Slum

A slum is a highly populated urban residential area

Slums in major cities
consisting mostly of closely-packed, decrepit housing units
in a situation of deteriorated or uncompleted infrastructure,
inhabited primarily by impoverished persons.[1] While slums
differ in size and other characteristics, most lack reliable
sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity,
law enforcement and other basic services. Slum residences Dhaka, Bangladesh So Paulo, Brazil Cairo, Egypt

vary from shanty houses to professionally built dwellings

which, because of poor-quality construction or provision of
basic maintenance, have deteriorated.[2]

Due to increasing urbanization of the general populace, Nairobi, Kenya State of Mexico, Jakarta, Indonesia
slums became common in the 18th to late 20th centuries in Mexico

the United States and Europe.[3][4] Slums are still

predominantly found in urban regions of undeveloped
countries, but are also still found in developed
economies.[5][6]
Cape Town, South Mumbai, India Caracas, Venezuela
According to UN-Habitat, around 33% of the urban Africa

population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863

million people, lived in slums.[7] The proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (61.7%),
followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%), East Asia (28.2%), West Asia (24.6%), Oceania (24.1%), Latin America and
the Caribbean (23.5%), and North Africa (13.3%). Among individual countries, the proportion of urban residents living in slum areas
in 2009 was highest in the Central African Republic (95.9%). Between 1990 and 2010 the percentage of people living in slums
dropped, even as the total urban population increased.[7] The world's largest slum city is found in the Neza-Chalco-Ixtapaluca area,
located in the State of Mexico.[8][9][10]

Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration,
economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor
planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts.[1][11][12] Strategies tried to reduce and transform slums in different countries,
with varying degrees of success, include a combination of slum removal, slum relocation, slum upgrading, urban planning with
[13][14]
citywide infrastructure development, and public housing.

Contents
1 Etymology and nomenclature
2 History
3 Causes that create and expand slums
3.1 Ruralurban migration
3.2 Urbanization
3.3 Poor house planning
3.4 Colonialism and segregation
3.5 Poor infrastructure, social exclusion and economic stagnation
3.6 Informal economy
3.7 Poverty
 3.8 Politics
3.9 Social conflicts
3.10 Natural disasters
4 Characteristics of slums
4.1 Location and growth
4.2 Insecure tenure
4.3 Substandard housing and overcrowding
4.4 Inadequate or no infrastructure
5 Risks
5.1 Vulnerability to natural and unnatural hazards
5.2 Unemployment and informal economy
5.3 Violence
5.4 Disease
5.5 Child malnutrition
5.6 Epidemics
6 Countermeasures
6.1 Slum removal
6.2 Slum relocation
6.3 Slum upgrading
6.4 Urban infrastructure development and public housing
7 Prevalence
8 See also
8.1 Variations of impoverished settlements
8.2 Organizations and concepts
9 References
10 Further reading

Etymology and nomenclature

It is thought[15] that slum is a British slang word from the East End of London meaning "room", which evolved to "back slum"
around 1845 meaning 'back alley, street of poor people.'

Numerous other non English terms are often used interchangeably with slum: shanty town, favela, rookery, gecekondu, skid row,
barrio, ghetto, bidonville, taudis, bandas de miseria, barrio marginal, morro, loteamento, barraca, musseque, tugurio, solares, mudun
safi, karyan, medina achouaia, brarek, ishash, galoos, tanake, baladi, trushebi, chalis, katras, zopadpattis, bustee, estero, looban,
[16]
dagatan, umjondolo, watta, udukku, and chereka bete.

History
Slums were common in the United States and Europe before the early 20th century. London's East End is generally considered the
locale where the term originated in the 19th century, where massive and rapid urbanisation of the dockside and industrial areas led to
intensive overcrowding in a warren of post-medieval streetscape. The suffering of the poor was described in popular fiction by
moralist authors such as Charles Dickens most famously Oliver Twist (1837-9) and echoed the 'Christian Socialist' values of the
time, which soon found legal expression in the Public Health Act of 1848. As the slum clearance movement gathered pace, deprived
areas such as Old Nichol were fictionalised to raise awareness in the middle classes in the form of moralist novels such as A Child of
the Jago (1896) resulting in slum clearance and reconstruction programmes such as the exemplary Boundary Estate (1893-1900) and
the creation of charitable trusts such as the Peabody Trust founded in 1862 and Joseph Rowntree Foundation (1904) which still
operate to provide decent housing today.
Slums are often associated with Victorian Britain, particularly in industrial English
towns, lowland Scottish towns and Dublin City in Ireland. Engels described these
British neighborhoods as "cattle-sheds for human beings".[17] These were generally
still inhabited until the 1940s, when the British government started slum clearance
and built new council houses.[18] There are still examples left of slum housing in the
UK, but many have been removed by government initiative, redesigned and replaced
with better public housing. In Europe, slums were common.[19][20] By the 1920s it
had become a common slang expression in England, meaning either various taverns
and eating houses, "loose talk" or gypsy language, or a room with "low going-ons".
In Life in London Pierce Egan used the word in the context of the "back slums" of One of the many New York City slum
Holy Lane or St Giles. A footnote defined slum to mean "low, unfrequent parts of photographs of Jacob Riis (ca 1890).
the town". Charles Dickens used the word slum in a similar way in 1840, writing "I Squalor can be seen in the streets,
wash clothes hanging between
mean to take a great, London, back-slum kind walk tonight". Slum began to be used
buildings.
to describe bad housing soon after and was used as alternative expression for
rookeries.[21] In 1850 the Catholic Cardinal Wiseman described the area known as
Devil's Acre in Westminster, London as follows:

"Close under the Abbey of Westminster there lie concealed

labyrinths of lanes and potty and alleys and slums, nests of
ignorance, vice, depravity, and crime, as well as of squalor,
wretchedness, and disease; whose atmosphere is typhus, whose
ventilation is cholera; in which swarms of huge and almost countless
population, nominally at least, Catholic; haunts of filth, which no
sewage committee can reach dark corners, which no lighting board
Inside of a slum house, from Jacob
can brighten."[22]
Riis photo collection of New York City
(ca 1890).
This passage was widely quoted in the national press,[23] leading to the
popularisation of the wordslum to describe bad housing.[21][24]

In France as in most industrialised European capitals, slums were widespread in

Paris and other urban areas in the 19th century, many of which continued through
first half of the 20th century. The first cholera epidemic of 1832 triggered a political
debate, and Louis Ren Villerm study[27] of various arrondissements of Paris
demonstrated the differences and connection between slums, poverty and poor
health.[28] Melun Law first passed in 1849 and revised in 1851, followed by
establishment of Paris Commission on Unhealthful Dwellings in 1852 began the
social process of identifying the worst housing inside slums, but did not remove or Part of Charles Booth's poverty map
replace slums. After World War II, French people started mass migration from rural showing the Old Nichol, a slum in the
to urban areas of France. This demographic and economic trend rapidly raised rents East End of London. Published 1889
in Life and Labour of the People in
of existing housing as well as expanded slums. French government passed laws to
London. The red areas are "middle
block increase in the rent of housing, which inadvertently made many housing
class, well-to-do", light blue areas are
projects unprofitable and increased slums. In 1950, France launched its Habitation "poor, 18s to 21s a week for a
Loyer Modr[29][30] initiative to finance and build public housing and remove moderate family", dark blue areas
slums, managed by techniciens urban technocrats.,[31] and financed by Livret are "very poor, casual, chronic want",
A[32] a tax free savings account for French public. and black areas are the "lowest
class...occasional labourers, street
New York City is believed to have created America's first slum, named the Five sellers, loafers, criminals and semi-
Points in 1825, as it evolved into a large urban settlement.[4][33] Five Points was criminals".
named for a lake namedCollect.[33][34] which, by the late 1700s, was surrounded by
slaughterhouses and tanneries which emptied their waste directly into its waters.
Trash piled up as well and by the early 1800s the lake was filled up and dry. On this
foundation was built Five Points, the United States' first slum. Five Points was
occupied by successive waves of freed slaves, Irish, then Italian, then Chinese,
immigrants. It housed the poor, rural people leaving farms for opportunity, and the
persecuted people from Europe pouring into New York City. Bars, bordellos, squalid
and lightless tenements lined its streets. Violence and crime were commonplace.
Politicians and social elite discussed it with derision. Slums like Five Points
triggered discussions of affordable housing and slum removal. As of the start of the
21st century, Five Points slum had been transformed into the Little Italy and
A slum dwelling in Toronto, Ontario,
Chinatown neighborhoods of New York City, through that city's campaign of Canada, about 1936.[25][26]
massive urban renewal.[3][33]

Five Points was not the only slum in America.[35][36] Jacob Riis, Walker Evans, Lewis Hine and others photographed many before
World War II. Slums were found in every major urban region of the United States throughout most of the 20th century, long after the
Great Depression. Most of these slums had been ignored by the cities and states which encompassed them until the 1960s' War on
Poverty was undertaken by the Federal government of the United States.

.[37]
A type of slum housing, sometimes called poorhouses, crowded the Boston Commons, later at the fringes of the city

Rio de Janeiro documented its first slum in 1920 census. By the 1960s, over 33% of
population of Rio lived in slums, 45% of Mexico City and Ankara, 65% of Algiers,
35% of Caracas, 25% of Lima and Santiago, 15% of Singapore. By 1980, in various
[42]
cities and towns of Latin America alone, there were about 25,000 slums.

Causes that create and expand slums

Slums sprout and continue for a combination of demographic, social, economic, and
political reasons. Common causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, poor
A 1913 slum dwelling midst squalor
planning, economic stagnation and depression, poverty, high unemployment, in Ivry-sur-Seine, a French commune
informal economy, colonialism and segregation, politics, natural disasters and social about 5 kilometers from center of
conflicts. Paris. Slums were scattered around
Paris through the 1950s.[38][39] After
Loi Vivien was passed in July 1970,
Ruralurban migration France demolished some of its last
major bidonvilles (slums) and
Ruralurban migration is one of the causes attributed to the formation and expansion
resettled resident Algerian,
of slums.[1] Since 1950, world population has increased at a far greater rate than the Portuguese and other migrant
total amount of arable land, even as agriculture contributes a much smaller workers by the mid-1970s.[40][41]
percentage of the total economy. For example, in India, agriculture accounted for
52% of its GDP in 1954 and only 19% in 2004;[46] in Brazil, the 2005 GDP
contribution of agriculture is one-fifth of its contribution in 1951.[47] Agriculture, meanwhile, has also become higher yielding, less
disease prone, less physically harsh and more efficient with tractors and other equipment. The proportion of people working in
[1]
agriculture has declined by 30% over the last 50 years, while global population has increased by 250%.

Many people move to urban areas primarily because cities promise more jobs, better schools for poor's children, and diverse income
opportunities than subsistence farming in rural areas.[48] For example, in 1995, 95.8% of migrants to Surabaya, Indonesia reported
that jobs were their primary motivation for moving to the city.[49] However, some rural migrants may not find jobs immediately
because of their lack of skills and the increasingly competitive job markets, which leads to their financial shortage.[50] Many cities,
on the other hand, do not provide enough low-cost housing for a large number of rural-urban migrant workers. Some ruralurban
migrant workers cannot afford housing in cities and eventually settle down in only affordable slums.[51] Further, rural migrants,
[50]
mainly lured by higher incomes, continue to flood into cities. They thus expand the existing urban slums.
According to Ali and Toran, social networks might also explain ruralurban
migration and people's ultimate settlement in slums. In addition to migration for
jobs, a portion of people migrate to cities because of their connection with relatives
or families. Once their family support in urban areas is in slums, those rural migrants
intend to live with them in slums[52]

Urbanization
The formation of slums is closely linked tourbanization.[53] In 2008, more than 50% Kibera slum in Nairobi, Kenya, the
of the world's population lived in urban areas. In China, for example, it is estimated second largest slum in
Africa[43][44][45] and third largest in
that the population living in urban areas will increase by 10% within a decade
the world.[43]
according to its current rates of urbanization.[54] The UN-Habitat reports that 43%
of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed
countries are slum dwellers.[6]

Some scholars suggest that urbanization creates slums because local governments
are unable to manage urbanization, and migrant workers without an affordable place
to live in, dwell in slums.[55] Rapid urbanization drives economic growth and causes
people to seek working and investment opportunities in urban areas.[56][57]
However, as evidenced by poor urban infrastructure and insufficient housing, the
local governments sometimes are unable to manage this transition.[58][59] This
incapacity can be attributed to insufficient funds and inexperience to handle and
organize problems brought by migration and urbanization.[57] In some cases, local A slum in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Rocinha favela is next to skyscrapers
governments ignore the flux of immigrants during the process of urbanization.[56]
and wealthier parts of the city, a
Such examples can be found in many African countries. In the early 1950s, many
location that provides jobs and easy
African governments believed that slums would finally disappear with economic commute to those who live in the
growth in urban areas. They neglected rapidly spreading slums due to increased slums.
rural-urban migration caused by urbanization.[60] Some governments, moreover,
[61]
mapped the land where slums occupied as undeveloped land.

Another type of urbanization does not involve economic growth but economic stagnation or low growth, mainly contributing to slum
growth in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia. This type of urbanization involves a high rate of unemployment, insufficient
financial resources and inconsistent urban planning policy.[62] In these areas, an increase of 1% in urban population will result in an
increase of 1.84% in slum prevalence.[63]

Urbanization might also force some people to live in slums when it influences land use by transforming agricultural land into urban
areas and increases land value. During the process of urbanization, some agricultural land is used for additional urban activities. More
investment will come into these areas, which increases the land value.[64] Before some land is completely urbanized, there is a period
when the land can be used for neither urban activities nor agriculture. The income from the land will decline, which decreases the
people's incomes in that area. The gap between people's low income and the high land price forces some people to look for and
construct cheap informal settlements, which are known as slums in urban areas.[59] The transformation of agricultural land also
provides surplus labor, as peasants have to seek jobs in urban areas as rural-urbanmigrant workers.[55]

Many slums are part of economies of agglomerationin which there is an emergence of economies of scale at the firm level, transport
costs and the mobility of the industrial labour force.[65] The increase in returns of scale will mean that the production of each good
will take place in a single location.[65] And even though an agglomerated economy benefits these cities by bringing in specialization
and multiple competing suppliers, the conditions of slums continue to lag behind in terms of quality and adequate housing. Alonso-
Villar argues that the existence of transport costs implies that the best locations for a firm will be those with easy access to markets,
and the best locations for workers, those with easy access to goods. The concentration is the result of a self-reinforcing process of
agglomeration.[65] Concentration is a common trend of the distribution of population. Urban growth is dramatically intense in the
less developed countries, where a large number of huge cities have started to appear; which means high poverty rates, crime,
pollution and congestion.[65]

Poor house planning

Lack of affordable low cost housing and poor planning encourages the supply side of slums.[66] The Millennium Development Goals
proposes that member nations should make a "significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers" by 2020.[67]
If member nations succeed in achieving this goal, 90% of the world total slum dwellers may remain in the poorly housed settlements
by 2020.[68] Choguill claims that the large number of slum dwellers indicates a deficiency of practical housing policy.[68] Whenever
there is a significant gap in growing demand for housing and insufficient supply of affordable housing, this gap is typically met in
part by slums.[66] The Economist summarizes this as, "good housing is obviously better than a slum, but a slum is better than
none".[69]

Insufficient financial resources [70] and lack of coordination in government bureaucracy [63] are two main causes of poor house
planning. Financial deficiency in some governments may explain the lack of affordable public housing for the poor since any
improvement of the tenant in slums and expansion of public housing programs involve a great increase in the government
expenditure.[70] The problem can also lie on the failure in coordination among different departments in charge of economic
development, urban planning, and land allocation. In some cities, governments assume that the housing market will adjust the supply
of housing with a change in demand. However, with little economic incentive, the housing market is more likely to develop middle-
income housing rather than low-cost housing. The urban poor gradually become marginalized in the housing market where few
houses are built to sell to them.[63][71]

Colonialism and segregation

Some of the slums in today's world are a product of urbanization brought by
colonialism. For instance, the Europeans arrived in Kenya in the nineteenth century
and created urban centers such as Nairobi mainly to serve their financial interests.
They regarded the Africans as temporary migrants and needed them only for supply
of labor. The housing policy aiming to accommodate these workers was not well
enforced and the government built settlements in the form of single-occupancy
bedspaces. Due to the cost of time and money in their movement back and forth
between rural and urban areas, their families gradually migrated to the urban centre.
An integrated slum dwelling and
As they could not afford to buy houses, slums were thus formed.[75] informal economy inside Dharavi of
Mumbai. Dharavi slum started in
Others were created because of segregation imposed by the colonialists. For 1887 with industrial and
example, Dharavi slum of Mumbai now one of the largest slums in India, used to segregationist policies of the British
be a village referred to as Koliwadas, and Mumbai used to be referred as Bombay. In colonial era. The slum housing,
1887, the British colonial government expelled all tanneries, other noxious industry tanneries, pottery and other economy
and poor natives who worked in the peninsular part of the city and colonial housing established inside and around
Dharavi during the British rule of
area, to what was back then the northern fringe of the city a settlement now called
India.[72][73][74]
Dharavi. This settlement attracted no colonial supervision or investment in terms of
road infrastructure, sanitation, public services or housing. The poor moved into
Dharavi, found work as servants in colonial offices and homes and in the foreign owned tanneries and other polluting industries near
Dharavi. To live, the poor built shanty towns within easy commute to work. By 1947, the year India became an independent nation of
gest slum. [72]
the commonwealth, Dharavi had blossomed into Bombay's lar

Similarly, some of the slums of Lagos, Nigeria sprouted because of neglect and policies of the colonial era.[76] During apartheid era
of South Africa, under the pretext of sanitation and plague epidemic prevention, racial and ethnic group segregation was pursued,
people of color were moved to the fringes of the city, policies that created Soweto and other slums officially called townships.[77]
Large slums started at the fringes of segregation-conscious colonial city centers of Latin America.[78] Marcuse suggests ghettoes in
the United States, and elsewhere, have been created and maintained by the segregationist policies of the state and regionally
dominant group.[79][80]

Poor infrastructure, social exclusion and economic

stagnation
Social exclusion and poor infrastructure forces the poor to adapt to conditions
beyond his or her control. Poor families that cannot afford transportation, or those
who simply lack any form of affordable public transportation, generally end up in
squat settlements within walking distance or close enough to the place of their
formal or informal employment.[66] Ben Arimah cites this social exclusion and poor
infrastructure as a cause for numerous slums in African cities.[63] Poor quality, Makoko One of the oldest slums in
unpaved streets encourage slums; a 1% increase in paved all-season roads, claims Nigeria, was originally a fishing
Arimah, reduces slum incidence rate by about 0.35%. Affordable public transport village settlement, built on stilts on a
lagoon. It developed into a slum and
and economic infrastructure empowers poor people to move and consider housing
became home to about a hundred
options other than their current slums.[82][83] thousand people in Lagos. In 2012, it
was destroyed by the city
A growing economy that creates jobs at rate faster than population growth, offers
government, amidst controversy, to
people opportunities and incentive to relocate from poor slum to more developed accommodate infrastructure for the
neighborhoods. Economic stagnation, in contrast, creates uncertainties and risks for city's growing population.[81]
the poor, encouraging people to stay in the slums. Economic stagnation in a nation
with a growing population reduces per capita disposal income in urban and rural
areas, increasing urban and rural poverty. Rising rural poverty also encourages
migration to urban areas. A poorly performing economy, in other words, increases
[84][85]
poverty and rural-to-urban migration, thereby increasing slums.

Informal economy
Many slums grow because of growing informal economy which creates demand for
workers. Informal economy is that part of an economy that is neither registered as a
business nor licensed, one that does not pay taxes and is not monitored by local or
state or federal government.[86] Informal economy grows faster than formal
economy when government laws and regulations are opaque and excessive,
government bureaucracy is corrupt and abusive of entrepreneurs, labor laws are
inflexible, or when law enforcement is poor.[87] Urban informal sector is between 20
and 60% of most developing economies' GDP; in Kenya, 78 per cent of non-
agricultural employment is in the informal sector making up 42 per cent of GDP.[1]
In many cities the informal sector accounts for as much as 60 per cent of
employment of the urban population. For example, in Benin, slum dwellers comprise The contrast between the rich and
75 per cent of informal sector workers, while in Burkina Faso, the Central African the poor in La Paz, Bolivia.
Republic, Chad and Ethiopia, they make up 90 per cent of the informal labour
force.[88] Slums thus create an informal alternate economic ecosystem, that demands
low paid flexible workers, something impoverished residents of slums deliver. In other words, countries where starting, registering
and running a formal business is difficult, tend to encourage informal businesses and slums.[89][90][91] Without a sustainable formal
[92]
economy that raise incomes and create opportunities, squalid slums are likely to continue.

The World Bank and UN Habitat estimate, assuming no major economic reforms are undertaken, more than 80% of additional jobs in
urban areas of developing world may be low-paying jobs in the informal sector. Everything else remaining same, this explosive
[1]
growth in the informal sector is likely to be accompanied by a rapid growth of slums.
Poverty
Urban poverty encourages the formation and demand for slums.[2] With rapid shift
from rural to urban life, poverty migrates to urban areas. The urban poor arrives with
hope, and very little of anything else. He or she typically has no access to shelter,
basic urban services and social amenities. Slums are often the only option for the
urban poor.[93]

Politics
A slum near Ramos Arizpe in
Many local and national governments have, for political interests, subverted efforts Mexico.
to remove, reduce or upgrade slums into better housing options for the poor.[12]
Throughout the second half of the 19th century, for example, French political parties
relied on votes from slum population and had vested interests in maintaining that
voting block. Removal and replacement of slum created a conflict of interest, and
politics prevented efforts to remove, relocate or upgrade the slums into housing
projects that are better than the slums. Similar dynamics are cited in favelas of
Brazil,[94] slums of India,[95][96] and shanty towns of Kenya.[97]

Scholars[12][98] claim politics also drives rural-urban migration and subsequent

settlement patterns. Pre-existing patronage networks, sometimes in the form of
gangs and other times in the form of political parties or social activists, inside slums
seek to maintain their economic, social and political power. These social and
political groups have vested interests to encourage migration by ethnic groups that
will help maintain the slums, and reject alternate housing options even if the
alternate options are better in every aspect than the slums they seek to
replace.[96][99]

Social conflicts
A woman from a slum is taking a
Millions of Lebanese people formed slums during the civil war from 1975 to bath in a river.
1990.[100][101] Similarly, in recent years, numerous slums have sprung around
aliban violence.[102]
Kabul to accommodate rural Afghans escaping T

Natural disasters
Major natural disasters in poor nations often lead to migration of disaster-affected
families from areas crippled by the disaster to unaffected areas, the creation of
temporary tent city and slums, or expansion of existing slums.[103] These slums tend The location of 30 largest
to become permanent because the residents do not want to leave, as in the case of "contiguous" mega-slums in the
slums near Port-au-Prince after the 2010 Haiti earthquake,[104][105] and slums near world. Numerous other regions have
slums, but those slums are scattered.
Dhaka after 2007 Bangladesh Cyclone Sidr.[106]
The numbers show population in
millions per mega-slum, the initials
Characteristics of slums are derived from city name. Some of
the largest slums of the world are in
areas of political or social conflicts.

Location and growth

Slums typically begin at the outskirts of a city. Over time, the city may expand past the original slums, enclosing the slums inside the
urban perimeter. New slums sprout at the new boundaries of the expanding city, usually on publicly owned lands, thereby creating an
urban sprawl mix of formal settlements, industry, retail zones and slums. This makes the original slums valuable property, densely

[107]
 .[107]
populated with many conveniences attractive to the poor

At their start, slums are typically located in least desirable lands near the town or
city, that are state owned or philanthropic trust owned or religious entity owned or
have no clear land title. In cities located over a mountainous terrain, slums begin on
difficult to reach slopes or start at the bottom of flood prone valleys, often hidden
from plain view of city center but close to some natural water source.[107] In cities
located near lagoons, marshlands and rivers, they start at banks or on stilts above
water or the dry river bed; in flat terrain, slums begin on lands unsuitable for Slum in Tai Hang, Hong Kong, in the
1990s
agriculture, near city trash dumps, next to railway tracks,[108] and other shunned
undesirable locations.

These strategies shield slums from the risk of being noticed and removed when they are small and most vulnerable to local
government officials. Initial homes tend to be tents and shacks that are quick to install, but as slum grows, becomes established and
newcomers pay the informal association or gang for the right to live in the slum, the construction materials for the slums switches to
.[109][110]
more lasting materials such as bricks and concrete, suitable for slum's topography

The original slums, over time, get established next to centers of economic activity, schools, hospitals, sources of employment, which
the poor rely on. Established old slums, surrounded by the formal city infrastructure, cannot expand horizontally; therefore, they
grow vertically by stacking additional rooms, sometimes for a growing family and sometimes as a source of rent from new arrivals in
slums.[111] Some slums name themselves after founders of political parties, locally respected historical figures, current politicians or
[112]
politician's spouse to garner political backing against eviction.

Insecure tenure
Informality of land tenure is a key characteristic of urban slums.[1] At their start, slums are typically located in least desirable lands
near the town or city, that are state owned or philanthropic trust owned or religious entity owned or have no clear land title.[107]
Some immigrants regard unoccupied land as land without owners and therefore occupy it.[113] In some cases the local community or
the government allots lands to people, which will later develop into slums and over which the dwellers don't have property rights.[57]
Informal land tenure also includes occupation of land belonging to someone else.[114] According to Flood, 51 percent of slums are
based on invasion to private land in sub-Saharan Africa, 39 percent in North Africa and West Asia, 10 percent in South Asia, 40
percent in East Asia, and 40 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean.[115] In some cases, once the slum has many residents, the
early residents form a social group, an informal association or a gang that controls newcomers, charges a fee for the right to live in
the slums, and dictates where and how new homes get built within the slum. The newcomers, having paid for the right, feel they have
commercial right to the home in that slum.[107][116] The slum dwellings, built earlier or in later period as the slum grows, are
constructed without checking land ownership rights or building codes, are not registered with the city, and often not recognized by
the city or state governments.[117][118]

Secure land tenure is important for slum dwellers as an authentic recognition of their residential status in urban areas. It also
encourages them to upgrade their housing facilities, which will give them protection against natural and unnatural hazards.[57]
Undocumented ownership with no legal title to the land also prevents slum settlers from applying for mortgage, which might worsen
their financial situations. In addition, without registration of the land ownership, the government has difficulty in upgrading basic
facilities and improving the living environment.[113] Insecure tenure of the slum, as well as lack of socially and politically acceptable
alternatives to slums, also creates difficulty in citywide infrastructure development such as rapid mass transit, electrical line and
sewer pipe layout, highways and roads.[119]

Substandard housing and overcrowding

Slum areas are characterized by substandard housing structures.[120][121] Shanty homes are often built hurriedly, on ad hoc basis,
with materials unsuitable for housing. Often the construction quality is inadequate to withstand heavy rains, high winds, or other local
climate and location. Paper, plastic, earthen floors, mud-and-wattle walls, wood held together by ropes, straw or torn metal pieces as
roofs are some of the materials of construction. In some cases, brick and cement is
used, but without attention to proper design and structural engineering
requirements.[122] Various space, dwelling placement bylaws and local building
codes may also be extensively violated.[2][123]

Overcrowding is another characteristic of slums. Many dwellings are single room

units, with high occupancy rates. Each dwelling may be cohabited by multiple
families. Five and more persons may share a one-room unit; the room is used for
cooking, sleeping and living. Overcrowding is also seen near sources of drinking
water, cleaning, and sanitation where one toilet may serve dozens of Substandard housing in a slum near
families.[124][125][126] In a slum of Kolkata, India, over 10 people sometimes share Jakarta, Indonesia in the 2000s.
a 45 m2 room.[127] In Kibera slum of Nairobi, Kenya, population density is
estimated at 2,000 people per hectare or about 500,000 people in one square
mile.[128]

Inadequate or no infrastructure
One of the identifying characteristics of slums is the lack of or inadequate public
infrastructure.[129][130] From safe drinking water to electricity, from basic health
care to police services, from affordable public transport to fire/ambulance services,
from sanitation sewer to paved roads, new slums usually lack all of these.
Established, old slums sometimes garner official support and get some of these
.[131]
infrastructure such as paved roads and unreliable electricity or water supply

Slums often have very narrow alleys that do not allow vehicles (including
emergency vehicles) to pass. The lack of services such as routine garbage collection Slum with tiled roofs and railway,
Jakarta railway slum resettlement
allows rubbish to accumulate in huge quantities. The lack of infrastructure is caused
1975, Indonesia.
by the informal nature of settlement and no planning for the poor by government
officials. Fires are often a serious problem.[132]

In many countries, local and national government often refuse to recognize slums, because the slum are on disputed land, or because
of the fear that quick official recognition will encourage more slum formation and seizure of land illegally
. Recognizing and notifying
slums often triggers a creation of property rights, and requires that the government provide public services and infrastructure to the
slum residents.[133][134] With poverty and informal economy, slums do not generate tax revenues for the government and therefore
tend to get minimal or slow attention. In other cases, the narrow and haphazard layout of slum streets, houses and substandard shacks,
along with persistent threat of crime and violence against infrastructure workers, makes it difficult to layout reliable, safe, cost
racy's ability to deliver.[135][136]
effective and efficient infrastructure. In yet others, the demand far exceeds the government bureauc

[137]
Low socioeconomic status of its residents is another common characteristic attributed to slum residents.

Risks

Vulnerability to natural and unnatural hazards

Slums are often placed amongs the places vulnerable to natural disasters such as landslides[138] and floods.[139][140] In cities located
over a mountainous terrain, slums begin on slopes difficult to reach or start at the bottom of flood prone valleys, often hidden from
plain view of city center but close to some natural water source.[107] In cities located near lagoons, marshlands and rivers, they start
at banks or on stilts above water or the dry river bed; in flat terrain, slums begin on lands unsuitable for agriculture, near city trash
dumps, next to railway tracks,[108] and other shunned, undesirable locations. These strategies shield slums from the risk of being
noticed and removed when they are small and most vulnerable to local government officials.[107] However, the ad hoc construction,
lack of quality control on building materials used, poor maintenance, and
uncoordinated spatial design make them prone to extensive damage during
earthquakes as well from decay.[141][142]

Some slums risk man-made hazards such as toxic industries, traffic congestion and
collapsing infrastructure.[53] Fires are another major risk to slums and its
inhabitants,[144][145] with streets too narrow to allow proper and quick access to fire
control trucks.[143][146]

Slums in the city of Chau Doc,

Unemployment and informal economy Vietnam over river Hu (Mekong
Due to lack of skills and education as well as competitive job markets,[147] many branch). These slums are on stilts to
withstand routine floods which last 3
slum dwellers face high rates of unemployment.[148] The limit of job opportunities
to 4 months every year.
causes many of them to employ themselves in theinformal economy, inside the slum
or in developed urban areas near the slum. This can sometimes be licit informal
economy or illicit informal economy without working contract or any social security
.
Some of them are seeking jobs at the same time and some of those will eventually
find jobs in formal economies after gaining some professional skills in informal
sectors.[147]

Examples of licit informal economy include street vending, household enterprises,

product assembly and packaging, making garlands and embroideries, domestic work,
shoe polishing or repair, driving tuk-tuk or manual rickshaws, construction workers
or manually driven logistics, and handicrafts production.[149][150] In some slums, A slum in Haiti damaged by 2010
earthquake. Slums are vulnerable to
people sort and recycle trash of different kinds (from household garbage to
extensive damage and human
electronics) for a living selling either the odd usable goods or stripping broken
fatalities from landslides, floods,
goods for parts or raw materials. Typically these licit informal economies require the earthquakes, fire, high winds and
ficials.[151]
poor to regularly pay a bribe to local police and government of other severe weather.[143]

Examples of illicit informal economy include illegal substance and weapons

trafficking, drug or moonshine/changaa production, prostitution and gambling all sources of risks to the individual, families and
society.[153][154][155] Recent reports reflecting illicit informal economies include drug trade and distribution in Brazil's favelas,
production of fake goods in the colonas of Tijuana, smuggling in katchi abadis and slums of Karachi, or production of synthetic
drugs in the townships of Johannesburg.[156]

The slum-dwellers in informal economies run many risks. The informal sector, by its very nature, means income insecurity and lack
of social mobility. There is also absence of legal contracts, protection of labor rights, regulations and bargaining power in informal
employments.[157]

Violence
Some scholars suggest that crime is one of the main concerns in slums.[158] Empirical data suggest crime rates are higher in some
slums than in non-slums, with slum homicides alone reducing life expectancy of a resident in a Brazil slum by 7 years than for a
resident in nearby non-slum.[6][159] In some countries like Venezuela, officials have sent in the military to control slum criminal
violence involved with drugs and weapons.[160] Rape is another serious issue related to crime in slums. In Nairobi slums, for
.[161]
example, one fourth of all teenage girls are raped each year

On the other hand, while UN-Habitat reports some slums are more exposed to crimes with higher crime rates (for instance, the
traditional inner-city slums), crime is not the direct resultant of block layout in many slums. Rather crime is one of the symptoms of
slum dwelling; thus slums consist of more victims than criminals.[6] Consequently, slums in all do not have consistently high crime
rates; slums have the worst crime rates in sectors maintaining influence of illicit
economy such as drug trafficking, brewing, prostitution and gambling . Often in
such circumstance, multiplegangs fight for control over revenue.[162][163]

Slum crime rate correlates with insufficient law enforcement and inadequate public
policing. In main cities of developing countries, law enforcement lags behind urban
growth and slum expansion. Often police can not reduce crime because, due to
ineffective city planning and governance, slums set inefficient crime prevention
system. Such problems is not primarily due to community indifference. Leads and
information intelligence from slums are rare, streets are narrow and a potential death
traps to patrol, and many in the slum community have an inherent distrust of
authorities from fear ranging from eviction to collection on unpaid utility bills to
general law and order.[164] Lack of formal recognition by the governments also
[6]
leads to few formal policing and public justice institutions in slums.

Women in slums are at greater risk of physical and sexual violence.[165] Factors A propaganda poster linking slum to
such as unemployment that lead to insufficient resources in the household can violence, used by US Housing
[166]
increase marital stress and therefore exacerbate domestic violence. Authority in the 1940s. City
governments in the USA created
Slums are often non-secured areas and women often risk sexual violence when they many such propaganda posters and
walk alone in slums late at night. Violence against women and women's security in launched a media campaign to gain
citizen support for slum clearance
slums emerge as recurrent issues.[167]
and planned public housing.[152]
Another prevalent form of violence in slums is armed violence (gun violence),
mostly existing in African and Latin American slums. It leads to homicide and the
emergence of criminal gangs.[168] Typical victims are male slum residents.[169][169][170] Violence often leads to retaliatory and
vigilante violence within the slum.[171] Gang and drug wars are endemic in some slums, predominantly between male residents of
slums.[172][173] The police sometimes participate in gender-based violence against men as well by picking up some men, beating
them and putting them in jail.Domestic violence against menalso exists in slums, including verbal abuses and even physical violence
from households.[173]

Cohen as well as Merton theorized that the cycle of slum violence does not mean slums are inevitably criminogenic, rather in some
cases it is frustration against life in slum, and a consequence of denial of opportunity to slum residents to leave the
slum.[174][175][176] Further, crime rates are not uniformly high in world's slums; the highest crime rates in slums are seen where
illicit economy such as drug trafficking, brewing, prostitution and gambling is strong and multiple gangs are fighting for
control.[177][178]

Disease
Slum dwellers usually experience a high rate of disease.[179][180] Diseases that have
been reported in slums include cholera,[181][182] HIV/AIDS,[183][184] measles,[185]
malaria,[186] dengue,[187] typhoid,[188] drug resistant tuberculosis,[189][190] and
other epidemics.[191][192] Studies focus on children's health in slums address that
cholera and diarrhea are especially common among young children.[193][194] In
Haiti (where a majority of the population live in poverty), after the 2010 earthquake,
A young boy sits over an open sewer
an outbreak of Cholera spread throughout the country, killing 8321 people. Besides in the Kibera slum, Nairobi.
children's vulnerability to diseases, many scholars also focus on high HIV/AID
prevalence in slums among women.[195][196] In some slums, gender inequality
increases women's risk of HIV/AIDS. Mutual monogamy or using condoms are two main ways to prevent HIV/AIDS, but some
women might not be able to modify their behaviors due to masculine authority or violence.[197] Furthermore, diseases can sometimes
lead to high mortality in slums. According to a study in Nairobi's slums, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis attributed to about 50% of the
mortality burden.[198]

High population densities, poor living conditions, low vaccination rates, insufficient health-related data and inadequate health service
engender a higher rate of disease transmission in slums than that in non-slum areas. Overcrowding leads to faster and wider spread of
diseases due to the limited space in slum housing.[179][180] Poor living conditions also make slum dwellers more vulnerable to
certain diseases. Poor water quality, a manifest example, is a cause of many major illnesses including malaria, diarrhea and
trachoma.[199] As Sur et al. suggest, improving living conditions such as introduction of better sanitation and access to basic facilities
can ameliorate the effects of diseases.[193]

In addition to poor living conditions, low vaccination rates cause excess cases of disease in slums as well.[200] Slum children are less
likely to be vaccinated mainly because some slum dwellers refuse vaccinations without understanding its importance or no one at
home is able to take the child to health sectors for vaccinations.[201] Lack of reliable data also has a negative impact on slum
dwellers' health. A number of slum families do not report cases or seek professional medical care, which results in insufficient
data.[200] This might prevent appropriate allocation of health care resources in slum areas since many countries base their health care
plans on data from clinic, hospital, or national mortality registry.[202] Moreover, health service does not exist in most of the world's
slums.[202] Emergency ambulance service and urgent care is typically unavailable in slums.[203] Health service providers avoid
servicing slums.[202] A study shows that more than half of slum dwellers are prone to visit private practitioners or seek self-
medication with medicines available in the home.[204] Private practitioners in slums are usually those who are unlicensed or poorly
.[202] Recent study has shown that there has been substantial
trained and they run clinics and pharmacies mainly for the sake of money
[205]
improvement in the health awareness of the slum dwellers of Mumbai with regards to HIV/AIDS and Diabetes

Child malnutrition
Child malnutrition is more common in slums than in non-slum areas.[206] In Mumbai and New Delhi, 47% and 51% of slum children
under the age of five are stunted and 35% and 36% of them are underweighted. These children all suffer from third-degree
malnutrition, the most severe level, according to WHO standards.[207] A study conducted by Tada et al. in Bangkok slums illustrates
that in terms of weight-forage, 25.4% of the children who participated in the survey suffered from malnutrition, compared to around
8% national malnutrition prevalence inThailand.[208] In Ethiopia and the Niger, rates of child malnutrition in urban slums are around
40%.[209]

The major nutritional problems in slums areprotein-energy malnutrition (PEM), vitamin A deficiency (VAD), iron deficiency anemia
(IDA) and iodine deficiency disorders (IDD).[206] Malnutrition can sometimes lead to death among children.[210] Dr. Abhay Bang's
[211]
report shows that malnutrition kills 56,000 children annually in urban slums in India.

Widespread child malnutrition in slums is closely related to family income, mothers' food practice, mothers' educational level, and
maternal employment or housewifery.[208] Poverty may result in inadequate food intake when people cannot afford to buy and store
enough food, which leads to malnutrition.[212] Another common cause is mothers' faulty feeding practices, including inadequate
breastfeeding and wrongly preparation of food for children.[206] Tada et al.'s study in Bangkok slums shows that around 64% of the
mothers sometimes fed their children instant food instead of a normal meal. And about 70% of the mothers did not provide their
children three meals everyday. Mothers' lack of education leads to their faulty feeding practices. Many mothers in slums don't have
knowledge on food nutrition for children.[208] Maternal employment also influences children's nutritional status. For the mothers
who work outside, their children are prone to be malnourished. These children are likely to be neglected by their mothers or
sometimes not carefully looked after by their female relatives.[206] Recent study has shown improvements in health awareness in
adolescent age group of a rural slum area.[213]

Epidemics
Slums have been historically linked to epidemics.[214][215][216] This trend has continued in modern times. For example, the slums of
West African nations such as Liberia were crippled by as well as contributed to the outbreak and spread of Ebola in 2014.[217][218]
Slums are considered a major public health concern and potential breeding grounds of drug resistant diseases for the entire city, the
nation, as well as the global community.[219][220]

Countermeasures
Recent years have seen a dramatic growth in the number of slums as urban
populations have increased in developing countries.[221] Nearly a billion people
worldwide live in slums, and some project the figure may grow to 2 billion by 2030,
if governments and global community ignore slums and continue current urban
policies. United Nations Habitat group believes change is possible. To achieve the
goal of "cities without slums", the UN claims that governments must undertake
vigorous urban planning, city management, infrastructure development, slum
upgrading and poverty reduction.[13]

Villa 31, one of the largest slums of

Slum removal Argentina, located near the center of
Buenos Aires
Some city and state officials have simply sought to remove slums.[222][223] This
strategy for dealing with slums is rooted in the fact that slums typically start illegally
on someone else's land property, and they are not recognized by the state. As the slum started by violating another's property rights,
the residents have no legal claim to the land.[224][225]

Critics argue that slum removal by force tend to ignore the social problems that cause slums. The poor children as well as working
adults of a city's informal economy need a place to live. Slum clearance removes the slum, but it does not remove the causes that
create and maintain the slum.[226][227]

Slum relocation
Slum relocation strategies rely on removing the slums and relocating the slum poor to free semi-rural peripheries of cities, sometimes
in free housing. This strategy ignores several dimensions of a slum life. The strategy sees slum as merely a place where the poor
lives. In reality, slums are often integrated with every aspect of a slum resident's life, including sources of employment, distance from
work and social life.[228] Slum relocation that displaces the poor from opportunities to earn a livelihood, generates economic
insecurity in the poor.[229] In some cases, the slum residents oppose relocation even if the replacement land and housing to the
outskirts of cities is free and of better quality than their current house. Examples include Zone One Tondo Organization of Manila,
Philippines and Abahlali baseMjondolo of Durban, South Africa.[230] In other cases, such as Ennakhil slum relocation project in
Morocco, systematic social mediation has worked. The slum residents have been convinced that their current location is a health
hazard, prone to natural disaster, or that the alternative location is well connected to employment pportunities.
o [231]

Slum upgrading
Some governments have begun to approach slums as a possible opportunity to urban development by slum upgrading. This approach
was inspired in part by the theoretical writings of John Turner in 1972.[232][233] The approach seeks to upgrade the slum with basic
infrastructure such as sanitation, safe drinking water, safe electricity distribution, paved roads, rain water drainage system, and
bus/metro stops.[234] The assumption behind this approach is that if slums are given basic services and tenure security that is, the
slum will not be destroyed and slum residents will not be evicted, then the residents will rebuild their own housing, engage their slum
community to live better, and over time attract investment from government organizations and businesses. Turner argued to demolish
the housing, but to improve the environment: if governments can clear existing slums of unsanitary human waste, polluted water and
litter, and from muddy unlit lanes, they do not have to worry about the shanty housing.[235] Squatters have shown great
[236]
organizational skills in terms of land management and will maintain the infrastructure that is provided.
In Mexico City for example, the government attempted to upgrade and urbanize
settled slums in the periphery during the 1970s and 1980s by including basic
amenities such as concrete roads, parks, illumination and sewage. Currently, most
slums in Mexico City face basic characteristics of traditional slums, characterized to
some extent in housing, population density, crime and poverty, however, the vast
majority of its inhabitants have access to basic amenities and most areas are
connected to major roads and completely urbanized. Nevertheless, smaller
settlements lacking these can still be found in the periphery of the city and its
Shibati slum in Chongqing,China.
inhabitants are known as "paracaidistas". Another example of this approach is the
This slum is being demolished and
slum upgrade in Tondo slum near Manila, Philippines.[237] The project was
residents relocated.
anticipated to be complete in four years, but it took nine. There was a large increase
in cost, numerous delays, re-engineering of details to address political disputes, and
other complications after the project. Despite these failures, the project reaffirmed the core assumption and Tondo families did build
their own houses of far better quality than originally assumed. Tondo residents became property owners with a stake in their
neighborhood. A more recent example of slum-upgrading approach is PRIMED initiative in Medellin, Colombia, where streets,
Metrocable transportation and other public infrastructure has been added. These slum infrastructure upgrades were combined with
city infrastructure upgrade such as addition of metro, paved roads and highways to empower all city residents including the poor with
reliable access throughout city.[238]

Most slum upgrading projects, however, have produced mixed results. While initial evaluations were promising and success stories
widely reported by media, evaluations done 5 to 10 years after a project completion have been disappointing. Herbert Werlin[235]
notes that the initial benefits of slum upgrading efforts have been ephemeral. The slum upgrading projects in kampungs of Jakarta
Indonesia, for example, looked promising in first few years after upgrade, but thereafter returned to a condition worse than before,
particularly in terms of sanitation, environmental problems and safety of drinking water. Communal toilets provided under slum
upgrading effort were poorly maintained, and abandoned by slum residents of Jakarta.[239] Similarly slum upgrading efforts in
Philippines,[240][241] India[242] and Brazil[243][244] have proven to be excessively more expensive than initially estimated, and the
condition of the slums 10 years after completion of slum upgrading has been slum like. The anticipated benefits of slum upgrading,
claims Werlin, have proven to be a myth.[235]

Slum upgrading is largely a government controlled, funded and run process, rather than a competitive market driven process.
Krueckeberg and Paulsen note[247] conflicting politics, government corruption and street violence in slum regularization process is
part of the reality. Slum upgrading and tenure regularization also upgrade and regularize the slum bosses and political agendas, while
threatening the influence and power of municipal officials and ministries. Slum upgrading does not address poverty, low paying jobs
from informal economy, and other characteristics of slums. It is unclear whether slum upgrading can lead to long term sustainable
improvement to slums.[248]

Urban infrastructure development and public housing

Urban infrastructure such as reliable high speed mass transit system, motorways/interstates, and public housing projects have been
cited[249][250] as responsible for the disappearance of major slums in the United States and Europe from the 1960s through 1970s.
Charles Pearson argued in UK Parliament that mass transit would enable London to reduce slums and relocate slum dwellers. His
proposal was initially rejected for lack of land and other reasons; but Pearson and others persisted with creative proposals such as
building the mass transit under the major roads already in use and owned by the city. London Underground was born, and its
expansion has been credited to reducing slums in respective cities[251] (and to an extent, the New York City Subway's smaller
expansion).[252]

As cities expanded and business parks scattered due to cost ineffectiveness, people moved to live in the suburbs; thus retail, logistics,
house maintenance and other businesses followed demand patterns. City governments used infrastructure investments and urban
planning to distribute work, housing, green areas, retail, schools and population densities. Affordable public mass transit in cities
such as New York City, London and Paris allowed the poor to reach areas where they could earn a livelihood. Public and council
[253]
housing projects cleared slums and provided more sanitary housing options than what existed before the 1950s.
Slum clearance became a priority policy in Europe between 19501970s, and one of
the biggest state-led programs. In the UK, the slum clearance effort was bigger in
scale than the formation of British Railways, the National Health Service and other
state programs. UK Government data suggests the clearances that took place after
1955 demolished about 1.5 million slum properties, resettling about 15% of UK's
population out of these properties.[254] Similarly, after 1950, Denmark and others
[245]
pursued parallel initiatives to clear slums and resettle the slum residents.

The US and European governments additionally created a procedure by which the

poor could directly apply to the government for housing assistance, thus becoming a
partner to identifying and meeting the housing needs of its citizens.[255][256] One
historically effective approach to reduce and prevent slums has been citywide
infrastructure development combined with affordable, reliable public mass transport
and public housing projects.[257]

In Brazil, in 2014, the government built about 2 million houses around the country
for lower income families. The public program was named "Minha casa, minha A slum dwelling in Borgergade in
vida" which means "My house, my life" The project has built 2 million popular central Copenhagen Denmark, about
1940. The Danish government
houses and it has 2 million more under construction.
passed The Slum Clearance Act in
However, slum relocation in the name of urban development is criticized for 1939, demolished many slums
including Borgergade, replacing it
uprooting communities without consultation or consideration of ongoing livelihood.
with modern buildings by the early
For example, the Sabarmati Riverfront Project, a recreational development in
1950s.[245][246]
Ahmedabad, India, forcefully relocated over 19,000 families from shacks along the
river to 13 public housing complexes that were an average of 9 km away from the
family's original dwelling.[258]

Prevalence
Slums exist in many countries and have become a global phenomenon.[259] A UN-
Habitat report states that in 2006 there were nearly 1 billion people settling in slum
settlements in most cities of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, and a smaller number
in the cities of Europe and North America.[260] In 2012, according to UN-Habitat,
about 863 million people in the developing world lived in slums. Of these, the urban
Housing projects in Chalco, Mexico
slum population at mid-year was around 213 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 207
million in East Asia, 201 million in South Asia, 113 million in Latin America and
Caribbean, 80 million in Southeast Asia, 36 million in West Asia, and 13 million in
North Africa. Among individual countries, the proportion of urban residents living
in slum areas in 2009 was highest in the Central African Republic (95.9%), Chad
(89.3%), Niger (81.7%), and Mozambique (80.5%).[7]

The distribution of slums within a city varies throughout the world. In most of the
developed countries, it is easier to distinguish the slum-areas and non-slum areas. In
the United States, slum dwellers are usually in city neighborhoods and inner
suburbs, while in Europe, they are more common in high rise housing on the urban Housing projects in Bahia, Brazil
outskirts. In many developing countries, slums are prevalent as distributed pockets
or as urban orbits of densely constructed informal settlements.[259] In some cities,
especially in countries in Southern Asia and sub-Saharan, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population;
slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes calledslum cities.[261]
 The percentage of developing world's urban population
living in slums has been dropping with economic
development, even while total urban population has been
increasing. In 1990, 46 percent of the urban population
lived in slums; by 2000, the percentage had dropped to
39%; which further dropped to 32% by 2010.[262]

See also
Percent urban population of a country living in slums.
(Source: UN Habitat 2005) List of slums
0-10% 60-70%
10-20% 70-80%
Variations of impoverished
20-30% 80-90%
settlements
30-40% 90-100%
Favela (slums in Hooverville (slums in
40-50% No data Brazil) 1930s USA)
50-60% Campamento (slums Refugee shelter
in Chile) Rookery (slums in
Villa (slums in London, United
Argentina) Kingdom)
Komboni (slums in Shanty town
Zambia) Skid row
Ghetto Tent city
Rooftop slum

Organizations and concepts

United Nations Human Settlements Programme Cities Alliance
Shelter The World Slumlord
Abahlali baseMjondolo Slum upgrading
Homeless Workers' Movement Slum tourism
Homeless International Squatting
Ranjit Naik United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-
Slum Dwellers International Habitat)
Urban decay

References
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Kenya (April 2007)
2. UN-HABITAT 2007 Press Release (http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/4625_51419_GC%2021%20What%20
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10. Craig Glenday (Editor), Guinness World Records 2013, Bantam, ISBN 978-0-345-54711-8; see page 277
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Further reading
(2017). Story of the Slum, Chicago West Side 1890-1930
Parenti, Michael (Jan 2014). What's a Slum?
Various authors. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements . UN-HABITAT. ISBN 978-1-1-
36554-759. Retrieved 15 August 2013. (original report 2003, revised 2010, reprint 2012)
Moreno, Eduardo Lpez (2003).Slums of the World: The Face of Urban Poverty in the New Millennium? . UN-
HABITAT. ISBN 978-92-1-131683-4. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
Robert Neuwirth: Shadow Cities, New York, 2006, Routledge
Davis, Mike:Planet of Slums London, New York 2006 ISBN 1-84467-022-8
Elisabeth Blum / Peter Neitzke: FavelaMetropolis. Berichte und Projekte aus Rio de Janeiro und So Paulo,
Birkhuser Basel, Boston, Berlin 2004ISBN 3-7643-7063-7
Floris Fabrizio Puppets or people? A sociological analysis of Korogocho slum , Pauline Publication Africa, Nairobi
2007.
Floris Fabrizio ECCESSI DI CITT: Baraccopoli, campi profughi, citt psichedeliche , Paoline, Milano, ISBN 88-315-
3318-5
Matt Birkinshaw A Big Devil in the Jondolos: A report on shack fires by Matt Birkinshaw, 2008
Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4,
2003.
Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities Struggle in the Global Slums, 2006
Cities Alliance
Marx, Benjamin; Stoker, Thomas; Suri, Tavneet (2013). "The Economics of Slums in the D eveloping World". Journal
of Economic Perspectives. 27 (4): 187210. doi:10.1257/jep.27.4.187.

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