely low-tempera-
information, see the American Welding Society ture liquids.
(AWS) Welding Handbook (available in five sections) (2) Vacuum chambers.
and TM 9-237. Appendix A lists other works, codes, (3) All other uses.
and specifications which are referenced in this man- c. Nickel steels and nickel alloys for cryogenic
ual; designers should note that there are differences vessels and piping systems.
among the documents requirements. Therefore, d. Aluminum alloys for cryogenic vessels, piping
when this material is used, the editions which apply systems, and other uses.
to a given design must be specified. e. Carbon and high-strength, low-alloy steels
welded to stainless steels. An example of this use is
1-2. Welding applications when steel supports or stiffeners are attached to
This manual discusses the following materials. stainless steel vessels.
a. Steel.
(1) Structural carbon steel welded to structural
carbon steel.
1-1
I
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CHAPTER 2
DESIGN AND INSPECTION RESPONSIBILITIES
2-1
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steel framing, for example, testing would be done altering the joint design (increasing the root face or
mainly at the highly stressed joints. In a critical pip- decreasing the root opening) or by using consuma-
ing system, however, either all joints would be ble insert rings.
nondestructively tested or a uniformly applied ran- (4) If the joint is welded from both sides, the
dom test procedure would be used. reverse side of the root pass (the side opposite that
(5) Determine the extent of random testing in on which the weld was deposited) should be
piping, tanks, and other elements that have uniform chipped, ground, or gouged out to sound metal
joints and design levels. This number can be before any welding is done from the second side.
expressed as a percentage of all welds in the system, This operation will prevent lack of fusion at the root
coupled with a finite test increment. However, the of the joint. The reverse side of single V weld
extent of random testing in large steel structures joints may also be ground out and rewelded to
with a variety of welds and widely varying design improve the contour. Complete penetration groove
stresses should not be expressed this way. The welds must be welded from both sides unless a
designer is responsible for specifying the appropri- proper backup plate is used.
ate tests for critical and noncritical welds. To insure h. The designer must decide which welds are to
clarity in bidding and inspection documents, the be peened and which are not and indicate them on
location, numbers, and minimum increment lengths the drawings. Peening is the mechanical working of
of the random tests should be clearly outlined. metals by hammer blows. This technique is useful
f. The designer must indicate in the specification for reducing distortion and residual stresses caused
what to do when welds fail to meet acceptance by shrinkage of the weld metal as it cools. However,
requirements. the technique can be harmful if extreme care is not
g. The designer must design the weld so that the used. Since it can cause cracking, overlapping, or
operator can reach the weld joint easily. If the joint other defects, peening is not permitted on surface
is located so that the welder cannot observe the passes of the weld joints. Intermediate passes may
welding operation easily or position the welding gun be peened only with the contracting officers per-
or electrode properly, a poor weld may result. In mission. Peening of stainless steel welds is not per-
such cases, it may be hard or impossible to repair mitted because it causes hardening of the weld
any weld defects. metal. Care should be taken to prevent peening
(1) The dimensions and shape of the joint sur- when slag is removed from the surface pass with
faces should allow the weld metal to penetrate the chipping hammers.
joint fully. If pieces of different thicknesses are to be i. The designer must determine if the shape of the
joined, the edge of the thicker piece should be weld surface and its height above the base metal
tapered to the thickness of the thinner piece. The (reinforcement) are important and indicate the
tapered transitions must conform to the require- shape on the drawings. An abrupt change in contour
ments of the following publications, as applicable: between the weld surface and the base metal may
AWS D1.1; the American Society of Mechanical result in stress concentrations high enough to cause
Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, failure under service loadings. Therefore, the weld
Section III or Section VIII; or the American National surface should blend smoothly into the surface of
Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard B 31.1. the base metal. If necessary, the edges of the weld
(2) Good joint design practices for vessels are should be ground to achieve a smooth blend of
shown in section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pres- surfaces.
sure Vessel Code; for piping in appendix D of ANSI (1) Undercut at the edge of the weld can be
B31.1; and for structural work in the American Insti- repaired by grinding if the depth of undercut does
tute of Stee] Constructions (AISC) Manual of Steel not exceed 1/1 6 inch. If undercut is deeper than
Construction and AWS Dl.1. 1/16 inch, it should be repaired by adding weld
(3) In some welding operations, some type of metal to this area and then grinding the surface to a
weld joint backing is used to support the molten smooth, even contour.
weld metal and prevent excessive penetration. Back- (2) Grinding also should be used to remove
ing strips, when used, must be of material similar to overlap at the weld edges and any abrupt ridges or
the base metals which are penetrated by the weld valleys in the weld surface.
metal. Nonconsumable backing rings in piping sys- (3) The maximum amount of weld reinforce-
tems should not be permitted unless absolutely nec- ment should be between 1/32 and 1/8 inch.
essary. Instead, penetration can be controlled by
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TM 5-805-7
2-2. Contractor responsibilities much moisture from the atmosphere, they no longer
. a. The contractor must develop a qualified weld- function as low-hydrogen electrodes. The rate of
ing procedure, provide qualified welders and weld- moisture absorption depends on the coating compo-
ing operators, and produce satisfactory weldment. sition and the relative humidity.
(1) The construction drawings and specifica- (b) The electrode manufacturer should be
tions ordinarily indicate the location of the weld asked for recommendations about bake time, hold-
joints and the type of joint required, but the con- i n g o v e n t e m p e r a t u r e , and maximum allowable
tractor must handle the details of producing the exposure time for the particular electrode type,
weld for example, the equipment used, number quality of weld required, and relative humidity. If
of passes, choice of electrode, and welding process. this information is unavailable, a general rule is to
Therefore, the contractor must understand the limit atmospheric exposure to 4 hours for electrodes
objective of the plans and, if necessary, seek guid- removed from the bake oven, from holding ovens, or
ance from the contracting officer and the welding from hermetically sealed metal containers. In criti-
engineer or metallurgist assigned to the project. cal welding applications or when the relative humid-
Those concerned should meet to discuss the status of ity is 75 percent or higher, the exposure time may
the welding program as work progresses. have to be reduced to as little as 1/2 hour. Elec-
(2) All welding procedures used for any, of the trodes which have been wet must not be used.
applications covered by this manual and all welders c. The contractor must ensure tack welding and
and welding operators assigned to these construc- jigging is done properly. Parts to be welded must be
tion operations must be qualified before production held in position before, during, and after welding to
welding is begun. The contractor must conduct all keep them correctly aligned and to minimize distor-
qualification, testing and maintain records showing tion caused by shrinkage of the weld metal as it
the testing procedures used and the results of these cools. To do this, tack welding is frequently used
tests. These records must always be available to the either alone or as a supplement to various jigs, fix-
inspector and the contracting officer or his tures, and clamps. Tack welds, which are subject to
representative. cracking if they are too small, can be a source of
b. The contractor must make sure the welding defects when subsequent welds are made. There-
equiprnent is serviced and maintained properly to fore, tack welds should always be inspected and, if
produce the required current output, voltage con- cracked, ground out before subsequent welding.
trol, and filler wire feed rate for automatic and semi- Sound tack welds should be ground to a smooth con-
automatic processes. Storage and handling of flux tour that blends evenly into the base metal. This will
and coated electrodes must also be done properly. ease complete melting of the tack weld into the sub-
(1) Flux must be kept free of dirt, mill scale, and sequent weld. Before welding is begun, the pieces
other foreign material. Flux fused during previous should be aligned so that afterward the abutting
welding operations should not be reused. If there is edges of the parts are within the offset tolerances
no moisture in the flux or on the work during weld- specified in the contract.
ing, the quality of submerged-arc weld metal is com- d. The contractor must take precautions against
parable to that obtained with low-hydrogen adverse weather conditions.
electrodes. Packaged flux must be stored in a warm, (1) Welding should not be done if the surfaces
dry room. Loose flux stored in open containers are wet or covered with snow, ice, or frost. Local
should be subject to the same drying conditions as preheating of the joint area can be used to dry the
low-hydrogen electrodes. joint surfaces. If rain or snow is falling, the joint will
(2) Excessive moisture in the electrode coatings have to be sheltered so that the area will stay dry
releases hydrogen during welding, and therefore during welding.
adversely affects the quality of the weld. Since this (2) Welding will not be done in windy or drafty
moisture may be absorbed from the atmosphere, locations unless curtains or protective screens are
packaged electrodes should be stored in a dry, warm used. Most arc welding processes incorporate a
room, and loose electrodes should be stored in dry- shield of gas or vaporized electrode coating to pro-
ing bins or a holding oven kept at the manufacturers tect the arc and molten weld metal from the air. If
recommended temperature. the welding is done in a windy or drafty location,
(a) With low-hydrogen electrodes, the coat- this shield can be blown away, and an unsatisfactory
ings have few hydrogen-producing constituents. weld will result.
Special care is taken in manufacturing and packaging (3) Welding should not be done if the tempera-
these electrodes to maintain a low content of free ture at the weld site is below 00 F. If the tempera-
and combined moisture. If these electrodes absorb ture is between O and 32F, the joint area should be
2-3
TM 5-805-7
o
preheated to 70 F or higher for welding and kept at apply a mark that will remain legible for the life of
this temperature throughout the welding operation. the structure.
preheating of structural steel must conform to AWS g. The contractor must set up procedures for
D1.1. preheating, postheating, and stress relieving. The
e. The contractor must insure proper repair weld- conditions to which a weldment will be exposed dur-
ing. Defective welds must be repaired by removing ing service operations determine the thermal treat-
the defects from the weld joint and rewelding the ment necessary. For a broad coverage of thermal
joints. Defects may be removed mechanically by treatment, see the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume
grinding, chipping, or machining, or by arc or flame 1, Fundamentals of Welding. Since preheating
g o u g i n g . A combination of methods is often and post-weld heat treatment affect the physical
required. For example, if the defects are removed properties of the weld, the procedures must be set
by flame or arc gouging, the cut surface may need to up in detail by the contractor or fabricator and
be cleaned mechanically and smoothed before the included in the welding procedure qualification.
repair weld is made. (1) Preheating is the application of heat to a
(1) Flame- or arc-cut surfaces of stainless steel base metal before welding or cutting. Preheating
and nickel steel have a heavy scale or oxide coating may be used during welding to help complete the
that must be removed before welding to keep it welded joint. The need for and temperature of
from affecting the quality of the repair weld. Also, preheating depend on several factors, such as the
heat from the gouging operation can affect strength chemical analysis of the material, degree of restraint
by causing metallurgical changes in the weld metal of the parts being joined, physical properties at ele-
adjacent to the cut surfaces. Therefore, an addi- vated temperatures, material thickness, and ambient
tional 1/8 inch of metal should be mechanically temperature.
removed from these cut surfaces. (a) Preheating may be required or recom-
(2) Defects in aluminum alloys must be removed mended for welding performed under codes or spec-
only by mechanical means. ifications such as those of AWS, ASME, or the
(3) Extra care must be used when removing American Petroleum Institute (API). However,
cracks from welds. Nondestructive inspection may preheating does not necessarily assure satisfactory
not indicate the true length of the crack, which may completion of the welded joint, and requirements
be too narrow to be detected with the test method must be suited to the individual materials and
being used. So, one should remove not only the weld applications.
metal in the crack, but also some sound metal at (b) Preheating may vary from a temperature
each end of the crack. The amount removed should which is warm to the touch of the hand when weld-
be twice the base metal thickness or 2 inches, ing outdoors in winter, to as high as 6000 F when
whichever is less at each end of the crack. After the welding highly hardenable steels. When the ambient
metal is taken out and before repairs, welds should temperature is less than 32 F, local preheat of the
be inspected again to insure that the full length of weld joint area to 700 F is recommended.
the crack has been removed. (2) Post-weld heat treatment (or postheating) is
(4) Repair welding must be done by a qualified a general term covering treatments done after weld-
welder using only qualified welding procedures. ing to restore the properties of the base metal and to
The repair work might be easier with a smaller produce the desired microstructure in the base and
diameter electrode or filler wire than was used to filler metals. Post-weld heat treatment may require
make the original weld. normalizing, full annealing, quenching and temper-
f. On critical welds or when requested by inspec- ing, or solution and precipitation treatments.
tors or the contracting officer, the contractor must (3) Stress relief heat treatment is the uniform
have a welder or welding operator apply a predeter- heating of a structure (or part of it) to a temperature
mined identification mark to the completed weld below the critical range, but high enough to relieve
joint. This mark is normally made on the base metal most of the residual stresses; this is followed by uni-
next to the weld metal. Materials may be marked by form cooling. Stress relieving should not be con-
any method acceptable to the inspector as long as it fused with other post-weld heat treatment
does not cause notches or sharp discontinuities that processes, which may or may not prevent the need
could fail under service loading. The identifying for stress relieving, depending on the maximum
mark must remain legible until acceptance of the temperature attained in the post-weld heat treat-
weld metals or the structure in which the weld is ment and the rate of cooling from this temperature.
contained. When requested, the welder should
2-4
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2-5
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CHAPTER 3
WELDING PROCESSES
3-1
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3-2
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3-3
3-4
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24
3-6
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28
-
26
24
22
20
3-7
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3-8
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struck against the base metal and withdrawn to cre- (DC). The covering also contains slag-forming mate-
ate a gap. The molten portion of the electrode fuses rials that mix with the molten weld metal and pick
into the molten pool of the base metal, producing up impurities from the weld metal. This cleaning
the weld (fig 3-2). Since SMAW is a manual process, action improves the quality of the weld. Most of the
the operator is primarily responsible for quality of electrode coating does not become vaporized but
the weld. Most of the melted electrode metal is instead is melted by the arc heat and forms a molten
transferred to the work piece; the rest is thrown free slag cover over the top of the weld bead. This mol-
of the weld as spatter or is vaporized. Of that ten slag cover helps to control the shape of the weld
vaporized, some escapes into the surrounding air, bead. It also helps to hold the molten weld metal in
becomes oxidized, and appears as smoke or fumes. place during out-of-position welding (i.e., welding in
The electrode used for SMAW has a special covering the overhead, vertical, or horizontal positions).
which serves several purposes. Part of the covering Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the numbering system,
contains gas-producing compounds that, when color coding, flux composition, and other data con-
heated, produce a gaseous envelope around the arc cerning welding electrodes. In shielded metal-arc
that displaces air and stabilizes the arc. The covering welding, five distinct forces are responsible for the
also protects the molten weld metal from contamina- transfer of molten filler metal and molten slag to the
tion by air. Without this stabilization, the arc would base metal.
be erratic, would often short out, and generally (1) Gravity.
. Gravity is the principal force which
would be hard to control. Different gas-producing accounts for the transfer of filler metal in flat posi-
compounds are used in the coating, depending on tion welding. In other positions, the surface tension
the type of current alternating (AC) or direct is unable to retain much molten metal and slag in the
3-9
crater. Therefore, smaller electrodes must be used direct-current, straight-polarity, mineral-coated
to avoid excessive loss of weld metal and slag. electrodes, which do not produce large volumes of
(2) Gas expansion. Gases are produced by the gas.
burning and volatilization of the electrode coating (5) Surface tension. The force which keeps the
and are expanded by the heat of the boiling elec- filler metal and slag globules in contact with molten
trode tip. The coating extending beyond the metal base or weld metal in the crater is known as surface
tip of the electrode controls the direction of the tension. It helps to retain the molten metal in hori-
rapid gas expansion and directs the molten metal zontal, vertical, and overhead welding, and to deter-
globule into the weld metal pool formed in the base mine the shape of weld contours.
metal. d. Equipment, T h e e q u i p m e n t n e e d e d f o r
(3) Electromagnetic forces. The electrode tip is shielded metal-arc welding is much less complex
an electrical conductor, as is the molten metal glob- than that needed for other arc welding processes.
ule at the tip. Therefore, the globule is affected by Manual welding equipment includes a power source
magnetic forces acting at 90 degrees to the direction (transformer, DC generator, AC generator, or DC
of the current flow. These forces produce a pinching rectifier), electrode holder, cables, connectors,
effect on the metal globules and speed up the sepa- chipping hammer, wire brush, and electrodes.
ration of the molten metal from the end of the elec- e. Welding parameters. Welding voltage, current,
trode. This is particularly helpful in transferring and travel speed are very important to the quality of
metal in horizontal, vertical, and overhead position the deposited SMAW bead. Table 3-1 shows voltage
welding. limits for some SMAW electrodes. The current limits
(4) Electrical forces. The force produced by the are shown in the appendix to AWS A5.1. Figures 3-3
voltage across the arc pulls the small, pinched-off through 3-9 show the travel speed limits for the
globule of metal, regardless of the position of weld- electrodes listed in table 3-1.
ing. This force is especially helpful when one uses
3-10
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3-11
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3-12
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3-14
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3-15
3-16
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3-17
3-18
manual and automatic welding guns are available. Electrodes designed to be used with carbon dioxide
The manual welding guns have many designs. All the shielding gas require extra deoxidizers in their for-
manual guns have a nozzle for directing the shield- mulation because in the heat of the arc, the carbon
ing gas around the arc and over the weld puddle. dioxide dissociates to carbon monoxide and oxygen,
The filler wire passes through a copper contact tube which can cause oxidation of the weld metal.
in the gun, where it picks up the welding current. (5) Welding parameters. Figures 3-12 through
Some manual welding guns contain the wire-driving 3-18 show the relationship between the voltage and
mechanism within the gun itself. other guns require current levels, and the type of transfer across the
that the wire-feeding mechanism be located at the arcs.
spool of wire, which is some distance from the gun. b. Pulsed-current GMAW process.
In this case, the wire is driven through a flexible (1) Advantages. This process is useful when low
conduit to the welding gun. Another manual gun heat input is required when one is working with
design combines feed mechanisms within the gun thin materials or doing out-of-position welding, for
and at the wire supply itself. Argon is the shielding example. In the lower heat-input range, pulsed cur-
gas used most often. Small amounts of oxygen (2 to 5 rent has the advantage of the continous projected
percent) frequently are added to the shielding gas spray-transfer process. High-quality welds can be
when steel is welded. This stabilizes the arc and produced in mild and low-alloy steels. In the weld-
promotes a better wetting action, producing a more ing of aluminum, larger diameter wires can be used;
uniform weld bead and reducing undercut. Carbon welds with less porosity are produced because there
dioxide is also used as a shielding gas because it is is less hydrogen and oxygen pickup on the wire
cheaper than argon and argon-oxygen mixtures. surface.
3-19
TM 5-805-7
(2) Disadvantages. The major disadvantage of Standard GMAW wire feeder and torches are used
this process is the complex power supply required in in this process.
addition to the GMAW wire feeder and welding c. Short-circuiting transfer GMAW welding.
torch. (1) Advantages. The short-circuiting process is
(3) Process principles. Pulsed-current GMAW is widely used for quickly welding thin materials (up to
a modification of the process used to obtain spray- 1/4 inch) in all positions; it causes little distortion
type transfer with average current levels in the glob- and few metallurgical defects. This process is used
ular-transfer range. This process provides a higher on carbon and low-alloy steels, and less often on
ratio of heat input to metal deposition rate than the stainless steel and aluminum; it is also used for out-
short-circuiting process. Pulsed-current GMAW of-position welding of thicker materials.
operates at heat inputs between those used for spray (2) Disadvantages. Generally, welds made with
transfer and short-circuiting transfer, with some the short-circuiting process are of slightly poorer
overlap in the ranges. In this process, the current is quality than those produced by the spray-transfer
pulsed back and forth between projected-transfer method. This may not cause trouble if high-quality
and gravitational-transfer ranges by electronically welds are not required.
switching the current level back and forth between (3) Process principles. The short-circuiting
them. Figure 3-19 shows the current output-wave transfer variation of the GMAW process is generally
form and metal-transfer sequence. Pulsed-current similar to spray-transfer welding. The main differ-
welding is also known by the trade name pulsed- ence is the way the molten metal is transferred from
arc. the end of the electrode wire to the weld puddle. In
(4) Equipment. The power sources for pulsed spray-transfer welding, d r o p l e t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d
current combine a three-phase, full-wave trans- through the arc. With the short-circuiting process,
former-rectifier power supply, and a single-phase, metal transfer occurs during repetitive short circuits
half-wave pulse unit. These units are connected in caused when the molten metal from the electrode
parallel, but are electronically switched in operation contacts the weld puddle. The welding current is
to give the output waveform shown in figure 3-19. well below the transition level required for spray
I 2 34 5
TM 5-805-7
transfer. As the end of the filler wire melts, it forms 3-5. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
a ball (fig 3-20). This becomes larger until it touches
Flux-cored, tubular-electrode welding has evolved
the weld puddle, extinguishing the arc and creating from the GMAW process to improve arc action,
a short circuit. The arc length is deliberately kept metal transfer, weld-metal properties, and weld
short so that the metal ball touches the puddle
appearance.
before it separates from the end of the filler wire.
a. Advantages. The major advantages of flux-cored
When the short circuit occurs, the welding current
welding are reduced cost and higher deposition
increases rapidly, causing the drop of molten metal
rates than either SMAW or solid wire GMAW. The
to be pinched from the end of the filler wire. The
cost is less for flux-cored electrodes because the
arc is reinitiated and the process repeated. The alloying agents are in the flux, not in the steel filler
short-circuiting action is very rapid; as many as 200 wire as they are with solid electrodes. Flex-cored
short circuits per second may occur. This process is welding is ideal where bead appearance is important
also known as short arc, dip-transfer, or fine wire
and no machining of the weld is required. Flex-
welding,
cored welding without carbon dioxide shielding can
(4) Equipment. Short-circuiting transfer weld-
be used for most mild steel construction applica-
ing uses the same constant voltage equipment as
tions, The resulting welds have higher strength but
does spray transfer. The power source must have a less ductility than those for which carbon dioxide
device that inserts a variable but controlled amount
shielding is used. There is less porosity and greater
of inductance into the electrical circuit. This induc-
penetration of the weld with carbon dioxide shield-
tance controls the rate of current increase when the
ing, The flux-cored process has increased tolerances
short circuit occurs and permits the arc to restart for scale and dirt; there is less weld spatter than with
without weld-metal spatter.
solid-wire GMAW.
(a) Short-circuiting welding requires a smaller
b. Disadvantages. Most low-alloy or mild-steel
diameter filler wire (0.030-inch diameter, for exam-
electrodes of the flux-cored type are more sensitive
ple) than is generally used for spray-transfer
to changes in welding conditions than are SMAW
welding.
electrodes. This sensitivity, called voltage tolerance,
(b) The shielding gas used for short-circuiting
can be decreased if a shielding gas is used, or if the
welding depends on the metal being welded. Argon,
slag-forming components of the core material are
helium, or mixtures of these are used for welding
increased. A constant-potential power source and
aluminum. Carbon dioxide, a mixture of carbon
constant-speed electrode feeder are needed to main-
dioxide and argon, or argon with a small oxygen
tain a constant arc voltage.
addition is used when welding mild or low-alloy
c. Process principles. The flux-core welding wire,
steel. For stainless steel, argon with oxygen or car-
or electrode, is a hollow tube filled with a mixture of
bon dioxide additions is used.
deoxidizers, fluxing agents, metal powders, and
ferro alloys, as shown in figure 3-21. The closure
seam, which appears as a fine line, is the only visible
I 2 3 4 5 6
3-21
TM 5-805-7
difference between flux-cored wires and solid cold- a. Advantages. The GTAW process is the most
drawn wire. Flux-cored electrode welding can be popular method for welding aluminum, stainless _
done in two ways: carbon dioxide gas can be used steel, and nickel base alloys. It produces top quality
with the flux to provide additional shielding, or the welds in almost all metals and alloys used in indus-
flux core alone can provide all the shielding gas and try. The process provides more precise control of
slagging materials. The carbon dioxide gas shield the weld than any other arc welding method
produces a deeply penetrating arc and usually pro- because the arc heat and filler metal are indepen-
vides better weld than is possible without an exter- dently controlled, Visibility is excellent because no
nal gas shield. smoke or fumes are produced during welding; there
d. Equipment. The equipment and controls for the is no slag or splatter that must be cleaned between
flux-core process are similar to, and sometimes the passes or on a completed weld, GTAW is usually
same as, those used in the stray-transfer method. considered one of the most versatile processes
The unit consists of a constant-speed wire-drive sys- because it produces the highest quality welds in any
tem, water- or air-cooled welding torch, and a con- position or configuration, The final major advantage
stant-potential DC unit with a 100-percent duty is reduced distortion in the weld joint because of the
cycle. concentrated heat source. This is one of the best
precautions that can be taken to prevent weld crack-
3-6. Gas tungsten-arc (GTAW) ing or locked-up stresses.
The GTAW process uses a nonconsumable electrode b. Disadvantages. The GTAW process is expensive
and an inert shielding gas. This process is also known because the arc travel speed and weld metal deposi-
as TIG (tungsten inert gas) and by the trade name tion rates are lower than with some other methods.
Heliarc. GTAW is similar to other arc-welding In addition, it is less advantageous to use GTAW on
processes in that the heat is generated by an arc heavy, thick materials.
between a nonconsumable electrode and the work c. Process principles. In the GTAW process, the
piece, but the equipment and the electrode type tungsten alloy electrode is mounted in a special
distinguish GTAW from the other arc welding electrode holder designed to furnish a flow of inert
processes. gas around the electrode and the arc. The arc is
CROSS-SECTIONS
OF FLUX-CORED WIRES
3-22
TM 5-805-7
struck between the base metal and the electrode by speeds, and weld completion rates are better than
one of two methods. In the first, called a scratch those for other processes. There is no visible arc and
start, the operator actually touches the work piece no weld spatter, and the deep penetrating effect of
with the tungsten and withdraws slightly. The sec- concentrated heat allows narrow welding grooves.
ond method uses high-frequency discharge from the Thus, it takes less filler metal to make a joint with
electrode to the work piece to establish the arc. This SAW than with other welding processes, The
is better for welds that have to be very clean; a unfused flux can be recovered and recycled when
scratch start could leave particles of tungsten in the the welding is finished.
weld, causing brittle spots. After the arc is started, b. Disadvantages. The basic limitation of SAW is
the filler metal, if required, is fed into the weld pool that it can only be used in the flat position and for
near the arc, as shown in figure 3-22. The molten horizontal fillet welds. Welds can be made in the
weld metal, the adjacent base metal, and the elec- horizontal position, but since the granular flux
trodes are protected by a flowing gaseous envelope needed to shield the weld metal must be in place in
of inert gas: generally argon, helium, or a mixture of front of the electrode, complicated dams and sup-
the two. Most GTAW is done manually, but for pro- ports may be required to contain the flux. The
duction or assembly type welds such as long butt equipment used in this process can be hand-held,
welds, the system can be entirely automated. AC is but is usually mechanized, making it heavy and cum-
used generally for aluminum and magnesium, while bersome and thereby limiting its use to fabrication
DC straight polarity is used for all other metals. shops. The fused flux must be removed by chipping
d. Equipment. The equipment includes an electri- and wire brushing.
cal power source, electrode holder (torch), tungsten c. Process principles. SAW takes place beneath
or tungsten alloy electrodes, gas flow regulating the flux covering without sparks, spatter, smoke, or
equipment, and usually a remote rheostat for off-on flash. The electrode and weld pool are completely
switching and current control (fig 3-22). covered at all times during welding. The flux makes
(1) There are AC and DC power units with possible these special operating conditions, which
built-in high frequency generators designed specifi- distinguish SAW from other processes. When cold,
cally for GTAW. These automatically control gas the flux does not conduct electricity; therefore, the
and water flow when welding begins and ends. How- welder must establish a conductive path for starting
ever, power supplies without these controls can also the arc. This can be done by scratch starting where
be used. the electrode touches the base plate or by burying
(2) If the electrode holder (torch) is water- some steel wool in the flux at the starting point. In
cooled, a supply of cooling water is needed. Elec- the molten state, the flux becomes highly conduc-
trode holders are made so that electrodes and gas tive. Once the arc is started, the heat produced by
nozzles can be readily changed, either for different the current causes the surrounding flux to become
sizes or for replacement. molten. This forms a conductive path, which is kept
(3) Mechanized GTAW equipment may include molten by the continued flow of welding current.
electronic devices for checking and adjusting the The buried part of the flux is melted; the visible part
welding torch level, equipment for work handling, remains unchanged in both appearance and proper-
provisions for initiating the arc and controlling gas ties, and can be reused. All currents and polarities
and water flow, and filler metal feed mechanisms. are used, depending on the desired penetration and
bead shape, Reverse polarity provides the best bead
3-7. Submerged arc (SAW) shape and penetration, while straight polarity gives
In the SAW process, the arc is not visible, but is higher deposition rates but less penetration. Alter-
submerged under a layer of granulated flux (fig 3- nating current provides penetration somewhere
23). This process can be used with either a single between the two and is preferred for multi-wire
electrode wire or many. AWS D1.1 describes the welding. The fused flux is chipped off the weld and
procedure, equipment, electrodes, and flux used discarded.
with SAW. (1) The welding electrodes must be positioned
a. Advantages. SAW is an efficient process that properly. Flux is fed in front of and around the elec-
can be used on nearly all ferrous metals. Welds of trode by a hopper. The arc is struck and the elec-
very good quality are produced in a wide range of trodes moved along the weld. The operator watches
metals thicker than 1/1 6 inch. Carbon, alloy, or the ammeter and voltmeter readings to control cur-
stainless steels up to l/2-inch thick are welded in rent and voltage adjustments. A variable-speed
one pass, while thicker materials require more motor controls the electrode feed; a power-operated
passes. Weld metal deposition rates, arc travel
3-23
TM 5-805-7
3-24
carriage controls the travel rate. Unused flux is fed rapidly so that desirable microstructure form. Any-
back into the hopper. thing that delays cooling, such as preheating or high
(2) Moderately thick sections of material (up to welding heat inputs, should be avoided.
1 inch) with a carbon content up to 0.35 percent can d. Equipment. Both semi-automatic and automatic
be welded without precautions such as preheating SAW equipment is available; the type used generally
and postweld heat treatment. Preheating is gener- depends on the work to be done, and on economic
ally needed when the carbon content is over 0.35 factors. Semi-automatic equipment is better for
percent. repair welding and for welding that cannot be done
(3) Low-alloy. steels maybe welded if the weld automatically because of the geometry of the part.
area is preheated to slow the rate of cooling. This Figure 3-24 shows the equipment needed for auto-
must be done to avoid cracking in the weld and heat- matic SAW; included are a power source, wire feed-
affected zone. ing system, flux feeding system, and a welding torch.
(4) When certain quenched and tempered struc- (1) The power supply may be DC constant cur-
tural steels (ASTM A 514 and A 517) are welded, rent, DC constant voltage, or AC. The power supply
the heat input must be closely controlled to make and wire-drive mechanism must be designed to
sure strength and notch toughness are retained in operate together so that the arc length can be con-
the heat-affected zone. To keep a high level of trolled effectively. SAW generally is done at higher
strength and notch toughness, heat must dissipate currents (500 to 1000 amperes) than other types of
arc welding, so the power supply must have a high
current rating at high duty cycles.
3-25
TM 5-805-7
(2) The electrodes used with SAW are generally steel joint. The molten metal melts the surface of the
bare rods or wire in coils. The choice of electrode metal and fuses with it, forming the weld. This pro-
depends on the way the alloying elements are intro- cess, commonly referred to as thermit welding, is
duced into the weld. One method is to use mild- used for joining reinforcing rods, rails, large castings
steel electrodes with fluxes containing the alloy. or forgings, and for repairing large structural shapes.
Another method often used requires special alloy Historically, thermit welding was largely confined to
steel electrodes and neutral flux, and includes low- structures made of iron and steel. But recently, the
carbon steel, low-carbon alloy steel, special alloy substitution of a copper oxide for iron oxide has led
steels, high-carbon steels, stainless steels, and non- to many applications within the electrical industry
ferrous alloys. such as joining or repairing electrical connectors,
(3) The fluxes are granulated, fusible mineral cables, bus bars, and bus tubes. Thermit welding is
materials of various compositions and particle sizes. also used for welding pipe. In this application the
The choice of flux depends on the welding proce- t h e r m i t d o e s not mix with the pipe metal, but
dure, joint configuration, and composition of the merely furnishes the heat to melt the pipe ends,
base metal to be welded. The flux may include which are then butted together as they melt.
alloying elements. a. Advantages.
(1) The welder needs very little instruction or
3-8. Exothermic welding experience to produce good welds rapidly.
In exothermic welding, heat is generated by the (2) Large sections may be fusion welded, and
chemical reaction between a combination of alumi- large quantities of filler metal may be deposited
num and iron oxide. This mixture is placed in a hop- quickly. Thermit welding can be roughly compared
per above a mold which surrounds the joint, and is to a foundry casting operation. The one difference is
then ignited. A chemical reaction occurs, and the that the metal being poured is considerably hotter
molten metal and slag drop through the hopper. than when melted in a furnace. The completed weld
Since the molten metal is heavier than the slag, it left in the mold cools slowly, reducing residual
settles to the bottom of the mold and touches the stress.
3-26
TM 5-805-7
b. Disadvantages. Molds are needed to hold the the fuse ignites the mixture; this happens at about
molten metal around the weld joint. For one-of-a- 2000 F. The reaction is nonexplosive and takes
kind jobs, such as repairs, the molds must be con- about 30 seconds; once the mixture starts to burn, it
structed individually, and a suitable wax or plastic is self-propagating. When the reaction is complete,
form filler materials must be inserted in the gap to the molten metal has reached a temperature of
insure proper clearance between the parts. a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 5 0 0 o F, which is nearly 1 6 0 0 F
o
Preformed permanent molds are used for repetitive higher than the temperature of ordinary molten
jobs welding rails or reinforcing rods, for steel. The metal is poured into the mold to form the
example. weld (fig 3-25). The mold is allowed to remain in
c. Process principles. Thermit welding is based on position for several hours to permit solidification
the fundamental principle that aluminum is more and to anneal the weld. The deposited metal cools
chemically active than iron. The welding process uniformly and is comparatively free from stresses.
consists of mixing the iron oxide and aluminum, both The mold is then removed and the gates and risers
in powder form, and placing them in a hopper or are cut away, Excess weld can be ground or
crucible above a mold which surrounds the joint machined. Although the principal application of
area. (The joint to be welded must be cleaned, prop- thermit welding has been with the aluminum and
erly spaced, and preheated. ) An ignition powder, iron oxide mixture on steel structures, other metals
such as a mixture of barium peroxide and aluminum or their oxides may be included in the thermit mix-
powder, is placed on top of the thermit, and a fuse is ture. Chromium, nickel, manganese, tungsten, tita-
inserted into the powder. The reaction starts after nium, molybdenum, and cobalt can be used. These
3-27
TM 5-805-7
elements alloy with iron and are used when higher jointed are properly heated, they are brought
strength, ductility, or hardness is required. They together under pressure. A ceramic ferrule sur-
also permit control of the temperature and time of rounding the stud can provide partial shielding. The
the reaction. Cast iron can be welded with a special process is generally referred to as stud welding.
thermit mixture. AWS D1.1 describes stud welding procedures,
d. Equipment. Thermit welding kits are available. equipment, workmanship, quality control, and
They consist of a permanent mold, prepackaged inspection requirements.
thermit charges, consumable tapping discs, charges a. Advantages. Arc-stud welding has many advan-
of ignition powder, and fuses. An individually con- tages and uses. With this process, there is no need to
structed mold requires wax or foam filler, sand mold drill or punch holes, nor to fasten an object mechan-
(a special mixture of silica sand and plastic clay), and ically to a main structure with bolts, rivets, or
gates, risers, pouring gates, and a slag basin (fig 3- screws. Arc-stud welding is widely accepted by all
25). the metal-working industries. Since virtually every
phase of the operation is automatic, no previous
3-9. Arc-stud welding welding experience is necessary. Inexperienced
Arc-stud welding is an arc welding process in which operators can be trained quickly, and once the
an electric arc is struck between a metal stud and equipment is set for a particular job, high-quality
another piece of metal. When the surfaces to be welds are quickly and easily made. The welding gun
b. Trigger is depressed
3-28
TM 5-805-7
CONTROL
3-29
TM 5-805-7
is light and easy to handle, making the equipment (2) Low-alloy, steels may be satisfactorily stud
very portable. welded without preheating if the carbon content is
b. Disadvantages. Since this is a versatile process, held to 0.15 percent maximum. To prevent cracking
there are no real disadvantages; however, there are in the heat-affected zone, preheating is necessary
some limitations on its use. Stud welding is approved when the carbon content exceeds 0.15 percent.
for use on low-pressure heating boilers built under (3) The heat-treatable, high-strength, low-alloy
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for all structural steels require more attention since they
applications except stay bolts. This includes cover usually are hardenable enough to form martensite in
plates, clean-out or access doors, and studded open- the heat-affected zone. These steels are quite sensi-
ings for boiler-tubing water-heater coils. Stud weld- tive to underbead cracking, and the weld area is
ing is approved for use on nonpressure parts on usually low in ductility. Preheating to about 700F
power boilers and unfired vessels. is recommended when steels of this category are
c. Process principles. In the arc-stud welding pro- stud welded.
cess, the flux-coated stud is inserted into a collet or d. Equipment. The equipment for stud welding
chuck which is an integral part of the gun. A porce- consists of a DC power source; stud welding gun;
lain ferrule surrounds each stud to shield the arc, welding cables; ferrules for shielding the arc; and
hold the molten pool in place, and help form an controls, including timing devices. The equipment is
acceptable fillet shape. The flux on the end of the usually portable, but stationary equipment for large-
stud helps the operator control the arc and make scale operations is used widely.
stud welds in any position. The operator places the (1) The power source is a normal welding
gun in the proper position, and spring pressure from machine adapted for stud welding. The cables are
the gun holds the stud against the work piece. When made the same way as standard welding cables. The
the trigger is depressed, it completes an electric cir- gun is designed to assure correct alignment and hold
cuit, causing the collet to withdraw the stud from the stud. This gun has a trigger to start current flow
the work piece a preset distance, creating a gap and and a timing device that withdraws the stud at the
an electric arc. At the end of an automatically timed proper time to create the arc, moves the stud into
interval, the molten end of the stud is plunged into the molten pool, and holds it until the molten pool
the molten pool which has formed on the surface of solidifies (fig 3-27).
--
the plate. The process is similar to conventional (2) A ferrule is used with each stud. It shields
metallic-arc welding because, in effect, the stud the arc, protects the welder, and eliminates the need
s e r v e s a s a c o n s u m a b l e e l e c t r o d e w h i l e t h e c u r rfor
e n t a full face helmet. The ferrule concentrates heat
is flowing. The molten metal quickly solidifies and during welding and confines molten metal to the
the collet releases the stud (fig 3-26). The operator weld area. It helps prevent both oxidation of the
removes the gun and is ready for the next welding molten metal during the arcing cycle and charring of
operation, all within seconds. Stainless steel, magne- the work piece.
sium, and aluminum can be welded with basically (3) Studs are available in a variety of shapes,
the same equipment as that used for steel except sizes, and diameters. Some are designed for thread-
inert gas must be fed through the gun to protect the ing or riveting, others serve as nails. Studs are avail-
weld. able as straight and bent shapes, hooks, or eyebolts.
(1) In practice, the same restrictions apply both
to the metal-arc welding of carbon steels and to stud 3-10. Process selection
welding. Carbon steels with a carbon content up to Table 3-2 is a selection guide for the welding pro-
0.30 percent may be welded without preheating. cesses discussed in this chapter. This table is based
When the carbon content exceeds 0.30 percent, on the particular applications encountered in field
particularly in heavy sections, preheating is advisa- welding.
ble to prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone. In
some cases, a combination of preheating and post-
heating has proven helpful.
3-30
TM 5-805-7
Conditions
Materials
commonly
welded
3-31
TM 5-805-7
CHAPTER 4
WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL
4-1
TM 5-805-7
weld joints: ferrite content in weld metal and base the weld metal because of base metal dilution. For
metal, and grain growth in weld metal and the heat- example, if type 302 stainless steel is welded using
affected zone. The following discussion describes type 308 electrode, then the nickel equivalent for
methods of controlling these factors. Designers can the 302 stainless is 12, and the chromium equivalent
use this information to specify the proper base mate- is 18.25. When this point is plotted, it is totally in
rials, and welding procedures and materials. the austenitic region, so there will be no ferrite. The
(1) Ferrite content. type 308 electrode will have a nickel equivalent of
(a) Fully austenitic weld joints often tend to 12, and a chromium equivalent of 21, thus putting it
develop microcracks and fissures during welding. To close to the 10 percent ferrite line.
prevent this, designers should select filler metals or (d) The Schaeffler diagram can predict not
electrodes that will form an austenitic weld deposit only the amount of ferrite in the microstructure, but
containing a small percentage of ferrite. Such welds also the electrode composition that will prevent
are highly resistant to cracking. However, if the fer- excessive ferrite or martensite content in stainless
rite content becomes too high in cryogenic applica- steel weld metal. In addition, the diagram is helpful
tions, the weld metals impact strength at service in estimating the trend of the microstructure devel-
temperatures can be seriously reduced. For these oped when dissimilar steels are welded. If pieces of
applications. the ferrite content of the weld metal carbon steel and stainless steel are to be welded
should be within the range of 4 to 10 percent. together, the compositions of the two can be marked
(b) The actual ferrite content depends on the on the diagram; the tie line drawn between them
compositions of the base metal and filler metal or indicates the microstructure that may be
electrode, and the extent to which the weld metal encountered.
deposit is diluted by the welded parent metal. A (2) Grain growth. The toughness and ductility of
Schaeffler diagram (fig 4-1) can help designers esti- the heat-affected zone and the weld metal may be
mate both the percentage of ferrite in the weld reduced somewhat because of grain growth caused
deposit and the filler metal composition necessary to by the welding heat. However, unless extremely
form the required ferrite in the weld metal. This high welding heats are used or very heavy weld
diagram is used to predict the amount of ferrite in passes are deposited, the problem of decreased
stainless steel weld metal on the basis of weld metal toughness and ductility resulting from grain growth
composition. The diagram shows how the micro- is not serious. If impact testing of sample weld joints
structure of the weld deposit is affected by the alloy indicates that the notch toughness of the weld metal
elements in stainless steel that act like nickel, and or heat-affected zone has suffered, the welding pro-
those that act like chromium. The nickel equivalent cess should be modified to decrease the heat input
group
- - which is the austenite former includes nickel, to the joint and thus restrict the amount of grain
carbon, and manganese; an allowance is also made growth.
for the nitrogen content. The chromium equivalent c. Preweld and postweld heat treating. Weld
group which is the ferrite former includes chro- joints in stainless steel are neither preheated nor
mium, molybdenum, silicon, and columbium. The postheated. These techniques make the joints cool
nickel equivalent is the ordinate of the diagram, and slowly and could cause sensitization, with a resulting
the chromium is the abscissa. loss of notch toughness. However, rapid cooling
(c) To estimate the microstructure of the weld after welding prevents sensitization of the weld
metal, the designer uses the following formulas to metal and heat-affected zone. In multipass welds,
calculate the nickel and chromium equivalents: the maximum interpass temperature should be
nickel equivalent = % nickel + 30 X % 300 F. Stress relieving of austenitic stainless steel
carbon + 0.5 X % weld joints also should be avoided because it seldom
manganese works and sensitization can occur easily.
c h r o m i u m e q u i v a l e n t = 70 chromium + % d. Weld cracking.
molybdenum + 1.5 (1) Weld cracking in austenitic stainless steels
X % silicon + 0.5 can be divided into four types: crater cracks, star
X % columbium. cracks, hot cracks or microfissures, and root cracks.
The nickel and chromium equivalents are calculated All four types of cracking are believed to be mani-
for both the base and weld metal. The values festations of the same basic kind of cracking
obtained are then plotted on the Schaeffler diagram, namely hot cracking, or in its earliest stage, microfis-
and a line is drawn between the two points to indi- suring. Hot cracking presented many difficulties
cate the possible ferrite percentages that could be in some years ago, but now it can be prevented in
4-2
TM 5-805-7
weldments. Hot cracks occur intergranularly; appar- (4) Base metal heat-affected zone cracking in
ently, the segregation of low melting constituents in welded austenitic stainless steels can be a problem
the grain boundaries induces fissuring susceptibility. in heavier sections (more than 1-inch thick). Such
(a) The formation of microfissures seems to cracking can have two causes. One is an intergranu-
depend on five factors: the microstructure of the lar form of hot shortness in a heat-affected zone
weld metal; the composition of the weld metal, par- during welding. The weld metal cracks because of
ticularly the level of residual elements; the amount grain boundary liquation or embrittlement at or near
of stress imposed on the weld as it cools through the welding temperatures. The other cause for cracking
high temperature range; the ductility of the weld is a complex phenomenon involving strain-induced
metal at high temperatures; and the presence of precipitation in the heat-affected zone during post-
notches that form incipient cracks at the edge of the weld heat treatments or service at high tempera-
o
weld. tures (above 450 F ) . A c h a n g e i n m e c h a n i c a l
(b) For many years,
. it was believed that properties thus results in stress-rupture failure
microfissures only developed in the as-deposited under certain conditions. In this form of failure, the
weld metal shortly after solidification. However, key to the problem is the precipitation of colum-
more recent work has clearly shown that microfis- bium carbides in the stressed heat-affected zones. As
sures can occur in the heat-affected zones of previ- little as 0.1 percent columbium as a residual element
ously deposited sound weld beads. can produce strain-induced precipitation and cause
(2) The microstructure of the weld metal welded heavy sections to fail by cracking during ser-
strongly affects microfissuring susceptibility. Weld vice at high temperatures. A t i t a n i u m - s t a b i l i z e d
metal having a wholly austenitic micro-structure is a stainless steel, such as type 347, can be used to help
lot more sensitive to conditions that promote keep a nonstabilized stainless steel from cracking.
microfissuring than weld metal containing some e. Other weld defects. Defects besides cracking
delta or free ferrite in the austenitic matrix. As dis- occur in the weld metal if an incorrect weld process
cussed in a above, the chemical composition both or technique is used. These defects include porosity,
alloy content and residual element content slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, inadequate joint
strongly influences rnicrofissuring susceptibility of penetration, and undercutting.
the wholly austenitic stainless steel weld metals. (1) Porosity is a cavity-type discontinuity
Microfissuring is reduced by a small increase in car- formed by gas entrapped during solidification. The
bon content, a substantial increase in manganese, or gases that form porosity are either driven from solu-
an increase in the nitrogen content. The residual tion in the weld metal because of low volubility at
elements that influence cracking most often are lower temperatures, or are produced by chemical
boron, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, silicon, colum- reactions in the molten weld pool. These gases are
bium, and tantalum. trapped in the weld metal because solidification
(3) In welding austenitic stainless steels, two dif- occurs before the gases have time to rise to the sur-
ferent practices are now used, depending on the face of the pool. Porosity will form less often if very
microstructure expected in the weld metal. high currents or long arc lengths are avoided. The
(a) Whenever possible, ferrite-containing aus- welding contractor must make sure these variables
tenitic weld structure is used. The filler metal must are taken into account when the procedure is devel-
be selected carefully and the welding procedure oped and the welder qualification tests are con-
planned in detail to secure the small, but important, ducted. This is especially true for the SMAW
amount of delta ferrite. The Schaeffler diagram, dis- process because high currents and long arc lengths
cussed in b above, has been used frequently for consume large amounts of deoxidants in the elec-
determining whether a specified weld composition trode covering, leaving little to combine with the
will contain enough ferrite. excess gases in the weld pool. Moreover, the type
(b) When a wholly austenitic weld structure and distribution of porosity will give some indica-
must be used, welding materials containing the low- tions of its cause. The types of porosity arc classified
est possible amount of recognized crack promoters in the acceptance standards of the various codes
should be selected. In addition, the amount of alloy (ASME, API, or AWS, as applicable). Generally, the
elements known to improve crack resistance should types of porosity depend on the distance between
be increased. Even with the best materials and the individual pores or groups of pores.
most favorable welding procedure, wholly austenitic (a) Uniforrnly scattered porosity can be found
deposits are more crack sensitive than the ferrite- in many weldments and is of little concern because
containing types. Therefore, all phases of welding there is usually enough sound metal between the
and inspection need greater care. pores.
4-4
TM 5-805-7
(b) Clustered porosity is often associated with speeds, may increase the tendency to undercut. If
changes in arc conditions. For instance, areas where undercutting is a sharp recess in the joint side wall,
the arc has been started or stopped frequently con- it should be smoothed out by grinding or chipping
tain cluster porosity. before the next weld bead is placed. AWS specifica-
(c) Linear porosity is usually found in the root tions and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
pass and is considered a special case of inadequate impose limitations on undercutting.
joint penetration.
(2) Slag inclusions are oxides or nonmetallic 4-3. Joint design
solids that become trapped in solidifying metal. The Weld joints are prepared either by plasma-arc cut-
inclusions either can be completely surrounded by ting or by machining or grinding, depending on the
weld metal or can be between the weld metal and alloy. Before welding, the joint surfaces must be
the base plate. In the SMAW process, chemical reac- cleaned of all foreign material, such as paint, dirt,
tions between the weld metal and the coating mate- scale, or oxides. Cleaning may be done with suitable
rials produce a nonmetallic slag that has low solvents (e. g., acetone or alcohol) or light grinding.
volubility in the weld metal and generally will float Care should be taken to avoid nicking or gouging
to the surface. Sometimes, the slag is forced into the the joint surface since such flaws can interfere with
weld metal by the stirring action of the arc, or flows the welding operation.
ahead of the arc and is covered by the weld metal.
Proper cleaning and preparation of the weld joint or 4-4. Methods of welding stainless steels
proper manipulation of the electrode will reduce the Stainless steels are readily weldable in the field by
number of slag inclusions. The welding contractor SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, and SAW processes.
can make sure these precautions are included when GTAW can be used for field fabrication, but it is a
welding procedures are developed and welder quali- slow process. SMAW is used most often because the
fication tests are conducted. equipment is portable and easy to use. GMAW,
(3) Incomplete fusion occurs when two weld FCAW, and SAW are being used more often in the
beads, or the base metal and a weld bead, have not field because they are economical and produce high-
fused together. This is caused by failure to raise the quality welds. Manufacturers recommendations for
adjoining material to the fusion temperature or fail- welding stainless steel should be followed. These
ure to dissolve any oxides or other foreign material include recommendations on joint designs, preheat
on the surface to which the new weld bead must temperatures, any associated post-weld heat treat-
fuse. Incomplete fusion can be prevented by follow- ment, and shielding gas.
ing the approved welding procedure, which should
include cleaning of the preceding bead and contigu- 4-5. Shielded metal-arc (SMAW)
ous base metal in the weld joint. Particular care SMAW has been the preferred method of welding
should be used in welding stainless steel because the because of its versatility, simplicity of equipment,
high temperature increases the amount of chromium and wide selection of electrodes available all of
oxide formed and the steel becomes hard to weld which are important for field welding applications.
with the increased oxide layer. AWS A5.4 is the specification for stainless steel
(4) Inadequate joint penetration occurs when SMAW electrodes.
the fusion of the weld and the base metal at the root a. Electrode classification system. The SMAW
of the joint is less than specified by design. Poor electrode classification code contains an E and three
penetration affects weld joints that will be stressed numbers, followed by a dash and either a 15 or 16
in service; the root forms a notch that acts as a stress (EXXX-15), The E designates that the material is an
concentrator, which leads to early failure of the electrode, and the three digits indicate composition.
joint. Although a poorly cleaned joint may cause Sometimes there are letters following the three dig-
inadequate penetration, poor heat transfer condi- its; these letters indicate a modification of the stan-
tions in the joint are more often at fault. Heat trans- dard composition. The 15 or 16 specify the type of
fer can be increased by using wider angles for V- current with which these electrodes may be used.
grooves or a larger root opening. Both designations indicate that the electrode is usa-
(5) Undercutting refers to either a sharp recess ble in all positions: flat, horizontal, overhead, and
in the side wall of a weld joint or reduced thickness vertical.
of the base plate at the toe of the last weld bead on (1) The 15 indicates that the covering of this
high voltages, as well as low current and fast travel electrodes are usable with DC reverse-polarity only.
4-5
TM 5-805-7
(2) The designation 16 indicates electrodes that that the rod or electrode contains between 0.5 and 1
have a lime- or titania-type covering with a large percent silicon rather than the standard 0.25 to 0.60
proportion of titanium-bearing minerals. The cover- percent silicon. An L indicates that this electrode
ings of these electrodes also contain readily ionizing has a carbon content not exceeding 0.03 percent.
elements such as potassium to stabilize the arc The specifications for these electrodes are contained
for AC welding. in AWS A5.9.
b. Chemical requirements. The SMAW electrode b. Chemical requirements. The chemical require-
requirements for the nickel-chromium austenitic ments for the GMAW electrodes are in AWS A5.9.
stainless steels are included in AWS A5.4. The The proportions of elements are similar in elec-
chemical requirements are based on the as-depos- trodes and base metal with the same designation. All
ited weld metal chemistry. Chemical requirements chemical analyses are based on the as-manufactured
do not change when a 15 or 16 electrode is used. electrode wire.
c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The AWS c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The all-weld
requires the deposited weld metal to have a mini- metal tensile properties for the chromium-nickel
mum tensile strength of 60,000 to 100,000 psi, with austenitic stainless steel electrodes are presented in
minimum elongations of 20 to 35 percent. The the appendix of AWS A5.9. These mechanical
detailed requirements are in AWS A5.4. properties are the same as those required for the
d. Recommended filler metals for austenitic stain- SMAW electrodes.
less steels. The Welding Handbook, section 4, Met- d. Shielding gas. Two types of shield gas are used
als and Their Weldability, chapter 64, The 4-10 with the GMAW process: pure argon and argon plus
Percent Chromium-Molybdenum Steels and the 2 percent oxygen. The minimum thickness which
Straight Chromium Stainless Steels, has a table giv- can be welded using this process is about 1/8 to 3/16
ing a complete list of base metals by AISI number inch.
and recommended filler metals to join the base met- e. Recommended filler metals for chromium-
als. This table lists not only the chromium stainless nickel stainless steels. The austenitic stainless steels
steels, but also heat-resisting stainless steels and all are listed by AISI specification numbers in the table
the austenitic stainless steels. If the type of stainless Covered Electrodes Recommended for Welds
steel is not listed, then manufacturers recommenda- Between Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steels in the
tions should be followed. An appendix to AWS A5.4 Welding Handbook, section 4, chapter 64. If steels
describes the intended uses of the electrodes. other than those listed are used, then the manufac-
turers recommendation for weld metals and preheat
4-6. Gas metal-arc (GMAW) temperatures should be followed. An appendix to
AWS A5.9 describes the intended uses of the elec-
GMAW is being used more often for shop and field
trode types.
Applications because it offers much less downtime
for electrode changes, less loss resulting from stub
4-7, Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
ends and spatter, and minimal interpass cleaning
compared to the SMAW process. GMAW can be FCAW uses equipment similar to that of GMAW,
done in all positions by using either short-circuiting and offers the advantages of high deposition and
transfer or a pulsed voltage power supply. GMAW fluxing ingredients. This process is used primarily in
has slightly less versatility than SMAW because the the flat and horizontal positions, but can be used in
welding gun is bulkier than the electrode holder for other positions if the proper electrode diameter and
the SMAW; furthermore, the equipment is more welding currents are selected. Flux-cored, corro-
complex and expensive, and requires somewhat sion-resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel
more skill by the operator, electrodes are specified by AWS A5.22.
a. Electrode classification system. The classifica- a. Electrode classification system. The FCAW
tion code for GMAW electrode wire consists of an E, electrodes are classified similarly to the GMAW
an R, and three digits: ERXXX. The letter E indi- electrodes. In the code EXXXT-Y, the EXXX desig-
cates that this is an electrode material, and the R nation is the same as for the GMAW electrodes and
indicates that it is a welding rod. Since these filler can be any of the material classification numbers
metals are used for the atomic hydrogen and GTAW previously noted. The letter T indicates a continu-
method as well as for SAW and GMAW, both letters ous tubular electrode with a powdered flux within
are used. The three-digit number, such as 308 in the tube. The suffix Y can be any number from 1 to 3
ER308, designates the chemical composition of the or the letter G. The numbers indicate the external
filler metal. An Si after the classification indicates shielding medium to be used during welding. A 1
4-6
designates an electrode using carbon dioxide shield- result in some silicon pickup. The material classifica-
ing gas. A 2 designates an electrode using a mix- tion, chemical requirements, and mechanical prop-
ture of argon plus 2 percent oxygen. A 3 erty requirements are the same as those for the
designates an electrode using no external shielding GMAW electrodes in the as-welded condition. The
gas because the shielding is provided by the core recommended filler metals for the austenitic chro-
material. The G indicates an electrode with an mium-nickel stainless steel are the same as those for
unspecified method of shielding; no requirements the GMAW electrode and are listed in the table in
are imposed on it. the W e l d i n g H a n d b o o k , section 4, chapter 64, as
b. Chemical requirements. A table in AWS A5.22 noted in the above discussion of the recommended
presents the deposited weld metals chemical analy- filler metals for other processes.
sis for austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel
FCAW electrodes. All classifications of the FCAW 4-9. Special considerations in welding
electrodes have chemical requirements except the G stainless steels
classification, and those requirements are only as
a. Effects of thermal properties of stainless steel
agreed on between the supplier and the purchaser.
on welding conditions and distortion. The thermal
c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The
properties (coefficients of thermal conductivity and
allweld metal tensile requirements for the austen-
expansion, and melting point) of stainless steel differ
itic chromium-nickel stainless steel FCAW elec-
somewhat from those of carbon steels. The differ-
trodes are presented in a table in AWS A5.22. The
ences affect the welding operations, and steps must
tensile strength minimums vary from 60,000 to
be taken to compensate for the effects of these ther-
80,000 psi, with a minimum elongation between 20
mal properties. These steps are discussed in para-
and 35 percent. The G classification of the elec-
graph 7-5.
trodes does not have any requirements except those
b. Welding characteristics.
the supplier and purchaser agree on.
(1) Generally, austenitic stainless steel can be
d. Shielding gas. The FCAW electrodes can use
welded with about 20 percent less heat input than
three types of shielding: carbon dioxide, argon plus
carbon steels. There are several reasons for this.
2 percent oxygen, or inner shield. The inner shield
Stainless steels have a higher electrical resistivity
method uses gas-producing materials within the core
than do carbon steels. As a result, stainless steels get
of the electrode. The shielding gas for the G desig-
hotter than carbon steels when the same welding
nation electrode is not specified.
current is used. Thus, a given amount of stainless
e. Recommended filler metals for austenitic chro-
steel can be melted with less current than the same
mium-nickel stainless steeIs. The recommended fil-
amount of carbon steel. In addition, less heat or cur-
ler metal/base metal combinations for the AISI-
rent is needed to melt austenitic stainless steels
designated stainless steels are in a table in the Weld-
because they have lower melting points than carbon
ing Handbook, section 4, chapter 64. If stainless
steel. Finally, the heat conductivity y of these stainless
steels other than those listed are to be used, then
steels is lower than that of other steels. Therefore,
manufacturers recommendations for weld metal
the heat built up in the metal from the welding
should be followed. An appendix to AWS A5.22 for
operation flows away from the weld at a slower rate.
FCAW electrodes lists the intended uses of the
The result is that during welding, higher tempera-
electrodes.
tures are reached in a shorter time.
(2) When welded, austenitic stainless steels
4-8. Submerged arc (SAW) tend to warp and buckle more than carbon steel.
This is because the coefficient of thermal expansion
The SAW process is limited to flat position and hori- of austenitic stainless steel is about 1-1/2 times as
zontal fillet welds because a granulated flux is used large as that of carbon steel. This problem is further
to protect the arc and the molten weld metal. SAW aggravated by stainless steels lower thermal con-
electrodes are specified by AWS A5.9. This is the ductivity, which tends to concentrate welding heat
same specification for the GMAW electrodes. For in a smaller area. To keep warping and buckling to a
SAW, DC reverse polarity or AC may be used. Basic minimum, jigs and fixtures, carefully selected weld-
fluxes are generally recommended to minimize ing sequences, and accurate fitup generally have to
silicon pickup and the oxidation of chromium and be used. Preheating to reduce distortion should be
other elements. In general, electrodes having a avoided when welding austenitic stainless steel since
silicon content of 0.6 percent or less are desirable this could lead to sensitization of portions of the
for submerged arc welding since the fluxes usually weld joint.
4-7
TM 5-805-7
(3) Special precautions are required if tack of the weld. It should be inspected to ensure that it
welding is used to control distortion and maintain is sound and does not contain tiny cracks or porosity,
joint alignment. If these precautions are not taken, The surface of the tack weld should be ground to a
tack welds can be a source of weldmetal cracking, smooth, concave contour so that it will be com-
porosity, incomplete penetration, or lack of fusion. pletely melted into the final weld.
A tack weld must be of the same quality as the rest
Table 4-1. Austenitic stainless steels most commonly used for cryogenic and uacuurn environmcnt equipment
4--8
CHAPTER 5
5-1
TM 5-805-7
appropriate, will produce a weld deposit with mini- however, a designer might specify a steel that can
mum hot cracking tendencies. Preheating, control- harden quickly enough to require preheating.
ling interpass temperature, and welding with as little P r e h e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r m a n y o f t h e s t e e l s are
restraint as possible are other ways to control hot listed in the following documents: structural steels
cracking, particularly in a section thickness greater AWS D1.1; piping materials ANSI B31.1; fer-
than 1/2 inch. rous materials ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
(2) Cold cracking. Code, section HI, appendix III, Other Applica-
(a) Cold cracking occurs in the heat-affected tions, and the text Weldability of Steels, edited by
zone and weld metal. This may be caused by Stout and Doty (1971).
mechanical effects, alloy content, or hydrogen (c) Hydrogen also contributes to cold crack-
pickup from moisture in the electrode flux or on ing. Three factors act simultaneously in hydrogen-
surfaces of the weld joint. Mechanically, high induced cracking: dissolved hydrogen, tensile
shrinkage stresses are induced in the weld metal by stresses, and a low-ductility microstructure such as
the cooling weld and the restraining action of the martensite. The source of hydrogen is the shield gas,
base metal. These stresses act in directions parallel flux, or surface contamination. The hydrogen is car-
and perpendicular to the weld and their magnitude ried as a diatomic molecule to the arc and is con-
may be great enough to cause cracking. verted to the monatomic or ionized state. The
(b) In any thickness of steel, cold cracking monatomic hydrogen readily dissolves in the molten
may also occur in the heat-affected zone because of weld metal. The exact mechanism by which hydro-
alloy content. This is called underbead cracking. gen causes cold cracking has not been fully
The higher the alloy content, the greater the ten- explained. But many investigators believe that as the
dency. Susceptibility to underbead cracking maybe weld metal cools, it becomes supersaturated, and
estimated from a steels carbon equivalent, which the hydrogen diffuses to a highly stressed area such
is determined from the formula: as the heat-affected zone or the atmosphere. Once
in the heat-affected zone, it is theorized that the
hydrogen embrittles the metal. Some low-alloy
steels, such as ASTM A 514 or A 517, will transform
to martensite under rapid cooling conditions, and at
the same time will entrap some or all of the hydro-
gen present. However, hydrogen has low volubility
As the C.E. increases, so does the susceptibility of in the martensitic structure and tends to migrate to
the steel to cold cracking. As a steels alloy content, any neighboring discontinuities. Along with external
or C. E., increases, its capability to form a hardened forces, the hydrogen enlarges these flaws to a criti-
microstructure such as martensite when cooled rap- cal size. Regardless of the mechanism by which
idly also increases. Certain areas of the weld joint, hydrogen embrittles the carbon and low-alloy steels,
particularly those next to the base metal heat- however, precautions should be taken against its
affected zone, may cool rapidly enough to produce a entrainment. Joint design and attention to joint fit-
hardened structure which becomes a metallurgical up can reduce the chances of cold cracking. To con-
notch. This hardened zone may be brittle, with a trol hydrogen-induced cracking, a post-weld tem-
characteristic low notch toughness. Increasing the perature of 300 to 400 F for up to 10 hours
heat input or the preheat/interpass temperature will (depending on weld thickness) is recommended.
slow the cooling rate. However, high-strength, low- This technique should be specified with caution
alloy steels should be preheated carefully so the because of the risks noted in (3) below. Cleaning
steel in the heat-affected zone will not be weakened. joints to remove hydrogen-containing materials such
This precaution also applies to the use of interpass as oil and grease, and using of low hydrogen elec-
temperature, air-arc gouging, post weld heating, and trodes are also recommended to limit the source of
heat input during welding. Removal of defects, hydrogen.
when repair is permitted, should be by grinding or (3) Reheat cracking. Reheat cracking occurs in
air-arc gouging followed by grinding to limit the steels containing carbide-forming alloy elements
heat input effects of the gouging. Steel manufactur- such as vanadium or molybdenum. When a post-
ers should be consulted for recommendations about weld heat treatment is used, these materials often
weld repairs. Few of the steels used in bridge or exhibit precipitation of alloy carbides that make the
building construction and piping systems have grains of the heat-affected zone stronger than the
enough alloying elements to create a problem with grain boundaries. If there are stresses, the grain
hardening in the heat-affected zone. Occasionally,
5-2
TM 5-805-7
boundary region must adjust to relieve them. Exten- 5-5. Shielded metal-arc (SMAW)
sive deformation in the grain boundary region may
SMAW has been the preferred method of welding
induce cracking, especially in the heat-affected
because of its versatility, the simplicity of its equip-
zone. The risk of reheat cracking can be reduced by
ment, and the wide selection of electrodes, All of
using electrodes that do not have yield strengths
these characteristics are important for field weld
much higher than that of the base plate, by avoiding
applications. AWS A5.1 and A5.5 specify mild steel
highly rigid joint details in thick plate, by grinding
and low-alloy steel SMAW electrodes.
butt welds flush, and by smoothing the contour of
a. Electrode classification system. The AWS has
fillet welds, especially the toe of the weld. The AWS
developed a classification system which describes
D1.1 section Workmanship Stress Relief Heat
some of the characteristics of steel welding elec-
Treatment, and ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
trodes. The SMAW classification codes are made up
Code, section VIII, Procedures on Post-Weld Heat
of an E and four and five numbers (EXXYZ). The E
Treatment c o n t a i n r e c o m m e n d e d p r a c t i c e s f o r
indicates that the material is an electrode. The first
heat-treating welds for stress relief. The stress-relief
two digits, xX, give the minimum tensile strength of
heat treatment of quenched and tempered ASTM A
the weld deposit in 1000 pounds per square inch
514 and A 517 steels is not usually recommended
(psi); that is, an electrode with an E70YZ classifica-
but may be required to maintain dimensional stabil-
tion would have a minimum tensile strength of
ity during machining.
70,000 psi. The tensile strength designation starts at
c. Other defects. Other defects can be introduced
60 and increases by 10 to 120. The number repre-
into the weld metal if the proper weld process or
sented by Y can be either 1 or 2 and designates the
technique is not used. These defects include poros-
proper welding positions for this electrode type. A 1
ity, slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, inadequate
means that the electrode can be used in all positions:
joint penetration, and undercut. Each of these is
flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead; a 2 indicates
described in paragraph 4-2e.
that it can be used only on flat or horizontal fillet
welds, The last term in the classification, Z, can be
5-3. Joint design
any number from O through 8. These numbers, iden-
Weld joints are prepared either by flame cutting or tified in AWS A5.1, indicate major coating constitu-
mechanically by machining or grinding, depending ents and welding current types.
on the joint details. Before welding, the joint sur- b. Chemical requirements. The AWS divides
faces must be cleared of all foreign materials such as SMAW electrodes into two groups: mild steel (AWS
paint, dirt, scale, or rust. Suitable solvents or light A5.1) and low-alloy steel (AWS A5.5). The E60XX
grinding can be used for cleaning. The joint surface and E70XX electrodes are in the mild steel specifi-
should not be nicked or gouged since they can inter- cation. The chemical requirements for E70XX elec-
fere with the welding operation. trodes are listed in AWS A5.1 and allow for wide
variations of composition of the deposited weld
5-4. Methods of welding carbon steels metal. There are no specified chemical require-
and low-alloy steels ments for the E60XX electrodes. The low-alloy
Carbon and low-alloy steels are readily welded in specification contains electrode classifications
the field by SMAW, GMAW, FCAW or SAW. E70XX through El 20XX. These codes have a suffix
SMAW is used most often because the equipment is indicating the chemical requirements of the class of
simple and portable. GMAW, FCAW, and SAW are electrodes for example, E7010-A1 or E8018-C1.
being used more often in the field because of weld The composition of low-alloy E70XX electrodes is
quality and economics. Standard joint designs for controlled much more closely than that of mild steel
these processes are in the AWS D1.1 section E70XX electrodes. Low-alloy electrodes of the low-
Design of Welded Connections, and ASME Boiler hydrogen classification (EXX15, EXX16, EXX18)
and Pressure Vessel Code, subsection B, Joint require special handling to help the coatings from
Details for Pressure Vessels. Recommended picking up water. Manufacturers recommendations
preheat temperatures for commonly used steels are about storage and rebaking must be followed for
also given in the codes; these figures are based on these electrodes. AWS A5.5 provides a specific list-
plate thickness and the ambient temperature. Rec- ing of chemical requirements.
o m m e n d e d p r e h e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r various steels c. Weld metal mechanical property requirements.
are listed in the AWS D1.1 section, Technique, The AWS requires the deposited weld metal to have
and appendix R of the ASME Boiler and Pressure minimum tensile and impact strengths. The detailed
Vessel Code. requirements for mild steel electrodes are listed in
5-3
TM 5-805-7
AWS A5.1, and for low-alloy steel electrodes in 23765/2. All chemical analyses are based on the as-
AWS A5.5. manufactured electrode wire.
d. Recommended filler metals for commonly used c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The all-weld
steels. Commonly used ASTM and API steels, and metal tensile properties for the E70 electrodes are
matching filler metal requirements are listed in the presented in AWS A5.18.
table Matching Filler Metal Requirements of AWS d. Shielding gas. Two shield gasses are used with
D1.1. This document lists the steel and minimum GMAWcarbon dioxide, and argon plus 1 to 5 per-
preheat and interpass temperatures for different cent oxygen addition. Carbon dioxide is used for
plate thicknesses and welding processes. If a steel is short-circuiting transfer and for flat-position weld-
not listed, manufacturers recommendations should ing. Argon-oxygen shield gas is used with pulsed
be followed. AWS A5.1 contains the intended use of voltage out-of-position welding and spray transfer
the electrodes as an appendix. Chemical composi- welding. The GMAW electrodes and recommended
tion also should be considered when low-alloy elec- shield gases are listed in AWS A5.18.
trodes are specified. e. Recommended filler metals for commonly used
steels. The table Matching Filler Metal Require-
5-6. Gas metal-arc (GMAW) ments in AWS D1.1 lists commonly used steels by
ASTM and API specification numbers, and gives
GMAW is being used more often for shop and field matching filler metal requirements and classifica-
applications because it is more economical than tions. In addition, AWS D1.1 lists the steels and the
SMAW. With GMAW, there is much less downtime minimum preheat and interpass temperatures for
for electrode changes, much less loss due to stub different plate thicknesses and welding processes. I f
ends and spatter, and much less interpass cleaning steels other than those listed are used, manufactur-
required. GMAW is also slightly less versatile ers recommendations for weld metals and preheat
because the welding gun is bulkier than the elec- temperature should be followed. The intended uses
trode holder for SMAW. However, GMAW can be of the electrode types are indicated in an appendix
used in all positions with either short-circuiting to AWS A5.18.
transfer or a pulsed voltage power supply. The
equipment is more complex and more expensive 5-7. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
than that for SMAW, and requires more skill on the FCAW which uses equipment similar to that of
part of the operator. GMAW, is advantageous because it provides high
a. Electrode classification system. The classifica- deposition and fluxing ingredients. This process is
tion codes for GMAW electrode wire consist of an E primarily for flat and horizontal welds, but can be
and four digits in the configuration EXXY-Z. As with used in other positions if the proper electrode diam-
SMAW, the E indicates an electrode, and XX gives eter and welding currents are selected. Mild steel
the deposited tensile strength in 10,000-psi incre- FCAW electrodes are specified by AWS A5.20.
ments. The tensile strength designations range from Low-alloy FCAW electrodes are available; manufac-
70 to 110. The next digit, Y, can be either an S or a turers recommendations for their use should be
U. The S indicates a solid bare wire, while U means followed.
that the solid wire has an emissive coating that a. Electrode classification system. The FCAW
allows the use of DC straight polarity. The final electrodes are classified similarly to the GMAW
digit, Z, can be any number from 1 through 6 or the electrodes. In the code EXXT-Y, the EXX designa-
letter G. The numbers indicate chemical analysis, tion is the same as for SMAW and GMAW electrodes
particularly carbon and silicon. The G classification and can be either E60T-Y or E70T-Y. The letter T
has no chemical requirements. The letter B at the indicates a continuous tubular electrode with a pow-
end of the code, such as E70S-1B, indicates a low- dered flux filling the tube. The suffix Y, which can
alloy steel electrode. Only the E70S-X and E70U-1 be any number from 1 through 8 or the letter G,
electrodes are specified by AWS AS.18. indicates the deposited weld metal chemistry and
b. Chemical requirements. The chemical require- shielding gas used.
ments for the GMAW electrodes are presented in b. Chemical requirements. The deposited weld
AWS AS. 18. The E70S-G and E70S-GB electrodes metal chemical analysis for mild steel FCAW elec-
have no chemical requirements, except that no addi- trodes is in AWS A5.20. There are no chemical
tions of nickel, chromium, molybdenum, or vana- requirements for E70T-2, E70T-3, and E70T-G
dium are allowed. Chemical requirements for the electrodes.
higher-strength low-alloy electrodes are in MIL-E- c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The all-weld
18193, MIL-E-19822, MIL-E-23765/1, and MIL-E- metal tensile and impact requirements for the mild
5-4
TM 5-805-7
steel FCAW electrodes are presented in AWS M, or H, indicates the relative manganese content of
A5.20. the electrode wire. The next one or two digits give
d. Shielding gas. The FCAW electrodes use car- the nominal carbon content of the electrode wire.
bon dioxide for shielding gas or contain in the flux The code may be followed by a K, which shows the
gas-producing compounds that protect the arc from wire was made from a silicon-killed heat of steel.
atmospheric contamination. The E60T-7, E60T-8, Examples of mild steel codes would be EL8K or
E70T-4, and E70T-6 electrodes need no external EM 12. Low-alloy electrodes have similar coding sys-
shield gas. The E70T-1 and E70T-2 electrodes need tems, with the E again indicating an electrode. The
additional shielding from carbon dioxide. The E70T- next two or three digits indicate the as-manufac-
5 electrode can be used with or without carbon tured wire chemistry. The final part indicates the
dioxide as a separate shield gas. The shielding gas deposited weld metal chemistry. This part of the
for the E70T-G electrode is not specified. coding system applies to low-alloy classification
e. Recommended filler metals for commonly used only; the suffix N indicates the material is nuclear
steels. Commonly used steels are listed by ASTM grade. Examples of SAW classifications are F70-
and API specification numbers in the table Match- EL12-Al, combination for carbon-molybdenum
ing Filler Metal Requirements of AWS D1.1. This low-alloy steels; F86-EB2-B2, combination for chro-
specification also gives the matching filler metal mium-molybdenum low-alloy steels; or F61-
requirements and the electrode classifications that EM12K, combination for mild steel.
meet those requirements. Electrodes E70T-2 and b. Chemical requirements. The electrode chemi-
E70T-3 are not recommended by the AWS Code. cal composition requirements are presented in AWS
The table Minimum Preheat and Interpass Temper- A5.17 for mild steel and AWS A5.23 for low-alloy
ature in AWS D1.1 categorizes commonly used steels. The deposited weld metal chemical require-
steels, plate thicknesses, and welding processes with ments are presented in AWS A5.23 for alloy steels.
their associated preheat and interpass temperatures. The only chemical composition requirement for
If steels other than those listed are to be used, manu- fluxes is that the combination of a flux and low-alloy
facturers recommendations for weld metal and steel electrode produce a specified deposited weld
preheat temperatures should be followed. AWS metal chemistry.
A5.20 for FCAW electrodes contains an appendix c. Weld metal mechanical properties. The all-weld
that lists the intended use of the electrodes. metal tensile and impact requirements for mild and
low-alloy steel welds are presented in AWS A5.17
5-8. Submerged arc (SAW) and A5.23, respectively. The EXXX after the flux
SAW is limited to flat and horizontal fillet welding designation means that the flux will produce these
because a granulated flux is used to protect the arc strengths when used in combination with any
and the molten weld metal. SAW electrodes and flux electrode.
for mild steel are specifed by AWS A5.17. Low-alloy d. Recommended filler metal for commonly used
weld metal is specified in AWS A5.23. steels. The table Matching Filler Metal Require-
a. Material classification. The classification system ments in AWS D1.1 lists the ASTM and API classifi-
for submerged arc electrodes and fluxes has two cations of commonly used steels, the matching filler
parts; the first refers to the flux and the second to metal requirements, and the electrode classifications
the electrode. Thus, the classification has the follow- that meet these requirements. The table Minimum
ing: FXX-EXXX. The F indicates that the material is Preheat and Interpass in AWS D1.1 lists the steels,
a flux. The first number indicates the minimum the minimum preheat and interpass temperatures
deposited weld metal tensile strength in l0,000-psi for a range of plate thicknesses, and the various
increments. This digit can be any number from 6 to welding processes. If steels other than those listed
12. The last number of this part indicates the impact are to be used, then manufacturers recommenda-
requirements of the deposited weld metal. Examples tions for weld metals and preheat temperatures
of flux designations are F61, F86, or F128. The next should be followed. The appendices of AWS A5.17
part of the classification begins with an E and and A5.23 list usages and choice of fluxes for the
designates an electrode. For mild steel, a three- to SAW process.
five-digit code is used. The first digit, either an L,
5-5
TM 5-805-7
CHAPTER 6
WELDING ALUMINUM ALLOYS
6-1
TM 5-805-7
areas. wire brushing may be done with a hard brush solidification can then cause boundary separation
or power rotary brush. Both types should have stain- before this low-melting phase solidifies.
less steel bristles. These brushes must be kept clean; (1) Crater cracks. Crater cracks are most often
when the bristles become dirty, they must be encountered in aluminum welding. These are small
degreased with solvents like those discussed above. checks or crows foot defects which occur during
Before brushing, the joint area should be degreased. solidification after the welding arc has been broken
If this is done, the brush will stay clean and will not Such cracks may be small but are very serious since
drive contaminants into the aluminum surface. Bur they are usually at the end of a weld, where stress
nishing the aluminum surface can also entrap con- concentration or end effect is most pronounced.
taminants; therefore, only light pressure should be The number of crater cracks can be limited with
used for power brushing. Cleaning by grinding is good welding practice. This usually involves proper
best done with an open-coat aluminum oxide disk manipulation of the torch or filler, or both. The
(80 grit). This process is especially useful for remov technique most often used is to break and restart the
ing the heavy oxide film associated with water stain- arc several times so that the shrinkage pipe in the
ing; wire brushing and chemical etching are not center is filled. In addition, run-out tabs are often
effective. After mechanical cleaning, the metal used to prevent crater cracks. The welder should
should be degreased. check carefully for these cracks, and should remove
(3) Chemical etching, which is useful for batch them before rewelding. It is very hard to remove a
cleaning, produces a surface free from contaminants crater crack by remelting the weld.
and heavy oxide films. However, etched surfaces (2) Longitudinal cracking. Cold longitudinal
tend to be more absorptive than before. Thus, they cracks are not usually found in aluminum welds, but
can be recontaminated if not protected and should hot cracks can sometimes occur when the metal is
be cleaned just before welding. passing between the liquidus and solidus tempera-
(4) Following improper procedures particu- tures. These cracks usually are caused by incorrect
larly when cleaning can produce defects in the filler alloy, too low or too high a welding rate, and
weld joint. These include porosity, tungsten inclu- incorrect edge preparation or joint spacing. Cold
sions, incomplete fusion, inadequate joint penetra- cracks which occur below the solidus temperature
tion, undercutting, and cracking. Limitations on usually result w-hen too small a weld bead is laid
various defects are governed by the ASME Boiler down. Cold cracks can be eliminated by a weld bead
and Pressure Vessel Code or military specifications; large enough to withstand the cooling stresses
whether a defect is severe enough to be unaccept- encountered during solidification.
able depends on the function of the finished d. Other defects. Other defects can be introduced
product. into the weld metal if an improper weld process or
c. Cracking. Sensitivity to weld cracking largely technique is used. These defects include porosity,
depends on the weld metals composition. Both base tungsten inclusions, incomplete fusion, inadequate
metal and filler alloy composition affect the result- joint penetration, and undercut. Paragraph 4-2e dis-
ing weld bead composition, and the welding heat cusses incomplete fusion, inadequate joint penetra-
input affects the relative percentages of base metal tion, and undercutting. This information applies to
and filler metal in the weld bead. Furthermore, joint aluminum as well as stainless steel.
design can significantly influence the relative per- (1) Porosity. Shrinkage porosity, associated with
centage of base metal melted. In most alloy systems, overheating, and gas porosity are common defects in
there are one or more regions of maximum crack welds. Spherical gas pores are found most often :
sensitivity. If the base metal composition has a high hydrogen is accepted as the major cause of porosity
cracking sensitivity, then filler alloys containing in aluminum welds. Hydrogen usually results from
high percentages of magnesium are used. This water or hydrocarbon contamination of the base
changes the composition so that the weld metal is plate, filler wire, shielding gas, or arc column. The
less sensitive to cracking. Minor alloying elements size and number of gas pores for an existing hydro-
also change weld crack sensitivity. In particular, gen concentration vary with the weld metals solidi-
grain-refining elements such as Titanium and Zirco- fication rate. Porosity formation is a nucleation and
nium are frequently added to reduce the cracking growth process. At fast solidification rates, there is
tendencies of filler alloys. Minor amounts of copper not enough time for the nucleation step, and no
in an aluminum-magnesium-zinc alloy greatly pores can be seen -- even at high hydrogen concen-
increase crack sensitivity. The copper contributes to trations. At slower solidification rates, pore nuclea-
the formation of low-melting phases that segregate tion and some growth occur, but the bubbles are
at grain boundaries. Shrinkage stresses during weld trapped in the freezing metal before escaping. At
6-2
TM 5-805-7
slower and slower solidification rates, more time is shielded-arc welding process can be used in all posi-
available for pores to grow and for gas to escape tions, including overhead. Aluminum alloys for cryo-
from the molten pool. When solidification rates are genic applications are welded by either the GTAW
slow enough, all gas escapes and no porosity remains or the GMAW processes. This manual discusses only
in the weld bead. Random, scattered porosity that is the inert shielded-arc welding processes, the most
usually detected radiographically has little effect on versatile and commonly used for field fabrication.
the mechanical properties. Of course, larger Preheating the weld joint before welding is not rec-
amounts of gross porosity reduce the metals cross- ommended. But if ambient temperatures are low, a
sectional area and lower the welds strength. preheat of not more than 300 F can be applied to
Aligned or layered porosity has a greater effect on the joint before welding. The properties and metal-
mechanical properties. Microporosity, too small to lurgy of aluminum alloys are almost always affected
be detected by standard radiographic techniques, adversely by elevated temperatures, Therefore
typically occurs in layers along the weld fusion line. preheating is not recommended, and welding heat
This defect lowers mechanical properties should be applied as briefly as possible.
considerably.
(2) Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten inclusions 6-5. Gas metal-arc (GMAW)
occur only when the GTAW process is used. The
Use of GMAW is increasing for shop and field appli-
tungsten becomes trapped in the molten weld metal
cations because of the economics of the process.
because of two transfer processes. If the electrodes
There is less downtime for electrode changes, much
diameter is too small, the welding current melts too
less loss due to stub ends and spatter, and much less
much of the end, and any mechanical jostling of the
interpass cleaning required. GMAW can be used in
torch will cause a droplet of tungsten to be trans-
all positions, with either short circuiting transfer or a
ferred to the weld puddle. Tungsten also can be
pulsed voltage power supply. No flux is required for
transferred if the electrode is touched to the weld
welding aluminum with the GMAW process. This
metal. To prevent tungsten inclusions, electrodes
eliminates costly flux removal and the possibility of
with the correct diameter and with the proper taper
post-weld corrosion due to flux residue. Another
ground on the end should be used.
outstanding characteristic of the GMAW process is
its use of high welding current densities. Current
6-3. Joint design densities on the wire commonly range from 60,000
Weld joints are prepared mechanically by machin- to 300,000 amperes per square inch. These high
ing, grinding, or plasma cutting. Before welding, the current densities, coupled with a very efficient heat
joint surfaces must be cleared of all foreign materials transfer in the arc, result in higher welding speeds,
such as paint, dirt, scale, or oxide; solvent cleaning, less distortion, lower welding costs, better mechani-
light grinding, or etching can be used. The joint cal strength, and better corrosion resistance than
surfaces should not be nicked or gouged since this can be obtained with any other arc welding process
can hinder welding. The AWS Welding Handbook, on aluminum. High current densities and the effi-
Chapter 69, Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys has cient heat transfer in the arc also produce deep pen-
a section on designing joints for welding. The theory etration. This makes the process good for fillet welds
and practice of designing aluminum structures are and reduces the need for edge preparation. For
discussed; joint accessibility, edge preparation, and more details, refer to chapter 3.
stress distribution are covered. a. Electrode classification system. The classifica-
tion codes for GMAW electrode wire consist of an E,
6-4. Methods of welding aluminum alloys an R, and four digits in the configuration ERXXXX.
The prefix R indicates that the material is suitable
The best welds result from careful cleaning of the for use as a welding rod, and the prefix E indicates
joint, proper selection of filler wire, and good weld- suitability as an electrode. These filler metals can be
ing practice. Aluminum alloys can be welded by sev- used as electrodes in GMAW and as welding rods in
eral processes. The choice depends on conditions GTAW; both letters (ER) indicate suitability either
such as thickness and size of parts, location and posi- as a welding rod or an electrode. So, an electrode
tion of weld, number of similar welds, production which meets the test prescribed in AWS A5.10
rate required, finish and appearance desired, and always can be used as either an electrode or a weld-
type of aluminum alloy. The welding processes ing rod. The four numbers in the electrode classifi-
which have been successful are gas, carbon arc, cation system refer to the alloy chemistry of the rod
atomic hydrogen, GTAW, and GMAW. The inert or electrode. For example, an ER1100 classification
6-3
TM 5-805-7
would be an electrode or rod having a chemical produce X-ray quality welds in all the weldable alu-
make-up equivalent to the 1100 alloy of aluminum. minum alloys. Under proper conditions, GTAW
b. Chemical requirements. AWS A5.10 contains welds may have a sounder structure than welds
the chemical requirements for GMAW electrodes. made with most other processes. Excellent penetra-
-
The proportions of elements are similar in elec- tion is easily obtained on butt welds that have been
trodes and base metals with the same designation. properly prepared. However, care and experience
All chemical analyses are based on the as-manufac- are required to obtain adequate penetration on fillet
tured electrode wire. and lap welds since there is a tendency to bridge the
c. Weld metal mechanical properties. For alumi- root unless adequate current and a short arc are
num weld metal, AWS A5.10 specifies only ductility maintained, AC GTAW is usually confined to thick-
as measured by the bend test, but not strength or nesses below 1/4 inch. The GMAW process or DC
impact resistance levels. straight polarity GTAW is generally for thicker sec-
d. Shielding gas. Helium and argon are the shield tions. GTAW welding is normally used for most pipe
gases for the CMAW process. Argon is used more welding, for joints where abrupt changes in direc-
often now, but the availability and use of helium are tion of the weld are encountered, and almost always
increasing rapidly. Because of heliums low density, for welding aluminum less than 1/16-inch thick.
a greater volume is required to produce the neces- High quality welds can be made in all positions. For
sary shielding. But deeper weld penetration is possi- additional information on welding process, see chap-
ble because of heliums higher ionization potential. ter 3.
Argon is better for manual welding because of the a. Electrode classification system. The classifica-
arc instability y with pure helium. Helium/argon mix- tion code for the GTAW filler rod consists of an E,
tures are being used more for semiautomatic weld- an R, and four digits in the configuration ERXXXX.
ing, while both mixtures and pure helium are widely The letter E indicates that this is an electrode mate-
used for automatic welding. To obtain adequate rial, and the R indicates that it is a welding rod.
weld penetration, helium alone or a mixture of Since these filler metals can be used as GMAW elec-
helium and argon may be preferred for welding trodes as well as filler rods for GTAW, both letters
very heavy sections (more than 2 inches), This mix- are used. The four-digit number, such as 1100 in
ture, 75 percent helium and 25 percent argon, is ER1100, designates the chemical composition of the
commonly used and is available premixed. filler metal. The specification for these electrodes is
e. Recommended filler metals for aluminum alloy in AWS A5.10.
welding. The aluminum alloys are listed by the AA b. Chemical requirements. The chemical composi-
specification numbers in the table entitled Guide to tions for GTAW welding rods are listed in AWS
the C h o i c e of Filler Metal for General Purpose A5.10. The proportions of elements are similar in
Welding, appendix 1 of AWS A5.10. They are also electrodes and base metals with the same four-digit
in the AWS Welding Handbook, Chapter 69, Alu- designation. All chemical analyses are based on the
minum and Aluminum Alloys and ASM Metals as-manufactured welding rod.
Handbook, Volume 6, Arc Welding of Aluminum c. Weld metal mechanical properties. For alumi-
Alloys. num weld metal, AWS A5.10 specifies only ductility
as measured by the bend test, but not strength or
6-6. Gas tungsten-arc (GTAW) impact resistance levels.
GTAW of aluminum is done with AC and superim- d. Shielding gas. Two shield gases are used with
posed high frequency in an atmosphere of argon gas. the GTAW process: pure argon and pure helium.
In some industries, GTAW with DC straight polarity Argon is for thicknesses of 1/4 inch and less. Pure
and helium gas is receiving increased attention. DC helium is for thicker material when DC straight
GTAW is done only with very low currents because polarity is used, and for machine welds.
of overheating in the electrode. However, this pro- e. Recommended filler metals for aluminum
cess is seldom used because of the accumulation of alloys. The aluminum alloys are listed by AA specifi-
tungsten inclusions noted in paragraph 6-2. As with cation numbers in the table entitled Guide to the
the GMAW process, GTAW does not use fluxes; the Choice of Filler Metal for General Purpose Weld-
welding arc in argon gas removes the aluminum ing in AWS A5.10, Appendix 1. A comprehensive
oxide film from the surface of the metal, and the list is also in the AWS Welding Handbook, Chapter
argon shield prevents it f r o m r e f o r m i n g . G T A W 69, Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys and ASM
welds have good appearance and require little, if Handbook, Volume 6, Arc Welding of Aluminum
any, grinding or finishing. The GTAW process can Alloys.
6-4
TM 5-805-7
CHAPTER 7
WELDING FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
7-1
TM 5-805-7
7-2
TM 5-805-7
o
service temperature is low (below 600 F) and the several processes, such as plating, cladding, lining,
stresses are moderate, a high-alloy austenitic stain- and weld overlay. When welding before coating,
less steel, such as Type 309 or 310, is generally one must consider how the weld metal and coating
used. For service conditions under higher tempera- metal can affect each other. For example, the weld-
tures and stress, the high-nickel welding materials ing operation may damage the coating, or the coat-
(70 percent Nickel-15 percent Chromium) are bet- ing may adversely affect the weld. When welding
ter because their thermal expansion is closer to that cladplate and applied-liner construction, the opera-
of the ferritic materials. High-nickel weld metal tor must control the dilution of weld metal where
retards carbon migration; and this weld metal should the two metals meet. Joint penetration, electrode
be used with a technique to reduce nickels dilution selection, welding process, and welding techniques
of the ferritic material. are important considerations in welding clad materi-
als and applied liners. Detailed information is in the
7-5. Dissimilar combinations AWS Welding Handbook, section 5.
Fabrication procedures often combine cast austen- b. Galvanized steel. When possible, welding
itic and ferritic steels, or cast austenitic materials should be done first, since galvanizing over welds is
and wrought ferritic materials. Each combination easy. Steel already galvanized can be welded with
presents distinct problems. Dissimilar metals are either the electric arc or gas welding processes, but
often used for surfacing cast carbon steels. Here the the zinc coating next to the weld maybe damaged so
problem is to select a process and technique causing much that it will not protect the steel. Thus, a coat-
minimum dilution. T h i s i n s u r e s f r e e d o m f r o m ing must be applied to the welded joint to protect it
underbead and weld cracking and improves the from corrosion. The joint might be designed so that
quality of the surfacing deposit. The proper tech- the galvanized steel is subjected to tensile stresses
niques and materials are similar to those for wrought during welding or upon cooling. The stressed metal
materials. AWS, sources of welding equipment, and could fracture when the molten zinc or zinc vapor
metal suppliers can provide more information about penetrates into the welded joint. Before welding,
the successful welding and satisfactory services of therefore, the zinc should be removed from all joints
weldments of many of these combinations. Data not and surfaces of strength members. This should be
available from these sources may have to be done far enough from the expected toes of the weld
obtained by testing. to prevent such embrittlement. Light-gauge galva-
nized sheet metal may be welded by GMAW with-
7-6. Coated and clad materials
out substantially damaging the galvanized coating;
a. Composite materials. Composite materials are this can be done with phosphor-bronze filler metal,
often used in structures to obtain special properties. or the carbon arc process can be used with or with-
Generally, a thick supporting layer of base metal is out silicon-bronze filler metal. More information on
bonded to a thin layer of another metal, often more welding zinc-coated steel is in AWS D19.0.
expensive, which has the desirable properties.
These may include corrosion resistance, thermal or
electrical conductivity, abrasion resistance, or deco-
rative appeal. The composites may be obtained by
7-3
CHAPTER 8
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
8-1
TM 5-805-7
b. Repair of defective welds. When a defective Edge preparation, alignment of parts, and fit-up
weld is removed and the joint rewelded, the repair should be checked. Welding specifications should
weld should be inspected in the same way as the be specific and state that all weld joints must be
original weld. The surfaces of the joint from which inspected for compliance with requirements for
the defective metal was removed should be preparation, placement of consumable inserts, align-
inspected to make sure the defect is completely ment, fit-up, and cleanliness.
gone. Cracks should be checked very carefully. If b. Examination of welds during welding. Specifi-
part of a crack is allowed to remain, it may propa- cations should state that welds must be examined for
gate through a repair weld; this must be avoided. A conformance to the qualified welding procedure,
series of inspections and metal removals may be detection of cracks in root pass, weld bead thick-
needed. ness, slag and flux removal, and preheat and
interpass temperatures, where applicable.
8-5. Visual inspection c. Examination of welds after welding. Specifica-
Visual inspection, which is the most widely used tions should state that welds must be examined for
inspection method, is also the quickest, easiest, and cracks, contour and finish, bead reinforcement,
cheapest. The only equipment commonly used is a undercutting, overlap, and size of fillet welds. A
magnifying glass (1 OX or less) and a flashlight or weld is considered acceptable by visual inspection
extension. Other tools, such as a borescope and den- if:
tal mirrors, are useful for inspection inside vessels, (1) The weld has no surface flaws such as cracks,
pipe, or confined areas. Visual inspection is always porosity, unfilled craters, and crater cracks, particu-
required in weld evaluation. However, it will not larly at the end of welds.
reveal interval defects or minute surface defects. (2) The weld metal and base metal are fused.
a. Examination prior to welding. Before welding, The edges of the weld metal should blend smoothly
the faces and edges should be examined for lamina- and gradually into the adjacent base metal. There
tions, blisters, scabs, and seams. Heavy scale, oxide should be no unacceptable overlap or undercut.
films, grease, paint, oil, and dirt should be removed.
8-2
(3) The weld profiles conform to referenced
standards and specifications. The faces of fillet welds cle inspection is advantageous because it can be
may be slightly convex, flat, or slightly concave, as used on any magnetic material and is a rapid, inex-
determined by use of suitable gages or templates (fig pensive, and very reliable method when used by
8-1). The minimium size of each fillet leg is speci- trained inspectors. The main disadvantage is that it
fied on the applicable drawings or welding proce- applies only to magnetic materials and is not suited
dure. For butt welds, the amount of weld bead for very small, deep-seated defects. The deeper the
reinforcement or the height of the surface of the defect is, the larger it must be for detection. Subsur-
weld above the base metal surface should be no face defects are easier to find when they have a
greater than the welding specification allows (fig crack-like shape, such as lack of fusion in welds.
8-2). (These standards should be developed early in Welds with rough surfaces may present difficulties.
a job, and should represent acceptable, borderline, The process sensitivity is decreased by this rough-
and rejectable conditions. When there are several ness, which mechanically interferes with the pattern
critical joints, a separate standard may be prepared formed by iron oxide particles (see a below).
for each.) The objective of all inspection methods is a. Principles of magnetic particle inspection. The
to reveal any flaws or defects that may affect a parts part to be inspected is magnetized by passing
service performance. Therefore, a joint should be through it a low-voltage, high-amperage electric
cleaned to remove anything that would hinder current, or by placing it in a magnetic field. Any
inspection; e.g., slag and oxide films. Care should be discontinuities such as cracks or lack of fusion dis-
taken when a cleaning method such as shot-blasting rupt the magnetic field that has been established.
is used. Fine cracks and similar imperfections may Electrical poles form at the ends of the flaws (fig
be sealed on the surface and made invisible. In vis- 8-3). Fine magnetic particles applied to the surface
ual inspection, it is essential to correctly interpret of the part are attracted to these electrical poles.
and evaluate discrepancies in the appearance of The concentration of particles can be seen and the
welds. Thus, the inspector needs to understand the flaw located.
welding process in order to evaluate the quality of a (1) The ease with which a magnetic flux can be
weld. developed in a material is known as its permeability.
The property of any magnetic material to keep or
8-6. Magnetic particle inspection retain a magnetic field after the magnetizing current
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive is removed is called retentivity. Metals which lose
method of detecting cracks, seams, inclusions, segre- most of their magnetism as soon as the magnetizing
gations, porosity, lack of fusion, and similar flaws in current is removed have low retentivity. Usually a
ferromagnetic materials such as steels and some magnetized metal that has high permeability has low
stainless steel alloys. This method of inspection can retentivity, while a metal with a low permeability
detect discontinuities which may be too fine to be has high retentivity. Construction steels generally
seen with the naked eye; it can also detect some have low retentivity.
subsurface defects, depending on the depth of flaw
TM 5-805-7
I TOE
(SIZE
8-4
TM 5-805-7
MAGNETIC LINES
OF FORCE
(2) DC, AC, and half-wave rectified current (3) The magnetic particles may be applied to
may be used for magnetization. High-amperage, the weld either as a dry powder or as a suspension in
low-voltage current is usually employed. If only sur- a light oil. The particles used are carefully selected
face defects are to reinspected, AC can be used. iron oxide particles of the proper size, shape, mag-
DC isused for the detection of subsurface disconti- netic permeability, and retentivity. Dry particles are
nuities because the current penetrates throughout in powder form and may be obtained in gray, red, or
the part. Maximum sensitivity is provided by using black for contrast. These particles are applied using
half-wave rectified, single-phase current. The pul- hand shakers, spray bulbs, shaking screens, or an
sating field increases the particle mobility and airstream. Wet particles consist of particles sus-
enables the particles to lineup more readily in weak pended in a light petroleum oil or kerosene. They
-
leakage fields. The pulse peaks also produce a can be applied b y dipping, immersing, or spraying
higher magnetizing force, which is needed in the from aerosol cans. The particles can be colored or
inspection of welds.
8-5
TM 5-805-7
have a fluorescent coating for viewing with ultravio- Since most construction steels have low retentivity,
let light. Wet particles provide better control and demagnetization is generally not required; however,
standardization of the concentration of magnetic most magnetic particle inspection units can demag-
particles through control of the concentration of sus- netize after inspection.
pension. The wet procedure is more sensitive for the c. Inspection procedures. The procedures
detection of extremely small discontinuities below decribed substantially conform to ASTM E 138 and
the surface. Excess powder should be removed with ASTM E 709. MIL-I-6868 and the ASME Boiler and
a stream of air of just enough force to carry the Pressure Vessel Code, section V, also outline inspec-
excess away without disturbing lightly held powder tion procedures. The surface of the weld usually
patterns. does not require grinding or smoothing before test-
(4) A method of applying the bath or particles ing. However, if the edges of the weld are undercut
after the magnetizing current has been turned off is or-if the bead surface is extremely rough, the weld
called the residual method. This method of apply- should be ground smooth and the edges blended
ing the particles is effective on materials that will into the base metal surface before magnetic particle
retain their magnetism, i.e., those having high reten- inspection. The surface should be cleaned of all
tivity. Steel that is relatively high in carbon and grease, oil, loose rust, or water because such materi-
other alloys responds most favorably to this method. als interfere with the particles which indicate
Most construction steels, however, have low reten- defects.
tivity and will not hold a strong enough magnetic (1) The prod method of weld inspection is
field for this method. The recommended method for widely used. Portable prod-type electrical contacts
construction steels is the continuous method; mag- are pressed against the surface of the material next
netizing is done at the same time the inspection to the weld, as shown in figure 8-4. The prods
medium or particles are applied. This method is par- should not be spaced more than 8 inches apart. A
ticularly useful when inspecting low carbon or alloy shorter prod spacing with a minimum of 3 inches
steels. Because of their low retentivity, the parts may be used to increase sensitivity. When the prods
cannot maintain enough residual magnetism to hold are positioned, the operator turns the current on
the particles needed to indicate a defect. Whether and applies the magnetic particle powders. The cur-
wet or dry continuous methods are used, the inspec- rent is turned off before the prods are removed in
tor must be careful not to wash or shake off the order to prevent arcing. At least two separate exami-
magnetic particle indications. Excessive current nations should be done for each area. The prods are
must not be used during magnetizing because this repositioned so that the lines of flux from one opera-
may produce irrelevant indications. Because of the tion are approximately perpendicular to the lines of
strong field produced, the continuous method is flux from the previous operation. Contact clamps
especially useful in locating subsurface defects. sometimes can be used instead of prods.
(5) When current is passed through a coil which (2) The weld must be examined immediately
is wrapped around a material, a magnetic field is after the excess powder has been removed and
produced in that material. This is called longitudinal before the position of the prods is changed. Surface
magnetization. When clamps or prods are used to defects appear as sharp indications, while subsurface
pass the current through the material, the procedure indications are broad, diffuse patterns.
is called circular magnetization. The two methods (3) Acceptance standards are written based on
produce magnetic fields in different directions, the objects intended use. Standards vary, but most
thereby permitting the inspector to examine a mate- specify similar limits for possible defects.
rial for discontinuities in all directions.
b. Equipment. V a r i o u s t y p e s o f m a g n e t i z i n g 8-7. Penetrant inspection
equipment are available. Units with electromagnets Penetrant inspection is a sensitive, nondestructive
and permanent magnets are commonly used, but are method of locating minute flaws open to the surface
designed for locating surface cracks. Although such for example, cracks, pores, and leaks. It is partic-
a unit can locate some subsurface defects, its depth ularly valuable for examining nonmagnetic materi-
of penetration is severely limited. Direct current als, on which magnetic particle inspection cannot be
equipment provides the great depth of penetration used. Penetrant inspection is used extensively for
needed to detect subsurface flaws. Some equipment exposing surface defects in aluminum, magnesium,
has both full-wave and half-wave rectified direct and austenitic stainless steel weldments, and for
current (HWDC). HWDC is particularly suitable for locating leaks in all welds. Dye penetrant proce-
use with dry particles because the pulsating field dures usually require ground surfaces, although
provides excellent mobility to the powder particles, some as-welded surfaces can be inspected.
8-6
TM 5-805-7
(Improper grinding can smear the surface and close (2) penetrant inspection is equally applicable to
surface openings of the defects.) The efficiency of both large and small weldments. In the petrochemi-
the method depends on the inspectors ability to cal industries, pressure vessels and piping, which are
recognize and evaluate the visual indications of often made of nonmagnetic materials, can be
flaws. inspected for surface cracks and porosity by this
a. Principles of liquid penetrant inspection. In liq- method. Penetrant inspection can be used to detect
uid penetrant inspection, both visible and fluores- cracks, pores, and leaks through the lining in clad
cent, the surface of a material is coated with a film of vessels. This method can be applied to all types of
penetrating liquid (fig 8-5). The liquid is allowed to welded linings. Shallow cracks and porosity can be
seep into any flaws that are open to the surface, and distinguished from those that extend through the
the excess surface film is removed. A developer is lining (leakers). The indications for all cracks and
then applied; it draws the penetrant from a disconti- porosity bleed out rapidly or spread upon applica-
nuity to the surface so the inspector can see the tion of dry developer.
flaw. b. Equipment. The equipment used in penetrant
(1) Liquid penetrant inspection can be done inspection is portable: aerosol cans of cleaner, dye,
quickly and easily; it costs less per foot of weld and developer. When fluorescent penetrant is used,
inspected than any other nondestructive method a black light source in the 36-angstrom unit range
except visual inspection. The initial cost of training, and a hood or dark area are required. Portable
equipment, materials, and supplies is much less than inspection kits for field use are commercially
that of any other inspection method. However, sur- available.
face porosity and improper surface cleanliness Inspection procedures. The procedure
reduce the sensitivity of the inspection technique; described substantially conforms to ASTM E 165.
contaminants such as water, oil, and grease can (1) Either the visible or fluorescent dye pene-
cover or fill discontinuities so the penetrant does not trant method can be used between a series of
enter. Penetrant inspection methods are used to stringer welds or on a completed weld. There are
check nonporous materials for defects open to the three types of penetrant: water washable, post emul-
surface. The following surface defects can be found sifying, and solvent removable. Intermixing these
with penetrant inspection: all types of cracks in con- penetrant materials is not permitted. Procedures for
nection with welding, grinding, fatigue, forging, inspection depend on the specific type of penetrant
etc.; porosity; seams; laps; cold shuts; or lack of and the method used; therefore, only a general
bond between two metals. Since penetrant methods approach is outlined in this manual.
can locate only surface defects, cleanliness is
extremely important.
8-7
TM 5-805-7
(2) The surface must be clean and dry. The dis- type of defect are difficult to appraise if the dye
continuity must be free of oil, water, or other con- diffuses too much in the developer. The recom-
taminants so that the void is open and the penetrant mended practice is to observe the surface during the
can enter. The method of cleaning the weld area is application of the developer in order to see certain
unimportant part of the test procedure. indications which might tend to bleed out quickly.
(3) The penetrant is applied to the surface by (6) Interpretation must be done within a speci-
spraying or brushing. The inspector must allow fied time. The specification might indicate, for
enough time for the penetrant to enter all disconti- example, that interpretation must be done no sooner
nuities. A minimum time of 10 minutes at a tempera- than 7 minutes and no later than 30 minutes after
ture of 60 to 125 degrees F is normally application of the developer.
recommended. The smaller the defect or the higher (7) Most acceptance standards specify similar
the sensitivity required, the longer the penetrating limits on cracks and linear indications, rounded indi-
time must be. cations of a specific size and quantity, or number of
(4) Excess penetrant can be removed from the indications in a given area.
surface by wiping with an absorbent cloth, either
dry or moistened with a solvent. Removing the sur- 8-8. Radiographic inspection
face penetrant by spraying with solvents gives a Radiographic inspection is a nondestructive testing
clean surface; however, penetrant can be washed technique which involves taking a picture of the
out of defects if the spraying is not done very care- internal condition of a material. This picture is pro-
fully. Therefore, this technique is not duced by directing a beam of short wave-length
recommended. radiation (X-rays or gamma rays) through a material
(5) The developer should be applied carefully that would be opaque to ordinary light. This radia-
so it does not produce a coat so thick that indications tion exposes a film which is placed on the opposite
are masked. The developer acts as a blotter to draw side of the material. When developed, the film
the penetrant to the surface, where it can be seen (called a radiograph) shows the presence or absence
with the naked eye or viewed under an ultraviolet of internal defects. Radiographic inspection is called
light (in fluorescent penetrant inspection). The for in many specifications because it provides a per-
developer must be applied as soon as possible after manent record. Different types of internal defects
the penetrant removal operation; the time between can be identified, and flaws such as cracks, porosity,
the application of the developer and interpretation lack of fusion, and entrapped slag can be differenti-
should be controlled ((6) below). The true size and ated. Radiographic inspection has its limitations,
8-8
TM 5-805-7
however. These include high initial cost, radiation shown schematically in figure
8-6. The cone of radi-
hazards, the need for highly trained technicians, and ation could also represent a gamma-ray capsule con-
the requirement that certain defects, particularly taining radioactive material such as those listed in
cracks and lack of fusion, be correctly oriented with table 8-2. Not all of the radiation penetrates the
respect to the beam of radiation (if the orientation is weld. Some is absorbed, the amount depending on
incorrect, the defects will not be recorded on the the density and thickness of the weld and on the
film). material being inspected. A cavity, such as a blow-
a. Principles of radiographic inspection. Radiogra- hole in the weld interior, leaves less metal for the
phy uses the penetrating power of radiation to radiation to pass through, so that the amount
reveal the interior of a material. Radiation from a absorbed by the weld will vary in the defective
source passes through an object and causes a change region. These variations, if measured or recorded on
in the film emulsion when the film is developed. The a radiation-sensitive film, produce an image that will
amount of darkening of the film, referred to as den- indicate the presence of the defect. In applying radi-
sity, depends on the amount of film exposure caused ographic inspection, care is required to insure that
by radiation penetrating the thick or thin sections of the procedure is carried out properly. Inadequate
the object. The procedure for radiographic testing is technique can result in poor sensitivity, irrelevant
indications, or other problems.
b. Equipment. The equipment required for radio- (2) Radioactive sources and x-radiation have
graphic inspection is either an X-ray machine or similar effects on radiation-sensitive film. The differ-
gamma source, film, penetrameters, film developing ence between the rays is the origin. X-ray radiation
equipment, and viewing equipment, as described is generated in an X-ray tube, while gamma radia-
below. In ASTM E 94, the table Type of Industrial tion is emitted from a radioactive isotope. Table 8-2
Radiographic Film lists film characteristics; the gives some of the more important characteristics of
table Guide for Selection of Film lists recommen- radioisotopes. These figures are rough estimates,
dations for radiation sources and film types to be but do show the relative positions of the sources in
used with a variety of alloys in different section order of their energy.
thicknesses. (3) Gamma radiography is used frequently in
(1) X-ray machines are available in a wide range construction work because no external power is
of sizes and voltage ratings. The kilovoltage rating required, which makes it suitable for inspection in
required depends on the thickness and type of metal remote areas; the cost of the equipment and source
to be radiographed. is much less than that of X-ray equipment with a
comparable kilovolt range; the isotope equipment is
more easily transported; the equipment is rugged
8-9
TM 5-805-7
SOURCE OF X-RAYS
and simple to operate and maintain; and confined (4) The image quality of a radiograph can be
spaces can reinspected because of the small source shown by using a penetrameter. This is a piece of
size. However, there are several disadvantages to metal similar to that being inspected. It is placed
isotope sources. Among these is a severe radiation near the weld on the source side during radiography
hazard. These sources must be stored in locked, to determine the degree of sensitivity disclosed in a
shielded cases, and handled very carefully when radiograph. For example, if a penetrameter with a
used. Personnel performing radiography must be thickness of 2 percent of the material to be
highly trained and must relicensed by the Nuclear inspected can be seen on the radiograph, it means
Regulatory Commission. The radiographs generally that the radiograph contrast sensitivity is 2 percent
have considerably less contrast than films exposed o r b e t t e r , since t h e r a d i o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e
by X-radiation. The cost and trouble of replacing employed can show an object thickness difference of
isotopes with short half-lives can be a factor in 2 percent or more. In most cases, 2 percent contrast
deciding whether to use X-ray or gamma radiogra- sensitivity is considered satisfactory. However, for
phy on a project. critical purposes such as nuclear components, pres-
sure vessels, and piping for compressed gasses and
8-10
TM 5-805-7
bridges, a lower percentage is desired. In other clas- with the desired radiographic image. When weld
ses of work, a higher percentage maybe acceptable. reinforcement or backing is not removed, shims of
To demonstrate detail sensitivity, holes in the pene- the material being radiographed must be placed _
trameter are used; their diameters are, in terms of under the penetrameter. These shims must make the
effect, artificial flaws of known dimensions. The total thickness of material between the penetrame-
holes are usually expressed in the thickness of the ter and the film at least equal to the average thick-
penetrameter. Construction details of penetrame- ness of the weld measured through its reinforcement
ters are shown in figure 8-7. and backing.
(5) The radiographic film must be Class 1, extra (3 Pnetrameters must be placed on the side of
fine grain, and Class 2, fine grain. Both classes of the work near the radiation source adjacent and par-
film give high contrast. Extra fine grain film has allel to the weld, A radiograph identification mark
greater sensitivity than fine grain (i.e., reveal and two location identification marks, all of which
smaller discontinuities). However, exposure times are to show in the radiograph, must be placed on the
may be as much as 50 percent longer since more material at each radiograph location.
exposure to radiation is needed to develop an image. (4) Film holders must be placed tightly against
Film holders must be flexible, and intensification the test item whenever possible. Shielding beyond
screens must be made of lead. Front screens should the film holder should be provided when practical.
be 0.005 inch and back screens 0.010 inch. The operator must use radiation detection devices,
(6) Film processing equipment can be either including survey meters, film badges, and
manual or automatic. Processing systems should con- dosimeters.
tain separate tanks for developing, short stop or (5) Film must be processed so that the radi-
washing, fixing, and final washing. Film driers must ographs are of high quality. Films containing
not cause processing defects. mechanical, chemical, or other processing defects
(7) A densitometer or a density strip is needed that could interfere with proper interpretation of
to make sure film density requirements have been the radiograph are not acceptable.
met. Density, a measure of the degree of blackness, (6) Radiographs are viewed using a high-inten-
is a function of exposure time and intensity of the sity light source that has adjustable levels from dim
radiation to which film is subjected. The radiogra- to a brightness that penetrates without difficulty
pher controls these variables. radiographs with a density of 4.0. Radiographs must
c. Inspection procedure. The procedure described be checked for proper placement of identification
substantially conforms to ASTM E 94, ASTM E 142, numbers and penetrameters. All indications must be
and AWS D1.1. Procedures are also outlined in interpreted and marked.
MIL-R-11470, MIL-STD-453, and the ASME Boiler (7) The interpreter must be familiar with the
and Pressure Vessel Code, section V. standards for acceptance or rejection. Most stan-
(1) Radiographs must be made by either the X- dards agree about the types of discontinuities which
ray or isotope radiation methods. If the level 2-2T are not acceptable, but there are some differences.
-
r a d i o g r a p h y is required, all radiographs should Defects such as cracks or zones of incomplete fusion
reveal discontinuities with thicknesses equal to or or penetration would be cause for rejection. Poros-
greater than 2 percent of the thickness of the thin- ity of one size or aggregate lengths might also be
ner part joined by the weld being examined. In the cause for rejection, while other sizes or lengths
2-2T designation, the first digit 2 means 2 percent would be acceptable. Reference radiographs are
sensitivity and 2T the diameter of the hole in the indicated in ASTM E 94, MIL-STD-779, and MIL-R-
penetrameter which must be clearly visible in the 45774.
radiograph. Class 1 or 2 film must be used. The film
must be clean and free of processing defects. It must 8-9. Ultrasonic inspection
have a density of not less than 1.5 nor more than Ultrasonic inspection is a rapid, efficient, nonde-
4.0, although densities within the range of 2.5 to 3.5 structive method of detecting, locating, and measur-
are preferred. Radiographs will show: ing both surface and subsurface defects in
(a) The smallest hole in each penetrameter as weldments and/or base materials. An ultrasonic is an
specified in the specification. energy wave form with frequencies above 20,000
(b) The radiograph identification and Hertz. The ultrasonic wave is introduced into the
location. material being tested by a piezoelectric transducer
(2) Welds that are to be radiographed need not placed in contact with the test specimen. The ultra-
be ground or otherwise smoothed for radiographic sound enters the specimen and is reflected back to
testing unless the surface irregularities interfere the transducer when it encounters an interface that
8-12
Table 8-3. Comparison of Ultrasonics With Other Techniques
Radiography
1. Porosity 1.
2. Inclusions 2.
3. Large cracks 3.
4. Lack of fusion 4.
5. Lack of penetration 5.
6. Small cracks
could be a flaw or the back surface of the material. called an A-scan and is a time versus amplitude
These vibrations are converted to electric signals, display. From the pip or pulse location on the CRT
amplified, and displayed on a cathode ray tube time line and its height of amplitude, the relative
(CRT) screen as indications. Because of the high fre- depth and size of the discontinuity can be estimated.
quency (above the range for the human ear), the (1) Ultrasonic inspection has many advantages
short wave-length allows small flaws to be detected. over other methods. It is fast, and the equipment is
Ultrasonics is one of the most commonly used tech- compact and portable. Unlike radiographic inspec-
niques for subsurface flaw detection in weldments. tion, it involves no time delay while film is being
Ultrasonic inspection is specified to detect both processed and poses no radiation hazard to persons
internal and surface flaws in all types of welded working in the inspection area. Indications of flaws
joints. Defects such as slag inclusions, porosity, lack can be seen immediately on the CRT. Both internal
of fusion (cold shuts), lack of penetration (root and surface flaws can be detected (though shallow
defects), and longitudinal and transverse cracks can surface cracks are more easily and reliably detected
be detected. Since only one inspection surface is with magnetic particle or liquid penetrant). Since
usually required, many types of welded joints can be there are no expandable materials, the inspection
satisfactorily inspected. When a flaw is found, it can can be performed faster and at a lower cost than
be measured and evaluated. Dimensions such as radiography. Certain types of defects not readily
depth, width, and length can be measured if one detectable by other inspection methods can be
surface is accessible. found by ultrasonics. By using calibrated standards
a. Principles of ultrasonic inspection. Most and a few calculations, the inspector can classify he
ultrasonic testing is performed with a single straight indications as irrelevant, acceptable, or unaccept-
or angle beam transducer depending on the design able. Ultrasonic inspection has a higher sensitivity
of the weld joint to be inspected. The transducer, level than does radiographic inspection. Ultrasonic
sometimes referred to as a crystal or search unit, can inspection is more sensitive to crack detection as the
transform electrical voltage generated by the material thickness increases; for radiographic
ultrasonic unit into mechanical vibrations or ultra- inspection, the opposite is true. Table 8-3 compares
sound. The transducer also can convert the ultrasonics and radiographic, magnetic particle, and
returning vibrations from a test specimen into elec- liquid penetrant inspection.
trical energy; they are displayed in this form on the (2) Ultrasonic inspection has some limitations
ultrasonic units CRT. This capability to convert that have restricted its use. Chief among these are
from electrical energy to mechanical vibrations and the difficulty in interpreting the oscilloscope pat-
back again is called the piezoelectric effect. The terns and the need for standards to calibrate the
electrical signal striking the transducer, usually not instrument. This procedure produces no permanent
more than 1 microsecond in duration, makes the records showing flaws and their location. A high
transducer vibrate during the driving period. The degree of operator skill and training is required to
duration of the pulse is short, so that returning or interpret the oscilloscope patterns reliably. Flaws,
reflected echoes from defects or boundaries lying such as cracks, oriented parallel to the sound beam
close to the surface will appear as a separate indica- may not be detected. This means a different
tion, as shown in figure 8-8. Such a presentation is ultrasonic inspection technique must be used. The
8-13
TM 5-805-7
INITIAL
PULSE
8-14
TM 5-805-7
surface of the material must be free from weld spat- subsurface defects in base metals, but should be
ter and must be smooth enough to allow effective specified for some weld inspection, as shown in fig-
coupling between the transducer and the material. ure 8-9.
Surface roughness can cause scattering and absorp- (b) The angle beam method, sometimes called
tion of the sound. Also, a rough surface will create shear wave, is usually the required procedure for
undue wear on the crystal surface of the transducer, weld inspection. The vibrational wave is introduced
causing premature failure. A viscous coupling agent into the material at an angle of 30 to 80 degrees
such as glycerine is necessary to eliminate the com- from the perpendicular to the material surface. This
pressible air which prevents sound (mechanical angle will vary with the materials thickness. A lon-
vibrations) from entering the material from the gitudinal transducer is mounted on plastic wedges
transducer. The coupling agent can be any liquid, cut at specific angles, usually 70, 60, or 45 degrees.
grease, or paste which fills surface depressions or By varying the position of the angle beam search
pits. unit with respect to the weld, flaws at any location in
(3) Two important considerations in selecting a the weld joint can be detected, as shown in figure
transducer are its diameter and operating frequency. 8-10.
The higher the frequency, the greater the sensitivity (c) Surface waves are generated by mode con-
will be. This advantage may be offset if lower fre- version so that the refracted wave will travel along
quencies are needed to penetrate coarse-grained or the surface. Surface waves follow curved surfaces
very thick materials. Table 8-4 shows the ultrasonic and detect surface and near-surface defects. This
frequency ranges that may be used on various technique has many applications in industry, but is
applications. seldom used for weld inspection.
(4) Transducers generally fall into three groups: b. Equipment. The equipment for ultrasonic weld
straight beam, angle beam, and surface wave. inspection is a pulse-echo-type ultrasonic test unit
(a) Longitudinal wave, sometimes called that can generate, receive, and present on a CRT
straight beam, directs the sound waves into the screen pulses in the frequency range from 0.2 to 10
material in a direction perpendicular to the surface megahertz.
of the part. This method is used mainly to detect
8-15
INSPECTION
ZONE
8-16
(1) Transducers will consist of straight beam and indications, distance/time relationship, and sensitiv-
angle beam types in the frequency range of 2 to 2.4 ity/time relationship. Other parameters are speci-
megahertz. Angle beam transducer angles of 70, 60, men properties, such as material sound/velocity;
and 45 degrees are to be used. specific acoustic impedance; part geometry; mate-
(2) A coupling material is needed to exclude air. rial attenuation; and noise level. Each signal peak
Typical coupling materials include water, oil, along the scan line represents a place in time where
g r ease, pastes, and glycerine. Generally, the the acoustic energy has encountered an interface or
rougher the surface, the more viscous the coupling a multiple of a previously generated signal. By
agent required. knowing the beam path and spread, the operator can
(3) Ultrasonic reference blocks are usually interpret the signal and separate relevant from irrel-
needed to check the sensitivity and performance of evant indications. T h e o p e r a t o r m u s t c o n s i d e r
ultrasonic instrumentation and transducers for amplitude/distance response and amplitude/area
inspecting critical welds. Most standards are manu- response when determining flaw size. The shape and
factured with artificial defects in the form of drilled orientation of the flaw also affect the signal ampli-
holes with flat, round, or conical bottoms or slots tude. In attempting to determine flaw size, an opera-
machined into the surface. AWS D1.1 recommends tor must watch both the flaw signal amplitude and
several standards, the most common being the Inter- the loss of amplitude of the back reflection.
national Institute of Welding (IIW) reference block (1) Before any inspection, the ultrasonic unit
shown in figure 8-11. must be calibrated for sensitivity and horizontal
Inspection procedures. The procedures sweep (distance); a calibration block or other recog-
described conform to ASTM E 164 and AWS D1.1. nized method must be used.
Ultrasonic inspection procedures are also outlined in (2) The surface of the weld area to be inspected
appendix U to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel must be free of weld spatter (which will cause rapid
Code, Section VIII, Division 1, and in Section V, wear of the transducer), grease, dirt, oil, and loose
Article 5. In ultrasonic inspection, the most impor- scale (which will cause scattering and attenuation).
tant phase is the interpretation of indications. In Tight layers of paint need not be removed unless the
preparing for an ultrasonic inspection, an operator thickness exceeds 10 roils.
must consider certain parameters: type and size of (3) A coupling agent must be used between the
transducer, couplant, scanning procedures, peaking search unit and the metal. The base metal is first
techniques, frequency, pulse length, linearity of examined for lamella flaws using a straight beam
search unit, and then is inspected using the angle
8-18
TM 5-805-7
beam. Where possible, all welds should be scanned a. Test methods. There are three categories of
from both sides on the beam face for longitudinal destructive tests: chemical, hardness, and mechani-
and transverse discontinuities. The search unit must cal tests.
be placed on the surface with the sound beam aimed (1) Chemical tests. Chemical tests are generally
about 90 degrees to the weld and manipulated later- used to validate the chemical composition or the
ally and longitudinally so that the ultrasonic beam corrosion resistance of the base and weld metals.
passes through all of the weld metal. Particular compositions of the metals involved, for
(4) For welds not ground flush (fig 8-12), shear example, may be examined for conformance to
wave is used in four different scans. For longitudinal specifications. In addition, chemical analysis of the
flaws, sound is directed into the weld from each weld metal can show whether welding produced the
side. The transducer is oscillated to the left and right expected results, or whether it introduced undesir-
with an included angle of about 30 degrees. To able constituents into the weld metal. corrosion
detect transverse defects, the transducer is placed tests demonstrate a weldments capability to with-
on the base metal at the edge of the weld. It is then stand the corrosive environment to be encountered in
positioned so that the sound beam makes about a 15- service. Because of the cost and time involved, a
degree angle to the longitudinal axis of the weld. To weldment usually cannot be tested for corrosion
scan, the search is moved along the weld edge from resistance by actual use under service conditions.
both sides. For welds ground flush (fig 8-13), scan- Therefore, accelerated corrosion tests that can be
ning is done similarly. However, to detect longitudi- conducted under laboratory conditions have been
nal flaws the transducer is moved across the weld. developed.
And for transverse defects, the transducer is oscil- (2) Hardness tests. Hardness tests measure the
lated left and right through a 30-degree angle while resistance of materials to wear. For most metals,
continuously advancing along the top of the weld. ductility and corrosion resistance decrease as the
(5) When an indication of a flaw appears on the hardness increases. Since each operation during
CRT, the location and position of the transducer are welding has metallurgical effects, some specifica-
recorded. By using graphs, calculators, or guides, tions call for an upper limit to the acceptable hard-
the operator can accurately locate the position of ness of various areas of weld. Hardness testing is
the defect in the weld. By using applicable charts done with equipment which, under a specific load,
and attenuation factors, the weld discontinuity can forces a small hardened steel ball or diamond point
be accepted or rejected. into the. surface of the metal. The depth of penetra-
tion is either measured directly by the machine, or
8-10. Destructive testing inferred from the dimensions of the impression. By
In procedure qualification testing and welding associating a number with each possible impression
development work, metallographic specimens are depth, the inspector can develop a hardness scale.
sometimes removed from a structure to check the This testing approach is used by the three most com-
quality of the weldment. These tests are used to mon hardness measuring devices: the Brinell,
determine visually the characteristics of the welds. Rockwell, and Vickers hardness testers. Hardness
Metallographic test samples are sections cut through numbers may vary from method to method because
the welds in any desired plane, then polished and of differences in the formulas used to define hard-
etched to reveal the structure. These specimens may ness numbers, in the material type and shape used to
be examined with the naked eye or with various make the impression, and in the imposed load. How-
magnifications, including microscopic, Among the ever, tables of approximately equivalent hardness
characteristics that can be checked are the sound- numbers have been constructed.
ness, location, and depth of penetration of the (3) Mechanical tests. Mechanical tests (exclusive
welds; the metallurgical structures of the weld, of hardness) have been designed to test several weld
fusion zone, and heat affected zone; the extent and properties.
distribution of undesirable inclusions in the weld; (a) Tensile tests are conducted on specimens
hardness gradients; and the number of weld passes. machined from a test weld and are used to measure
When metallographic specimens are removed from the strength of the weld joint. Specimens are usually
any part of a structure, repairs must be made by taken perpendicular to the weld, which is centered
qualified welders or welding operators using in the specimen (fig 8-14). However, specimens are
accepted welding procedures. Peening or heat treat sometimes taken along the weld and consist entirely
ment may be required to develop the full strength of of weld metal. Specimens may have round or rectan-
gular cross sections, depending on the requirements
of the applicable welding code. The testing machine
TM 5-805-7
applies a tensile force until the specimen ruptures. specimen fails if it has cracks or other open defects
From readings on the machine and measurements of greater than a specified number and size, or if it
the specimen before and after the test, properties fractures.
such as yield point or yield strength, ultimate (c) Free bend tests, also for ductility, use
strength, and ductility are calculated. The primary specimens similar to those for guided bend tests.
purpose of the test is to demonstrate that the weld Before the test, gage lines are inscribed across the
metal deposited by the selected procedures meets width of the sample of deposited weld metal. These
or exceeds the minimum values specified in the lines mark off a distance about 1/8 inch less than the
applicable code or specifications. width of the weld. The sample is given an initial
(b) Guided bend tests indicate a welds ductil- bend (fig 8-1 6) by supporting the ends or shoulders
ity. Test specimens are described as root-bend, face- on rollers, then forcing the center down until the
bend, or side-bend, depending on the surface specimen takes a permanent set. Next, a testing
stretched in bending. Rectangular test specimens machine or device (fig 8-16) is used to compress the
similar to those prepared for tensile tests are sample longitudinally until a crack or depression
machined or ground to remove any weld reinforce- appears on the convex face of the specimen, or until
ment. A test jig, such as that shown in figure 8-15, is the specimen is bent double. The load is removed
used to make the bend. with the plunger removed, immediately if a defect appears before the specimen
the specimen is placed across the shoulders of the is bent double. Percent elongation is calculated from
jig with the weld centered. The plunger is then the initial and final distances between the gage
forced down until the specimen is bent into a U- marks.
shape. The elongation of the tension surface is (d) Shear tests of fillet welds are conducted by
determined by the relationship between the thick- pulling specimens apart in a testing machine. The
ness of the specimen and the radius of the die. The dimensions of the specimens make it easy to use the
8-20
TM 5-805-7
FORCE
test results to obtain shear strength in pounds per welded. These tests measure the weld metals capa-
linear inch of weld. Figure 8-17 shows the shear test bility to resist crack propagation under low stress.
specimen and indicates where to machine specimens b . S a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e , Removal of samples by
from test weldment. sectioning is an accepted method of weld inspection
(e) Nick-break tests are required in some approved by various pressure-vessel codes. Because
welding codes to detect weld defects. The nick- the cavity must later be repaired by rewelding, the
break test specimens similar to a rectangular ten- method is sometimes considered a destructive test.
sile-test specimen, except that notches are cut at the Samples may be taken for chemical analysis, etch
center of the weld. The specimen is then broken tests, subsize tension, or impact tests. The specific
either by pulling in tension or by bending. The spec- method of removing samples depends on the size of
imen is forced to break in the weld metal because of specimen needed; hole saws, bolt cutters, cold
the notches. After the specimen has been broken, chisels, or trepanning tools a special power tool
the fracture surfaces are examined for weld-metal with a hemispherical saw are often used for sam-
defects. If there are more than the minimum ple removal. The samples must be carefully selected
allowed, the weld is rejected. to be representative of the weld or base metal being
(f) Various types of impact tests are some- checked.
times used to test the fracture toughness of the weld
metal when low-alloy, high-strength steels are being
8-21
TM 5-805-7
1 INITIAL S E T
8-22
1
1/2
r
TM 5-805-7
8-11. Leak testing the evacuated space. A small jet of helium gas is
Leak tests are similar to proof tests for closed pres- directed at the side of the weld joint exposed to the
sure vessels; the container being tested is filled with atmosphere. If there is a leak, some of the helium is
a fluid at a specified pressure. The choice of liquid sucked through it into the evacuated space, and the
or gas depends on the purpose of the container and mass spectrometer immediately indicates the pres-
the leakage that can be tolerated. For example, con- ence of helium. Of course, if no leak is present, no
tainers that are watertight may not be oiltight or helium will enter the evacuated space and no indica-
gastight. Leaks can be detected in several ways. For tion will appear on the mass spectrometer. To deter-
oil or water, visual inspection of the outside of the mine the exact location of leaks, the jet of helium is
pressure vessel may suffice. Leaking air or gas can moved along the surface of the weld joint. At the
be detected by the sound of the escaping gas, by use same time, an inspector carefully watches the mass
of a soap film that forms bubbles as gas escapes spectrometer. If there is an indication, the leak is at
beneath it, or by immersion in a liquid in which the the point where the helium jet is hitting the surface
escaping gas forms bubbles. For hydrostatic or gas of the weld joint.
tests, a pressure gage attached to the vessel indicates c. To detect leaks, the ultrasonic translator detec-
leaks by the drop in pressure after the tests begin. tor uses the ultrasonic sounds of gas molecules
Dyes introduced into liquids and tracers introduced escaping from a vessel under pressure or vacuum.
into gases can also indicate leakage. Weld defects The sound created is in the frequency range of
that cause leakage are not always detected by the 35,000 and 45,000 Hertz, which is above the range
usual nondestructive testing methods. A tight crack of human hearing and is therefore classified as
or fissure may not appear on a radiograph, yet will ultrasonic. Certain characteristics of these frequen-
form a leak path. A production operation, such as cies are useful for detections. They are outside the
forming or a proof test, may make leaks develop in range of most plant and machine noise, and the short
an otherwise acceptable weld joint. A leak test is wave length of these frequencies permits the use of
usually done on the completed vessel if all of the highly directional microphones. Any system or ves-
weld joints can be inspected; at this stage there will sel that can be pressurized or evacuated to a pres-
be no more fabricating operations after the inspec- sure of 3 psi can be inspected. The operator simply
tion. Inspection is easier if the vessel is empty, The listens to the translated ultrasonic sounds while
most common types of leak testing are discussed moving a hand-held probe along the weld (in the
below. same way that a flashlight. is used to illuminate the
a. The pressure-rise test method is used to see suspected leak locations). The detectors are simple
whether any leaks exist. In this test, the part being to operate and require minimum operator training.
inspected is attached to a vacuum pump and evacu- d. Some of the following tests particularly the
ated to a pressure of ().5 psi absolute. when this air-soap solution test can be conducted on a ves-
pressure is reached, the connections to the vacuum sel during or after assembly. The inspector can
pump are sealed off, and the internal pressure of the locate large defects in order to reduce the time
part is measured immediately. The pressure is mea- needed for final leak testing. After testing, vessels
sured again after at least 5 minutes (with the item should be thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of
still sealed off from the vacuum pump). If the pres- soap solution.
sure in the evacuated space remains essentially con- (1) Hydrostatic test. This test should conform to
stant, the welds are free of leaks. If there is a the applicable requirements of a particular vessel or
pressure rise, at least one leak is present, and the system. only distilled or deionized (demineralized)
helium-leak test described in b below must be used, water having a pH of 6 to 8 and an impurity content
b. The helium-leak test is more precise than the not greater than 5 ppm is used. Traces of water
pressure-rise method and is used to find the exact should be removed from the inside before final leak
location of these leaks. Helium-leak testing is slow, testing is begun.
however, so it normally is not used to inspect large (2) Water submersion test. In this test, the ves-
items unless a leak definitely exists. This inspection sel is completely submerged in clean water. The
method requires the use of a helium mass spectrom- interior is pressurized with gas, but the design pres-
eter to detect the presence of helium gas. The mass sure must not be exceeded. The size and number of
spectrometer is connected to the pumping system any gas bubbles indicates the size of leaks,
between the vacuum pump and the item being (3) Soap solution test, In this test, the vessel is
inspected. Then the item is evacuated by a vacuum subjected to an internal gas pressure not exceeding
pump to a pressure of less than 50 microns of mer- the design pressure. A soap or equivalent solution is
cury. The mass spectrometer can detect helium in
8-24
applied so that connections and welded joints can be Each joint is carefully probed with a halide torch to
examined for leaks. detect leaks, which are indicated by a change in the
(4) Air-ammonia test. This test involves intro- color of the flame.
ducing air into the vessel until so percent of the (6) Halogen snifter test. A Freon inert gas mix-
design pressure is needed. Anhydrous ammonia is ture is introduced into the vessel until the design
then introduced into the vessel until 55 percent of pressure is reached. About 1 ounce of Freon for
the design pressure is reached; air is then reintro- every 30 cubic feet of vessel volume is required.
duced until the design pressure is reached. Each The inspector passes the probe of a halogen vapor
joint is carefully examined by using as a probe either analyzer over the area to be explored. This probe is
a swab wetted with 10N solution of muriatic acid held about 1/2 inch from the surface being tested
(HCL), a sulphur candle, or sulphur dioxide. A wisp and is moved at about 1/2 inch per second. Since the
of white smoke indicates a leak. instrument is responsive to cigarette smoke and
(5) Halide torch test. In this test, the vessel is vapor from newly dry-cleaned clothing, the air
pressurized to a value not exceeding the design should be kept clean where the test is being done. In
pressure; a mixture of SO percent Freon and carbon addition, the test should be done in a substantially
dioxide or 50 percent Freon and nitrogen is used. draft-free enclosure.
8-25
CHAPTER 9
SAFETY
9-1
TM 5-805-7
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
Government Publications
Department of Defense.
MIL-C-15726E Copper-Nickel Alloy, Rod, Flat Products (Flat Wire, Strip, Sheet, Bar and Plate),
and Forgings.
MIL-E-22200F General Specification for Electrodes, Welding Covers.
MIL-E-18193 Electrode, Welding, Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel, Bare, Coiled.
MIL-E-19822A Electrodes, Welding, Bare, High-Yield Steel.
MIL-E-23765/lD Electrodes and Rods-Welding, Bare, Solid, Mild and Alloy Steel.
MIL-E-23765/2B Electrode and Rod-Welding, Bare, Solid, Low Alloy Steel.
MIL-I-6868 Inspection Process, Magnetic Particle.
MIL-R-11468 Radiographic Inspection, Soundness Requirements for Arc and Gas Welds in Steel,
MIL-R-11470 Radiographic Inspection, Qualification of Equipment, Operators and Procedures.
MIL-R-45774(2) Radiographic Inspection, Soundness Requirements for Fusion Welds in Aluminum
and Magnesium Missile Components.
MIL-STD-00453B Radiographic Inspection.
MIL-STD-271E Nondestructive Testing Requirement for Metals.
MIL-STD-410D Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification (Eddy Current,
Liquid Penetrant, Magnetic Particle, Radiographic and Ultrasonic).
MIL-STD-779 Reference Radiographic for Steel Fusion Welds, Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III.
Department of the Army.
- - - -
Nongovernment Publications
Aerospace Materials Specification (AMS), Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Drive,
Warrendale, PA 15096
AMS 2635B Radiographic Inspection (updated periodically).
AMS 2640H Magnetic Particle Inspection (updated periodically).
AMS 2645G Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection (updated periodically).
AMS 2646B Contrast Dye Penetrant Inspection (updated periodically).
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), 400 N. Michigan Ave., 8th Floor, Chicago, IL 60611
Manual of Steel Construction
Aluminum Association, inc. (AA), 818 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20006
American Concrete Institute (ACI), P.O. Box 19150, Detroit, MI 48219
ACI 318-77 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 1000 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036
Industry Practices for Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing of Steel Tubular Products.
Ultrasonic Inspection of Steel Products.
American National Standards institute (ANSI,, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018
ANSI B31.1-80 Power Piping.
A-1
TM 5-805-7
APPENDIX B
QUALIFICATION TESTING
configuration does not allow meaningful test results b. Method. In personnel qualification testing, the
to be obtained by the mechanical property test welder or welding operator is required to weld a
methods discussed above. small test plate in a material which is the same as or
d. Usefulness of procedure qualification. The pro- similar to that of the actual production weldment.
cedure qualification test is useful for demonstrating The qualified procedure for that weldment must be
the quality and properties of the weld before its used. The qualification plate is then nondestruc-
production. Since it is almost impossible to duplicate tively examined and destructively tested. These
actual production welding conditions, this test is steps insure that the weld soundness meets the mini-
conducted under simulated conditions. In an actual mum acceptance standards of the welding code gov-
welding situation, conditions arise that could not erning the particular application.
have been anticipated when the procedure was c. Testing. Testing methods used for personnel
being qualified (e.g., a b r u p t w e a t h e r c h a n g e s ) . qualification tests usually include the nondestructive
Therefore, the production phase must be closely examinations applicable to the specific job and any
supervised so that such conditions are noticed as combination of the bend tests described previously.
they occur. If these factors can alter the quality of In some instances, nick-break tests may also be
the weld, they should be evaluated. required because they examine weld soundness
rather than weld metal properties. Tensile tests are
B-3. Welder and welding operator usually not required for examining personnel
qualification qualifications.
a. General. Weld quality is determined by the spe- d. Usefulness of personnel qualifications. The per-
cific welding procedure and by the ability of the sonnel qualification tests assure a customer that the
welder or welding operator to apply that procedure. welders have been screened and are capable of pro-
Welder qualification tests determine the operators ducing welds that conform to procedure and specifi-
ability to produce sound welds that conform to the cation requirements. These tests do not guarantee
procedure specification. The tests indicate whether that the welder will produce satisfactory welds each
the welder or welding operator can produce accept- time, but do tend to eliminate welders whose work
able welds, but do not indicate whether he/she will is never acceptable. As with procedure qualifica-
produce acceptable welds during actual production. tions, the value of personnel qualifications increases
Consequently, during the construction process, the when the production welding conditions are simu-
welds must be inspected before and after lated as closely as possible.
completion.
TM 5-805-7
BIBLIOGRAPHY